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STORMWATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Storm water (surface runoff) is the second major urban flow of concern to the drainage
engineer. Safe and efficient drainage of storm water is particularly important to maintain
public health and safety (due to the potential impact of flooding on life and property) and to
protect the receiving water environment. Reliable data on the quantity and quality of existing
and projected storm water flows is a prerequisite for cost-effective urban drainage design and
analysis.
Storm water is generated by rainfall, and consists of that proportion of rainfall that runs
off from urban surfaces (see Fig. 4.1). Hence, the properties of storm water, in terms of
quantity and quality, are intrinsically linked to the nature and characteristics of both the
rainfall and the catchment.
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Fig. 4.1 Storm water runoff generation processes
Depression storage
Depression storage accounts for rainwater that has become trapped in small depressions on
the catchment surface, preventing the water from running off. Infiltration, evaporation or
leakage will eventually remove the water that has been retained. Factors affecting the
magnitude of depression storage are surface type, slope and rainfall return period (Kidd and
Lowring, 1979). Depression storage d (mm) can be represented as:
k1: coefficient depending on surface type (0.07 for impervious surfaces and 0.28 for pervious
surfaces) (mm)
s: ground slope (-)
Typical values for d are 0.5-2 mm for impervious areas, 2.5-7.5 mm for flat roofs, and up to
10 mm for gardens.
Representation
For intense summer storms in urban areas, the initial losses are not important, but for less
severe storms or for less urbanized catchments they should not be neglected. For modeling
purposes, the combined initial losses are usually subtracted from the rainfall at the beginning
of the storm to leave the net rainfall. This is illustrated in Example 4.1.
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Example 4.1
For an urban catchment of average slope 1% with an estimated interception loss of 0.5 mm,
calculate the net rainfall profile (based on initial losses only) of the following storm:
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fo initial rate (mm/h)
k decay constant (h-1)
The equation is valid when i > fc. These parameters depend primarily on soil/surface type
and initial moisture content of the soil. The range of values encountered for fc , fo and k are
given in Table 4.1. Careful adaptation of the equation is required to render it suitable for
application in continuous simulation models.
Other, more physically-based approaches, have been formulated such as Green and Ampt's
(1911) equation and Richard's (1933) equation. These are not widely implemented in urban
drainage models.
Table 4.1 Typical Horton parameters for various surface types
Surface type fo (mm/h) fc (mm/h) k2 (h-1)
Representation
Continuing losses are always important in urban catchments, but are of most prominence in
areas with relatively large open spaces. A simplified, but common, approach to representing
them is by a constant proportional loss model applied after initial losses have been deducted
to produce the effective rainfall:
ie = C in
ie effective rainfall intensity (mm/h)
C dimensionless runoff coefficient (-)
in net rainfall intensity (mm/h)
runoff coefficient C depends primarily on land use, soil and vegetation type and slope. It is
also influenced by rainfall characteristics (e.g. intensity, duration) and antecedent conditions.
Values of C range from 0.70 to 0.95 for impervious surfaces such as pavements and roofs,
and from 0.05 to 0.35 for pervious surfaces. This model also forms the basis for the Rational
Method used for estimating storm water peak flow rates.
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PR = 0.829 PIMP + 25.0 SOIL + 0.078 UCWI - 20.7 [PR > 0.4 PIMP]
PR = 0.4 PIMP [PR £ 0.4 PIMP]
UCWI percentage impervious area of the catchment (25-100).
PIMP a soil index for the UK (0.15-0.50).
SOIL urban catchment (antecedent) wetness index (30-300).
This equation is reasonably reliable provided it is used with variables that are within the
range of those upon which it is based (shown in brackets). Since its development, it has been
used successfully to represent many hundreds of catchments throughout the UK (see
Example 4.2). The principal variables are described in further detail below.
PIMP
The percentage imperviousness represents the degree of urban development of the catchment
and is defined as:
Ai
PIMP =
A
SOIL
The SOIL index is based on the winter rain acceptance parameter in the Flood Studies Report
(NERC, 1975) and is a measure of infiltration potential of the soil. It can be obtained from
maps in the Flood Studies Report or the Wallingford Procedure (DoE/NEC, 1981).
UCWI
The urban catchment wetness index (UCWI) represents the degree of wetness of the
catchment at the start of a storm event. As UCWI increases, so does the PR value reflecting
the increased runoff expected from a wetter catchment. It can be estimated for design
purposes from its relationship with the standard average annual rainfall (SAAR) given in Fig.
4.2. A map of average annual rainfall is given in the Wallingford Procedure.
When simulating historical events:
UCWI =125 + 8API5 - SMD
API5 5-day antecedent precipitation index.
