J. Construct. Steel Res. Vol. 43, Nos. 1-3, pp.

17-42, 1997
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0143-974X(97)~31-X 0143-974X/97 $17.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER

Benchmarks for Finite Element Modelling of Bolted

Steel Connections

O. S. Bursi a & J. P. Jaspart b

~Department of Mechanical and Structural Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano

77, 38050 Trento, Italy
hDepartment MSM, University of Liege, Quai Banning 6, 4000 Libge, Belgium

(Received 11 March 1996; revised version received 18 March 1997;

accepted 24 March 1997)

ABSTRACT

This paper presents part of the results of a study devoted to the analysis of
bolted steel connections by means of finite elements. In detail, the paper
introduces elementary tee stub connections which are endowed with different
plastic failure mechanisms and can be adopted as benchmarks in the vali-
dation process of finite element software packages. Moreover, the simulations
of these benchmarks performed by means of bricks as well as contact
elements allow the properties and results of these elements to be commented
upon. Finally, the comparison between computed and measured values per-
mits the effectiveness and degree of accuracy of the proposed fnite element
models to be mirrored. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose of the study

Bolted connections are used widely in steel frames as simple or moment-

resistant connections between steel members. Usually, they are designed to
achieve 'pinned' or 'rigid' connections, though steel structures often need to
have the lowest level of detailing compatible with design requirements. A
solution to this problem has been achieved with the recent semi-rigid design
philosophy. This approach provides greater freedom than simple or fully con-
tinuous design because the properties of connections are treated as variables
in design, to be chosen to meet the individual requirements of each project.
Hence, a knowledge of the joint response and how it affects frame perform-
ance becomes a prerequisite to the practical use of semi-rigid design [1].

17
18 0. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

The potential economic implication of connections on frame design and

fabrication is also realized by modern codes, such as LRFD [2] and Eurocode
3 [3]. In detail, Eurocode 3 includes application rules in order to define
explicitly the joint behaviour [4]. In this context, the finite element technique
can represent a rational supplement to design.
The study presented in this paper has a two-fold purpose: (i) to introduce
elementary tee stub connections which can be adopted as benchmarks in the
validation process of finite element software packages for bolted connections;
(ii) to present a rational approach in order to calibrate a finite element model
able to reproduce the elastic-plastic behaviour of elementary tee stub connec-
tions.
The work is presented in two papers, of which the first describes the behav-
iour of elementary tee stub connections and their simulations with the LAGA-
MINE software package [5] by means of bricks and contact elements. The
second follow-up paper [6] concerns itself with the simulation of the elastic-
plastic behaviour of more realistic end plate connections to the ultimate limit
state by means of the ABAQUS code [7,8], including both end plate-foun-
dation and end plate-bolt interaction phenomena.

1.2 State of the art

The finite element simulation of bolted connections is generally complicated

because the problem is three-dimensional (3D) in nature. In addition, com-
bined nonlinear phenomena like material and geometrical nonlinearities, fric-
tion, slippage, contact, bolt-plate interaction and fracture have to be repro-
duced.
Krishnamurthy was the pioneer in the field of 3D modelling of connections.
He performed linearly elastic simulations and adopted eight-node subpara-
metric bricks in order to reproduce the behaviour of end plate connections
embodying both contact and bolt preloading [9]. To a certain extent the analy-
ses were expensive, because flange-end plate contact was simulated by
attaching and releasing nodes, on the basis of contact zones defined in each
previous loading step. Nevertheless, a correlation between two-dimensional
(2D) and three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis was established, and
a parametric study was conducted with 2D models owing to the limited com-
puter capabilities. A similar procedure was proposed by Kukreti et al. [10] in
order to reproduce moment-rotation relationships for end plate connections.
The results of these analyses were excellent inside the range for which such
validations were performed.
Since then, several researchers have conceived 2D finite element models
for bolted connections and, generally, an excellent agreement between analysis
and experiment has been mirrored. An enormous effort is required due to the
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 19

general inadequacy of the approach. Indeed, a 2D displacement-based finite

element model predicts a stiffer and stronger solution compared to the corre-
sponding 3D model, unless both the connection displacement and stress fields
are somewhat 2D. Only recently a few researchers adopted 3D finite element
models based on shell elements [11-13] to simulate end plates as well as
beam and column flanges. The agreement between simulations and test data
was good because both contact and beam elements were adopted to reproduce
friction and bolt action, respectively. However, to a certain extent, shell
elements cannot simulate in a rigorous manner the evolution of internal normal
stresses which have to satisfy equilibrium with prying forces.
In this light, a rigorous approach to the modelling of bolted connections
was adopted by Rothert and coworkers [14,15] which discretized a tee stub
in a 3D fashion and investigated the contact problem between deformable
bodies in a small deformation regime. Comparisons between simulated and
measured data were generally good. However, the parametric study on end
plate joints was performed with a 2D finite element model, thus limiting the
capability to reproduce 3D plastic failure mechanisms.

