Power Plant Familiarisation V III+ Allfreesharez

STEAM TURBINES FOR POWER GENERATION
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M V Pande
M.Tech.(HPE),DBM
Dy.Director, NPTI(WR)
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NAGPUR.
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NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE

( A Govt. of India Organisation, Under the Ministry of Power )
FARIDABAD-121 003
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page No.
Chapter 1 Steam Turbine Theory 1 – 17
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Evolution of Steam Turbine 1
1.3 Energy Conversion in Steam Turbine 3
1.4 Impulse & Reaction Principle 4
1.5 Blade Efficiency & Internal Losses in Turbine 11
1.6 Stage Efficiency 15
1.7 Cylinder Efficiency 15
Chapter 2 Steam Cycle Theory 18 – 37
2.1 Modern Steam Cycle 18
2.2 Rankine Cycle Development 19
2.3 Modified Rankine Cycle 21
2.4 Turbine Efficiency 26
2.5 Turbine Heat Rate 28
2.6 Effect of Steam Conditions 30
Chapter 3 General Design & Constructional Features of Turbine 38 – 87
3.1 Machine Size 38
3.2 Direction of Steam Flow 38
3.3 Cylinder Arrangement 41
3.4 Turbine Foundation 46
3.5 Turbine Construction 47
3.6 Rotor Testing & Balancing 80
3.7 Turbine Lagging (Insulation) 81
3.8 Turbine Materials 81
Chapter 4 Overview of KWU Steam Turbine 88 – 101
4.1 General Description 88
4.2 Turbine Systems Overview 98
4.3 Turbine Anchoring & Expansion 99
Chapter 5 KWU Steam Turbine Technical Data 102-107
5.1 Turbine Specification 102
5.2 Constructional Data 102
5.3 Speed Data 103
5.4 Steam Parameters 104
5.5 Limiting Values of Turbovisory Parameters 105
5.6 Materials for Turbine Components 105
5.7 Turbine Governing Specifications 106
5.8 Emergency Main Stop Valves, Strainers & Control Valves 106
5.9 Interceptor Valves, Strainers and Control Valves 106
5.10 Main Condenser 107
5.11 Limits of Casing Temperatures 107
5.12 Performance Parameters 107
Chapter 6 HP Turbine Construction 108 – 144
6.1 Design Features 108
6.2 Cylinder Supports & Guides 108
6.3 Internal Construction 108
6.4 Front Bearing Pedestal 119
6.5 Rear Bearing Pedestal 121
6.6 Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing 123
6.7 Journal Bearing 125
6.8 Assembly of HP Turbine 127
6.9 HPT Components Photographs 138
Chapter 7 IP Turbine Construction 145 – 177
7.2 Cylinder Supports & Guides 147
7.3 Construction 148
7.4 Assembly of IP Turbine 159
7.5 IP Turbine Photographs 172
Chapter 8 LP Turbine Construction 178 – 201
8.2 Construction 179
8.3 LP Turbine Assembly 192
8.4 Expansion Joints at the Shaft Seals 193
8.5 LP Turbine Components Photographs 197
Chapter 9 Turbine Steam System 202 – 216
9.1 Steam Circuit 202
9.2 Steam Admission & Exhaust System 202
9.3 Heating & Drainage System of Turbine 207
9.4 Gland Steam System 208
9.5 Regenerative Feed Heating System 210
9.6 HP-LP Bypass System 213
Chapter 10 Turbine Oil System 217 – 222
10.1 Function 217
10.2 Oil Specification 217
10.3 Oil System 217
10.4 Oil Pumps & their Functions 220
Chapter 11 Governing & Protection System 223 – 235
11.1 Features of KW U Turbine Governing 223
11.2 Description of Governing System 224
11.3 Trip Oil Circuit 226
11.4 Secondary Oil Circuit 227
11.5 Description of Control Loops 229
11.6 Starting & Load Limiting Device 232
11.7 Load Rejection Relay 232
11.8 Trimming Device 233
11.9 Functioning of Protection System 233
Chapter 12 Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation 236 – 246
12.1 Vibration, Expansion & Axial Shift Measurement 236
12.2 Turbine Stress Evaluator 241
Chapter 13 Turbine Operation 247 – 273
13.1 General Operation Philosophy 247
13.2 Turbine Start-up Requirements 247
13.3 System Checks & Operation 249
13.4 Turbine W arming-up Criteria 252
13.5 Turbine Rolling Procedure 259
13.6 Turbine Loading 265
13.7 Changing over of Governing System on Load 267
13.8 Turbine Unloading & Shutdown 268
13.9 Turbine Operational Emergencies 269
13.10 Automatic Turbine Tester 273
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. No. Caption Page No.
Fig. 1.1 Hero's Reaction Turbine 2
Fig. 1.2 Basic Elements of Turbine 3
Fig. 1.3 Action of Steam on Curved Blades 4
Fig. 1.4 Arrangement of Simple Impulse Turbine 5
Fig. 1.5 Simple Impulse Turbine Rotor 6
Fig. 1.6 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine 6
Fig. 1.7 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine 6
Fig. 1.8 Velocity & Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine 8
Fig. 1.9 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 9
Fig. 1.10 Double Casing Impulse Reaction Turbine 10
Fig. 1.11 Ideal Efficiency Curves for Impulse & Reaction Stages 11
Fig. 1.12 Steam Flow & Losses in a Turbine Stage 12
Fig. 1.13 Secondary Flows in Blades 13
Fig. 1.14 Interstage Sealing of Impulse & Reaction Stage 14
Fig. 1.15 LP Turbine Blades Stiffened by Lacing W ire 14
Fig. 1.16 Turbine Condition Line 16
Fig. 1.17 Stage Condition Line 16
Fig. 1.18 HP, IP Cylinder Efficiencies 17
Fig. 1.19 LP Cylinder Efficiency 17
Fig. 2.1 Simplified Power Plant Cycle 18
Fig. 2.2 Basic Rankine Cycle Power Plant 20
Fig. 2.3 Basic Rankine Cycle T-S Diagram 20
Fig. 2.4 Superheated Cycle Pant 22
Fig. 2.5 Superheated Cycle T-S Diagram 22
Fig. 2.6 Reheat Cycle Pant 23
Fig. 2.7 Reheat Cycle T-S Diagram 23
Fig. 2.8 Rankine Cycle with Regenerative Feed Heating 25
Fig. 2.9 Regenerative Feed Heating T-S Diagram 25
Fig. 2.10 Modified Rankine Cycle 26
Fig. 2.11 Comparison of Actual Expansion with Isentropic Expansion in Turbine 27
Fig. 2.12 Actual Expansion in HP, IP & LP Turbine 27
Fig. 2.13 Turbine Cycle for Derivation of Heat Rate 29
Fig. 2.14 W illan's Line for a Typical Unit 29
Fig. 2.15 Variation of Heat Rate with Load 30
Fig. 2.16 Effect of Increasing Pressure on Available Energy 31
Fig. 2.17 Effect of Increasing Steam Temperature on Available Energy 32
Fig. 2.18 Effect of Increasing Steam Pressure & Temperature both on a Available 32
Energy.
Fig. 2.19 Effect of Changing Reheat Pressure 33
Fig. 2.20 Effect of Variation of Reheat Temperature 33
Fig. 2.21 Loss of Available Energy due to Control Valves Throttling 34
Fig. 2.22 Effect of Condenser Saturation Temperature on Cycle W ork Done 35
Fig. 2.23 Effect of Exhaust Pressure on Turbine Expansion 36
Fig. 2.24 Heat Rate Characteristics with Condenser Exhaust Pressure 37
Fig. 2.25 Decrease in Power Output with Condenser Exhaust Pressure 37
Fig. 3.1 G.E. Make 67.5 MW Turbo-generator 38
Fig. 3.2 Single & Double Flow Turbines 40
Fig. 3.3 Reversed Flow Turbine 40
Fig. 3.4 Single Cylinder Modular Type Turbine 42
Fig. 3.5 Multi cylinder Turbine Arrangements 43
Fig. 3.6 210 MW – KW U Steam Turbine Arrangement 44
Fig. 3.7 Tandem & Cross Compounded Arrangements 45
Fig. 3.8 Isometric view of Typical Tandem Compounded Machine 45
Fig. 3.9 Spring Foundation 47
Fig. 3.10 Main Components of Turbine 48
Fig. 3.11 Distortion of Turbine Casing due to Thermal Stresses 49
Fig. 3.12 Double & Single Shell Design 51
Fig. 3.13 Carrier Ring Design 51
Fig. 3.14 Inner & Outer Shells Type Design 52
Fig. 3.15 Old Barrel Type Design 53
Fig. 3.16 Modern Barrel Type Turbine with Integral Exhaust Section 54
Fig. 3.17 Solid Forged Rotor 54
Fig. 3.18 Integral Disc Type Forged Rotor for HP Turbine 55
Fig. 3.19 Hollow Drum Type Rotor 56
Fig. 3.20 Solid Drum Type Rotor 56
Fig. 3.21 Built-up Rotor 57
Fig. 3.22 W elded Rotor 59
Fig. 3.23 Impulse type Blades with Inverted T-root 61
Fig. 3.24 Blades with Hook Type Root 61
Fig. 3.25 Riveted Shrouding of Impulse Stages 62
Fig. 3.26 Built-up Diaphragm 62
Fig. 3.27 Diaphragm with Cast-in Nozzle Plate 63
Fig. 3.28 Reaction Type Blades 63
Fig. 3.29 Unshrouded Reaction Type Thin Tipped Blades 64
Fig. 3.30 Blades with Serrated Roots 65
Fig. 3.31 Twisted Blades for LP Last Stages 65
Fig. 3.32 LPT Rotor with Twisted Blades 66
Fig. 3.33 Various Types of Blade Root Fixings 67
Fig. 3.34 Turbine Shaft Glands 69
Fig. 3.35 Dummy Piston Arrangement for Thrust Balancing 70
Fig. 3.36 Journal Bearing with W hite Metal Lining 72
Fig. 3.37 Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing 74
Fig. 3.38 Front & Rear Pedestals of HP Turbine 75
Fig. 3.39 Flexible Couplings 77
Fig. 3.40 Semi-flexible Coupling 78
Fig. 3.41 Rigid Coupling 78
Fig. 3.42 Stress-Strain Characteristics 83
Fig. 3.43 Creep-Strain Characteristics 83
Fig. 3.44 Stress-Number of Cycles Curve 84
Fig. 4.1 Sectional Arrangement of Turbine 89
Fig. 4.2 Turbine Outline Drawing 90
Fig. 4.3 Steam Admission Circuit 91
Fig. 4.4 HP & IP Turbine Blade Roots 93