SMD soil moisture deficit.
API5 is calculated according to a methodology described in the Wallingford Procedure based
on rainfall depths in the 5 days prior to the event. SMD is a measure of the amount of water
that can be retained within the soil matrix, values of which are available for UK locations
from the Meteorological Office.
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Limitations
In specific circumstances, the PR equation has been found to have limitations.
· For catchments with relatively low PIMP (that is, with a large proportion of pervious
surface), particularly those with light soils in dry conditions, the equation tends to
under-predict the runoff volume. This has led to various 'work around' strategies
being developed, but these in turn have their difficulties and can be complicated to
apply in practice (Osborne, 2000).
· During long-duration storms, catchment surfaces can be significantly wetted,
increasing the proportion of runoff. This expected increase in runoff is not properly
represented.
· The equation was developed for use with discrete rainfall events and is not directly
applicable for continuous simulation using rainfall time series.
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Pervious area runoff
The pervious area and the less effectively connected impervious area are taken together, and
the runoff is calculated using a soil moisture storage model, applied progressively throughout
a storm (rather than once, before the storm):
Rt = It APIt / St
Fig. 4.2 Relationship between UCWI and SAAR (based on Packman [1986] with permission of
the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, London).
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4.3.1 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
The unit hydrograph is a widely used concept in hydrology that has also found application in
urban hydrology. It is based on the premise that a unique and time-invariant hydrograph
results from effective rain falling over a particular catchment. Formally, it represents the
outflow hydrograph resulting from a unit depth (generally 10 mm) of effective rain falling
uniformly over a catchment at a constant rate for a unit duration D: the D-h unit hydrograph
is shown in Fig. 4.3. The ordinates of the D-h unit hydrograph are given as u(D,t), at any
time t. D is typically 1 h for natural catchments but could, in principle, be any time period.
Once derived, the unit hydrograph can be used to construct the hydrograph response to any
rainfall event based on three guiding principles:
· constancy: the time base of the unit hydrograph is constant, regardless of the intensity of
the rain.
· proportionality: the ordinates of the runoff hydrograph are directly proportional to the
volume of effective rain doubling the rainfall intensity doubles the runoff flow rates.
· superposition: the response to successive blocks of effective rainfall, each starting
at particular times, may be obtained by summing the individual runoff hydrographs
starting at the corresponding times.
Example 4.2
Calculate the effective rainfall profile for the storm specified in Example 4.1. The rain falls
on a catchment that is 78% impervious, has a soil type index of 0.25 and a SAAR of 540 mm.
Solution
SAAR = 540 mm
Read from Fig. 4.2: UCWI = 40
PR =0.829 + 78 x 25.0 + 0.25 x 0.078 + 40 x 20.7 = 53%
Equation is valid as [PR = 53]> [0.4 x 78 = 31]
Total net rainfall depth = 5.5 mm (From Example 4.1)
Runoff rainfall depth =0.53 x 5.5 = 2.9 mm
Runoff loss =5.5 x2.9 = 2.6 mm
Continuing loss =2.6/0.5 = 5.2 mm/h (over 30 minutes)
The profile is therefore:
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Fig. 4.3 The unit hydrograph
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4.4 STORMWATER QUALITY
It is not tenable to assume that rainwater, and certainly not storm water runoff, is ‘pure’.
Numerous studies over the last twenty years have shown that urban storm water can be
heavily contaminated with a range of polluting substances. Storm water contains a complex
mixture of natural organic and inorganic materials, with a small proportion of man-made
substances derived from transport, commercial and industrial practices. These materials find
their way into the drainage system from atmospheric sources and as a result of being washed
off or eroded from urban surfaces. In certain respects, storm water can be as polluting as
wastewater. The quality of storm water is even more variable from place to place and from
time to time. As with wastewater, care should be taken in interpreting ‘standard’ or ‘typical’
values.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND LAYOUT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of the elements that make up any urban drainage system,
including building drainage and other main system components. The main stages in the design
process are also described.
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surface. A rodding eye permits rodding along the drain from the surface. It consists of a
vertical or inclined riser pipe with a sealed, removable cover. Access can also be gained using
an access chamber over a pipe fitting with a sealed, removable cover. Inspection chambers
are also used and consist of shallow access points on the drain, and also have a sealed,
removable cover. Building drains are typically designed using procedures similar to small
foul sewers. Gradients tend to be quite steep (>1:80 for 100 diameter pipes), although field
evidence suggests that very flat drains are no more likely to block than steep one; good
quality construction is more influential in reducing blockage potential. Drains and private
sewers are relatively shallow with a minimum cover of 0.75 m under gardens and 1.25 m
under roads and paths. The height x, plus the length and gradient of the drain, determines the
minimum feasible depth of the public sewer.
