Manuel Luis Quezon University

School of Graduate Studies

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Quiapo, Manila, Philippines

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
First Semester SY 2014-2015

INTRODUCTION
Why do we remember people whom we met years ago, but sometimes seem
to forget what we learned in a course shortly after we take the final exam (or
worse, sometimes right before)? How do we manage to carry on a conversation
with one person at a party and simultaneously eavesdrop on another more
interesting conversation taking place nearby? Why are people so often certain
that they are correct in answering a question when in fact they are not? These are
just three of the many questions that are addressed by the field of cognitive
psychology.
Cognitive psychologists study how people perceive, learn, remember, and
think. Although cognitive psychology is a unified field, it draws on many other
fields, most notably neuroscience, computer science, linguistics, anthropology,
and philosophy. Moreover, cognitive psychology interacts with other fields within
psychology, such as psychobiology, developmental psychology, social psychology,
and clinical psychology.
Cognitive psychologists study a wide range of psychological phenomena such
as perception, learning, memory, and thinking. In addition, cognitive psychologists
study seemingly less cognitively oriented phenomena, such as emotion and
motivation. In fact, almost any topic of psychological interest may be studied from
a cognitive perspective.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED

Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn and

remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist might study how
people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others,
or how they learn language (Sternberg, 2012).
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Cognitive Theories of Development

By Kendra Cherry
Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you will learn to:

Describe what cognitive theory is

Identify the key concepts of Piaget's theory
Describe the stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development
What is Cognitive Theory?

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at
how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. The foremost
cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped
revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of
children's intellectual development.

Your Task: Follow the links below to learn more about Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

The Sensorimotor Stage

The Preoperational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage

The Formal Operational Stage

Contributions and Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

Quiz on Piaget's Cognitive Theory

As your read through the materials in this lesson, take note of some of the major milestones that happen
at each stage of development.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

By Kendra Cherry
According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key stages of
cognitive development. Each stageis marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget
believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of
the world around them.

Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the
preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and
the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.
Jean Piaget's Background

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget
formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. After
working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children.
Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they
simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have
thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves
processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

A Quick Summary of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects.

The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people.

The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically, but
their thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the
ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development at a quantitative
process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as
they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they
gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about
the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

In order to better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is
important to first examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget. The
following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Key Concepts

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new
information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known
as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experiences and
information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and
labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in
light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering
existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also
be developed during this process.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought
into the next.

References

Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City:
McGraw-Hill.

Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.

Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1.
New York: Wiley.

Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory

By Kendra Cherry
Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology and education, but it
has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a series of progressive stages,
even Piaget believed that development does not always follow such a smooth and predictable path. In
spite of the criticism, the theory has had a considerable impact on our understanding of child
development. Piaget's observation that kids actually think differently than adults helped usher in a new
era of research on the mental development of children.
Support for Piaget's Theory:

The Theory's Impact

on Education

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget did not
specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built upon the belief that
children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work.

These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and peer
teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll, 1994).
Criticisms of Piaget:

Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this, the
other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of high
socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings
to a larger population.
Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next stage of
development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the
development of formal operations.
Underestimates Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget
suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather
sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people. For
example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they
are far less egocentric than Piaget believed.
Piaget’s Legacy:

While there are few strict Piagetians around today, most people can appreciate Piaget's influence and
legacy. His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the future of
education and developmental psychology.
Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory
The Sensorimotor Stage
The Preoperational Stage
The Concrete Operational Stage
The Formal Operational Stage
Support and Criticism of Piaget
References
Santrock, John W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (4 ed.). New York City:
McGraw-Hill.

Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.

Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1.
New York: Wiley.

What Is Cognitive Psychology? - Definition, Theories & Quiz

Take Quiz | Related Videos
Cognitive psychology focuses on the way people process information. In this lesson you will gain an
overview of the field of cognitive psychology and learn about prominent theories. You can test your
knowledge with a quiz at the end.

Definition of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the way people process information.
It looks at how we process information we receive, and how the treatment of this information leads to
our responses. In other words, cognitive psychology is interested in what is happening within our minds
that links stimulus (input) and response (output).

Cognitive psychologists study internal processes that include perception, attention, language, memory,
and thinking. They ask questions like: How do we receive information about the outside world? How
do we store and process information? How do we solve problems? How does a breakdown in our
perceptions cause errors in our thinking? How do errors in our thinking lead to emotional distress and
negative behaviors?

Overview of Cognitive Psychology

Education Portal / Courses / College Courses / Social Science / Psychology / What is Cognitive
Psychology? - Definition, Theories & Quiz
What Is Cognitive Psychology? - Definition, Theories & Quiz
Take Quiz | Related Videos
Cognitive psychology focuses on the way people process information. In this lesson you will gain an
overview of the field of cognitive psychology and learn about prominent theories. You can test your
knowledge with a quiz at the end.

Definition of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the way people process information.
It looks at how we process information we receive, and how the treatment of this information leads to
our responses. In other words, cognitive psychology is interested in what is happening within our minds
that links stimulus (input) and response (output).

Cognitive psychologists study internal processes that include perception, attention, language, memory,
and thinking. They ask questions like: How do we receive information about the outside world? How
do we store and process information? How do we solve problems? How does a breakdown in our
perceptions cause errors in our thinking? How do errors in our thinking lead to emotional distress and
negative behaviors?