Fig. 4.5 LP Turbine Last Stage Blades 94
Fig. 4.6 Blade Tip Sealing Arrangement 96
Fig. 4.7 Shaft Gland Sealing Arrangement 97
Fig. 4.8 Fixed Points of Turbine 100
Fig. 4.9 Expansion of Turbine Casings 100
Fig. 4.10 Expansion of Turbine Rotors 101
Fig. 6.1 Sectional View of HP Turbine 108
Fig. 6.2 HP Turbine Supporting on Pedestals 110
Fig. 6.3 Details of HP Cylinder Supports & Guides 111
Fig. 6.4 Steam Admission Connections 111
Fig. 6.5 Threaded Sleeve Type Steam Line Joint 112
Fig. 6.6 Support and Centering of Guide Blade Carrier 113
Fig. 6.7 Axial Holding and Centering of Guide Blade Carrier 114
Fig. 6.8 I-ring Seal at Exhaust Side 114
Fig. 6.9 Front Drum Stages 115
Fig. 6.10 Rear Drum Stages 115
Fig. 6.11 Bottom Inner Casing Complete with Fixed Blading 116
Fig. 6.12 HPT Rotor Inserted in Inner Casing Half 116
Fig. 6.13 HPT Admission side Shaft Seal 117
Fig. 6.14 HPT Exhaust side Shaft Seal 118
Fig. 6.15 Installation of Sealing Rings 118
Fig. 6.16 Front Bearing Pedestal 120
Fig. 6.17 Cross-Section of Journal Bearing 120
Fig. 6.18 Cross-Section of Main Oil Pump 121
Fig. 6.19 Longitudinal Section of Rear Bearing Pedestal 122
Fig. 6.20 Cross-Section through Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing 122
Fig. 6.21 Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing 123
Fig. 6.22 Journal Bearing 126
Fig. 6.23 Centering of Inner Casing 128
Fig. 6.24 Installation of Inner Casing in Barrel Casing 128
Fig. 6.25 Rotor Centering in Half Casing 129
Fig. 6.26 Radial & Axial Clearances Measurement 130
Fig. 6.27 Gland Seal Clearances Checking in Bottom Inner Casing 131
Fig. 6.28 Inner Casing Box-up 132
Fig. 6.29 Preparation of Inner Assembly for Insertion in Barrel Casing 133
Fig. 6.30 Insertion of Inner Casing Assembly into Barrel Casing 135
Fig. 6.31 Closing of Inlet Side Barrel Casing 136
Fig. 6.32 Installation of Outer Sealing Segments 137
Fig. 6.33 HPT Barrel Casing in Vertical Position 138
Fig. 6.34 Barrel Casing Admission Side View 139
Fig. 6.35 HPT Top-Bottom Inner Casing Assembled view 139
Fig. 6.36 Guide Blade Carrier View from Exhaust End 140
Fig. 6.37 U-ring for Admission Side Sealing 140
Fig. 6.38 HP Turbine Rotor Views 141
Fig. 6.39 Front Pedestal & MOP Views 142
Fig. 6.40 MOP Installation 143
Fig. 6.41 HPT Front & Rear Bearing 143
Fig. 6.42 Combined HP Stop & Control Valve 144
Fig. 7.1 Cut-away Section of IP Turbine 145
Fig. 7.2 Supporting Arrangement of IP Turbine 146
Fig. 7.3 Details of Supports & Guides 147
Fig. 7.4 Longitudinal Section of IP Turbine 149
Fig. 7.5 Steam Admission Arrangement 150
Fig. 7.6 Inner Casing & Outer Casing Joint and attachment 151
Fig. 7.7 Centering of Inner Casing in Vertical Plane 152
Fig. 7.8 Front Drum Stages 153
Fig. 7.9 Rear Drum Stages 153
Fig. 7.10 Front & Rear Shaft Seal 154
Fig. 7.11 Section at Sealing Rings 154
Fig. 7.12 Rear Bearing Pedestal 155
Fig. 7.13 Arrangement of Hydraulic Turning Gear 157
Fig. 7.14 Turning Gear Cross-sectional View 158
Fig. 7.15 Manual Turning Gear 159
Fig. 7.16 Placement of Bottom-half Inner Casing in Bottom-half outer Casing 161
Fig. 7.17 Centering of Inner Casing with Dummy Shaft 162
Fig. 7.18 Placement of Top-half Inner Casing & Inserting the Centering Pins 163
Fig. 7.19 Fitting of Shaft Seal Cover 164
Fig. 7.20 Axial Alignment of IP Turbine Shaft 165
Fig. 7.21 Radial Clearance Checking 166
Fig. 7.22 Measurement of Clearances between Inner & Outer Casing 167
Fig. 7.23 Installing the Temperature Measurement Lines in the Inner Casing 168
Fig. 7.24 Final Assembly of Inner Casing 169
Fig. 7.25 Bolts Tightening & Completion of Final Assembly 170
Fig. 7.26 IP Turbine Ready for Dispatch 171
Fig. 7.27 IP Inner Bottom-half Casing 172
Fig. 7.28 Inner Top-half Casing 173
Fig. 7.29 Gland Housing 173
Fig. 7.30 Views of Outer Top-half Casing 174
Fig. 7.31 Outer Bottom-half Casing Installed in Position 174
Fig. 7.32 Views of IPT Rotor 175
Fig. 7.33 IPT Rotor Placed in Outer Casing 176
Fig. 7.34 Turning Gear Stages 177
Fig. 7.35 Interceptor Valve Seal 177
Fig. 7.36 LP & HP Control Valve Plugs 177
Fig. 8.1 Triple Shell, Double Flow LP Turbine 178
Fig. 8.2 Longitudinal Section of LP Turbine 180
Fig. 8.3 Inner Casing Arrangement
Fig. 8.4 Axial Fix Point of Outer Casing 181
Fig. 8.5 LP Turbine Outer Casing Guide 182
Fig. 8.6 LP Turbine Inner Casing Guide 182
Fig. 8.7(a) Inner Casing Fixed Point 182
Fig. 8.7(b) Inner Casing Non-fixed Point 182
Fig. 8.8 Arrangement of Inner Shell in Outer Shell 183
Fig. 8.9 Top View of Joint Face 183
Fig. 8.10 Inner Casing Fixed Support 184
Fig. 8.11 Inner Shell Non-fixed Support 184
Fig. 8.12 Centering of Inner Shell 184
Fig. 8.13 Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm 185
Fig. 8.14 Assembled Diaphragm 185
Fig. 8.15 LP Turbine Blading for Initial Five Stages 186
Fig. 8.16 LP Turbine Blading for Last Three Stages 187
Fig. 8.17 LPT Front & Rear Seals 188
Fig. 8.18 Sealing Rings 188
Fig. 8.19 Rear Bearing Pedestal 190
Fig. 8.20 Journal Bearing Arrangement 191
Fig. 8.21 Anchor Point of LP Turbine 192
Fig. 8.22 Turbine Shaft Treated with Protective Agent 194
Fig. 8.23 Final Blades Removed for Transportation 194
Fig. 8.24 Checking the Centering Fit Before Installation 194
Fig. 8.25 Screwing in the Guide Bolts 194
Fig. 8.26 Measuring Radial Blade Clearances Using Feeler Gauges 194
Fig. 8.27 Checking Axial Clearances Using Feeler Gauges 194
Fig. 8.28 Attaching Lead W ires for Clearance Checking 195
Fig. 8.29 Setting Down the Top-half Inner Shell of the Inner Casing 195
Fig. 8.30 Inner Shell in Assembled Condition 195
Fig. 8.31 Heating the Casing Joint Bolts 195
Fig. 8.32 Fixing Lead W ires for Tip Clearances Check 195
Fig. 8.33 Setting down the Top-half Outer Shell 195
Fig. 8.34 Outer Shell of Inner Casing Mounted 196
Fig. 8.35(a) LPT Rotor with Expansion Joint 196
Fig. 8.35(b) Expansion Joint as Installed 196
Fig. 8.36 LP Turbine Outermost Top Casing 197
Fig. 8.37 LP Turbine Top-half Inner Outer Shell 198
Fig. 8.38 Views of Top Innermost Shell 199
Fig. 8.39 Bottom Inner Shells Mounted in Position 200
Fig. 8.40 Longitudinal Beam End Fixed Support 200
Fig. 8.41 LPT Rotor Views 201
Fig. 9.1 Steam Admission Circuit for KW U Steam Turbine 202
Fig. 9.2 Steam Strainer 203
Fig. 9.3 Combined Main Stop & Control Valve 205
Fig. 9.4 Combined Reheat Stop & Control Valve 206
Fig. 9.5 Gland Sealing System for 210 MW KW U Turbine 209
Fig. 9.6 Regenerative Feed Heating System for 210 MW KW U Turbine 212
Fig. 9.7 HP-LP Bypass System for 210 MW KW U Turbine 214
Fig. 10.1 Lube oil Circuit for 210 MW KW U Turbine 218
Fig. 10.2 Main Oil Tank Connections 218
Fig. 10.3 Duplex Filter with Changeover Valve 219
Fig. 10.4 Jacking Oil System 219
Fig. 10.5 Main Oil Pump 221
Fig. 10.6 Oil Cooler Arrangement 221
Fig. 11.1 Structure of Turbine Control System 225
Fig. 11.2 Action of Protection & Governing System on Turbine Stop & Control 225
Valves
Fig. 11.3 Generation of Trip Oil 226
Fig. 11.4 Generation of Secondary Oil 227
Fig. 11.5 Governing & Protection Oil System for KW U Steam Turbine 228
Fig. 11.6 Electro-hydraulic Controller for KW U Steam Turbine 230
Fig. 11.7 Turbine Protection System 234
Fig. 12.1 Seismic Type Vibration Pick-up 237
Fig. 12.2 Impedance Characteristic of Inductive Coil with Air Gap 238
Fig. 12.3 Inductive Type Axial Shaft Position & Differential Expansion Pick-up 238
Fig. 12.4 Bridge Circuit 238
Fig. 12.5 (a) Casing & Rotor Expansions 239
Fig. 12.5 (b) Location of Differential Expansion Sensors for HP, IP & LP Turbines 239
Fig. 12.6 Expansion and Shaft Position Pick-ups 240
Fig. 12.7 Turbine Stress Evaluator Scheme 242
Fig. 12.8 Turbine Stress Evaluator Display 242
Fig. 12.9 W all Temperature (W T) Sensor 243
Fig. 12.10 Computation of TSE Temperature Margins 245
Fig. 12.11 Effect of TSE Influence on Speeding Rate 245
Fig. 12.12 Effect of TSE Influence on Loading Rate 245
Fig. 13.1 Minimum & Maximum Allowable Main Steam Temperatures for Opening 254
of Main Stop Valves
Fig. 13.2 Maximum Allowable Main Steam Pressure for Opening of Main Stop 255
Valves
Fig. 13.3 Minimum Degree of Superheat in Main Steam Before Opening Main 255
Control Valves
Fig. 13.4 Recommended Minimum Main Steam Temperature before Opening 256
Main Control Valves
Fig. 13.5 Recommended Minimum Reheat Temperature for Opening IP Control 256
Valves
Fig. 13.6 Criterion for Bringing Turbine Speed to Rated Speed 258
Fig. 13.7 Criterion for Loading the Turbine 258
Fig. 13.8 Coal Start-up Curves for 210 MW KW U Steam Turbine 260
Fig. 13.9 Turbine Controls 261
Chapter 1
STEAM TURBINE THEORY