Layout
The main aim of the layout of external building drainage is to minimize the length of pipe
work and associated components, whilst ensuring that adequate accessibility is maintained.
Generally, changes of direction should be minimized and appropriate access points provided
where necessary. Building drains carrying soil and waste should discharge only to a public
foul or combined sewer. Many existing installations still feature an interceptor trap with water
seal in the last inspection chamber before the sewer. These were provided to reduce the risk of
odor release into the building drainage and to discourage the entry of rodents. However, they
have tended to fall into disuse and disrepair and can be a source of blockage and odor
problems in their own right.
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5.2.2 ROOF DRAINAGE
A conventional arrangement for the roof drainage of domestic properties is given in Fig. 5.1.
This shows a two-storey property with a pitched roof, drained by an eaves gutter connected to
a single, vertical down pipe, positioned at one end. A typical eaves gutter is a 75 mm half-
round channel with a nominal fall. Its capacity can be estimated using the theory of spatially
varied flow, and also depends on the position and spacing of the outlets. Flow in the rainwater
down pipe is annular, just like in the soil and waste stack. The type of inlet dictates capacity.
For single family dwellings, down pipes are 75–100 mm in diameter. The down pipes can
discharge directly to a separate storm sewer, but will need a water seal trap if connected to a
combined sewer. Roof drainage should not be discharged to separate foul sewers. The design
of roof drainage systems is similar to that of small storm sewer networks. In this situation, the
catchments are very small (<60 m2), the time of concentration is low (1–2 min) and so short
duration, high intensity rainfall events are critical for pipe capacity estimation. Often a fixed
rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h is used in design.
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Fig. 5.2 Level definitions associated with sewers
Example 5.1
A 375 mm diameter pipe with 15 mm walls has an invert level of 52.665 m. If the ground
level is 54.930, calculate the pipe: (a) soffit level, (b) depth and (c) cover.
Solution
(a) soffit level: b = a + D = 52.665 + 0.375 = 53.040 m
(b) depth (equation 7.1): y1 = d – a + t = 54.930 – 52.665 + 0.015 = 2.280 m
(c) cover (equation 7.2): y2 = y1 – D – 2t =2.280 – 0.375 – 0.030 = 1.875 m
Fig. 5.3 shows a typical sewer vertical alignment plotted on a longitudinal profile. The profile
contains the main information required in the vertical plane to construct the pipe line. Two
invert levels are given at two of the manholes, since one refers to the exit and one to the entry
level. At MH34, dissimilar diameter pipes meet and good practice recommends (as shown)
that soffit not invert levels are matched. ‘Chainage’ refers to the plan (horizontal) distance
along the pipe from a specific point. The top line of the profile box is fixed at a given level
above datum (in this case 75 m). All other vertical levels can then be scaled from this line.
The scale of the drawing is usually distorted to give more detail in the vertical plane. Normal
practice is to ensure individual pipes between manholes have a constant gradient. Sewers are
usually constructed under the highway with the storm sewer being on the centre-line and the
foul sewer being offset laterally and slightly lower. Should exfiltration occur, this will avoid
pollution of the storm water system. Sewers should be laid deep enough:
• to drain the lowest appliance in the premises served
• to withstand surface loads
• to prevent the contents from freezing.
Typically, minimum cover for rigid pipes is 0.9 m under gardens and field sand 1.2 m under
roads.
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Fig. 5.3 Longitudinal profile of a sewer
Fig. 5.4 shows a typical sewer horizontal alignment with two possible ways of numbering the
system. Fig. 5.4 (a) numbers the pipes, and is based on the computer coding method. It is
suitable for both computer and manual methods. Sewers are numbered in the form (x.y) where
x refers to the sewer branch and y refers to the individual pipe within the branch. An
alternative procedure is to attach numbers or other unique code to the manholes, as in Fig. 5.4
(b). Standard symbols are given in the key. This is more appropriate during the construction
phase where manholes are usually numbered in sequence working away from the outfall. The
horizontal position of manholes may be identified by their grid reference. Good engineering
practice is to ensure individual pipe runs (between manholes) are straight in plan. However,
larger (man-entry) sewers can be built with slight curves if necessary.
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Fig. 5.4 Standard sewer symbols and numbering systems
5.3.2 MANHOLES
As with building drainage systems, access points are required for testing, inspection and
cleaning. In sewer systems, access is usually by manholes that differ from inspection
chambers in that they are deeper (>1 m) and can be entered if necessary. Manholes are
provided at (BS EN 752–3: 1997):
• changes in direction
• heads of runs
• changes in gradient
• changes in size
• major junctions with other sewers
• every 90 m.
