Classical (Mendelian) Genetics  Nitrogen base (either A, G, C, U*)

 Genetics: The scientific study of heredity *contains Uracil instead of Thymine

 Allele: Alternate forms of a gene/factor. MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
 Genotype: combination of alleles an organism  Mitosis in body cells
has.  Meiosis in sex cells
 Phenotype: How an organism appears. DIFFERENCES
 Dominant: An allele which is expressed (masks  Meiosis produces daughter cells that have 1/2
the other). the number of chromosomes as the parent.
 Recessive: An allele which is present but Go from 2n to 1n.
remains unexpressed (masked)  Daughter cells produced by meiosis are not
 Homozygous: Both alleles for a trait are the genetically identical to one another.
same.  In meiosis cell division takes place twice but
 Heterozygous: The organism's alleles for a trait replication occurs only once.
are different.
 Law of Dominance: offspring will be hybrid but Evolution
exhibit only the dominant trait  the process by which
 Law of Segregation: When gametes (sperm egg one species gives rise to another
etc…) are formed each gamete will receive one and the Tree of Life grows
allele or the other.
 Law of independent assortment: Two or more Evidences of Evolution:
alleles will separate independently of each Evidence (1): Biochemistry
other when gametes are formed Evidence (2): Similar Genes
Chromosomal Aberrations Evidence (3): Comparative Anatomy
1. Deletion – a fragment lacking a centromere is Evidence (4): Homology
lost during cell division. Evidence (5): Vestigial Structures
2. Inversion – A chromosomal fragment Evidence (6): Fossil Record
reattaches to its original chromosome but in Evidence (7): Transitional fossils
the reverse orientation. Evidence (8): Geography
3. Translocation – a fragment of a chromosome Evidence (9): Antibiotic resistance
becomes attached to a non-homologous
chromosome. Isolation
6 types:
4. Polyploidy – a cell or organism has extra sets of
1. Geographic isolation
chromosome.
2. Polyploidy
5. Nondisjunction – Homologous chromosomes 3. Habitat Isolation
fail to separate during meiosis. 4. Behavioral isolation
5. Temporal Isolation
DNA 6. Reproductive Isolation
Each nucleotide of DNA contains:
 Deoxyribose TAXONOMY
 Phosphate
 Nitrogen base (either A, G, C, T)  A system by which we name and classify all
RNA organisms, living and extinct
Each nucleotide of RNA contains:  Carolus Linnaeus
 Ribose  Binomal nomenclature
 Phosphate  Three-domain system
  Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya  Most are Motile
 35 phyla
Domain Bacteria  9 Common Phyla:
 All single-celled prokaryotes  Porifera, Cnidarians, Platyhelminthes,
 Some anaerobes, some are aerobes nematodes, annelids, mollusks, arthropods,
 Many are pathogens echinoderms and chordates.
 Genetic engineering Porifera – sponges
 Conjugation, binary fission  No symmetry
 Peptidoglycan  No nerve or muscle tissue
 E.coli, C. botulinum, Streptococcus  Sexually, Hermaphrodites
Domain Archaea  Asexually by fragmentation
 Unicellular, Prokaryotic
 Extremophiles – live in extreme environments Cnidarians – Hydra and Jellyfish
 A. Methanogens – energy by producing  Radial symmetry
methane from hydrogen  Stinging cells - nematocysts
 B. Halophiles – high salt concentration Platyhelminthes
 C. Thermophiles – very high  Flatworms and Tapeworms
temperatures  Simplest with bilateral symmetry
Domain Eukarya Nematodes
 Eukaryotes  Roundworms
 Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia  Unsegmented worms
Kingdom Protista  Bilateral symmetry
- Some single-celled, many are primitive  Many are parasitic
multicelled organisms. Annelids
- Heterotrophs and Autotrophs  Segmented worms
Movement:  Earthworms and leeches
Amoeba – pseudopods  Nephridia – excretion
Paramecium – cilia  Closed Circulatory system – heart consists of
Euglena - flagellum five pairs of aortic arches
Kingdom Fungi  Hermaphrodites
 All heterotrophic eukaryotes Mollusks
 Unicellular or multicellular  Squids, Octopuses, Slugs, Clams, and Snails
 Decomposers  Soft body with hard calcium containing shell
 Chitin  Bilateral symmetry
 Sexually and asexually (budding, spore  Open circulatory system
formation, fragmentation) Arthropods
 Yeasts, molds, mushroom  Insecta (grasshopper), Crustacea (shrimp,
Kingdom Plantae Crab), Arachnida (Spider)