1.1 Introduction
The steam turbine is most versatile prime mover, which is capable of almost endless applications.
A machine, which originates mechanical motion by using some natural force, is called prime mover.
Steam turbine is a practical power source and is built in as small size as 5 KW to as large as 1300 MW . It
is relatively quiet and smooth in operation. Its compactness is unexpelled in the high capacity region and
operates on relative speed, which permits direct connection to the alternator.
The steam turbine offers many advantages over other prime movers, both thermodynamically and
mechanically. From a thermodynamic point of view, the main advantage of the steam turbine over, say, a
reciprocating steam engine, is that in the turbine the steam can be expanded down to a lower back-
pressure, thereby making available a greater heat drop. In addition, the internal efficiency of the turbine is
high, so it is able to convert a high proportion of this relatively large heat drop into mechanical work.
From a mechanical point of view, the turbine is ideal, because the propelling force is applied
directly to the rotating elements of the machine and has not, as in the reciprocating engine, to be
transmitted through a system of connecting links, which are necessary to transform a reciprocating motion
into a rotary motion. Hence, since the steam turbine possesses rotary motion only, if the manufacture is
good and the machine is correctly designed, it ought to be free from out-of-balance forces.
If the load on a turbine is kept constant, the torque developed at the coupling remains constant. A
generator at a steady load offers a constant resisting torque. Therefore, a turbine is suitable for driving a
generator, particularly as they are both high-speed machines.
A further advantage of the turbine is that the exhaust steam is not contaminated with oil vapour
and can be condensed and fed back to the boilers without passing through filters. It also means that there
is considerable saving in lubricating oil when compared with a reciprocating steam engine of equal power.
Yet the steam turbine is not without disadvantages. It is non-reversible. Unlike the IC engine, it is
not a complete power plant, but must be associated with a steam generator. Steam rates are high unless
in condensing operation. The thermal (steam) power plant therefore was a duel phase cycle, i.e. vapour
and liquid. It is a closed cycle to enable the working fluid (water) to be used again and again. The cycle
used is "Rankine Cycle" modified to include superheating of steam, regenerative feed water heating and
reheating of steam.
1.2 Evolution of Steam Turbine

The modern turbine and the turbo-generator both owe a lot to a great mechanical engineer - Sir
Charles Algernon Parsons. The earlier record of a steam turbine invention shows that Hero of Alexandria
had built a steam turbine of the reaction type in the year 55 B.C. This early machine was a simple affair,
as shown in Fig. 1.1, but was not used for any practical purpose. But the reaction principle, where steam
issuing from a nozzle exerts a backward push or reaction is widely used in the modern Parson's and other
makes of turbine.
In 1629, Giovanni Bianca (Italy) made drawings of simple impulse turbine, later developed by the
French Engineers, De Lavel and Rateau and others.
However, Parsons was the first to realize that successful turbine must rotate at very high speeds,
even in those early days. It was understood that a jet of steam could rotate a wheel with blades on its
circumference or that it could develop power when escaping tangentially from an orifice or nozzle in a
wheel by its own reaction. Either way, the problem confronting Parsons, was that of constructing a
practical turbine, using very high jet velocities of the order of 750 m/s of even L.P. steam exhausting to
atmosphere; or double that velocity of H.P. Steam exhausts via jets into a partial vacuum.
Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory

Fig.1.1 Hero's Reaction Turbine
The utilization of these high velocities calls for the moving blades to travel at half these velocities,
i.e. velocities of the order of 375 m/s to 750 m/s. High linear speeds mean high rotational speeds and the
consequent centrifugal force of a severe nature. Blade speeds were reduced by sub-dividing the whole
expansion of steam into a number of stages so that moderate velocities have to be dealt with and this
forms the basis of the modern steam turbine as well. On this reaction principle, Parsons first commercial
turbine (1800 rpm) only generated 10 KW power in the year 1884.
Other inventors, i.e. C.G. Curtis (U.S.A.) and Prof. A. Rateau (France) preferred to use the
expansion of steam at each stage, by virtue of its velocity only, in fixed nozzles. Machines of this type,
where the steam drives the moving blading of each stage by virtue of its velocity only, are called impulse
turbines. Impulse turbines of fairly large size have been developed over the years, but it is recognized
that the reaction principle of Parsons Scores over the impulse, in having a higher efficiency.
Consequently, very large sets, which are nominally termed impulse, embody a certain amount of reaction.
Side-by-side with the introduction of the high-speed turbines, Parsons went on to invent the drum type of
generator stator (a.c.), to match the turbine.
Further contributions to the field of turbine power by Parsons were the steam jet air ejector and
regenerative feed heating, which was however first proposed by James W ier.
th
Shortly after the turn of the 19 Century, steam turbines began to replace reciprocating steam
engines in power plants. Rapid development ensued and by 1909 units of 12 MW capacity were installed
in Chicago. The turbine performance and efficiency exceeded those of the reciprocating engine and
allowed the use of superheated steam on large scale. This led to the use of cast steel rather than cast
iron in turbines. Capacity rose steadily. A 208 MW unit was installed in New York in 1929. The rise was
helped in 1937 by the use of hydrogen-cooled generator. By the late 1950s capacities reached 450 MW .
In the post-world war-II era, capacities rose beyond 500 MW .
2 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

Though in India the 500 MW units were installed in late 1980s, the units above 1000 MW are
common in W estern countries.
1.3 Energy Conversion in Steam Turbine

A steam turbine basically consists of two elements or sets of elements as shown in Fig. 1.2.
These are –
Fig.1.2 Basic Elements of Turbine

a) Nozzle
The nozzle, attached to the casing of the turbine. The steam enters the nozzle at a high pressure and a
relatively low velocity. Due to nozzle action steam velocity increases at the cost of pressure and
temperature.
b) Curved Blades
The blades are attached to the turbine rotor. The rapidly moving particles of steam issuing from the
nozzle enter the blades. As the blades are curved (Fig. 1.3), the direction of motion of these particles of
Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 3

steam is changed. This causes the change of momentum of passing steam due to which resultant force
in the tangential to the rotor periphery is set-up. The summation of this force acting on all the blades
constitutes the driving force of the turbine.
Fig.1.3 Action of Steam on Curved Blades
Finally when the steam comes out of the blades, the pressure and temperature of the steam are
reduced, i.e. the drop of the enthalpy at the exhaust of the turbine due to expansion of steam. The
processes of expansion and direction changing may occur once (single stage) as in the simple impulse
turbine, or a number of times (multi-stage) as in pressure compounded impulse or impulse-reaction
turbine.
1.4 Impulse and Reaction Principle

1.4.1. Classification
Basically there are two broad classifications of steam turbine with respect to operating principle.
i) Impulse Turbine
ii) Impulse-Reaction/Reaction Turbine
1.4.2. Impulse Turbine

In this class of turbines, the potential energy of steam, by virtue of its pressure and superheat, is
changed into Kinetic energy of steam having high velocity by expansion in fixed nozzles. All the
expansion of the original steam occurs in these nozzles only (fixed to the casing) and none taking place in
the rotor blading during its passage. Thus the pressures at the inlet and outlet edges of these blading will
be equal. The moving blades are designed in such a manner that the steam will glide on and off without
any tendency to strike them, thus giving an impulse due to change of velocity of steam which causes the
shaft to rotate. The steam flow area at the inlet and outlet is constant in this type and blading. Since

there is no pressure difference across the two sides of moving blades, there is little or no tendency for
steam to leak past the blade tips and so the problem of sealing between the two sides of the wheel is
considerably simplified. The impulse turbines may be sub-classified as follows.
a) The simple Impulse Turbine

This turbine consists of only one stage of nozzles and moving blades, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The
top portion of Fig. 1.4 shows a longitudinal section through the upper half of the turbine, the middle portion
shows a development of the nozzles and blading. The lower part of the figure shows approximately how
the absolute pressure and the absolute velocity of the steam vary from point-to-point during the passage
of the steam through the turbine.
Fig.1.4 Arrangement of Simple impulse Turbine
In this turbine, the steam is expanded once only, the steam enters the nozzles at the steam chest
pressure and issues from the nozzles at condenser pressure. The heat drop is comparatively large and
as the increase in Kinetic energy is equal to the heat drop, the nozzle exit velocity of the steam is high.
For maximum blade efficiency, the blade velocity should be slightly less than one half the steam velocity,
so in this type of turbine the blade velocity is very high. As the rotor diameter is kept fairly small, the
rotational speed is also very high, being of the order of 30,000 rpm. W ith speeds of this order it is often
necessary to reduce the speed of the driven machine by gear-box, thus increasing the cost and

Fig.1.5 Simple impulse Turbine Rotor Fig.1.7 (a) Two Stage Velocity Compounded
Impulse Turbine
Fig.1.6 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine Fig.1.7 Velocity Compounded impulse Turbine

complexity of an installation and reducing its overall efficiency. It can be seen from Fig. 1.4 that the
velocity of the steam leaving the moving blades is large which represents the loss of Kinetic energy and is
called the "Carry-over loss" or "Leaving Loss" which may be approximately 11% of initial Kinetic energy of
the steam. An example of the simple impulse turbine is the De Laval turbine used for relatively low power
application. Rotor of simple (Single stage) impulse turbine is shown in Fig. 1.5.
b) The Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine

The turbine, shown in Fig. 1.6, is basically a number of impulse turbines connected in series on
the same shaft, the exhaust steam from one stage entering the nozzles of the succeeding stage. In this
way the whole of the pressure drop (heat drop) available, i.e. from steam chest to condenser, is split-up
into a number of smaller pressure drops. Hence stage consists of set of nozzles and blades. As the heat
drop in each stage is a fraction of the heat drops in a simple impulse turbine working between the same
limits of pressure and temperature, the increase in Kinetic energy in each stage will be much lower, i.e.
the velocity of the steam issuing from the nozzles will be much lower. Therefore, the blade velocities and
rotational speed can be lowered. This means the greater the number of stages, the lower the speeds.
The leaving loss in the last stage as compared to simple impulse turbine is proportionately less,
still it is appreciable.
In a pressure-compounded impulse turbine the nozzles are usually fitted into partitions, called
"diaphragms", which separate one wheel chamber from the next. The wheels are mounted individually
on the shaft and carry the blades on their periphery. As expansion of the steam takes place wholly in the
nozzles, the space between any two diaphragms is filled with steam at a constant pressure, but the
pressure on either side of any diaphragm are different. The greatest difference occurs in the first few
stages. Hence, steam will tend to leak through the space between the bore of the diaphragm and the
surface of the shaft. Fitting of labyrinth glands usually minimizes such leakage. A.C.E. Rateau first
designed this type of turbine.
c) The Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine

It is similar to the simple impulse turbine in that there is only one set of nozzles. The wheel,
however, instead of being fitted with a single row of blades, is fitted with two or more rows, between which
are arranged rows of stationary guide blades. Fig. 1.7 shows a three-row wheel. Steam enters the
nozzles at the steam chest pressure and issues from the nozzles at condenser pressure and as in the
simple impulse turbine, at very high velocity. The provision of two or more rows of moving blades,
however, enables the blade velocity for maximum efficiency to be made appreciably less than that
necessary for maximum efficiency in its simple impulse turbine. On passing through the first row of
moving blades the steam gives up only a part of its Kinetic energy and issues from this row of blades with
fairly high velocity. It then enters the first of the two rows of guide blades and is redirected by them into
the second row of moving blades. There is a slight drop in velocity in the fixed guide blades due to
friction. In passing through the second row of moving blades, the steam gives up another portion of its
Kinetic energy to the rotor. It is redirected in the second row of guide blades, does work on the third row
of moving blades, and finally leaves the wheel in a more or less axial direction with a certain residual
velocity. This velocity is comparatively small and therefore the leaving loss is small, being about two
percent of the initial available energy of the steam.Fig.1.7 (a) shows two-stage vel.comp.impulse turbine.
d) The Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine

In the same way that a number of simple impulse turbines in series on the same shaft can be
combined to form a pressure-compounded impulse turbine, so a number of simple velocity - compounded
impulse turbine as shown in Fig. 1.8. The only difference in principle between the two types is that in the
pressure-compounded type a stage consists of a set of nozzles and a single row wheel, whereas in the
pressure-velocity-compounded type a stage consists of set of nozzles and a single row wheel, whereas in
the pressure-velocity compounded type a stage consists of a set of nozzles and a wheel with two or more
rows of blades.
As in other type of impulse turbines, the steam is expanded wholly in the nozzles and the wheels
rotate in steam at constant pressure. The total pressure drop from steam chest to condenser being split-

up into as many steps as the number of wheels on the shaft. This type of turbine is comparatively simple
in construction and is much more compact than the multi-stage pressure-compounded impulse turbine
since the pressure drop is greater per stage and consequently fewer stages are necessary. Unfortunately
its efficiency is not high. At one time it was widely used in power stations but is now an obsolete type.
Many impulse turbines, however, incorporate a two-row velocity wheel for the first stage in the high
pressure cylinder. An American engineer, C.G. Curtis, first introduced this turbine.
Fig.1.8 Velocity &Pressure Compounded impulse Turbine
1.4.3 Impulse-reaction Turbines

Impulse-reaction (commonly called as "Reaction Turbine") turbines works on the principle that the steam
pressure is reduced in both fixed and moving blades unlike in impulse turbine in which pressure was
reduced only in nozzles. W hile the steam is passing through the moving blades, work is still being done
by the impulse effect due to the reversal of direction of the high velocity steam, but the fixed and moving
blades are so designed that the steam expands as it passes through both thus giving, in addition, a
reaction effect due to the expansion of steam through the moving blades.
Since in the reaction type machine a pressure drop also occurs across the moving blades it is
necessary to provide effective sealing at the blade tips. This must be done to prevent leakage of steam
past the shrouding of the wheel and consequent loss in efficiency particularly at the high-pressure end of
the machine. These turbines may be designed for radial flow or axial flow. However, radial flow
machines are absolute now a days and all modern turbine employ axial flow designs.
The axial-flow impulse-reaction turbine consists of a number of rows of moving blades attached to
the rotor and an equal number of rows of fixed blades attached to the casing as shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig.1.9 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
The fixed blades compare to the nozzles used in the impulse turbine. Steam is admitted
over the whole circumference and in passing through the first row of fixed blades undergoes a small drop
in pressure and its velocity is increased. It then enters the first row of moving blades and as in the
impulse turbine, suffers a change in direction and hence momentum giving an impulse on the blades.
During the steam passage through the moving blades it undergoes a further small drop in pressure
resulting in increase in velocity, which gives rise to a reaction in the direction opposite to that of the added
velocity. It is in this way that the impulse-reaction turbine differs from the pure impulse turbine. Thus the
gross propelling force in the impulse-reaction turbine, or the "reaction" turbine, is the vector sum of the
impulse and the reaction effects.
Fig. 1.9 shows how the blade heights increase as the specific volume of the steam increases with
reduction in pressure. It also shows how the pressure falls gradually as the steam passes through the
groups of blades. There is a pressure drop across each row of blades both fixed and moving. This is of
considerable practical importance, especially at the high-pressure end of the turbine where the pressure
drops are greatest, because this difference of pressure tends to force some steam through the clearance
spaces between the moving blades and the casing, similarly between the fixed blades and rotor. These
clearances have to be carefully controlled by using axial and/or radial seals at the blade tips; otherwise

the available energy possessed by the steam, which leaked across, would be lost. The pressure drop
across the moving blades gives rise to a large axial thrust on the rotor towards the low pressure end of the
turbine, therefore special balance pistons have to be fitted to counteract it. Fig. 1.10 shows the axial
section of a turbine with impulse/reaction stages and balance piston arrangement.
Fig.1.10 Double Casing Impulse-Reaction Turbine
The steam velocities in this type of turbine are moderate, the velocity for maximum blade
efficiency being roughly equal to the blade velocity. The leaving loss is normally about the same as for
the multi-stage impulse turbine.
The impulse-reaction turbine was developed by Sir Charles A. Parsons and is widely used in
power stations.
1.4.4 Distinction between Impulse & Reaction Designs

The hard and fast distinction between the impulse and impulse-reaction turbine is becoming
progressively less important. The general trend of commercial development being that the reaction
turbine often to adopt a certain percentage of impulse in its design and the impulse turbine likewise to
adopt a certain percentage of reaction. At the present time the two types are therefore characterized
more by differences of constructional features than by any actual differences in the methods of extracting
energy from the steam by the blading. The reason for this progressive development is that the reaction
stage is slightly more efficient than the impulse stage, but at the high-pressure end of the turbine this is
more offset by the loss due to leakage across the tips of moving blades. The general trend is to use a
greater percentage of impulse at the high-pressure end of the turbine and to progressively increase the
percentage of reaction at the low-pressure end.

Further due to different characteristics of impulse and reaction blading there are significant
differences in the turbine designs. The impulse turbine moving blades are carried on discs, which are
either integral with or attached to a small diameter shaft. The axial thrust on the rotor is small since there
is no pressure drop across the blades and therefore no pressure forces across the discs. The presence
of a pressure drop across the moving blades of the reaction turbine makes disc unviable. Instead, a
greatly expanded hollow shaft known as a drum rotor replaces the discs.
1.5 Blade Efficiency & Internal losses in Turbine

1.5.1 Efficiency
The efficiency with which the transfer of energy to the moving blades occurs is essentially
dependent upon the ratio of moving blade velocity and the steam absolute velocity. The ideal efficiency
curves for impulse and reaction stage are shown in Fig. 1.11. The maximum efficiency of impulse stage is
achieved at the ratio of 0.5, which means if the blade speed remains constant (as in case of utility
turbines), but the steam velocity changes (change of steam flow rate) then the efficiency suffers.
Comparatively reaction stage efficiency remains fairly constant at medium to higher loads.
Work done by moving blades

Blade efficiency (η) =
Available energy
Fig.1.11 Ideal Efficiency Curves for Impulse & Reaction Stages
The work done by the moving blade is reduced due to three most predominant losses, i.e. profile
loss, secondary loss and tip leakage loss, which are shown in Fig. 1.12.
1.5.2 Profile Loss

This is due to the formation of boundary layers on the blade surfaces. The fluid in the boundary
layer is subject to viscous forces, which slow it down and increase its entropy relative to the flow in the
main stream. This results in the steam downstream of the moving blades having higher entropy than the
steam upstream. At a given flow rate this would result in a larger pressure drop across the blades than
there would be in isentropic flow. Since the pressures in a turbine are fixed, the flow rate becomes less
than isentropic and the entropy of the exhaust steam greater than isentropic. This means the heat drop
obtained across the stage is less than that for an isentropic expansion and is therefore less efficient.

Fig.1.12 Steam Flow & Losses in a Turbine Stage

Profile loss depends on factors such as Reynolds number, surface roughness, exit mach number
and trailing edge thickness.
1.5.3 Secondary Loss

This is due to friction on the casing wall and on the blade root and tip. It is a boundary layer effect
and therefore dependent upon the same considerations as those for profile loss. Fig. 1.13 shows how the
interaction of the boundary layer phenomenon between blade tip and casing and between root and shaft
creates the secondary flows A&B.
Fig.1.13 Secondary Flows in Blades
1.5.4 Tip Leakage Loss

This leakage, as its name implies, arises from steam passing through the small clearance
required between the moving blade tip and the casing, or between the end of the fixed blades and rotating
shaft. The problem is overcome to a certain extent through the use of inter-stage seals. At the blade
tips there is a shroud band, which extends around the entire circumference of the moving blades, joining
the tips. The shroud is sealed against the casing by several knife-edges.
The extent of the leakage depends on whether the turbine is of an impulse or reaction type.
Reaction turbines suffer a pressure drop across the moving blades, so encouraging flow through the
clearances. Consequently, it is more important for a reaction turbine to have good tip sealing than it is for
an impulse turbine. The sealing of impulse and reaction turbine stages is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig.1.14 Interstage Sealing of Impulse & Reaction Stage
1.5.5 Disc Windage Loss

This is the friction loss due to the surface friction created on the discs of an impulse turbine as the
disc rotates in the steam environment. The result is the forfeiture of shaft power for an increase in Kinetic
and heat energy of the steam.
1.5.6 Loss due to Lacing Wires

The long blades of the LP cylinder are stiffened towards the tip with lacing wires as shown in Fig.
1.15. Their purpose is to damp vibrations and raise the resonant frequency of the blade so that it does
not coincide with any exciting frequency present in the turbine. The presence of these wires, however,
produces losses in blade efficiency because of the passage area that they block.
Fig.1.15 LP Turbine Blades Stiffened by Lacing Wire

1.5.7 Wetness Loss
This loss is incurred by moisture entrained in the low-pressure steam towards the exist plane of
the LP turbine. The loss is a combination of two effects, the first is the reduction in efficiency due to
absorption of energy by the water droplets and the second is the erosion of the final moving blades
leading edges.
Erosion occurs because the water droplets travel far slower than steam, consequently their
velocity relative to the blades is significantly different in direction as well as speed. The result is the
impact of condensation droplets on the blades, in particular at the tip where the blade rotational velocity is
highest.
In the past, the leading edge of the blade has been protected either by an edge-hardening
process or by the brazing on of stellite strips, which is a very hard material. Now a day, with better
understanding of the mechanism of droplet erosion, has produced means of alleviating much of the
problem. Higher last-stage heat drops are employed along with higher mass flow loading. The result is a
higher pressure at the inlet to the moving blades leading to the reduction in the size of droplets.
1.6 Stage Efficiency

