Cognitive Science 1

The Mental Representations of Cognitive Science

Related to Education in Ultrasonography

Melissa Klein

Post University EDU 510

Professor: Dr. Susan Shaw

Cognitive Science 2

The Mental Representations of Cognitive Science Related to Education in

Ultrasonography

Cognitive Science is the study of the mind and intelligence. It is composed of many mental

representations which will be discussed in detail within this paper. Cognitive science is described

in terms of mental representations and the procedures that operate those representations (N.A.,

2014). The mental representations of cognitive science are: concepts, analogies, logic, rules, and

images.

Mental Representations

According to Goodman’s A Rational Analysis of Rule-Based Concept Learning, “Concepts

are mental representations; that is, they are things ‘in the head’ that have some structure that

reflects the world”. To describe concepts: they are constructed to answer questions, “concepts

are not the representation of objects in the mind, but they relate objects in the world and objects

in the mind” (Goodman, 2008). Concept formation begins at a very early age and continues

throughout life. Forming concepts is a “bridge” between world and mind (Goodman et al, 2008).

Concept formation is unique to the individual and is based on his/her experiences in life. When

an individual has an experience, neurons fire in the brain. As neurons repeatedly fire, neurons

become enforced and a concept is formed (Happy and Well, 2012). In an educational

environment, new concepts are best taught at a fundamental level while offering a hierarchy of

descriptions which allow the student to make connections with concepts that they have already

learned. Students are able to organize and store the memory of the new concept with learned

concepts that are from the same domain (Pavel, 2009).

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This leads to the next mental representation of cognitive science: analogies. Analogies are

what allow and help the brain make connections regarding new concepts to persons, places,

things, or events (Slaughter, 2012). Analogies are the puzzle pieces that connects learned

concepts to new or foreign ones. Analogies play a critical role in new concept formation; they

draw parallels between what a person has learned and helps them make connections to new

concepts. The diagram below illustrates how analogies make connections from learned concepts

to new ones:

Analogy New
Learned Concept
(Connection) Concept

Once concepts are formed, logic and rules are procedures that assist in operating them.

“Logic can provide new models of knowledge representation, higher order reasoning, and social

cognition” (Isaac & Szymanik, 2010). Logic involves mental reasoning of concepts. Logical

reasoning is a higher order thinking skill and involves inductive and deductive decision making.

Deductive reasoning is based on previous experience or premise of a situation. Deductive

reasoning is based on the individual’s history of experiences (what he/she consider to be facts)

and may not always make sense. Inductive reasoning is when the individual is presented with a

number of outcomes and are typically generalized. Rules are similar to logic but differ in mental

and computational properties (Slaugher, 2012). Typically, mental implications of rules are “if-

then” structured. For example: “If I pass EDU 510, then I will be one step closer to obtaining my

Master’s in Education”.
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Images are the last mental implication of cognitive science that will be highlighted in this

paper. Visual representations play a key role in human thinking. Images are able capture spatial

and visual information that can be much more easily learned than extensive verbal descriptions

(N.A., 2014). Images are not only considered to be visual aids, they can also apply to other

senses such as: smell, auditory, taste, pain, and emotion. Specifically, emotions are a key aspect

of learning and memory. Emotion and cognition are interdependent to one another (Pessoa,

2009). Connecting emotions to learning helps students have a deeper understanding of and

connect to the concept that they are learning.

Below is a diagram to describe how cognitive science is composed of several mental

representations and procedures that operate them:

Concepts

Images
Cognitive Analogies
Science

Logic &
Rules

Applying Cognitive Science in Ultrasonography Education

As it relates to education in an ultrasound program, considering the mental

representations of cognitive science is critical to success. Introducing new concepts within an

ultrasound curriculum must start as small concepts making analogies to what students have

previously learned. New or foreign concepts are best taught at a simple, fundamental level and
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then connected to bigger, more complex concepts. While teaching ultrasound, it is best to start

with basic and small concepts, before incorporating a “big picture” concept of how it all comes

together. The “Learning Design” platform described in Pavel’s Concept Learning-Investigating

the Possibilities for a Human-Machine Dialogue, is an excellent starting point. This platform is:

(1) define a problem, (2) build a scenario, (3) define descriptive vocabulary, and (4) incorporate

tools to support the student’s learning. Concepts are always best taught in groups that

progressively build on each other. For instance, within the realm of ultrasound, there are many

different areas of involvement. Basic concepts would be: anatomy and physiology of the human

body, ultrasound machine knobology and probe use. More complicated concepts would be:

pathology, ultrasound physics, specializing in one field of ultrasound (such as, obstetrics and

gynecology, abdomen, or vascular), and lastly, physician and patient interactions. Educators

must first provide a fundamental foundation of understanding for students to build upon to form

analogies while learning new concepts (Mcleod, 2015). An example of an analogy relating to

ultrasound would be a student connecting what they have learned about the basic anatomy of the

liver and paralleling that to an ultrasound image of the liver. Below is a diagram depicting an

example of ultrasound-related analogies:

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Learned Concept

Basic Liver Anatomy

Analogy

Connection

New Concept

Ultrasound Imagery of Liver

Adding imagery is absolutely key in concept formation regarding ultrasound. Of course, it is

necessary to show students ultrasound images and help them correlate that to previously learned

concepts. However, mental representations of images go beyond just visual aids. Connecting

emotion to a topic is extremely helpful in concept learning. Students remember concepts better

when their emotions are triggered. For example, while introducing new obstetric ultrasound-

related concepts, educators should discuss a real-life ultrasound case of a patient, their baby, and

how the obstetric ultrasound made a difference in the outcome.

Applying logic and rules to newly learned concepts is essential when students face real-world

scenarios. For example, one of the rules in the thought process of an ultrasound tech should be,

“If I find this pathology, then what will be the outcome for the patient?” Ultrasound educators

must also help students understand and apply logical reasoning to the concepts they learn.

Logical reasoning is essential to students’ success in the medical profession. The best ways for

students to use logical reasoning is to have them apply concepts to real world scenarios and

receive feedback. Feedback, intrinsic and extrinsic, is key to successful concept learning and
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application of logical reasoning (Pavel, 2009). Specifically for ultrasound, intrinsic feedback

seems to be the best. Intrinsic feedback is the “natural consequences for an action” (Pavel, 2009).

In order for long-term learning and understanding, students must face real-world experiences and

consequences of concept application to enforce future logical reasoning.

Reflection & Connections

Applying the mental representations of cognitive science in my personal learning

environment is a crucial aspect to my future success as an educator. Currently, as an ultrasound

technologist who has limited experience teaching, understanding how students learn new

concepts is essential. As I determine the ultrasound program and curriculum I plan to create, the

mental representations of cognitive science will be immensely beneficial. The details of concept

formation and analogy connections has completely changed my approach to teaching. While

contemplating how students form analogies, I must take into consideration that each student has

a unique learning style. Being cognoscente of my own learning style is important because it

highlights my teaching tendencies and the styles that I will need to meet that are not my own.

Educating in a way that addresses all learning styles will give my unique students the avenues

they need to retain new concepts and fully grasp the big picture of ultrasound. To begin with, I

will start with simple, fundamental groups of concepts and build on more complex ones. I will

create a learning environment that promotes students “playing the whole game” of ultrasound,

even if it is at a fundamental level. Educating in this way, enables students to experience all

levels of the game. It will also improve emotional connections to my teachings in order to

increase student’s long-term memory of concepts. Other mental representations of cognitive

science that will be directly implemented are rules and logical reasoning. Applying logic and
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rules in the understanding of ultrasound will be best accomplished by providing opportunities for

students to be involved with real-world scenarios and consequences.

The mental representations of cognitive science have and will greatly impact my personal

educating style and curriculum formation. Understanding cognitive science and the mental

representations that it constitutes is essential to effective educating.

References

Goodman, N. D., Tenenbaum, J. B., Feldman, J., & Griffiths, T. L. (2008). A rational analysis of

rule-based concept learning. Cognitive science, 32(1), 108-154.

doi:10.1080/03640210701802071

Happy & Well. (2012, April 4). Dr. Daniel Siegel 'we feel, therefore we learn' at mind & it’s

potential 2009. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPkaAevFHWU.

Isaac, A. & Szymanik, J. (2010). Logic in cognitive science: bridging the gap between symbolic

and connectionist paradigms. Department of philosophy, Stanford University.

McLeod, S. (2015). Jean Piaget. Simply psychology. Retrieved from

www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

N.A. (2014). Cognitive science. Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/
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Pavel, G. (2009). Concept learning-investigating the possibilities for a human-machine dialogue.

Knowledge media institute.

Pessoa, L. (2009). Cognition and emotion. Indiana University. Retrieved from

http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognition_and_emotion

Slaughter, D. (2012). EDU 510: Unit 3 presentation. Post University. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZJlAnvbNI0&feature=youtu.be