Turga, Jedy Ara P.

June 28, 2018

BPE 1A
Psychology Defined
William James

Psychology is the description and explanation . . .

that is,
the study of the causes, conditions, and
immediate consequences
so far as these can be ascertained,

of states of consciousness . . .

such as sensations, desires, emotions,

cognitions, reasonings, decision, volitons,
and the like.

in human beings.

Psychology is to be treated as a natural science.

As do all natural sciences, psychology assumes that a world of matter [a material world] exists
altogether independently of the perceiving mind.

In addition, psychology assumes additional data peculiarly as her own.

These data are:

1. thoughts and feelings [transitory states of consciousness]

2. knowledge, gained by way of thoughts and feelings, of other things [these "things" may
be material objects and events or other states of mind of oneself or of other people in the
present or at other times; i.e.,
o knowing a thing [procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge],
o knowing a fact [declarative knowledge],
o knowing oneself [self-reflection? intrapersonal intelligence?],
o knowing another's feelings or intentions [particularity? intersubjectivity]

Because psychology is a natural science, it aims to acquire "a provisional body of prpositions
[facts and laws] about states of mind [thoughts, feelings, and knowledge] and about the
cognitions which they [these states of mind] enjoy."

At "the proper time" these provisions "will work in with the larger truth [that Philosophy will
provide] and be interpreted by [the larger truth]..."
Moreover, mental facts cannot be properly studied apart from the physical environment of
which they take cognizance. [i.e., thoughts, feelings, and knowledge can only be understood
within a social-cultural context -- see Vygotsky, Bandura]

 These mental facts are adapted in advance to the features of the world in which we
dwell. The purpose of consciousness is to assist individuals to adapt to their
environment. The purpose of this adaptation is to secure the individuals' welfare . . . that
is, their safety and prosperity [functionalism].
 When any phenomenon is important for our welfare, it interests and excites us the first
time we come into its presence [consistent with Piagetian notions of equilibration,
adaptation, and organization; individual as active agent; flow?].
 These mental facts [order of consciousness] have a special interaction with the outer
world [mind and cosmos homeostasis -- harmony or mutual fit of individual and world;
consistent with Darwinian conceptions of evolutionary theory; ontogeny/phylogeny].

Mental life is primarily teleological [teleology is the view that natural processes are not
determined by mechanisms but rather by their utility in an overall natural design; basis
of functionalistview].

 Our ways of thinking, feeling, and knowing have grown to be what they are because of
their utility in shaping our reactions on the outer world [consistent with Darwinian
evolutionary theory; foundation for functionalism in American psychology].
 Consequently, individuals think, feel, and know [their mental life] in ways that promote
behaviors that enhance self-preservation [adaptation--survival of the species].

All states of mind are motor in their consequences.

 All mental states [thinking, feeling, and knowing] are followed by bodily activity of some
sort [which may include changes in breathing, circulation, general muscular tension, and
glandular or other visceral activity; this passage is often, mistakenly, used to support the
contention that James's views were essentially behaviorist].

The immediate condition of a state of consciousness is an activity of some sort in the cerebral
hemispheres [physiological basis for behavior--mind as function (effect) of brain (cause)].

 Mind as function of brain is the working hypothesis of Jamesian psychology, i.e., all
human cognition and behavior is the result of physiological processes [although James
suggests that this may be a "sweeping statement of what in reality is only a partial
truth"].
 The uniform correlation of brain-states with mind-states is a law of nature.
 The coming to pass of thought is a consequence of mechanical laws, for, according to a
working hypothesis of physiology, the laws of brain-action are at bottom mechanical
laws.
 It will doubtless take several generations of psychologists to test the hypothesis of
dependence with anything like minuteness. [the time may be here--genetic research. "We
 are slowly coming to realize that heredity and environment are each much more
important than we ever thought they were" - Howard Gardner].

The study of psychology may be divided into three fundamental conscious process and their
conditions, i.e., the states of consciousness [thinking, feeling, knowing] in correlation with their
probable neural conditions].

1. Sensation - anatomically, the fibres which carry currents [affect].

2. Cerebration or Intellection - the organs of central redirection of them [cognition].
3. Tendency to Action - the fibres which carry them out [motor].

https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/psy.html

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis
Saul McLeod, published 2007, updated 2014

Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that people could be
cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight.
The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e., make the
unconscious conscious. It is only having a cathartic (i.e., healing) experience can the person be helped
and "cured."

Psychoanalysis Assumptions

 Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind.

 Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances.
 Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma.
 Treatment focuses on bringing the repressed conflict to consciousness, where the client can
deal with it.
How can we understand the unconscious mind?
Remember, psychoanalysis is a therapy as well as a theory. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat
depression and anxiety disorders.
In psychoanalysis (therapy) Freud would have a patient lie on a couch to relax, and he would sit
behind them taking notes while they told him about their dreams and childhood
memories. Psychoanalysis would be a lengthy process, involving many sessions with the
psychoanalyst.
Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the deterministic forces operating
in the unconscious, psychoanalysis in its classic form is a lengthy process often involving 2 to 5
sessions per week for several years.
This approach assumes that the reduction of symptoms alone is relatively inconsequential as if the
underlying conflict is not resolved, more neurotic symptoms will simply be substituted. The analyst
typically is a 'blank screen,' disclosing very little about themselves in order that the client can use the
space in the relationship to work on their unconscious without interference from outside.
The psychoanalyst uses various techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into
their behavior and the meanings of symptoms, including ink blots, parapraxes, free association,
interpretation (including dream analysis), resistance analysis and transference analysis.

1) Rorschach ink blots

Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the deterministic forces operating
in the unconscious,
The ink blot itself doesn't mean anything, it's ambiguous (i.e., unclear). It is what you read into it that
is important. Different people will see different things depending on what unconscious connections
they make.
The ink blot is known as a projective test as the patient 'projects' information from their unconscious
mind to interpret the ink blot.
However, behavioral psychologists such as B.F. Skinner have criticized this method as being
subjective and unscientific.
Click here to analyze your unconscious mind using ink blots.

2) Freudian Slip

Unconscious thoughts and feelings can transfer to the conscious mind in the form of parapraxes,
popularly known as Freudian slips or slips of the tongue. We reveal what is really on our mind by
saying something we didn't mean to.
For example, a nutritionist giving a lecture intended to say we should always demand the best in
bread, but instead said bed. Another example is where a person may call a friend's new partner by the
name of a previous one, whom we liked better.
Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight into the unconscious mind and that there
were no accidents, every behavior (including slips of the tongue) was significant (i.e., all behavior is
determined).

https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychoanalysis.html

Vygotsky’s Theory (VT) of Cognitive Development: Sociocultural Orientation

By: Caitlin Beddows, Posted on: April 11, 2016

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development is recognized as one of the most innovative

psychological theories of the twentieth century. The theory is based on the assumption that culture
plays a major role in cognitive development. Each period in child development is associated with a
leading activity dominant in a given period. A considerable emphasis is placed on emergent cognitive
functions conceptualized through the notion of the zone of proximal development. Instruction and
learning are perceived as leading child’s cognitive development rather than following it.

Vygotsky’s theory (VT) of cognitive development: Sociocultural Orientation

The distinctive feature of VT is its emphasis on culture as the most important factor of cognitive
development. Though Vygotsky readily admitted that some basic cognitive processes can be shared
by humans and higher animals, he explicitly and deliberately focused his own theory on those
cognitive processes that are uniquely human. He called them ‘higher mental processes’ and associated
their development with the involvement of cultural tools in the shaping of human cognition. Culture
in VT is not an external envelope or ethnographically specific appearance of human behavior and
thinking; culture according to VT is the force that shapes all higher mental processes, such as
perception, attention, memory, and problem solving. In the absence of more appropriate terms, we
still use the same verbal labels for both basic cognitive processes and culturally shaped higher mental
processes though these two groups of processes are very different in their origin, development, and
capacity.

Taken as a whole, the VT posed three major objectives for a study of human psychology:
reconstruction of the transition from an animal to a human way of thinking and behaving;
investigation of the historical change occurring in human mental functions as a result of the
introduction of new cultural tools and sociocultural activities; and investigation of the developmental
construction of children’s and adults’ psychological functions in a given society (Vygotsky and Luria,
1930/1993).
Regarding the first objective, Vygotsky relied mainly on the comparison of human behavior and the
behavior of apes as reported by other researchers, such as Wolfgang Kohler (see Vygotsky,
1934/2012: pp. 73–85). Vygotsky suggested that nonhuman primates have both some intellectual
problem-solving skills and communicative abilities, but that in the apes these two domains remain
dissociated. Communicative abilities do not impact on problem solving, while problem solving does
not shape interpersonal interaction. In a human child, intensive interaction between these two
domains takes place during the second year of life. As a result, speech becomes intellectual, while
problem solving acquires the quality of verbal intelligence. Thus, the transition from animal to human
cognition was envisaged by Vygotsky as a change in the interaction between different cognitive
functions. Vygotsky and his colleagues, however, had no opportunity to investigate this hypothesis in
actual studies with nonhuman primates. The development of Vygotsky’s line of reasoning can,
however, be identified in the work of Tomasello (1999) and his colleagues. First Tomasello (1999: p.
48) reasserts the main thesis of VT regarding the cultural origin of human higher metal processes:
“Following Vygotsky and many other cultural psychologists, I contend that many of the most
interesting and important human cognitive achievements, such as language and mathematics, require
historical time and process for their realization – even if most cognitive scientists largely ignore these
historical processes.” He then proceeds to show that in a number of cognitive tasks such as spatial
memory, rotation of objects, and estimation of quantities, chimpanzees demonstrate performance
comparable to and sometimes exceeding that of two-and-a-half year old children. At the same time
children have an obvious advantage in the tasks related to gestural communication, observational
learning, and understanding of intentions. Tomasello (1999: p. 213) concludes his analysis by stating
that: “Language does not create new cognitive processes out of nothing, of course, but when children
interact with other persons intersubjectively and adopt their communicative conventions, this social
process creates a new form of cognitive representation – one that has no counterpart in other animal
species.”

