9/7/2017

Principles of Wireless
Communications

Prepared by: Dr. Roz Wyatt-Millington

Edited by: FT Fam

ENG3026M Outline
 Introduction to Mobile Systems
 Principles of Wireless Communications
 Mobile Comm Systems: Principles
 Mobile Comm Systems: GSM and GPRS
 Mobile Comm Systems: 3G – UMTS
 Wireless Networks: MAN, LAN & PAN
 Satcom: Satellite Orbits
 Satcom: Propagation Characteristics

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Overview of Lecture
• Frequency:
• General bands
• Allocation to systems

• Signal Propagation:
• Ranges
• Multipath

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Basic schemes
• Hybrid schemes

• Modulation:
• Analogue
• Digital

Frequency Allocation USA: 1KHz – 300GHz

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Frequency Spectrum Auction

 This is a process, a government uses to sell the rights
(licenses) to transmit signals over specific bands of the
EM spectrum.
 Canada:
 Feb 2014, add. spectrum in 700 MHz and 2500 MHz bands
were auctioned to 4 major players for over $5.3 billion
 Germany:
 Aug 2000, 12 freq blocks of UMTS (3G) were auctioned at
EUR 50.8 billion
 Sweden:
 May 2008, a total bandwidth of 190MHz in the 2.6GHz
band for 4G services was auctioned at USD264 million
 UK:
 In 2000, OFCOM raised £22.5 billion for a 3G radio
spectrum

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Frequency Bands:
Europe
UHF Band SHF Band
300MHz – 3GHz 3GHz – 30GHz

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Frequency Bands:
Usage
Frequency Range Example Usage

300Hz – 3000Hz Submarine communications, analog telephony

300kHz to 3MHz AM Radio

3 to 30MHz Amateur Radio, international broadcasting (BBC, VoA)

30 to 300MHz VHF television, FM Radio

300 to 3000MHz UHF television, mobile telephony, wireless local area

(UHF) networks, WPAN, mobile satellite communications
3 to 30GHz Satellite communications, radar, wireless local loop,
(SHF) WLAN
30 to 300GHz Experimental; WLL

300GHz to 400THz Infrared LAN, consumer electronics

Frequency Bands:
Mobile Communications in Europe
Frequency Range System

453 – 457 MHz NMT and GSM400

463 – 467 MHz
890 – 915 MHz & 935 – 970 MHz GSM900
1710 – 1785 MHz & 1805 – 1880 MHz GSM1800 (DCS)
1920 – 1980 MHz & 2110 – 2190 MHz UMTS (FDD)
1900 – 1920 MHz, 2020 – 2025 MHz UMTS (TDD)
885 – 887 MHz, 930 – 932 MHz CT1+ (cordless telephony)
864 – 868 MHz CT2
1880 – 1900 MHz DECT (digital cordless telephony)

2400 – 2483 MHz IEEE 802.11b/g and Bluetooth

5150 – 5350 MHz, 5470 – 5725 MHz IEEE 802.11a and HiperLAN2

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Frequency Bands – Satellite

Communications
ITU bands designation

Microwave Frequency Designation

Band Freq (GHz) Application
L 1–2 GPS: 1.575GHz
S 2–4 WiFi: 2.4GHz
C 4–8
X 8 – 12
Ku 12 – 18 ASTRO: 12.75GHz
K 18 – 27
Ka 27 – 40

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Frequency Bands
Directed Reading
 Mobile frequencies allocation in Malaysia:
http://www.gsmarena.com/network-
bands.php3?sCountry=MALAYSIA

 What are the frequency bands used in Malaysia for?

 2G GSM: 900MHz, 1800MHz
 3G UMTS: 2100MHz, 900MHz
 4G LTE: 1800MHz, 2600MHz, 850MHz

Underlined frequencies are same as Europe

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Frequency Bands
 World mobile frequency allocation:
http://www.worldtimezone.com/gsm.html

