Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MEASUREMENT
HIMANSHU K. PATEL
Associate Professor (IC)
NIRMA UNIVERSITY
hkpatel@nirmauni.ac.in
Have you
ever
faced this
situation?
2#
What is Temperature??
A scalar quantity that determines the
direction of heat flow between two bodies
Definition:
Degree of Hotness or Coldness of a body
measured on a definite scale.
A statistical measurement
A difficult measurement
A mostly empirical measurement
3#
Temperature Scales
°C – Degrees Celsius (or Centigrade)
°F – Degrees Fahrenheit
K – Kelvin
R – Rankine
°C = (°F - 32)/1.8
°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32
K = °C + 273.15
R = °F + 459.67
4#
Temperature Measurement :
Sensors & Instruments
Thermocouple (T/C)
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Thermistor
Bi-metallic Thermometers
Filled Thermal Systems
Pyrometers
5#
Thermocouples (TC’s)
Basic Theory
• In 1821 a German physicist named Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric
effect which forms the basis of modern thermocouple technology. He
observed that an electric current flows in a closed circuit of two dissimilar
metals if their two junctions are at different temperatures.
• The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on
the temperature relationship between the junctions.
• If the same temperature exists at the two junctions, the voltage produced
at each junction cancel each other out and no current flows in the circuit.
• With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are
produced and current flows in the circuit.
• A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences
between the two junctions, a fact which dictates how a practical
thermocouple can be utilized.
Iron (Fe)
100ºC 0ºC
Constantan (Cu-Ni)
Thermocouple Circuit
6#
Thermocouples (TC’s)
100ºC 20ºC 0 10
mV
Copper (Cu)
Constantan (CuNi)
Hot Junction:
In Process
Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0ºC using ice
or refrigeration unit).
7#
Thermocouples (TC’s)
Standard Thermocouple Alloy Conductor Combinations
CODE CONDUCTOR COMBINATION TYPICAL OPERATING
RANGE ºF
B Platinum-30% Rhodium / Platinum-6% Rhodium +2500 to +3100
C Tungsten-5% Rhenium / Tungsten-26% Rhenium +3000 to +4200
D Tungsten-3% Rhenium / Tungsten-25% Rhenium +2800 to +3800
E Nickel Chromium / Constantan 0 to +1650
J Iron / Constantan +0 to +1400
K Nickel Chromium / Nickel Aluminium 0 to +2300
N Nickel-Chromium-Silicon / Nickel-Silicon- 1200 to +2300
Magnesium
R Platinum-13% Rhodium / Platinum 1600 to +2600
S Platinum-10% Rhodium / Platinum 1800 to +2600
T Copper / Constantan -300 to +650
8#
Thermocouples (TC’s)
A graph of
temperature
vs. voltage
shows
thermocouple
characteristics
are not
perfectly
linear.
9#
Thermocouple Resolution
Response time
comparison
among the
different
thermocouple
tip types.
13
#
RTDs
RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) operate under
the principle that the electrical resistance of certain
metals increases and decreases in a repeatable and
predictable manner with a temperature change.
14
#
RTD Elements
Wire Wound Element
Precise lengths of wire are wrapped
around a ceramic mandrel, then
inserted inside a ceramic shell which
acts to support and protect the wire
windings.
15
#
RTD Lead Wire Configurations
2-wire: Should only be used
with very short runs of lead-
wire. No compensation for
lead-wire resistance.
R
R
AMMETER
RTD
R
3
17
#
RTDs
• The most common material is Platinum.
• PT100 - It’s resistance is 100 Ω at 0°Celsius.
– Hence the term “PT100”
• It’s resistance is 138.5 Ω at 100°Celsius.
– Hence the Fundamental Interval of
38.5 Ω
– Or 0.385 Ω per 1°Celsius Rise in
Temperature.
• There are other materials available for more
unusual temperature ranges such as
Germanium (e.g.10 to 100 Kelvin).
18
#
RTD Vs. Thermocouple
Temperature Sensor Selection Guide
RTD Thermocouple
19
#
RTD Vs. T/C Accuracy
RTD Thermocouple Type J & K
Temp.°C Grade B Grade A Standard Premium
-200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C
-100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C
0 ±0.25°C ±0.13°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
300 ±1.50°C ±0.64°C ±2.3°C ±1.2°C
400 ±1.90°C ±0.81°C ±3.0°C ±1.6°C
500 ±2.40°C ±0.98°C ±3.8°C ±2.0°C
20
#
Temperature Element Assembly
21
#
Thermowells
Straight Shank
Plug
Step Shank
Tapered Shank
Plug
with
Chain
Threaded Weld-in
Accessories 22
#
Thermowells
Insertion Length
Lagging
Extension
23
#
Thermowell Installation
PIP Flanged
Thermowell
Installation
Requirements
24
Perpendicular Pipe Installation Elbow Installation #
Thermowell Design & Material
Process temperature
Environment / Process media
Fluid or gas pressure
Pipe or vessel size
Flow velocity
25
#
Wake Frequency
Thermowells must be carefully
selected for processes where
significant velocity is present.
By penetrating the process flow, the
thermowell is subject to the stress and
friction of the flow. This may set up a
natural vibration that may result in the
shearing off of the thermowell into the
process. This is called the “Wake
Frequency”.
Vortices
Resonance
Condition
fWake
Side View
Wake
fWake = fNatural
Frequency
(fWake) fNatural
Thermowell Calculations
1) Ensure that: fWake
fNatural < 0.8
27
#
Other TW Failure Modes:
Process-Induced Bending Stress
Velocity
Density
Diameter FDrag FDrag Flow
Area
Length
28
#
Thermowell Insertion
Modification
SHORTENED
TYPICAL THERMOWELL STEPPED THERMOWELL
THERMOWELL
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION
29
#
Transmitters
Signal Conditioner
Low level inputs
mV from thermocouples
from RTD’s
High level outputs
4-20 mA current
Digital (i.e. Fieldbus)
30
#
Thermistors
• Thermistors are temperature sensing devices that are similar
to RTD’s in that their resistance changes as temperature
changes.
• The major difference is that for most thermistors the
resistance decreases as temperature increases.
• Thermistors are an inexpensive alternative to RTD’s when
temperature ranges are below 150°C. Thermistors can be
used from temperatures of –80°C to 300°C.
• Most thermistors have base resistances, which are much
higher than RTD’s.
• One of the greatest advantages of using a thermistor sensor
is the large change in resistance to a relatively small change
in temperature. This makes them very sensitive to small
changes in temperature. 31
#
I.C. Sensor
I= 1 uA/K
+ High output
5V - 100 d Very linear
Accurate @
V = 1mV/K
room ambient
960d
Limited range
Cheap
The Basic 4 Temperature Sensors
Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.
34
#
Filled Thermal Systems
35
#
References
36
#
Any Questions???
37
#
THANK YOU
&
HAVE A NICE DAY!
38
#