1.3 Approach of the study

Nowadays, latest generation research and commercial finite element codes are
capable of simulating almost all the complex phenomena mentioned above.
However, difficulties still remain for the numerical analyst who has to choose
appropriate finite element models able to provide an accurate representation
of the physics at the lowest computational cost. Choice of mesh, node number,
integration point number through the element thickness and time-step size for
constitutive law integration depend upon resources, problem, geometry, type
of loading and required accuracy [16].
To shed light on these problems, elementary nonpreloaded and preloaded
tee stub connections tested by Jaspart [17] and Bursi [18] are presented in
this first paper and are proposed as benchmarks in the validation process of
finite element software packages. Moreover, these benchmarks are simulated
in a large displacement, large rotation and large deformation regime with the
LAGAMINE software package [5], by means of bricks [19] as well as contact
elements [20]. The choice of these elements as well as germane aspects are
commented upon and the numerical results are finally compared to the experi-
mental ones, thus assessing the reliability of the finite element models.
The second follow-up paper [6] initially describes a calibration phase in
which specific elements of the ABAQUS library [8] are chosen on the basis
of test data as well as LAGAMINE [5] simulations. Then, additional simula-
tions are performed to validate an assemblage of beam elements, labelled
spin, which is intended to reproduce in a simple yet accurate manner the bolt
20 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

behaviour. Finally, the ABAQUS [7] code is used to simulate the elastic-
plastic behaviour of realistic end plate connections to the ultimate limit state.
The comparison between computed and reference values in each phase mirrors
the effectiveness and degree of accuracy of the proposed finite element
models.

2 PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOLTED TEE STUB CONNECTIONS

2.1 Test program

In order to acquire basic experimental data, elementary tee stub connections

proposed by Jaspart [17] and afterwards by Bursi [18] within the Numerical
Simulation Working Group of the European Research Project COST C 1 "Civil
Engineering Structural Connections" were tested to collapse. These specimens
reflect different geometric and strength parameters as well as bolt prestressing
conditions. In the sequel, the specimens are labelled T1 and T2 and are rep-
resented by their geometrical characteristics in Fig. l(a) and (b), respectively.
The stub beam specimens were obtained from the same IPE 300 beam and
HE220B, respectively, to allow a direct comparison of performances among
the specimens. Furthermore, they were designed purposely to fail according
to the collapse mechanisms reported in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively [4].
Average tensile values of yield stress fy and ultimate stress fu of both flange
and web material are collected in Table 1.
Fasteners were M12 grade 8.8 bolts. They were characterized by the yield
and ultimate stress values collected in Table 2. Within T1 and T2 specimens
both nonpreloaded and preloaded bolts were adopted. In detail, a prestressing
force S = 60.7 kN was applied to bolts in preloaded specimens. Thereby, the
overall test program comprised four tests.

2.2 Test results

The load-displacement relationships (F-Ad) relative to the specimen T1 are

illustrated in Fig. 3(a). In detail, F defines the applied external load whilst Ad
indicates the variation of d, as shown in Fig. l(a). Both nonpreloaded and
preloaded specimens failed through relevant flange yielding. However, inelas-
tic phenomena were observed in the bolts too, indicating that the actual plastic
failure mechanisms were between mode 1 and mode 2 (see Fig. 2). Thereby,
these specimens were endowed with large displacement ductilities, which rep-
resent a desirable behaviour from the standpoint of seismic design. As
expected, the specimen responses were characterized by different initial stiff-
nesses but similar ultimate failure loads.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 21

IPE300 7.1

BO~L~NI2
8.8 L = 55
0
L

30,_ 90 30_

IoHo0 0

we220B~9.6 i
I

8.8 L : 45

0 90 ,30,_

0 0
I~ 16o j

Fig. 1. Test specimens: (a) tee stub connection TI; (b) tee stub connection T2.
22 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

TF TF

MODE1 MODE2
FAILURE FAILURE

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Failure modes of tee stub components according to EC3 [4]: (a) mode 1 pattern; (b)
mode 2 pattern.

TABLE1
Ch~acteristicsofTeeStubs

Tee stub tp (ram) Yield stress fv Tensile stress f.