 Malaysia Frequency Spectrum Allocation Plan

https://www.mcmc.gov.my/skmmgovmy/media/General/
pdf/Spectrum-Plan-2017i.pdf

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Frequency Bands
Malaysia Frequency Spectrum Allocation Plan
Section 5.3.4 Cellular Mobile Services
(Base Rx) Uplink (Base Tx) Downlink
GSM
880 - 915MHz 925 - 960MHz
(Channel BW=200KHz)
1710 - 1785MHz 1805 - 1880MHz
825 - 835MHz 870 - 880MHz
880 - 915MHz 925 - 960MHz
1710 - 1785MHz 1805 - 1880MHz
1920 - 1980MHz 2110 - 2170MHz
IMT 1980 - 2010MHz 2170 - 2200MHz
(Channel BW=flexible)
2500 - 2570MHz 2620 - 2690MHz
TDD (Time Division Duplex)
1885 - 1920MHz
2010 - 2025MHz
2570 - 2620MHz
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Overview of Lecture
• Frequency:
• General bands
• Allocation to systems

• Signal Propagation:
• Ranges
• Multipath

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Basic schemes
• Hybrid schemes

• Modulation:
• Analogue
• Digital

Signal propagation
Received Power
• Propagation in free space is like light (straight line)
• If a straight line exists between a sender and a receiver, it is
called Line-Of-Sight (LOS).

• Free Space Path Loss, LS is defined by the expression

2
λ 2 𝑐
• 𝐿𝑆 = =
4π𝑑 4π𝑓𝑑
• d is distance between sender and receiver
• f is frequency of operation, λ is wavelength
• c is speed of light

• Received power (PR) in free space is

• PR = PTGTGRLS
• PT is transmit power
• GT, GR is Antenna Gain of transmitter & receiver

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Signal propagation
Received Power

http://www.shure.com/americas/support/find-an-answer/
range-of-a-wireless-microphone-system

Signal propagation
Received Power
• Received power (Pr) in free space at a specific
frequency is proportional to 1/d²
• 𝑃𝑅 ∝ 1Τ𝑑2 , 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
• d is the distance between sender and receiver

• In non free space environment, 𝑃𝑅 ∝ 1Τ𝑑𝑛

• n is the Path Loss Exponent
• Path Loss Model for various environments:

http://www.gaussianwaves.com/2013/09/log-distance-
path-loss-or-log-normal-shadowing-model/

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Signal propagation
Received Power
• Path Loss Model for various environments:

Signal propagation
Received Power

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Propagation Loss Models

 Radio propagation characterization in a terrain with
buildings, vehicles, trees and bushes is a complicated
process.

 System designers often perform practical measurements

in specified terrain locations in order to determine the
real base station coverage

 Such measurements are very expensive, so

measurements are limited to specific environments,
frequency, transmit and receive antenna heights.

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Propagation Loss Models

 Common propagation models:
 The LEE Model: proposed by W.C.Y. Lee with
measurement based on 900MHz in USA

 The OKUMURA Model: measurement done in TOKYO

at 150 – 1920MHz.

 The OKUMURA-HATA Model: proposed empherical

formulae for plots created by Okumura covering 150 –
1500MHz

 The COST231-Hata Model: an extension of Okumura

& Hata model covering 1.5GHz- 2GHz

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Propagation Loss Models

The HATA Model:
 Freq range: 150 – 1500MHz
 Base Station Ant. Height (Eff): 30 ≤ ℎ𝐵𝑆,𝑒𝑓𝑓 ≤ 200𝑚
 Urban Area (City)

𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 | 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛
= 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓 − 13.83log(ℎ𝐵𝑆,𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) − 𝑎 ℎ𝑀𝑆
+ 44.9 − 6.55 log ℎ𝐵𝑆,𝑒𝑓𝑓 log(𝑑)
 L50 is the median path loss
 f is frequency in MHz
 hBS,eff is the effective Base Station antenna height in meters
 d is the distance in km
 a(hMS) is the correction term for the height of mobile station

𝑎 ℎ𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝐵 = 8.29(𝑙𝑜𝑔1.54ℎ𝑀𝑆 )2 −1.1 … … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ≤ 400𝑀𝐻𝑧

𝑎 ℎ𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝐵 = 3.2(𝑙𝑜𝑔11.75ℎ𝑀𝑆 )2 −4.97 … … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ≥ 400𝑀𝐻𝑧
ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Propagation Loss Models

The HATA Model:
 Sub-Urban Area
2
𝑓
𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛 − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 5.4
28

 Open Area
2
𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛 − 4.78 log 𝑓 + 18.33 log 𝑓 − 40.94

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Propagation Loss Models

Worked Example
 A base station antenna installed at the height of 30m in a
metropolitan area radiates the signal at the carrier
frequency f = 1000 MHz

Using the HATA model, calculate the path loss at a

distance 10km away. The mobile station height is 3m and
using a half-wave dipole antenna.