 All multicellular, nonmotile, autotrophic  Jointed appendages
 Cellulose  Open Circulatory System – with tubular heart
 Photosynthesis and hemocoels
 Carbohydrates is stored as starch  Malphigian tubules removal of wastes
 Sexually Echinoderms
 Tracheophytes and bryophytes  Star fish and Sea Urchins
Kingdom Animalia  Bilateral symmetry
 Heterotrophic, multicellular Chordates
  Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
 Notochord – a rod that extends the length of
the body and serves as a flexible axis
 Homeotherms – maintain a constant body
temperature
 Poikilotherms – cold-blooded
PLANT CLASSIFICATION
A. Kingdom Plantae
1. Nonvascular Plants
* lack tubes for transport of water and
nutrients
* small size, lack flowers, moist
habitats
* mosses, liverworts, hornworts
2. Vascular Plants:
* contain tubes for water and
nutrient transport
* XYLEM and PHLOEM tissue
MONOCOTS
1. Roots fibrous and shallow
2. Veins in leaf parallel
3. Stem tissue unorganized/sprinkled throughout
4. 50,000 species: corn, banana, wheat, rye,
grass, bamboo, orchid
DICOTS
1. Veins in leaf branched
2. Roots: taproot, deep
3. Stem tissue: organized
4. 200,000 species: peanut, bean, carrot, rose,
potato, melon, apple
PLANT RESPONSES
TROPISMS
- a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or
turning movement of a biological organism, usually a
plant, in response to an environmental stimulus.
 Phototropism is the growth response of a plant
in response to light direction.
 Geotropism is the growth response of a plant
in response to gravity.
 Thigmotropism is the growth response of a
plant to physical contact (touch).
 Hydrotropism is the growth response of a plant
to water.
 Chemotropism is the growth response of a
plant to a particular chemical.
Ecology
Ecology- the scientific study of interactions between
organisms and their environments, focusing on energy
transfer.
The environment is made up of two factors:
 Biotic factors- all living organisms inhabiting the
Earth
 Abiotic factors- nonliving parts of the
environment (i.e. temperature, soil, light,
moisture, air currents)
Organism - any unicellular or multicellular form
exhibiting all of the characteristics of life, an
individual.
• The lowest level of organization
POPULATION
 a group of organisms of one species living in
the same place at the same time that
interbreed
 Produce fertile offspring
 Compete with each other for resources (food,
mates, shelter, etc.)
Community - several interacting populations that
inhabit a common environment and are
interdependent.
Ecosystem - populations in a community and the
abiotic factors with which they interact (ex. marine,
terrestrial)
Biosphere - life supporting portions of Earth composed
of air, land, fresh water, and salt water.
• The highest level of organization
Niche - the role a species plays in a community; its
total way of life
Habitat- the place in which an organism lives out its
life
A niche is determined by the tolerance limitations of
an organism, or a limiting factor.
Limiting factor- any biotic or abiotic factor that Biomass- the amount of organic matter comprising a
restricts the existence of organisms in a specific group of organisms in a habitat.
environment.  As you move up a food chain, both available
energy and biomass decrease.
Producer- all autotrophs (plants), they trap energy  Energy is transferred upwards but is
from the sun diminished with each transfer.
 Bottom of the food chain  Food chain- simple model that shows how
Consumer- all heterotrophs: they ingest food matter and energy move through an
containing the sun’s energy ecosystem
 Herbivores
 Carnivores Food web- shows all possible feeding relationships in a
 Omnivores community at each trophic level
 Decomposers  Represents a network of interconnected food
CONSUMERS chains
1. Primary consumers Cycling maintains homeostasis (balance) in the
 Eat plants environment.
 Herbivores • 3 cycles to investigate:
 Secondary, tertiary … consumers 1. Water cycle
 Prey animals 2. Carbon cycle
 Carnivores 3. Nitrogen cycle
Symbiosis- two species living together
8 Major Biomes
3 Types of symbiosis:
1. Commensalism 1. Tropical rain forest
2. Parasitism 2. Savanna
3. Mutualism 3. Desert
4. Temperate forest
Commensalism- 5. Temperate grassland
one species benefits and the other is neither 6. Chaparral
harmed nor helped 7. Taiga
Ex. orchids on a tree 8. Tundra