The efficiency of turbine stage will always be somewhat less than ideal because of the losses
discussed in previous section 1.5. The efficiency of a well designed stage in a modern HP turbine is
about 85 - 90%. This stage efficiency is obtained as follows.
Actual heat drop in the stage

Stage η = x 100%
Isentropic heat drop in the stage
(Enthalpy at fixed blade inlet ) -
(Enthalpy at moving blade outlet)
= x 100%
(Enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) -
(Enthalpy at isentropic moving blade outlet)
This can be more clearly envisaged through the use of a turbine condition line as illustrated in Fig.
1.16. This is the locus of the conditions of the steam as it passes from the stop valve at the inlet to the HP
cylinder, then through all the turbine stages to the exit plane of the final moving blade of the LP cylinder
exhausting into condenser under vacuum. Ideally the expansion of steam through the turbine will occur
isentropically, that is, at constant entropy shown by the vertical dotted line in Fig. 1.16. In reality the
friction effects, such as profile and secondary loss, cause an increase in the heat and entropy of the
steam.
Fig. 1.17 shows a section of the condition line displaying one stage only. (H1 - H2) represents the
isentropic heat drop and (H1 - H3) the actual heat drop. Cylinder efficiency then is obtained for HP, IP and
LP turbines by considering the heat drop across all the stages of the cylinder.
1.7 Cylinder Efficiency

Commonly two definitions are used for expressing cylinder efficiency for HP & IP turbines. The
first is the one described above and is known as the internal efficiency. The second includes the effect
of the pressure drop through the emergency stop valves and control valves of the HP turbine and
interceptor valves and control valves of the IP turbine and is known as external efficiency, as shown in
Fig. 1.18.
It can be seen that though the pressure drop across the valves is at constant enthalpy, the
change in entropy affects the moving blade exit isentropic enthalpy so that :
H1 - H 2 H1 - H 2
η (internal) = x 100% and η (external) = x 100%
H1 - H 3 H1 - H 4

Fig.1.16 Turbine Condition Line Fig.1.17 Stage Condition Line
For HP and IP turbines, the kinetic energy effects at inlet and exhaust are small and usually ignored.

The kinetic energy at inlet to the LP turbine is also negligible but at the exhaust it is not so. As a result LP
efficiencies are calculated by considering either:
• The total exhaust conditions - which includes the steam kinetic energy and is measurable with a
correctly aligned pitot.
• The exhaust conditions - which represents conditions when the kinetic energy has been reduced to
zero and is measurable with pressure gauge.
Both exhaust conditions are displayed in Fig. 1.19 from which the following LP efficiencies can be
obtained. In LP turbine steam leaves the final stage with appreciable kinetic energy at the total pressure
and enthalpy shown in Fig. 1.19.
If the steam could be slowed down isentropically to zero kinetic energy, it would be at static
pressure and enthalpy. In practice the steam does slow down after leaving the last blade, but through the
conversion of its kinetic energy to flow friction losses. This is constant enthalpy process since the steam
cannot do work on blades that it has already left. Consequently steam comes to rest at the point "X" on
Fig. 1.18.
The heat loss between the total conditions at blade exit (H2) and the static pressure line (H4) is
known as the leaving loss.
Fig.1.18 HP, IP Cylinder Efficiencies Fig.1.19 LP Cylinder Efficiencies

2
Leaving Loss = Ve /2 J/Kg
W here, Ve is the velocity of steam leaving the last row of blades. For a 500 MW turbine, the
velocity Ve is typically 170 m/s. Generally the leaving loss is responsible for 2% reduction in LP Cylinder
efficiency.
-o0o-

Chapter 2
STEAM CYCLE THEORY

2.1 Modern Steam Cycle
A power station operates using a closed steam power cycle, where water undergoes various
thermodynamic processes in a cycle. Fig. 2.1 is a simplified diagram of a modern steam plant, showing
most of the essential elements.
Fig.2.1 Simplified Power plant cycle
One half of the cycle consists of the boiler (steam generator) and its auxiliaries. The other half,
the turbine cycle consists of turbine, generator, condenser, feed pump and feed water heaters.
Consider first the boiler plant involved in the cycle. Feed water is supplied to the boiler drum
through economizer, where water is boiled and converted into dry saturated steam. This dry steam is
further superheated in the superheater and then fed to the HP cylinder through main steam lines via
Emergency Stop Valves and Control Valves. The steam expands in the turbine giving up heat energy, a
high proportion of which is converted into work energy on the turbine shaft. The shaft turns an electrical
generator, which produces electric power. Steam leaving the HP cylinder returns to the boiler, where it is
reheated. The reheated steam is supplied to IP cylinder through hot reheat lines via Interceptor valves
and control valves. After doing the work on IP rotor, the steam exhausted from IP cylinder is directly fed
through cross-around or crossover pipes to L.P. Cylinder. Finally the steam exhausted by LP cylinder

goes to condenser. The shafts of HP-IP-LP and Generator are connected in tandem (series
arrangement), so generator receives the mechanical power added by all the three cylinders.
In the condenser, which is a large surface-type heat exchanger, the steam is condensed by
transferring its latent heat of evaporation to the cooling water (KW ). The steam having been condensed in
the condenser is now in the form of condensate at very low pressure and saturation temperature. This
condensate is pumped by condenser extraction pump from condenser hot well and passed through the
low pressure regenerative feed heating system and deaerator (direct contact heat exchanger) to increase
the temperature of water and remove dissolved gases such as O2 and CO2 to form feed water suitable for
boiler. Boiler feed pump sucks feed water from deaerator and pumps to boiler drum via high pressure
regenerative feed heating system (HP Heater).
In modern regenerative cycle, some of the steam passing through the turbine cylinder is bled from
a series of extraction belts located after selected moving blade stages and fed to the condensate heater
(LP) and feed water heaters (HP), which are of surface type heat exchangers. The BFP increases the
feed water pressure to a level in excess of the drum pressure, to provide for the pressure loss in the boiler
circuit and HP feed heating train. The cycle is now completed.
2.2 Rankine Cycle Development

The thermodynamic cycle used for the operation of steam power plant, as discussed in section
2.1, is the Rankine cycle. The Temperature -Entropy (T-S) and Enthalpy - Entropy (H-S) diagrams
illustrate the Rankine cycle. The Entropy is an abstract property of the steam, which increases when
heat is added to the steam and decreases when the steam rejects heat. Its magnitude is such that if the
temperature at which heat is transferred is multiplied by the change in entropy that results in the process,
then that product equals the amount of heat transferred.
Consider a simple Ranking Cycle for steam shown schematically in Fig. 2.2 and on T-S diagram
in Fig. 2.3. W ater is pumped into boiler by the feed pump (process A-B). In the ideal Rankine cycle, there
is no temperature rise across the pump and points A-B are coincident. The water is then heated to
produce dry saturated steam (Process B-C). The dry saturated steam is expanded through the turbine
isentropically, i.e. without loss. This process (C-D) produces work along the turbine shaft. Finally the wet
steam exhausted by the turbine gives up its balance latent heat in the condenser and returns to water
state (Process D-A).
The area “E-A-B-C-D-F” on the T-S diagram represents the heat input to the boiler. The area
within the polygon A-.B-C-D represents the work done by the cycle. The heat rejected to the condenser is
represented by the rectangle A-D-F-E.
The thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by:
Work Done (area A B C D)

η=
Had added in the boiler (area EABCDF)
The economic implication of cycle efficiency is a major factor behind the development of the
cycle, whilst maintaining or reducing capital cost per electrical unit produced. The other criteria are
changing cycle terminal conditions with following considerations.
• No saturated steam should enter the condenser, i.e., point D must be within the vapour boundary
(Ref. Fig. 2.3).
• The exhaust wetness in the last turbine stage must not exceed 12%, i.e., D-D’ must be less than 12%
of AD’.
• Maximum temperature of the superheated steam is limited by material properties.
Chapter-2: Steam Cycle Theory 19

Fig.2.2 Basic Rankine Cycle Power Plant
Fig.2.3 Basic Rankine Cycle T-S Diagram

2.3 Modified Rankine Cycle
2.3.1 The Superheat Cycle
The first development of the basic rankine cycle (Fig. 2.3) into a more practical steam cycle
involves raising the pressure and temperature of the steam entering the turbine. The superheated steam
is shown schematically in Fig. 2.4, and on the T-S diagram in Fig. 2.5.
In the superheat cycle, the saturated dry steam leaving the boiler drum is further heated in the
superheater coils before entering the turbine. For the same quality of steam entering the condenser (point
D of turbine exhaust as shown in T-S diagram for basic Rankine cycle, Fig. 2.3), the increase in work
done is shown by "area A" in Fig. 2.5. The quantity of the heat rejected to the condenser (area C) is the
same in both, basic Rankine cycle (Fig. 2.3) and superheat Rankine Cycle (Fig. 2.5). Hence, there is an
improvement in the cycle efficiency.
Work done
η Superheat =
Total Heat Added
Area A - B - C 1 - D
=
Area E - A - B - C 1 - D - F
Area (A + B)
=
Area (A + B + C)
Since W .D. Area (A+B) in above equation is greater than W .D. Area in basic Rankine Cycle (Fig.
2.3) and the heat rejected are in constant in both the cases, the efficiency of superheat cycle improves.
Another major advantage of superheating steam is that for increasing cycle temperature and
pressure, the exhaust wetness in the turbine can be maintained within 12% as mentioned earlier.
Alternatively, from Carnot Cycle, which is the ideal thermodynamics cycle, the efficiency is given by -
W here,
T1 = Highest temperature of heat addition
T2 = Lowest temperature of heat rejection
So from thermodynamic point of view there is upper limit for increasing temperature T1 and
T1
η Carnot Cycle = ( 1 - )
T2
o
achieving gain in cycle efficiency. But the limitation is mainly due to material consideration. Up to 400 C,
o o
plain carbon steels can be used and up to 480 C, low alloy steels can be used. Above 480 C and up to
o
600 C heat resistant ferrite steels can be used. It gives limiting value of initial steam temperature to be
o
565 C after leaving margin for temperature variations during operation. However, practical limit for initial
o
steam temperature is kept as 540 C to reduce the frequency of boiler outages.
2.3.2 The Reheat Cycle

The need for further increase in cycle conditions and consequent increase in cycle efficiency, led
to the addition of steam reheat during turbine expansion. The reheat cycle is shown schematically in Fig.
2.6 and on the T-S diagram in Fig. 2.7.
In the reheat cycle, steam at a given initial conditions is partially expanded through the turbine
(Process C-D) doing some work, and then fed back to the boiler, where it is reheated to about original
temperature (Process D-D). The reheated steam is then fed through the remainder of the turbine
(Process E-F) before exhausting to condenser.
The reheat cycle incorporates an improvement in thermal efficiency over the superheat cycle.
The thermal efficiency from the T-S diagram is -