(MPa) (MPa)

Flange 10.7 431 595

(Yl)
Web 7.1 469 591
Flange 16.0 282 483
(T2)
Web 9.5 290 498

Fig. 3(a) also shows the F - A d relationship predicted by Eurocode 3 for the
nonpreloaded specimen [4]. The initial stiffness and the plastic failure load
are predicted with good accuracy, but the inherent simplifications of the
model, which disregard strain hardening and membrane effects, do not permit
a complete agreement between predicted and test data.
The corresponding load-displacement (F-Ad) responses for specimens T2
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 23

TABLE 2
Characteristics of Bolts

Bolt ci9 (mm) Yield stress f, Tensile stress f,

(MPa) (MPa)

Shank (T 1) 12 893 974

Shank (T2) 12 833 947

are plotted in Fig. 3(b) (see Fig. l(b) for a definition of d). Both nonpreloaded
and preloaded specimens failed according to mode 2 of Eurocode 3 [4] (see
Fig. 2(b)), in which collapse is characterized by bolt fracture as well as flange
yielding. However, both tests showed some bolts subjected to thread stripping,
which triggered unloading phenomena in the inelastic range. As a result of
these combined phenomena, specimen displacement ductilities were some-
what limited.
Even for these tests, Fig. 3(b) reports the relationship predicted by Eurocode
3 [4] for the nonpreloaded specimen. Anew, both the initial stiffness and the
plastic failure load are predicted with good accuracy, but the model is unable
to capture the response evolution relative to the nonpreloaded specimen.

3 NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

3.1 Element types and kinematic descriptions

Among the discretization methods adopted in structural mechanics, the finite

element method is the one used more extensively, because the governing equa-
tions can be recast to hold in some average sense over subdomains of simple
geometry [16]. The LAGAMINE finite element package was developed at the
MSM Department of the University of Libge to simulate metal forming [5],
i.e. processes characterized by large displacements, large rotations and large
strains. Thereby, this general purpose research program was used to predict
the behaviour of the isolated tee stub connections described above. These
elementary connections are proposed as benchmarks for finite element model-
ling, because they embody several typical features of bolted connections. In
detail, the material discontinuity within these assemblages determines a rela-
tive movement of components. In addition, these components are subjected
to yielding whilst the bearing of fasteners and elements determines stress con-
centrations or prying forces. In order to minimize the number of modelling
assumptions, these complex 3D phenomena have been reproduced by adopting
both hexahedra [ 19] and contact finite elements [20] implemented in LAGAM-
24 O. S. Bursi, I. P. Jaspart

250

200 -

150 -
,/
r',,
<C
o
100 -

I~_____ TEE STUB T1

50- EC3 PREDICTION
PRELOADED TEE STUB
NON-PRELOADEDTEE STUB

I ' I ' I '

4 8 12
DISPLACEMENT (mm)
(a)

250

200 -

it

I
I
lS0 -
z I

!
q
100

50
EC3 PREDICTION
PRELOADED TEE STUB
NON-PRELOADEDTEE STUE
i
I ' t ' I '
0 4 8 12 16
DISPLACEMENT (mm)
(b)
Fig. 3. Experimental and predicted relative displacement Ad vs load F: (a) test TI ; (b) test
T2.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 25

INE. Some aspects of element properties as well as of the kinematic descrip-

tions are outlined briefly in the remainder of this section.
In general, the hexahedron element is adopted to model the continuum and
is more popularly known as brick in the finite element literature. It can be
defined topologically through eight nodes embodied with a trilinear expansion
in natural coordinates. 20 nodes (serendipity brick) or 27 nodes (Lagrangian
brick) which can accommodate full triquadratic expansion are very often
adopted. However, to a large extent the use of one element or the other
depends upon the application. In the case of elasticity type (elliptic) problems,
much higher solution accuracy per degree of freedom is provided with the
higher-order elements. However, for plasticity type (hyperbolic) problems, in
which elements have to reproduce yield lines, i.e. discontinuities in the strain
field, the first-order elements are likely to be the most successful, because
some components of the displacement solution can be discontinuous at
element edges [7]. Indeed, the most rigorous approach would require finite
elements which admit strain discontinuities in their formulation, to avoid
direction and mesh size sensitivity [21]. Nevertheless, these elements are not
yet widely used due to their complex formulation. Thereby, the eight-node
hexahedron was chosen for the numerical simulations of the benchmark, also
because its use implies cheap computations and an easy input.
The brick with eight nodes and full integration (eight Gauss points) can
trigger off the shear locking when modelling thin structures [16]. Indeed, the
element must shear at numerical integration points to approximate a bending
behaviour, and such a spurious shear locks the elements by making its
response too stiff. For the aforementioned reason, a reduced integration
scheme is usually adopted. However, this reduction engenders a rank
deficiency in the stiffness matrix which determines spurious zero-energy
modes and, once activated, destroys all solutions very quickly. Thereby, an
assumed strain field within a mixed multifield variational principle enabling
us to eliminate spurious energy modes with one Gauss integration point as
well as a geometry dependent parameter set to control shear locking have
been embodied in the brick element (JET3D [19]) of LAGAMINE.
The contact and distribution of interface stresses between two bodies are
unknown during a contact process, and therefore the contact problem turns
out to be highly nonlinear and with unknown boundary conditions. This
phenomenon is simulated in LAGAMINE with contact elements which
describe surfaces topologically and are located on the boundaries of solid
elements. The contact condition is guaranteed by a penalty technique [20],
which requires an optimal value for a penalty parameter. This parameter can
be interpreted as the stiffness of a virtual spring between two bodies. As a
result, contact constraints are satisfied only in the limit for an infinite penalty
value. However, a penalty value too large can engender ill-conditioning of
26 O. S. Bursi, J. P. ]aspart