Parasitism- Primary Succession: The process of creating life in an

one species benefits (parasite) and the other is harmed
(host)
 Parasite-Host relationship
Mutualism-
 beneficial to both species
 Ex. cleaning birds and cleaner shrimp
Trophic levels
 Each link in a food chain is known as a trophic
level.
 Trophic levels represent a feeding step in the
transfer of energy and matter in an ecosystem.
area where no life previously existed.
Secondary Succession: The process of re-stabilization
that follows a disturbance in an area where life has
formed an ecosystem.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
 A warming of the earth's surface and lower
atmosphere caused by substances such as
carbon dioxide and water vapour which let the
sun’s energy through to the ground but
impede the passage of energy from the earth
back into space.
Anatomy and Physiology
 Kidneys – the main organs of the excretory system
Body Covering: -- waste-laden blood enters the kidney and the
Integumentary System kidney filters out urea, excess water and other waste
Support and Movement: products, which eventually travel out of the
Skeletal System kidney as urine
Muscular System -- eventually they travel through the
Integration and Coordination: ureter to the urinary bladder
Nervous System
Endocrine System The Circulatory System
Transport: Heart – the major muscle of the circulatory system
Circulatory System -- pumps blood through its four chambers (two
Lymphatic System ventricles and two atria)
Absorption and Excretion: Arteries – carry blood away from the heart and
Digestive system to the major organs of the body
Respiratory system
Urinary system Veins – carry blood back to the heart away from the
Reproduction: major organs of the body
Reproductive System Capillaries – small blood vessels where gas exchange
occurs
The Digestive System Blood – the cells that flow through the circulatory
Mouth – to chew and grind up food system
-- saliva also begins the chemical breakdown -- red blood cells contain hemoglobin, an iron-
Esophagus – pipe connecting mouth to stomach rich protein that carries oxygen
-- white blood cells function in the immune
Stomach – secretes an extraordinarily strong acid (pH =
2) that leads to breakdown of food system
-- once the food is broken down in the stomach -- platelets help in blood clotting
and mixed with digestive juices, it is called
chyme The Nervous System
Pancreas – produces the hormone insulin that regulates Brain – control center of the body, where all processes
blood sugar levels are relayed through
-- also help neutralize stomach acid -- consists of cerebrum (controls though and
Liver – produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods senses) and cerebellum (controls motor functions)
Gallbladder – pouch-like organ that stores bile for Spinal Cord – sends instructions from the brain to the
future use rest of the body and vice versa
Small Intestine – after digestion is complete, the chyme -- any organism with a major nerve cord is
enters the small intestine where it is absorbed into the classified as a chordate
bloodstream Nerves – conduct impulses to muscle cells throughout
-- the chyme is propelled along by folded the body
surfaces called villi, on the intestine The Endocrine System
-- hypothalamus
• Large Intestine – removes water from the
chyme and gets the waste ready for excretion -- pituitary gland
• Rectum – solid (food) waste travels out of the -- thyroid
body through the rectum -- parathyroid
-- adrenal glands
The Excretory System -- pancreas
Major Organs and Their Functions -- testes
-- ovaries
The Respiratory System INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
Nose – internal entry and exit point for air • Function
Pharynx – serves as a passage way for both air and food – 1st line of defense against disease
at the back of the throat – Helps maintain body temperature
Larynx – your “voicebox”, as air passes over your vocal – Keeps fluids inside
chords, you speak • Main Parts
Trachea – the “windpipe”, or what connects your – Skin
pharynx to your lungs – Sweat glands
-- a piece of skin, called the epiglottis, covers – Hair
the trachea when you swallow, preventing food – nails
from entering
Bronchi – the two large passageways that lead from the
trachea to your lungs (one for each lung)
-- the bronchi are further subdivided into
bronchioles
-- eventually, the further subdivisions lead to
tiny air sacs called alveoli
-- alveoli are in clusters, like grapes
-- capillaries surrounding each alveolus
is where the exchange of gases with the
blood occurs
The diaphragm is the muscle that causes you to breath
-- hiccups are involuntary contractions of the
diaphragm

SKELETAL SYSTEM:
- femur (thigh bone)
- radius and ulna (lower arm)
- sternum (breastbone)
- fibula and tibia (calf)
- scapula (shoulder)
- coccyx (tail bone)
(fingers/toes)
- humerus (upper arm)
- cranium (skull)
- clavicle (collar bone)
- vertebrae (back)
- pelvic bone
- phalanges

The Muscular System

-- biceps -- tricep -- deltoids
-- gluteus -- hamstrings

The Immune System

White Blood Cells – recognize disease agents (antigens)
and create antibodies to tag and remove these antigens
-- phagocytes are the white blood cell type that
actually eats and destroys these antigens
Lymph Nodes – help restore fluid lost by the blood and
return it to the circulatory system