Fig.2.4 Superheated Cycle plant
Fig.2.5 Superheated Cycle T-S Diagram

Fig.2.6 Reheat Cycle Plant
Fig.2.7 Reheat Cycle T-S Diagram

(Area A - B - C - D - E - F)
η (Reheat) =
(Area G. A. B. C. D. E. F. H)
Due to reheat cycle in combination with superheat cycle, the mean temperature of heat addition
(Tm) in the boiler increases. Therefore, the cycle efficiency improves further as compared to superheat
cycle alone. Moreover, in the reheat cycle, the steam, which passes through the later stages of the
turbine, is at a higher temperature. Hence results into lower moisture content in the exhaust steam as
compared to non-reheat cycle. This reduction in moisture reduces the loss due to wetness in the turbine,
hence improves the turbine internal efficiency.
Among the most important disadvantages of the reheat cycle are the complication and high cost
of the piping and fittings. Due to increase in capital cost of the plant, the efficiency improvement
2
advantage is partly offset. Further there is a pressure drop of about 4-5 kg/cm of steam in reheater
piping. If the pressure drop in reheater is more than 12-15% almost all increase in efficiency is offset by it.
Steam after partial expansion is usually reheated to initial steam temperature at pressure 0.15 to
0.3 times initial pressure (M.S. Pressure). Absolute increase in thermal efficiency of thermal power plant
by reheating is approximately 1.5 to 2% respectively/
2.3.3 Regenerative Feed heating Cycle

In regenerative feed water heating cycle, part of the steam is extracted after partial expansion in
the turbine and is used to heat-up the feed water going to boiler. In this process superheat and latent
heat of extracted steam is transferred to feed water to raise its temperature, i.e. sensible heat addition in
the feed water is carried out before reaching to boiler. The drop formed due to condensation of extracted
steam is recycled in to feed water cycle at appropriate point.
Fig. 2.8 illustrates the improvement in thermal efficiency for a simple Rankine cycle, by virtue of
addition of feed water heaters. There will be a small loss of work available from the bled-steam not
expanding in the turbine. However, this loss is out weighed by the gain in cycle efficiency. The
improvement in efficiency takes place due to reduction in heat rejection in the condenser per unit of work
done by the turbine as compared to cycle without regenerative feed water heating.
The greater the number of feed heaters installed, the greater the improvement in thermal
efficiency. However, the incremental gain for each additional feed heater reduces as the number of
heaters for a particular size of plant is calculated on viability basis.
The additional benefits of regenerative feed water heating can be listed as follows:
i) Increased steam flow in initial stages resulted in increased blade heights, which improves internal
efficiency of turbine.
ii) Reduced flow at turbine exhaust demand lesser exhaust area, resulting in smaller blades in last
stages, which is limiting factor in turbine design.
iii) The decrease in steam flow at turbine exhaust also reduces flow of working fluid in condenser,
condensate pumps, ejectors and low-pressure heaters, thereby reducing their sizes and saving in
capital investment.
2.3.4 Modified Rankine Cycle and Plant Efficiency

All the developments discussed in above sections are implemented in modern steam power plant.
This is represented by modified Rankine Cycle illustrated in Fig. 2.10. The net effect of all the
improvement is to achieve the higher efficiency of thermal cycle in the range of 45 - 50%.
However, the overall efficiency of the unit is a product of efficiencies of the boiler, turbine,
generator and thermal efficiency. The overall efficiency, therefore, will be reduced to 39 - 41% at rated
parameters. Various efficiencies are listed as follows:
a) Boiler efficiency = 0.8 - 0.9

b) Thermal Cycle Efficiency = 0.4 - 0.5
c) Internal efficiency of turbine = 0.85 - 0.94

Fig.2.8 Rankine Cycle with Regenerative Feed Heating
Fig.2.9 Regenerative Feed Heating T-S Diagram

d) Mechanical efficiency of turbine = 0.99 - 0.995
e) Generator efficiency = 0.98 - 0.985
η Thermal Plant (0.35 - 0.41) = η thermal cycle xη boiler x η turbine internal
x η turbine mechanical x η generator
Fig.2.10 Modified Rankine Cycle
2.4 Turbine Efficiency

A comparison of actual and isentropic turbine expansions is illustrated in Fig. 2.11. The turbine
expansion is shown in that for an HP turbine, i.e. wholly in the superheat region. The efficiency is
obtained by following formula.
Actual work done
Turbine efficiency =
Isentropic work done
The deviation of actual expansion line from isentropic expansion is due to losses or irreversibilites
corresponding to an increase in entropy. It can be seen from Mollier diagram (Fig. 2.11) that for an
expansion between two pressures, the greater the entropy rise (more losses), the less energy there is
available for work. Refinement in turbine design aims to reduce the losses and increases the available
energy.
Now consider the whole turbine expansion process through HP, IP & LP cylinders on a mollier diagrams,
as shown in Fig. 2.12.
The actual turbine expansion line includes the major losses encountered as follows:
i) HP throttling losses through the control valves and associated pipe work.
ii) Reheater pressure losses through pipe work (cold reheat, hot reheat pipe lines and reheater
coils).
iii) The leaving and hood losses at the last stage of the LP turbine.
From Fig. 2.12 it is possible to derive the following cylinder efficiencies.
H1 - H 2 H3 - H 4 H 4 - H5
HP Cylinder η = IP Cylinder η = LP Cylinder η =
H1 - H'2 H 3 - H'4 H 4 - H'5

Fig.2.11 Comparison of Actual Expansion with
Isentropic Expansion in Turbine
Fig.2.12 Actual Expansion in HP, IP & LP Turbine

It may be understood that in the case of HP & IP cylinders, these are external efficiencies because the
throttling loss is included.
On small advantage of the irreversibilites in the IP & LP turbines is the reduction in exhaust steam
wetness, causing less erosion on the final stages of blading. The condition of the plant can be monitored
by measuring the temperature and pressure of the steam at points between the cylinders, hence deriving
the steam enthalpy. It is then possible to compare cylinder efficiencies with the original design values.
Turbine blade erosion or steam leakage results in reduced cylinder efficiency. In practice, the LP cylinder
exhaust enthalpy is not directly measurable and it must be derived from an overall heat balance.
2.5 Turbine Heat Rate

Turbine heat rate is defined as the heat input required to generate one unit of Electrical output (KW h).
Heat input from boiler KJ/h

Heat Rate =
Electrical output from generator KW
The heat rate is determined by measurement of various plant operating parameters. These include:
• Flow rate, using a differential pressure device
• Enthalpy, based on calibrated pressure and temperature measurement.
• Electric power, based on calibrated voltage and current measurements.
Consider a steam cycle with single reheat and regenerative feed heating shown in Fig. 2.13, using
measurements around the cycle, heat rate is calculated as follows:
M 1 (H 1 - H f ) + M 3 (H 3 - H 2 )
Heat Rate = KJ/KWh
Pg
W here,
M1 – Flow rate of superheated steam from boiler (Kg/h)
H1 – Enthalpy of superheated steam based upon pressure and temperature T1 (KJ/Kg)
H2 – Enthalpy of HPT exhaust steam (KJ/kg.)
H3 – Enthalpy of reheated steam (KJ/Kg)
M3 – Flow rate of reheated steam
Hf - Enthalpy of feed water to boiler.
Pg – Generator power output from generator terminals
The corresponding thermal efficiency is given by:
3600 ( Kw)
η Thermal = x 100%
Heat Rate (KJ/s)
860 Kw
= x 100%
Heat Rate K Cal/hr
Heat rate is the means of monitoring turbine cycle performance by comparing the actual heat rate with the
design values provided by the manufacturers.
First consider the variation of the hourly heat consumed by the turbine generator with the load produced.
This characteristic is known as W illans line (fig. 2.14), which is based on turbine test runs at 100%, 80%,
60% and 40% load. This gives the linear relationship between load and heat consumption and
extrapolation below 40% load (dotted line) reveals a no-load heat consumption of about 3% of the full load
value.

Fig.2.13 Turbine Cycle for Derivation of Heat Rate
Fig.2.14 Willan’s Line for a Typical Unit

The variation in heat rate with load is shown in Fig. 2.15, which explains the high thermal cost of operating
plant on part-load. The optimum heat rate (i.e. the minimum condition) should correspond to the design
Fig.2.15 Variation of Heat Rate with Load
output (100% load). The major contributory loss comes from the throttling loss across the turbine control
valves.
Operating the unit at part-load is one of the "external" factors preventing the achievement of the design
rate. The other major external factor, which increases average heat rate, is the need to re-start the unit as
required by the operating regime after trip out. During start-up, the unit is unloaded and additional
works/power is needed for start-up systems.
Plant operating losses cause the other major increase in design heat rate. In practice turbine heat rate
increases (deterioration of efficiency) due to:
- Deterioration of cylinder clearances
- Deterioration in feed heating efficiency
- Poor control of superheat and reheat temperature (particularly in older designs)
These factors are more prevalent as the plant ages.
2.6 Effect of Steam Conditions

2.6.1 Initial Steam Pressure
i) Increase in initial steam pressure means increase in saturation temperature of feed water or
increase in average temperature at which heat is added to the cycle. This will result in increase in
thermal cycle efficiency.
ii) W ith increase in the initial steam pressure at constant temperature and constant condenser
pressure, wetness of steam in the last stages of turbine increases, which reduces internal
efficiency of these stages. Usually 1% moisture in steam in a stage implies 0.9 to 1.2% reduction
in efficiency of that stage. Further the erosion becomes so severe that life of the turbine is
endangered.

iii) W ith increase in initial steam pressure blade heights of initial stages get reduced. If blade heights
of initial stage blades are less than 25 mm, this stage becomes very much inefficient due to three
dimensional flow and vortex formation.
iv) W ith increase in pressure, thickness of casings and size of flange and flange bolts increases
which implies nonsymmetrical casing resulting in higher incremental stress, thereby restricting
rate of speeding or loading of the turbine.
In light of above considerations lower steam pressures are used for smaller turbines (resulting in simple
design and quicker start-ups) and higher initial steam pressure are used for larger turbines (resulting in
higher efficiency).
The following are typical recommended values of initial steam pressure for various rating turbines:
Capacity Initial Steam Pressure

2
50 MW 50 – 90 Kg/cm
2
50 – 100 MW 90 – 130 Kg/cm
2
100 – 200 MW 130 Kg/cm
2
200 – 300 MW 130 – 170 Kg/cm
2
300 – 500 MW 170 – 240 Kg/cm
Fig.2.16 Effect of Increasing Pressure on Available Energy
The effect of increase in initial steam pressure keeping the temperature constant is shown in Fig. 2.16.
The available energy increases with exhaust at higher wetness.
2.6.2 Initial Steam Temperature

As initial temperature increases, the thermal cycle efficiency increases. The effect of increasing the steam
inlet temperature for a turbine expanding between set pressures is shown on the Mollier diagram

(Fig. 2.17). The expansion process shown is for a single-cylinder turbine with no increase in entropy. As
the temperature is increased from T1 to T3, the available energy increases, since A3 B3 > A1 B1.
Fig. 2.18 shows the effect of increasing initial steam pressure and temperature both at constant
condenser exhaust pressure, which illustrates the significant advantage in achieving higher thermal
efficiency with normal wetness at exhaust.
Fig.2.17 Effect of Increasing Steam Temperature Fig.2.18 Effect of Increasing Steam Pressure
On Available Energy & Temperature Both on Available Energy
2.6.3 Effect of Reheat Conditions