the stiffness matrix. Thus, its optimum value is traced when there is only a
slight change in the results for an additional increase of the penalty parameter,
or when the penetration reaches limited values. As an alternative, the contact
condition could be enforced exactly by means of Lagrange multiplier tech-
niques, which do not require a p r i o r i user-defined parameters [22]. The sliding
and sticking conditions between bodies are reproduced with a classical iso-
tropic Coulomb friction law which appears to be very suitable for steel
elements [20].
The kinematic descriptions of solid [19] and contact elements [20] for geo-
metrically nonlinear finite element analyses are based on an updated Lagrang-
ian Jaumann (ULJ) and a co-rotational (CR) formulation, respectively. In the
ULJ formulation, the last target configuration, once reached, becomes the next
reference configuration. Strain and stresses are redefined as soon as the refer-
ence configuration is updated [16]. Obviously, the equations in the ULJ
description are much simpler than those in the total Lagrangian description
(TLD) because all the nonlinear contributions of the discretized displacement
field vanish. In the CR formulation, two reference configurations are adopted.
Strains are measured from the co-rotated configuration whereas the base con-
figuration is maintained as reference for measuring rigid body motions. With
these descriptions, the analyses can be performed with large displacements,
large rotations and large strains. These features of LAGAMINE appear very
suitable to tracing membrane effects in thin connecting elements.
In a large deformation analysis, appropriate strain and stress measures have
to be adopted in order to deal with a continuous change of both configuration
and volume of the body. Thus, the velocity strain and the Jaumann stress rate
[23], which are conjugate in a virtual work sense, are used in the brick element
formulation [19]. On the other hand, the CR formulation requires the rate of
deformation and both the normal and tangential contact stresses as energeti-
cally conjugate strain-stress measures [20].
Loads are applied to the specimen in a displacement-control fashion, con-
trary to the classical load-control procedure. Indeed, the first type of control
enforces a better conditioning of the tangent stiffness matrix and, as a result,
a faster convergence. In addition, the stiffness matrix does not become singular
at limit points. Finally, the iteration procedure is based on Newton-Raphson
iterations which are performed within each increment to achieve a quadratic
convergence.

3.2 Convergence study

To gain insight into the performance of the aforementioned solid and contact
elements as a function of spatial discretization [5], two simple bending-domi-
nated model problems have been analyzed by Li [24]. In detail, a clamped
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 27

and a simply supported beam were considered. The comparisons are perfor-
med with the benchmark provided by Jetteur and Cescotto [25], which exam-
ined the same problem in plain strain with a 2D element, labelled JET2D.
The material properties adopted in the simulations are E = 2 x l05 N/mm 2, v
= 0.3, f y = 400 N / m m 2 and a strain-hardening modulus E r = 0.1 N/mm 2. The
loading is applied by imposing a deflection at the beam centre as shown in
Fig. 4(a). The length L of the beam, equal to 600 mm, is fixed and discretized
by means of 24 elements. The depth, labelled H, is discretized by means of
one, two, three, five and eight elements. Each element embodies one Gauss
integration point and lateral constraints transform the 3D problem into a plain-
strain problem. Two ratios L/H equal to 10 and 30 are examined respectively,
to capture the slenderness influence. Both the undeformed and deformed beam
configurations are shown in Fig. 4(a).