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

Propagation Loss Models

Worked Solution
 Apply the formula for Urban Area

 𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 | 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛 = 69.55 + 26.16 log 1000 − 13.83log(30) − 𝑎 ℎ𝑀𝑆 +

44.9 − 6.55 log 30 log(10)

 𝑎 ℎ𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝐵 = 3.2(𝑙𝑜𝑔11.75 × 3)2 −4.97 = 2.69𝑑𝐵

 Thus 𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 | 𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛 = 69.55 + 78.48 − 20.43 − 2.69 + 35.22 =

160.13𝑑𝐵

HATA Model Calculator

ENG3026M Adv Mobile & Sat Comm – FT Fam Aug 2017

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Signal propagation
Received Power
• Received power additionally influenced by:
• Shadowing
• Reflection at large obstacles
• Refraction depending on the density of a medium
• Scattering at small obstacles
• Diffraction at edges
• Fading (frequency dependent)

Signal propagation
Received Power - Interference

shadowing

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Signal propagation
Received Power - Interference
6 Sep 2017:
Sun unleashes
strongest solar
flare in almost a
decade

Signal propagation
Received Power - Interference

 Solar Flares Can Disrupt

Communications

 Lightning/thunder strike
sets off multiple car
alarms!

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Signal propagation
Multipath Fading
• Signal can take many different paths between sender
and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

• Interfering with “neighbor” symbols
• Phenomenon is referred to as Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

• Signal is distorted depending on phases of the different parts

Signal propagation
Multipath Fading
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
 The effect of the original
signal being spread and
delayed (at the receiver) by
going through different
paths is called delay spread.

 Short impulse will be

smeared out into a
broader impulse.

 The energy intended for

one symbol now spills over
to the adjacent symbol.

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Signal propagation
Multipath Fading
To work around the effects multipath fading:
 Guard time and training bits are built into the frame
structure
 Eg. GSM Frame Structure

Signal propagation
Multipath Fading
 Guard time in TDMA creates a buffer zone which allows
for lagging in timing due to multipath propagation delays.
 GSM can tolerate up to 16μs of delay spread, i.e.,
almost a 5 km path difference.
 Typical values for delay spread are approximately 3μs
in cities, up to 12μs can be observed.

 Training bits are used to characterize the propagation

channel medium.
 Training bits sequence is sent by the transmitter.
 The receiver compares with the intended training
sequence.
 An equalization algorithm will be program to
compensate for the distortion.

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Signal propagation
Effects of mobility
• Channel characteristics change over time and location
• signal paths change
• different delay variations of different signal parts
• different phases of signal parts long term
power fading

• Quick changes in the power

received
• short term fading
• due to obstructions of nearby
localized objects
t
short term fading
• Slow changes in the average power received
• long term fading
• due to obstructions of more distance large objects
• sometimes called “shadowing”

Signal propagation
Diversity Reception
• The influence of fading may be minimized by
introduction diversity in the reception and transmission.

• Types of diversity reception methods

• Space Diversity
• Frequency Diversity
• Time Diversity
• Path Diversity
• Polarization Diversity

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Signal propagation
Diversity Reception
• Space Diversity

Signal propagation
Diversity Reception
• Frequency Diversity
• transmitting the same signal on at least two sufficiently
separated carrier frequencies
• Example: FM Radio broadcast

• Path Diversity
• the receiver is able to resolve the received signal
components arriving at it along different channel paths
• Example: RAKE Receivers

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Signal propagation
Diversity Reception
• Time Diversity
• transmitting the same signal several times in sufficiently
separated intervals
• Examples:
• Sending the same symbols several times
• ARQ: Automatic Repeat reQuest

• Polarization Diversity
• the same signal is transmitted and received in two
orthogonal polarizations.
• Example: Horizontal, Vertical, Cross, Circular
Polarizations

Overview of Lecture
• Frequency:
• General bands
• Allocation to systems

• Signal Propagation:
• Ranges
• Multipath

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Basic schemes
• Hybrid schemes

• Modulation:
• Analogue
• Digital

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Multiple Access
Overview
• Allows many users to share network resources
(capacity) efficiency.