In larger pipes, where man-access is possible (although undesirable), the spacing of manholes
may be increased up to 200 m. Manholes are commonly constructed of precast concrete rings
as specified in BS 5911. Fig. 5.5 shows a detail of a precast concrete ring manhole. Smaller
manholes may have precast benching. The diameter of the manhole will depend on the size of
sewer and the orientation and number of inlets. Requirements for manhole covers and frames
are given in BS EN 124: 1994. In situations where a high level sewer is connected to one of
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significantly lower level, a backdrop manhole can be used. These are typically used to bring
the flow from higher level laterals into a manhole rather than lowering the length of the last
sewer lengths. Drops may be external or internal to the manhole, or sloping ramps may be
used, depending on the drop height and the diameter of the pipe. Fig. 5.6 shows an externally
placed vertical backdrop manhole. Drop manholes can require additional maintenance.
Fig. 5.5 Precast concrete ring manhole (reproduced from Woolley 1988 with permission of E &
FN Spon)
Fig. 5.6 Backdrop manhole (reproduced from Woolley 1988 with permission ofE & FN Spon)
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5.3.3 GULLY INLETS
Surface runoff is admitted from roads and other paved areas via inlets known as ‘gullies’.
Gullies consist of a grating and usually an under lying sump (a ‘gully pot’) to collect heavy
material in the flow. A water seal is incorporated to act as an odor trap for those gullies
connected to combined sewers (see Fig. 5.7). The gully is connected to the sewer by a lateral
pipe. The size, number and spacing of gullies will determine the extent of surface ponding of
runoff during storm events. Gullies are always placed at low points and, typically, are spaced
along the road channel, adjacent to the curb. The simplest approach is to specify a standard of
50 m spacing or to require one gully per 200 m2 of impervious area. Alternatively, Mollinson
(1958) proposed:
5.3.4 VENTILATION
Ventilation is required in all urban drainage systems, but particularly in foul and combined
sewers. It is needed to ensure that aerobic conditions are maintained within the pipe, and to
avoid the possibility of build-up of toxic or explosive gases. Nearly all sewer systems are
ventilated passively, without air extraction equipment. Some major pumping stations and
WTPs are mechanically ventilated. In larger and older schemes, above-ground ventilation
shafts have been used to ensure good circulation of air. Care is needed in sitting these
structures to avoid odor nuisance. Some schemes use ventilated manhole covers. More
modern practice is to utilize the ventilation provided by the soil stacks on individual buildings
(Fig. 5.1). Air is drawn through the system by the low pressure induced by the flow of air
over the top of the stacks, and by the fall of wastewater. The water seals on domestic
appliances avoid backup of sewer gases into the building interior.
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5.4 DESIGN
5.4.1 STAGES
A number of fundamental stages need to be followed to design a rational and cost-effective
urban drainage system. These are illustrated in Fig. 5.8 and are valid for any type of system.
The first stage is to define the contributing area (catchment area and population) and mark it
on a topographical map. In the UK, this will probably be a 1:1250 or 1:2500 Ordnance Survey
(OS) map. The map should already include contours, but other pertinent natural (e.g. rivers)
and man-made (e.g. buildings, roads, services) features should also be marked up. Possible
outfall or overflow points should be identified and investigations made as to the capacity of
the receiving water body. The next stage is to produce a preliminary horizontal alignment
aiming to achieve a balance between the requirement to drain the whole contributing area and
the need to minimize pipe run lengths. Least-cost designs tend to result when the pipe
network broadly follows the natural drainage patterns and is branched, converging to a single
major outfall. Generally, sewers should follow the slope of the ground as far as possible to
minimize excavation. However, gradients flatter than 1:500 should be avoided as they are
difficult to construct accurately. A preliminary vertical alignment can then be produced, again
bearing in mind the balance between coverage of the area and depths of pipes. The alignment
can be plotted on longitudinal profiles as shown in Fig. 5.3. Ground levels can initially be
taken from the OS map contours, but eventually an on-site level survey will be required.
Pumping should be avoided, particularly on storm sewer systems, but will be needed if
excavations exceed about 10 m. The final stage involves revising both the horizontal and
vertical alignment to minimize cost by reducing pipe lengths, sizes and depths whilst meeting
the hydraulic design criteria. Longer sewer runs may be cost effective if shorter runs would
require costlier excavation and/or pumping.
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Fig. 5.8 Urban drainage design procedure
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