L/2=300

I
Ht IIIIIIIIIIIII , I f , I, ,I ,I , ,I ,I , I, ,I ,I , I, ,I ,I , I, [ I I I I I I
,,
1 • 24 ELEMENTS 2 • 24 ELEMENTS
I I I I ] I f I I I I I [
3 • 24 ELEMENTS

i i i i i i i ~ i i i i i i i i ! ! ! ) ! ) . .! , :: ! i,,, i i : i, , i~ , i , i i i
5• 24 ELEMENTS ~v ~

IMPOSED DEFLECTION ~ $ • 24 ELEMENTS

(a)

2OOO
A
Z Z

i 4000. I--

D~
1o00
20OO--

~------- JET3D 124"1

i
I I I I I t I J
40 60 80 100 20 4O 6O 8O 100
DISPI,.ACEMEENT (ram) DISPLACEMENT (mm)
(b) (c)
Fig. 4. Clamped beam with an imposed central deflection [24]: (a) F E idealizations; (b) simul-
ations for a slenderness ratio L/H = 10; (c) simulations for a slenderness ratio L/H = 30.
28 O. S. Bursi, ]. P. Jaspart

The load-displacement relationships for the two slendernesses are plotted

in Fig. 4(b) and (c), respectively. One can observe that the finite element
model with one layer provides unacceptable results. The two-layer model
appears satisfactory in the elastic regime but provides unsatisfactory results
in the inelastic one. All models with more than two layers provide excellent
results, even in the large displacement regime, in which membrane effects
govern the inelastic behaviour.
The meshes germane to the simply supported beam examined in the simula-
tions are shown in Fig. 5(a). They are long, L = 34 mm, and only 21 elements
are adopted to discretize half of them. The depth is modelled by one, two,
four and six elements, whilst the same L/H ratios mentioned in the previous
simulation set are considered. The boundary conditions are constituted by

i II11ii I h[h qli111ill ,~, ,,

~"'''''' ,, ,~ i IIIIII I
1 x 21 ELEMENTS 2 x 21 ELEMENTS

i i i _it_ -_ =-_ -2_-_ - :

i iiiiii i i i i i ! !!!!';';':','~ lill II I I I ~=~-~-~=~ ,
4 x 21 ELEMENTS ==========:=====================================;=======:=:=

'~ s
IMPOSED DEFLECTION
(a)
140
i

14--
120 - -

12
100

A I0--
Z z
80--

60-- ~s,.P.v.auPpoR'rsD ......... s~xrtD~ .... ". . . .

BEAM LM=IO "'-.. 6-- BEAM I . ~ ~ 30 --'-" ......... ]I

40-
JET2D (21"8) "'".-...! - - JET2D (21"6}

- - --- ~- .... (2t"1)

4~ ...... JET3D {31"1) 1
JET3D (21"2) ! JIST3D (21"2) i
20
.....
_ _ JET3D {21"41 : i JET3D (2t'4) I
-:-- ,JE'nD(2~ JE'r3D (21"6) I
0 i '- I I ~ r • i
2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
D I S P L A C E M E N T (ram) D I S P L A C E M E N T (ram)

(b) (c)

Fig. 5. Simply supported beam with an imposed central deflection [24]: (a) FE idealizations;
(b) simulations for a slenderness ratio L/H = 10; (c) simulations for a slenderness ratio L/H
-- 30.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 29

simple supports of finite length and are simulated by means of contact

elements without friction [20]. The corresponding initial and final displace-
ment fields are shown in Fig. 5(a). One can observe the good performance of
contact elements. Fig. 5(b) and (c) show the numerical simulations in terms
of load vs displacement for the two slendernesses L/H = 10 and L/H = 30,
respectively. The responses are characterized by an elastic-plastic behaviour
followed by a large amount of softening caused by the supports which cannot
keep vertical reaction forces. One can notice that the one- and two-layer finite
element models provide unsatisfactory predictions. As a result, one may con-
clude that, for bending-dominated problems, at least three layers of JET3D
brick elements have to be adopted to capture the stiffness and strength behav-
iour of a structure with good accuracy. However, a two-layer model appears
be satisfactory for elastic type analyses in which only the structure initial
stiffness is of interest. Additional simulations which support these conclusions
can be found in Li's work [24].

3.3 Bolt discretization

In the examined specimens as well as in bolted connections, in general, bolts

behave in a 3D fashion. Hence, they have been modelled in the benchmarks
by means of JET3D brick elements [ 19]. Nevertheless, in order to reduce the
number of contact planes, washers have been considered attached to bolt heads
whilst bolts have been assumed to be symmetric. To comply with these
assumptions, the additional flexibilities provided by the nut and the threaded
part of the shank have been embodied into an effective bolt length according
to Agerskov's model [26]. That model is based on the following equation:

EA b B EAs
(~)
KI + 2K4 - Alb -- Lerf

in which Ab and As indicate the gross cross-section and the tensile stress area,
respectively, B and A/b define the bolt force and the corresponding bolt elong-
ation, whilst the effective length Leff is unknown. K~ and K4 are parameters
which can be obtained readily from the bolt geometry shown in Fig. 6. In
detail, the following relations hold:

KI = ls + 1.43lt + 0.711n, K4 = 0.11,1 + 0.21w. (2)

By noting that the threaded part of the bolt shank triggers tensile yielding and
failure, the bolt shank is reproduced with a cylinder of cross-sectional area
As. With this assumption, Left-can be obtained readily from eqn (1).
30 O. S. Bursi, J. P. ]aspart

tn [w
I vv I, H I
2
tt I I I II

I
tel
!
!
!
Ls !
! < re2
I

[w
Ih
L_ 2

Fig. 6. Bolt geometry adopted in Agerskov's model [26].