Having fixed the steam conditions at entry to the HP turbine, there are several design compromises
involved in the choice of reheat pressure and temperature. First consider the boundary conditions. The
HP cylinder exhaust steam must be sufficiently superheated to avoid any wetness in the cold reheat
piping, which would cause severe erosion. As discussed in the previous section, the exhaust steam from
the LP cylinder must be wet, but not greater than 12% wetness. These boundaries are illustrated together
with the effects of changing pressure; on the Mollier diagram (Fig. 2.19). Now consider the effect of
changing reheat temperature for a constant pressure drop in the HP cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.20. The
effect of reducing the pressure or of raising the temperature of the reheat steam is to reduce LP exhaust
values.
Although reducing LP exhaust wetness is desirable, too high a temperature could lead to some difficulties
with materials. The common practice has been to reheat the steam to the original superheat steam
o
condition i.e. 540 C.
Another important factor in the design of the reheater is the effect of pressure losses in the pipe work.
The pressure loss results from a throttling effect, which reduces the available energy for work. The
pressure at which steam is reheated is about 25% of the stop valve condition of main steam, representing
approximately a four-fold increase in volume. This necessitates the use of increased pipe sizes, which

Fig.2.19 Effect of Changing Reheat Pressure
Fig.2.20 Effect of Variation of Reheat

Temperature

are expensive and inflexible. Hence the plant design has to weigh the merit of using larger pipes, or pipe
runs in parallel, versus the improvement in cycle efficiency. The usual pressure drop is 7.5 to 10% of the
HP cylinder exhaust pressure.
2.6.4. Effect of Pressure Loss in Pipe work and Valves

The effect of pressure loss in pipe work and valves or anywhere in steam path causes a loss in cycle
efficiency by reducing the energy available for conversion to work.
Control valves at the inlet to the HP & IP turbines are used to regulate the inlet mass flow and hence the
load on the machine by a throttling process. Fig. 2.21 shows a Mollier diagram comparing the condition
lines of a reheat turbine at full load with all the valves wide open and one at part load, where the load has
been reduced by 40% by throttling on the inlet valves to the HP turbine, other pressure losses are
neglected. The throttling effect is to reduce the inlet pressure by a constant enthalpy process
(represented by horizontal line AB). The result is a increase in entropy and also a slight fall in
temperature with some reduction in the available heat drop. This accounts for a small loss of efficiency.
However, the major flow reduction that results in the main reason for the reduction of work done in the
HP, IP and LP cylinders.
Fig.2.21 Loss of Available Energy due to Control Valves Throttling

2.6.5. Effect of Condenser Back Pressure
Condenser has triple function in Rankine cycle;
i) Providing heat sink where phase change of working fluid takes place from steam to water.
ii) To provide high vacuum so that heat rejection takes place at a very low saturation
temperature.
iii) Storage of condensate.
The efficiency of the cycle is strongly influenced by the LP turbine exhaust pressure. The back pressure
of the condenser sets the saturation temperature at which the expanded steam rejects its Latent heat of
vapourisation to the cooling water. Consequently, changes in back pressure affect the temperature of
cycle heat rejection. The effect of change in condenser saturation temperature on the cycle work done is
shown in a T-S diagram in Fig. 2.22. Generally, a low exhaust pressure is sought as it improves cycle
efficiency.
Fig.2.22 Effect of Condenser Saturation Temperature on Cycle Work Done
However, there are several plant constraints affecting the selection of design exhaust pressure consider
the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure on the turbine condition line on the Mollier diagram (Fig. 2.23).
Expansion to a lower pressure results in increased wetness and increased specific volume at the exhaust.
The increase in exhaust wetness tends to increase the erosion of the last-stage blades. However, more
significant is the effect of increased specific volume, implying the need for a higher volume flow rate. The
volume flow rate through the condenser is the product of the mean steam axial velocity and the annular
exhaust area. The annular exhaust area is limited by the maximum length of LP blade. At 3000 rpm, the
centrifugal forces on the long blades become very high and there is a limit to mechanical stresses which
blade roots can sustain. Hence, having established a maximum annular area, the increase in volume flow
rate must be accommodated by an increase in exit velocity. Steam leaving the last stage of the turbine
with high residual velocity represents a loss of Kinetic energy. This Kinetic energy performs no useful
work on the turbine blades and therefore is a loss of available energy, known as the "leaving loss", and
varies with the square of velocity. The other loss associated with the turbine exhaust is the "hood loss",

which defines the hydraulic pressure loss between the condenser, which also varies with the square of the
same velocity.
Finally, a major factor affecting the choice of exhaust pressure is the ambient temperature at which CW
can reject heat. This factor seasonally affects the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Fig.2.23 Effect of Exhaust Pressure on Turbine Expansion
2.6.6. Thermodynamic Optimization

The power developed by a steam turbine supplied with a constant mass flow rate varies on the exhaust
pressure changes for the following reasons:
i) As the exhaust pressure is reduced, the isentropic heat drop across the last stage increases
and so additional work is done in the turbine.
ii) The additional work is not as large as it could be because the volumetric flow rate and
therefore the velocity of the steam, increases as the exhaust pressure is reduced. An
increase in velocity means an increase in Kinetic energy of the steam at the turbine exhaust
and therefore a loss of power due to the increased leading loss.
iii) As the exhaust pressure is reduced, the corresponding saturation temperature is reduced.
Therefore, more steam is extracted from the turbine to heat the condensate in the first feed
water heater, so that less steam passes through the last stages of the turbine, giving a further
loss in output.

At exhaust pressures higher than optimum, the opposite effects occur. This is shown graphically in
Fig. 2.23, where the percentage increase in heat rate has been plotted against ratio of exhaust
pressure/optimum exhaust pressure.
The variation of turbine heat rate with exhaust pressure (Fig. 2.24) is obtained from the basic turbine
design data relating to the turbine exhaust area, exhaust mass flows and the heat rejected. Fig. 2.25
shows the corresponding characteristics for the change in power output with change in condenser
exhaust pressure.
Keeping these characteristics in view, the turbine load should be reduced when the condensate back
pressure increases due to problems in condenser cooling water system or air ejection system to prevent
the overheating of condenser and LPT last stages.
Fig.2.24 Heat Rate Characteristics with Condenser Exhaust Pressure
Fig.2.25 Decrease in Power Output with Condenser Exhaust Pressure
-o0o-

Chapter 3
GENERAL DESIGN & CONSTRUCTIONAL

FEATURES OF TURBINE
3.1 Machine Size
In order to meet the various demands for size and operating conditions, certain makers have
evolved specific models of construction. During the W orld war-II, there had been remarkable development
in materials, which could withstand high temperatures without permanent deformation (creep resistant).
Hence after world war – II, the real growth in utility turbines took place with the use of higher steam
parameters.
In India the growth in utility power generation picked up after the independence. The machines of
capacity ranging from 10 MW – 67.5 MW were installed by 1960s in various parts of India. The G.E.
make 67.5 MW single cylinder turbogenerator, shown in Fig. 3.1, are still operational in many power
stations.
Fig.3.1 GE Make 67.5 MW Turbo-generator
Then with the growth of industrialization, particularly process industry sector that is power
intensive, the need for higher capacity machines was experienced. The decade 1970-80
saw the enhancement of machine sizes from 100 MW to 140 MW of Polish, French, British and German
designs. Later on BHEL adopted the technology for manufacturing 210 MW steam turbines from LMW ,
USSR. The decade 1980-90 saw the tremendous growth in Fossil Fired Power Station with the
installation of C.E. design boiler and LMW design 210 MW turbines, solely supplied by BHEL. Almost

70% of total installed capacity (105000 MW in 2002) has been shared by thermal power stations.
Afterwards, in late 80s BHEL switched over to German technology in collaboration with KW U (Siemens),
W est Germany for manufacturing the steam turbines ranging from 120 MW – 500 MW . However, the 210
MW turbogenerators were preferred by most of the electricity boards and private power companies.
NTPC, TATA ELECTRIC CO., MSEB and few other electricity boards installed the 500 MW
machines in the last decade. But still in the national scenario, majority of the machined are of 210 – 250
MW capacity & are still preferred by power companies.
In the context of international picture of machine size, the highest size being installed is 1600
MW . The machines of 660 MW , 800 MW , 1000 MW and 1200 MW are already working in western
countries.
The high capacity machines working on high steam parameters require close monitoring and
precise control of turbine parameters, which has been made possible by computerized Data Acquisition
System and Distributed Digital Control System and state-of-the-art hydraulic actuation system.
3.2 Direction of Steam Flow

The turbines may be designed for axial steam flow or radial steam flow. Almost without exception,
modern large steam turbines are of the axial-flow type as shown in Fig. 3.1. The steam flows through the
stages of fixed and moving blades along the direction of shaft axis, which makes the turbine arrangement
simpler. However, in some old designs, originally introduced by Ljungstrom, the radial flow design was
adopted for small to medium size (60MW ) turbines. In this design steam is admitted to the centre of the
machine, expanding outwards (radially) through two contra-rotating rotors to the exhaust at the periphery.
Axial flow turbines can be classified as :

i) Single-flow
ii) Double-flow
iii) Reversed flow
Single Flow:
In case of single-flow turbine (Fig. 3.2(a)) the steam is admitted at the one end of the turbine in
the first stage blading. Steam flows axially through the radially-mounted blading and exhausts at the other
end after expansion (specific volume is increased). This is shown in Fig. 3.1. Single flow configuration
offers simplest arrangement of blading.
Double Flow:
In the double flow arrangement (fig.3.2 (b)) the steam is admitted at the centre of the cylinder and
is divided to flow in opposite axial directions towards the ends of the rotor. This arrangement is used to
avoid the excessively long blades, which would be required by a single-flow arrangement. Hence this
arrangement is invariably used for LP turbines and sometimes for IP turbines, where the steam pressure
is less and specific volume is high. For turbines of large output, it is normal to have several double flow
low-pressure cylinders to further divide the flow among LP cylinders so as to reduce the size of turbine.
The second benefit is that the double-flow cylinder effectively nullifies (self balancing) the axial
thrust caused by the steam forces on the moving blading (in reaction turbine).
Reversed Flow :
Above objectives can also be achieved in reversed –flow arrangement within the turbine cylinder.
However, thrust reduction is the main target for the reversed flow cylinder (Fig.3.3). In this case steam
flows in one direction through one group of stages and is then admitted through ducting (internally or
externally) to the second group of stages where steam flow in the opposite axial direction. In some cases,
the second group of stages may have several sections in parallel to accommodate the increasing
volumetric flow rate.
Chapter-3: General Design & Constructional Features 39