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Space division multiple access (SDMA):
• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA)

Multiple Access
OFDMA
SCTE Tech Tip (Video): Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)

Technique:
Many orthogonal sub-carriers signals, closely spaced, that is generated using
one transmitter.

Advantages:
• Spectrum efficient
• high data rate
• improved immunity to
interference and fading.

Disadvantages:
• High RF PA peak to average power ratio
• Sensitive to carrier offset and drift

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Multiple Access
SDMA
• Resources shared according to
cells/sectors

• Circles represent coverage

range.

• Channels k1 to k3 mapped to
‘spaces’ s1 to s3.

• Guard space between ranges.

• Used for cell sites planning

Multiple Access
FDMA
• Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller
frequency bands.

• A channel gets a certain

band of the spectrum
for the whole time.

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Multiple Access
FDMA
• Advantages:
• Easy assignment of user channels.
• Scheme is very well established & robust

• Disadvantages:
• Inefficient bandwidth use if the traffic is distributed
unevenly.
• Inflexible assignment of frequency channels
• Frequencies are valuable resource
• Significant guard space required

Multiple Access
TDMA
• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain
amount of time.
– Divides time domain into a series of time slots – a
user is assigned a slot.
– Number of slots make up
TDMA frame.

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Multiple Access
TDMA
• Advantages:
• Significant cost saving in radio transceivers and
antenna.
• Requires only one carrier in the medium at any time.
• Flexible assignment of user channels.
• Throughput high even for many users.
• Disadvantages:
• Precise synchronization necessary.
• Power and bandwidth need to be increased,
compared to continuous access (such as FDMA
access).
• This is due to the TDMA time slot burst condition

Hybrid Access Schemes

• Schemes that combine two or more techniques.

• Commonly FDMA with either CDMA or TDMA.

• Example
• FDM/TDMA in GSM.
• Spectrum is divided into RF channels.
• Each frame within a channel contains 8 timeslots.

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Hybrid access scheme

FDM/TDMA
• Combination of both
methods.

• A channel gets a
certain frequency
band for a certain
amount of time.

Hybrid access scheme

FDM/TDMA
• Advantages:
• better protection against tapping
• protection against frequency selective interference
• higher data rates compared to code multiplex

• Disadvantage
• precise coordination required

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Multiple Access
CDMA
• Each channel has a
unique code:
– Applied to each user’s transmission
to distinguish between users with
the use of pseudo random codes
(PN-sequence).
– Only known at transmitter and
receiver.
• All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
• Implemented using spread
spectrum technology

Multiple Access
CDMA
• Advantages:
• Minimum cell planning
• No coordination and synchronization necessary
• Enables Soft handover
• Bandwidth efficient
• Good protection against interference and tapping

• Disadvantages:
• lower user data rates due to high overheads
• more complex signal regeneration and receiver
• Complex power control for users

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Multiple Access
CDMA

WiFi Analyser at
Google Play
https://play.google.co
m/store/apps/details?i
d=com.farproc.wifi.an
alyzer&hl=en

Multiple Access
Application
 SDMA:
 Base Station Cell Sites Planning

 FDMA:
 1st Generation cellphone: AMPS, NMT
 AM/FM broadcast radio stations
 Two-way radio

 TDMA:
 2nd Generation cellphone: GSM (hybrid TDMA/FDMA)
 Digital Cordless Telephones
 Telephone lines PSTN, ISDN

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Multiple Access
Application
 CDMA:
 3rd Generation cellphone: UMTS
 Satellite communications and broadcast, GPS,
 Wireless LAN

 OFDMA
 4th Generation cellphone: LTE
 Wireless LAN, WiMax

 Multiple Access: FDMA/TDMA/CDMA/OFDMA (Video):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oYRMYSIVj1o

Comparison
SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
SDMA FDMA TDMA CDMA
Idea Separate user Separate user Separate user Separate user
channels into channels into channels into channels into
cells or sectors frequency bands time slots orthogonal codes

Terminals Only one terminal Terminals are Terminals are Terminals are assigned at
(base station) can assigned its assigned for a any frequency,
be active in own frequency period of time at any time
one cell or sector at any time on same frequency

Advantages -Simple partitioning -Easy assignment -Improve cost on -Minimum cell planning.
-Increased capacity of user channels. radio hardware. - Bandwidth efficient
with more cells/km2 -Scheme is very well -Flexible assignment - Robust & secure
established & robust of channels.
- High throughput

Disadvantages -Structures are fixed - Inefficient BW use. -Time synchronization -Complex receivers
and very inflexible -Inflexible assignment is critical -Complex power control
to changes of frequency channels - Power & bandwidth - Lower user data rate
-Significant guard space higher FDMA
required.