By means of the macroscopic model described above, the bolt stripping

phenomenon which affected some bolts in specimens T2 cannot be captured.
Indeed, when the shank kernel is stretched, the threads are subjected simul-
taneously to bending and shear [27]. However, threads usually fail in shear
by being stripped. By assuming a number z of active threads for compressed
nuts between 3 and 6 [27], and a thread height h = ~ p, in which p denotes
the pitch [28], the bolt stripping load can be computed by means of the follow-
ing relation:

5fy 7
Bs - rz-_ p'n'dlz (3)
6 8

in which d~ represents the kernel diameter and ~ defines the effective shear
area ratio. If By = fyA s denotes the bolt yield load in tension, one obtains Bs
= 0.83By and Bs = 1.66By for z = 3 and z = 6, respectively [27]. As a result,
an overestimation of the ultimate load can be expected from the finite element
model when simulating the T2 specimens.

3.4 Specimen discretization and material properties

The finite element models adopted to reproduce a quarter of the tee stub con-
nections reflect the assumptions and conclusions derived in previous sections.
They are mirrored in Fig. 7(a) and (b) for the specimens T1 and T2, respect-
ively. The models embody three elements along the thickness, whilst elements
are concentrated in the flange zone close to the web. There, high stresses and
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 31

(a) (b)
Fig. 7. FE idealization of tee stub connections: (a) undeformed mesh of specimen T1; (b)
undeformed mesh of specimen T2.

strain discontinuities, i.e. yield lines, are likely to occur. It must be observed
that in specimens T2 washers were located only on the nuts due to the short
bolt length adopted (see Fig. l(b)). No friction has been assumed between the
bottom flange and the rigid foundation because of the specimen symmetric
behaviour. However, a friction coefficient/x = 0.25 has been adopted at the
bolt head-flange interface. As mentioned in a previous section, the bolt head
embodies the washer in specimen T1 and its shank includes the flexibility
effects of both the threaded part and the nut. Preloading forces are applied as
initial stresses in the bolts.
In order to perform realistic simulations, material data for flanges, webs
and bolt shanks, collected in Tables 1 and 2, are reproduced with piecewise
linear constitutive laws of the type shown in Fig. 8. The plot of Fig. 8(a),
which is relevant to specimens T1, represents conventional strains and nominal
stresses defined as change in length per unit initial length and axial force per
unit initial area of the cross-section, respectively. Because the LAGAMINE
code operates in a large deformation setting, natural strain-true stress curves
32 0. S. Bursi, J. P. ]aspart

CONSTrTU11VE LAWS) /CONSTITUTWE L A W S

FOR SPECIMEN T1 i FOR SPECIMEN T1

1000
i
- - LANo, / [-.......
A
f WEB
BOLT SHANK
BOLT SHANK
~, 800-

400 - -

200 -

0
[ I ' I o I '- I I '
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0 40 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
C O N V E N T I O N A L STRAIN N A T U R A L STRAIN

(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Piecewise linear stress-strain relationships of tee stub TI: (a) nominal law; (b) true
law.

are required for a proper definition of the uniaxial material response [16].
These quantities, which are defined with respect to the current value of length
and cross-sectional area, respectively, can be obtained from the following
equations:

• = ln(1 + e), o-= s(l + e) (4)

when plastic deformations are assumed to occur at constant volume [29]. In

detail, e represents the conventional strain, • is the natural strain, s defines
the nominal stress and, finally, o- denotes the true stress. In Fig. 8(b) the
conversion outcome performed with eqn (4) on the stress-strain curve rep-
resented in Fig. 8(a) is provided.
The numerical integration of these constitutive relationships has been per-
formed with a robust radial return mapping algorithm [24], which results exact
for piecewise linear hardening material. Thus, the finite element solution accu-
racy is not governed by this issue. However, it must be pointed out that some
commercial finite element code is unable to perform the constitutive inte-
gration with the shape of the relationships depicted in Fig. 8. Finally, the well-
known Huber-von Mises-Hencky yield criterion was adopted to reproduce
the ductile yielding of steel elements.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 33