Overview of Cognitive Psychology

The term 'cognitive psychology' was first used by Ulric Neisser in 1967. Since then, many interventions
have emerged from cognitive study that have benefited the field of psychology. Cognitive psychology
also touches on many other disciplines. Because of this, it is frequently studied by people in a number
of different fields including medicine, education, and business.

Cognitive psychology is goal oriented and problem focused from the beginning. Imagine you are
entering treatment with a cognitive psychologist. One of the first things you will be asked to do is
identify your problems and formulate specific goals for yourself. Then you will be helped to organize
your problems in a way that will increase the chances of meeting your goals.

Suppose that as you are preparing for your presentation at work tomorrow, you fear you will fail.
Because of this you are using distractions around you as a way to avoid working on the presentation.
This prevents you from preparing properly, which actually causes you to fail. You believe that you
failed because you are worthless. A cognitive psychologist would help you examine and then
rationalize the situation in order to understand the most valid reason for your failure. Then they would
teach you how to make changes that will help you succeed.

All forms of cognitive psychology have the following four characteristics:

A collaborative relationship between client and therapist.

The belief that psychological distress is largely the result of a disturbance in cognitive processes.
A focus on changing cognition to produce desired changes in emotions and/or behavior.
A time-limited, educational treatment that focuses on specific problems.
Though often grouped together, cognitive psychology can be divided into two areas:

Cognitive Therapy (CT)

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)
CT and CBT are very similar in their theory and application. The difference is that cognitive therapy
focuses on eliminating psychological distress, while cognitive behavioral therapy targets the
elimination of negative behavior as well.

Theories
There are three major contributing theories in cognitive psychology:

Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

Aaron Beck's Cognitive Therapy (CT)
Donald Meichenbaum's Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
The framework for REBT was developed by Albert Ellis. Previously called 'rational therapy' or 'rational
emotive therapy,' REBT is one of the first cognitive therapies. Today it continues to be a major
approach in the field of cognitive psychology. It makes the basic assumption that you contribute to your
own psychological problems and symptoms through your interpretations.

Rational emotive behavior therapy focuses on uncovering irrational beliefs that may lead to unhealthy
negative emotions.

It examines this relationship through what is called the A-B-C framework.

A-B-C Framework for REBT

Let's examine the A-B-C framework with an example.

(A) Activating Event: You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores you.
(B) Beliefs: You think, 'Bob must be angry with me or he would have said hello.'
(C) Consequences: You ignore your friend the next time you see him because you assume he does not
want to speak to you.
In this example you have the irrational belief that Bob is angry with you. An irrational belief is a belief
that has no factual basis and is rationally unsupported. REBT would help you replace this irrational
belief with a more rational alternative. Let's examine how the scenario might unfold with this change.

(A) Activating Event: You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores you.
(B) Beliefs: You think, 'It is unlike Bob not to say hello, I wonder what is going on?'
(C) Consequences: You turn and call out to Bob. He apologizes for not seeing you, but explains he is
really distracted by something. You make plans to get together later and catch up.
Cognitive Therapy (CT)
Aaron T. Beck developed the CT approach as a result of his research on depression. He observed that
most depressed people have a negative interpretation of life events. This eventually led him to assume
that how you feel is related to the way you perceive your experiences.

Cognitive therapy suggests that psychological distress is caused by distorted thoughts about stimuli that
trigger emotional suffering.

Cognitive Therapy
In CT, systematic errors in reasoning that lead to faulty assumptions and misconceptions are called
cognitive distortions. Let's examine this in the following example.

Imagine you do not receive a promotion you put in for at work. You may believe that you were passed
over for the promotion because you are seen as incompetent. This may make you less likely to seek
future promotion opportunities and could even lead to depression.

The cognitive distortion is your belief that you are incompetent. Let's examine the difference if you
replace this belief with a more functional one.
If you believe that you did not receive the promotion because you were up against very strong
competition, you may have a more manageable reaction. You feel disappointed but not depressed, and
are likely to continue seeking a promotion in the future.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)

Donald Meichenbaum is a psychologist noted for his contributions to CBT. He developed a therapeutic
technique called cognitive behavior modification (CBM). CBM focuses on identifying negative self-
talk in order to change unwanted behaviors.

Cognitive behavior modification was developed by merging behavior therapy with cognitive therapy. It
emphasizes the interrelated connections between thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

For example, let's say you have to attend a meeting at work tomorrow. You're anxious about it and
fearful that you will have a panic attack at the meeting. You tell yourself, 'What if I have a panic attack
and have to leave the meeting. I would be so embarrassed.' You call in sick to work the next day to
avoid the meeting.

If you are able to change these thoughts, you will be able to attend the work meeting instead of
avoiding it. Changing these thoughts and resulting behaviors using CBM is a three-phase process.

Phase 1: Self-Observation

This phase involves listening closely to your internal dialogue (self-talk) and observing your own
behaviors.

Phase 2: Begin New Self-Talk

Once you recognize your negative self-talk, you can begin to change it. You learn to 'catch' yourself in
negative thought patterns and then you recreate a new and positive internal dialogue. 'I can't' becomes
'It may be difficult, but I can.'

Phase 3: Learning New Skills

New behaviors will eventually emerge as you identify negative thoughts, change them, and alter your
response.

When your negative thoughts control you, it is difficult to control your behavioral responses to an
unpleasant situation. Cognitive behavior modification's goal is to give you back this lost control. As
your thoughts change from negative to positive, you start to behave differently. In turn, you find that
people react differently to you and have a more positive outlook.