Vygotsky should also be credited with posing an intriguing question regarding possible historical
changes in human cognition. Are cognitive functions of people in antiquity, Middle Ages, and the
eighteenth century the same as those of people in the twenty-first century? Do the historical changes
in cultural tools impact on our cognition? In the absence of a ‘time machine,’ Vygotsky and Luria
decided to rely on a ‘quasihistorical’ study of cognition in a traditional society that undergoes rapid
sociocultural change. Vygotsky and Luria thought that they had found such a historical ‘experiment’
in the Soviet Central Asia of the early 1930s. The unique sociocultural situation of this region in the
late 1920s and early 1930s was determined by a very rapid invasion of Soviet power into an
otherwise traditional and mostly nonliterate agricultural society. As a result, people belonging to the
same economic and sociocultural group, often even to the same extended family, found themselves
under very different sociocultural circumstances. Some of them, especially those in the remote
villages, retained all aspects of a traditional nonliterate culture and way of life. Others became
involved in new agricultural or industrial enterprises, exposed to the new technology and means of
communication, but still without access to systematic formal education. Some of the local people,
however, already attended adult literacy courses and even teachers’ colleges.

The main conclusions reached by Vygotsky and Luria on the basis of this study were that informants
who retain a traditional nonliterate culture and way of life tend to solve problems by using functional
reasoning reflecting their everyday life practical experience and reject the possibility of looking at
classification, generalization, or drawing conclusions from another; for example, more abstractive
 point of view. Exposure to modern technology and involvement in jobs based on division of labor
tend to increase the subjects’ readiness to solve problems both in functional and in verbal–logical
ways. It was observed, however, that informants who did not experience formal education rather
easily reverted to purely functional reasoning. At the same time, informants who received some form
of formal education demonstrated a clear preference for the verbal-logical form of problem solving.

Though the goal of Vygotsky and Luria was to investigate the ‘historical’ change in human cognition,
their Central Asia research is usually interpreted as one of the first cross-cultural studies of cognitive
processes. With the wisdom of hindsight, one can distinguish a number of questions that remained
unanswered in this initial research. Vygotsky and Luria seem to have grouped together different
sociocultural factors such as the acquisition of literacy, formal classroom learning, exposure to
modern technology, and participation in labor activities based on the formal division of labor. Each of
these factors seems, however, to have a different impact on the construction of cognitive functions
and should be investigated separately.

The Central Asia study later inspired the Scribner and Cole (1981) research in Western Africa that
demonstrated that literacy and schooling may have a differential cognitive impact. By conducting
their research in an African society where literacy in three different languages was associated with
different acquisition and application contexts (school, home, and religious institution), Scribner and
Cole showed that literacy does not have an overall impact on problem solving but affects specific
cognitive functions corresponding to each one of the contexts. Formal education on the other hand
has an impact on problem solving in the tasks that resemble those used in school. The emergence of
cognitive functions was thus linked to more specific sociocultural contexts and activities. More recent
studies conducted in Central American Mayan villages were able to identify the transition from
subsistence and agriculture to wage economy and commerce as the main factor leading children from
more concrete to more abstractive cognitive representations. At the same time, in more complex tasks
that required selecting a strategy for continuation of the model pattern, schooling proved to have the
strongest relationship with the choice of a more abstractive and less imitative strategy, with the
involvement in the ‘new’ economy coming second.

Click here to read more about Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development and understand the five
major aspects of VT together with their educational applications: the sociocultural orientation of VT,
the concept of mediation, periods of child development, the relationships between language and
thought, and the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

This excerpt was taken from the article Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development by Alex
Kozulin from the Major Reference Work, International Encyclopedia of the Social and behavioral
Sciences, Second Edition. The Encyclopedia is a transdisciplinary and authoratitative resource
covering the broad fields of Social and Behavioral Sciences.

http://scitechconnect.elsevier.com/vygotsky-cognitive-development/