4 FINITE ELEMENT RESULTS

4.1 T1 specimens

Finite element analyses covered all specimens. However, for the sake of brev-
ity, the results are described accurately for preloaded specimens only in the
remainder of this section.
The displacement field at the plastic failure state traced by the finite element
analysis is shown in Fig. 9(a) for the preloaded specimen T1. One can observe
how the model is able to reproduce the flange kinematics and the relative
movement between flange and bolt head. The corresponding distribution of
von Mises equivalent stresses is reported in Fig. 9(b). The large stress fields
in the flange near the bolt hole and close to the radius of the fillet identify
two yield lines which govern the kinematic mechanism observed at yielding.
This failure mechanism agrees with the one predicted by Eurocode 3 and
shown schematically in Fig. 2(a). The accuracy of the finite element model
can be quantified by superimposing the computed load-displacement (F-Ad)

(N/ram

400 II
320 II
240 II
160 II
8o ~

(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Preloaded tee stub TI at the plastic failure state: (a) displacement field; (b) von Mises
equivalent stress field.
34 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

relationships upon the measured one, as shown in Fig. 10. In particular, the
two simulations refer to the adoption of the conventional strain-nominal stress
law (see Fig. 8(a)) and the natural strain-true stress law (Fig. 8(b)), respect-
ively. From the comparison one can observe the good accuracy of both simula-
tions. Only some discrepancies are evident at the onset of yielding, owing to
residual stress effects which determine a more gradual plastification of the
specimen and which are disregarded in the model. As expected, the simulation
based on the natural strain-true stress law is slightly more accurate in the
inelastic range. However, the specimen zone subjected to large deformations
is somewhat limited and, thereby, only the results based on the conventional
strain-nominal stress law are commented upon.
Once the finite element model is proved to be reliable, it can be used to
generate information which cannot be provided from actual tests, because
bolted connections appear to be highly redundant and confined physical sys-
tems. As an example, remarkable data can be obtained by plotting contact
pressures developed between tee stub flanges. Fig. 11 mirrors the normal
pressure distribution at the plastic failure state in the external zone of the tee
stub. This distribution can be used to quantify the location and amplitude of
prying forces.
The model can also provide detailed information on bolt behaviour. The
evolution of von Mises stresses in each bolt and washer can be observed both
at the preloaded state and at the plastic failure state of the tee stub in Fig. 12(a)
and (b), respectively. Yielding can be observed in the bolt shank, pointing out
that bolts participated in the plastic failure mechanism too. In addition, from
Fig. 12(b) one can observe the stress level which affects the washers.
The simulation relating the bolt axial force vs the applied total force is
plotted in Fig. 13. From this relationship one can trace the evolution of the

f PRELOADED TEE-STUB T1
50- [- -- ~ A L

. . . . . . I-- NUMERICAL - NOMINAL LAV

- NUMERICAL - 11~UE LAW

4 e 12 16
DISPLACEMENT (ram)

Fig. 10. Experimental and predicted relative displacement At/vs load F of the preloaded tee
stub T1.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 35

80

4-8

32

16 1

o [---~
Fig. 11. Normal pressure distribution at the plastic failure state of the preloaded tee stub T1.

bolt force, characterized by a first phase dominated by preloading effects fol-

lowed by a growth of the bolt force due to prying effects. By means of this
plot, prying force values can be evaluated in an easy manner. In addition, bolt
bending moment values can be evaluated too.
For brevity, the accuracy of the finite element model for the corresponding
nonpreloaded specimen is assessed by comparing the load-displacement
relationship only. Such a comparison is shown in Fig. 14, in which one can
observe the accuracy of the simulations. Also for this case a major discrepancy
can be observed at the onset of yielding, in which the actual plastification
appears to be more gradual due to residual stress effects.

4.2 T2 specimens

In the sequel, for brevity, only a few results relevant to the preloaded specimen
are commented upon.
Also for these specimens material data collected in Tables 1 and 2 for
flanges, webs and bolt shanks are reproduced with piecewise linear constitut-
ive laws. In detail, the plot of Fig. 15(a) represents conventional strains and
nominal stresses, whilst the corresponding true stress-natural strain relation-
ships converted by means of eqn (4) are represented in Fig. 15(b).
The displacement field at the plastic failure state for the preloaded tee stub
connection T2, which is endowed with a flange thickness tp = 16 mm (see
Table 1), is illustrated in Fig. 16(a). One can observe how the LAGAMINE
code is able to reproduce the displacement field characterized by relatively
small displacements [18]. The corresponding stress field which comprises
large von Mises equivalent stresses in the tee stub flange and web can be
36 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

~q (N/ram~)

800 II
64o m

480

320 /

160 |

o7-1

cr~ (N/nnn 2)

960 •

800

640

480

320

160

Fig. 12. yon Mises equivalent stress ficld of bolt in the preloadcd tec stub Tl : (a) prcloaded
state; (b) plastic failure state.
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 37

125

Z 75-
J

q
~o-

25--
PRELOADED TEE-~TUB T1 1
I NUMERICAL
(LAGAMiNE))
I ~ I I I
50 100 150 200 250
LOAD (kN)

Fig. 13. Bolt axial force vs total force F of the preloaded tee stub T1.