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Overview of Lecture
• Frequency:
• General bands
• Allocation to systems

• Signal Propagation:
• Ranges
• Multipath

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Basic schemes
• Hybrid schemes

• Modulation:
• Analogue
• Digital

Modulation

• Motivation
• Higher carrier frequency, smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)
• Enables Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Take advantage of medium characteristics for
propagation
• Higher frequency is able to penetrate walls, structures,
obstacles

• Basic schemes
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)

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Modulation

• Analog modulation
• shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the
radio carrier

• 𝐴𝑀 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
• 𝑣𝐴𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝒎𝑠𝑖𝑛2π𝑓𝑚 𝑡 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛2π𝑓𝑐 𝑡

• 𝐹𝑀 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
• 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝒎𝒇 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑚 𝑡

Modulation

• Digital modulation
• Motivation for Digital Comm
• Improved Noise Immunity
• Mathematical algorithms can be easily applied to digital
data (DSP)
• The ability to process the signals at transmitter (pre-
processing) and receiver (post-processing)
• Signals in digital format can be stored in computers

• Digital modulation provides better spectral efficiency,

power efficiency and robustness.

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Modulation: Spectral Efficiency

Modulation
• Digital data is initially translated into an analog signal
(baseband) prior to transmission

radio

transmitter

radio receiver

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Digital modulation
Basics
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): 1 0 1

• very simple
• low bandwidth requirements
• very susceptible to interference

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

• needs larger bandwidth

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

• more complex
• robust against interference

Digital modulation
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
• MSK is BFSK without abrupt phase changes
• It belongs to CPM (Continuous Phase Modulation) schemes
• Equivalent to Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

• Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance

between the carrier frequencies

• Special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts

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Digital modulation
Example of MSK

• Bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled.
• Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency,
original or inverted is chosen.

Digital modulation
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
• Even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian
low-pass filter

• GMSK (Gaussian MSK),

used in GSM, DECT
phones, Telephone line
modem

Scheme used in GSM

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Digital modulation
Phase Shift Keying
• BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
• bit value 0: sine wave
• bit value 1: inverted sine wave
• very simple PSK
• low spectral efficiency
• robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

Digital modulation
Phase Shift Keying
• QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
• 2 bits coded as one symbol 10 Q 11
• symbol determines shift
of sine wave
• needs less bandwidth
compared to BPSK
• more complex
A

• higher bit rates can be

achieved for the same
bandwidth (as BPSK)
by coding two bits into
11 10 00 01
one phase shift.

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Digital modulation
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
• DQPSK – Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
• Often also transmission of relative, not absolute phase shift
• The phase shift is relative to the phase of the previous two
bits.
• the receiver does not need the reference signal but only
compares two signals to reconstruct data.
• DQPSK is used in US wireless technologies IS-136, PACS
and Japanese PHS.

• DQPSK avoids
zero power crossing,
hence reducing the
RF PA dynamic range
and linearity. This result
in smaller device

Digital modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation :
• combines amplitude and phase modulation
• It is possible to code n bits using one symbol.
• 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK.
• Bit error rate (BER) increases with n, but less
errors compared to comparable PSK schemes.

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Digital modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
– Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the

same phase φ, but different

amplitudes.
– Symbols 0000 and 1000 have

different phase, but same

amplitude.

• Used in standard 9600 bit/s

modems

Digital modulation
Application
 Cellphones:
 AMPS (1G phone): Analog FM
 GSM (2G phone) : GMSK
 UMTS (3G phone): BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK, 16QAM
 LTE (4G phone) : QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM

 Wireless LAN
 802.11a/g: BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM
 802.11b: CCK (Complementary Code Keying)
 802.11ac: BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, 256QAM

 Others
 Bluetooth: GFSK

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Mobile Comm: Comparisons

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