AOEOT ESTO. T,

I
l : iii?iii?i::::
I ' I
4 8 12 16
DISPLACEMENT(rnrn)

Fig. 14. Experimental and predicted relative displacement Ad vs load F of the nonpreloaded
tee stub T I.

observed in Fig. 16(b). By examining the stress level, one can recognize the
yield line in the flange close to the web. The load--displacement (F-Ad)
relationships engendered by the model are superimposed upon the correspond-
ing experimental curve in Fig. 17. Even in this case, the displacement evol-
ution of the specimen is captured with good accuracy. However, some discrep-
ancies can be observed in strength values because the bolt model cannot
reproduce the bolt stripping failure.
Finally, the comparison between computed and measured values for the
load-displacement relationship of the nonpreloaded specimen is illustrated in
Fig. 18. A satisfactory degree of accuracy is reached by the model. Neverthe-
less, the effects of bolt stripping as well as residual stresses play an important
role in the discrepancy between predicted and measured strength values.
38 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

~CONSTITUTIVE L A w S
FOR SPECIMEN T2

i. . . . . FLANGE
-- -- -- WEB

8OO-- f i BOLT SHANK

,=.,
eoo -

200

0
I I I
0.10 0.20 0.30
CONVENTIONAL STRAIN
(a)
1200
C O N S T I T U T N E LAWS~
FOR SPECIMEN T 2

.... FLANGE

800
/ -- -- -- WEB

BOLT SHANK

==
60O--

40O-

0 I I I
ooo O.lO 0.20 0.30 0.40
N A T U R A L STRAIN

(b)
Fig. 15. Piecewise linear stress-strain relationships of tee stub T2: (a) nominal law; (b) true
law.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Part of the results of a study devoted to the analysis of bolted steel connections
by means of finite elements have been presented in this paper. Initially, two
elementary tee stub connections have been proposed as benchmarks in the
validation process of finite element software packages for bolted connections.
Then, a rational approach that leads to an accurate simulation of these connec-
tions by means of a three-dimensional finite element model has been sug-
gested. The model which has been set by means of the LAGAMINE software
package has been able to reproduce many of the characteristic phenomena
embodied in bolted connections. The comparison between computed and mea-
sured values in each phase has highlighted the effectiveness and degree of
 Benchmarks for modelling of bolted connections 39

(N m 2)

250

200

150

100

50@
~a~ ( o
F-1
Fig. 16. Preloaded tee stub T2 at the plastic failure state: (a) displacement field; (b) von Mises
equivalent stress field.

150 -

lOO-

PRELOADED TEE-STUB T2 1
50

0 I
2
L
- - -
-
I
4
EXPERBENTAL
NUMERICAL NOMINAL LAY

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
-

NUMERICAL - TRUE LAW

I
6 8

Fig. 17. Experimental and predicted relative displacement Ad vs load F of the preloaded tee
stub T2.

accuracy of the proposed finite element models. The findings obtained in this
study are adopted in a second follow-up paper [6], in which a simplified
three-dimensional finite element model is set to reproduce the elastic-plastic
behaviour of bolted end plate connections by means of the A B A Q U S code.
40 O. S. Bursi, J. P. Jaspart

~ 15o-

50 -

0 I
_•_ i PRELOADED TEE-STUB "1"2

I
EXPERIMENTAL
NUMERICAL - NOMINAL LAW
NUMERICAL - TRUE LAW
P
2 4 6
DISPLACEMENT {mrn)

Fig. 18. Experimental and predicted relative displacement Ad vs load F of the nonpreloaded
tee stub T2.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work reported in this paper is granted by MURST of Italy. Specific sup-
port to the University of Trento and Liege is also provided by the SPRINT
Contract RA 351 financed project 'Steel and Composite Building Frames
using Semi-Rigid Connections: From Research to Design Practice'. The find-
ings, observations and conclusions in this paper are, however, those of the
writers. The skilful work of Dominique Hanikenne, Luca Leonelli, Franqoise
Taquet and the technical staff of the Testing Laboratories is greatly appreci-
ated.

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