(a) Single Flow
Axial Flow
(b) Double Flow
Fig.3.2 Single & Double Flow Turbines
Steam Inlet
Steam Outlet
Fig.3.3 Reversed Flow Turbine

For large sets, the HP cylinder is reversed in order to minimise differential expansion effects and
axial thrust balancing. The example of this type is shown in Fig. 3.3.
In axial turbines, the steam is admitted to the cylinder and exhausted from it, by one or more
circular pipes in a radial or near-radial orientation. At the LP turbine exhaust, the connection flanges to
the condenser will however normally be rectangular, at an appropriate location and orientation to match
the condenser design. This is always-radial flow in one or more directions. The steam is therefore
required to turn through a right angle to enter the axial-flow blading and to exhaust from it, at the same
time redistributing itself around the circumference. The inlet and exhaust areas therefore require
sufficient space to allow an orderly flow without undue pressure loss or flow separation. In some cases,
particularly low pressure turbine exhaust, flow guides may be incorporated.
3.3 Cylinder Arrangement

3.3.1 Sub-classification
In order to meet the various demands of size and operating conditions, manufacturers developed
various designs suitable for the purpose. As discussed in Chapter – 1, principally turbines are classified
on their operating principle, viz. Impulse type or Reaction type.
However, turbines may be sub-classified on the basis of cylinder arrangement, shaft connections and
other factors as follows:
1) Number of shafts and coupling methods
2) Number of cylinders
3) Type of exhausts (single exhaust, double exhaust)
4) Rotational speed (1500 rpm, 3000 rpm, 3600 rpm)
5) Use of reheat cycle (single reheat, double reheat)
6) Governing methods, ex. Nozzle Governed or Throttle Governed
3.3.2 Number of cylinders

Turbine may comprise of single cylinder or multi-cylinder arrangement. For turbines driving
electrical generators, the limit of a single-cylinder turbine is around 100 MW above which multi-cylinder
arrangement is adopted. This depends on design concepts, the initial steam conditions (pressure and
temperature), whether or not a reheat cycle is used, the exhaust conditions and the speed of rotation.
Frequently, single cylinder turbines (industrial turbine) are designed and built on a modular basis,
with the inlet sections, blading sections selected from a range of standard designs to suit a range of
output powers, initial and exhaust conditions and special applications such as extraction steam for
process heating. The G.E. make single cylinder turbine generator unit of 67.5 MW installed in 1960s is
shown in Fig. 3.4.
For larger machines (above 100 MW ), multi-cylinder designs are used. Various configurations of
multi-cylinder designs are shown in Fig. 3.5. The number of cylinders depends on similar considerations
of terminal conditions and design aspects. A typical turbine of 500 – 1000 MW output in a Fossil Fired
Power Station would have one High Pressure Turbine, one Intermediate Pressure turbine and one to
three numbers of low-pressure turbines. A typical 210 – 500 MW units of KW U design adopted by BHEL
in India have three cylinder arrangement, one HP (single flow), one IP (single or double flow) and one LP
(double flow) cylinders connected in tandem arrangement as illustrated in Fig. 3.6 for KW U 210 MW unit.
In all the units single reheat cycle is used.
The rotational speed of the turbine depends on grid frequency. In India we have adopted 50 Hz
electrical frequency, which means the turbines connected directly to two poles generator rotate at 3000
rpm. In USA turbines are designed to rotate at 3600 rpm due to 60Hz grid frequency.
For large turbines, the IP & LP cylinders have double exhausts. Obviously, since the steam
expands considerably during its flow through the turbine, from inlet to exhaust, the blade annulus must
increase to cope with the larger volume of steam. As a result the blade lengths must increase towards the

exhaust end. By dividing the steam flow in two opposite streams, blade lengths are considerably reduced
giving rise to normal centrifugal forces and blade vibrations. Due to self-balancing of axial thrust by
double flow cylinders, the loading on the thrust bearing is considerably reduced and hence higher
mechanical efficiency is achieved.
Fig.3.4 Single Cylinder Modular Type Turbine
3.3.3 Shaft Arrangement

The turbo-generators have two types of arrangements:
i) Tandem-compounded machine
ii) Cross-compounded machine
The turbine with a number of cylinders on a single shaft is described as a Tandem –

Compounded machine. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.7(a). The other main type is the cross-
compounded machine as shown in Fig. 3.7(b), in which the turbine cylinders are mounted on two separate
parallel shafts driving, two separate generators. The steam connections and the auxiliary systems are
arranged as for a single generating unit. This design is more widely used where the grid frequency is 60
Hz and the available LP turbine blading results in a large number of LP cylinders being required.
Therefore, in such cases if cross-compounded design is adopted then the use of a very long shaft can be
avoided. Further, the number of LP cylinders can be reduced if the LP turbine rotates at 1800 rpm, while
the HP shaft rotates at 3600 rpm.
3.3.4 Condenser Location

The arrangement of the LP turbine and its connection to the condenser depends critically on the
location of the condenser and the origination of the condenser tubes with respect to the turbine axis.

Fig.3.5 Multi Cylinder turbine Arrangements

44
Fig.3.6 210 MW- KWU Steam Turbine Arrangement
Steam Turbines for Power Generation

(a) Tandem Compounded
(b) Cross Compounded
Fig.3.7 Tandem & Cross-Compounded Arrangements
Fig.3.8 Isometric View of Typical Tandem Compounded Machine

In majority of the designs, the condenser has traditionally been mounted below the LP turbine, with the
condenser tubes either axial or transverse. During 1960s and 1970s, however, many high capacity
turbines were built in UK with side mounted condensers and axial tubes. The main objective was to
reduce the overall height and size of the turbine hall. But the main disadvantage of this design is that the
condenser becomes an important part of the turbine in terms of structural integrity, loading, foundations
etc. This makes the condenser design dependent on number & size of LP turbines thus inhibiting the
concept of modular design and standardised manufacturing aspects. The design may also complicate
access to the turbine for maintenance, for example, to the bearing pedestals.
Later on, therefore, the designers again preferred the use of under-slung condensers (below LP
turbine) with transverse tubes, using a connecting duct between the turbine outlet flange and the
condenser inlet flange. Because the condenser tubes are normally much longer than the width of the
turbine casing, this duct is trapezoidal in shape.
3.4 Turbine Foundation

3.4.1 Requirements
The turbine generator foundation consists of the support structure, the sub-foundation and the sub-
soil, which performs the following functions.
• Support the static load of the turbine-generator and associated pipe loads and transmit these forces
to the sub-soil.
• Restrain the plant from undue movement due to dynamic forces resulting from the load torque,
unbalance forces, electrical faults, etc. by transmitting and absorbing the associated energy.
• Maintain the alignment of the plant under all operating conditions.
• Accommodate the thermal expansion of the structure and static parts of the plant under all operating
conditions.
• Raise the plants above the basement to provide access to electrical connections and pipe work.
Bottom connections of the main steam pipe work are particularly desirable to avoid dismantling pipe
work during maintenance and to prevent the pipeline draining into the turbine. The height of the
turbine floor (typically 9m for 210 MW turbines) above basement floor level (zero meter) is partly
determined by the need to accommodate the condenser and condenser neck, when an under-slung
condenser is used and partly by consideration of condensate drainage requirements. Also it is
necessary that bled-steam piping should drain away from the turbine and the drains from LP heaters
must be returned to the condenser. For this to be achieved with gravity drainage requires a certain
minimum height difference between turbine and condenser hot well.
• The natural frequency of vibration of the foundation structure is above the running speed of the
machine and away from any harmonics of this speed. This is referred to as a Stiff-foundation.
• It is also necessary to monitor the movement of the foundation throughout the life of the station.
Settlement of the whole foundation in service is not very serious, provided that it is not large enough
to affect electrical and steam connections, but differential movement between bearing supports must
be avoided in order to maintain the alignment of the turbine cylinders and shafts in reasonable limits.
3.4.2 R.C.C. Foundation

The traditional foundation used for turbine generator units upto 500 MW is reinforced concrete.
The isometric view of typical tandem-compounded turbo-generator unit is shown in Fig. 3.8. This
foundation is invariably high-tuned (stiff) and movement at the bearing has been restricted at the expense
of high bearing forces. The dynamic energy associated with machine vibration is transmitted through the
support structure and sub-foundation and absorbed by these structures and subsoil.
W hen designing a concrete foundation, margins on calculated natural frequency have to be

allowed because of the wide range of values of Young's modulus for concrete, which can be met in
practice. Concrete also shrinks during curing and this can continue for a log time after construction.
Most of the shrinkage occurs during the first six months, so turbine-generator erection on the support
structure is normally planned to proceed nine months after construction.

3.4.3 Spring Foundations
As the natural frequency of a low-tuned (not stiff) foundation support decreases, the isolation
between the support structure and the sub-foundation increases and the sub-foundation is called upon to
absorb less of the energy resulting from dynamic and transient forces generated in the shaft line and
static sections of the plant.
The best practical approach in this case to complete dynamic isolation results into mounting the
turbine-generator unit on springs buffered between concrete structures. Recently this technique has been
used by BHEL in 210 MW units 3 & 4 at Khaperkheda TPS. The view of front pedestal support is shown
in Fig. 3.9. Generally this practice uses springs of the helical-coil or plate type supporting a reinforced
concrete deck on which the turbine-generator is mounted. Springs mounted in rows on structural concrete
walls or in groups at the top of support columns have been used in some cases viscous dampers are
employed in conjunction with springs. Natural frequencies of about 3 Hz for movement in the vertical
direction are claimed for these systems. A hydraulic locking system is used to pre-load the springs to a
set deflection for construction and plant erection purposes. The same locking system can be used to
allow the insertion of packers, above a spring or spring group, to correct for foundation column settlement.
This also allows springs to be changed after erection if spring stiffness is noticed to be deteriorated.
The other important advantage is that because the sub-foundation is well isolated from dynamic
loads, it is possible to reduce the mass of the sub-foundation towards that necessary to support static load
only, or even to dispense with a mass concrete sub-foundation and install individual foundations for each
support column. The precise design, of course, depends on subsoil conditions at the particular site. The
foundations cost reductions of about 25% are claimed in normal circumstances.
Fig.3.9 Spring Foundation
3.5 Turbine Construction

3.5.1 Main Components
As discussed earlier, modern steam turbines of high capacity have multi-cylinder design with HP, IP & LP
turbines. Shafts of HP, IP, LP and Generator are tandem -compounded (Ref. Fig. 3.6, 3.8). Turbine
casings are supported on pedestals, which are mounted on base plate embedded in to RCC foundation.
The rotors are supported on bearings housed in to pedestals. The main design aspects of supporting
system are to permit free longitudinal and transverse expansions to casings and rotors of turbine with
proper anchoring point.
i) The main components of turbine as described in Fig. 3.10 are:

1) Inner and outer casing

2) Fixed blades or diaphragms
3) Rotor with moving blades, shaft and coupling
4) Gland seals and inter-stage seals
5) Balance piston
ii) The other essential components of turbine arrangement are :

1) Bearings (radial and thrust)
2) Bearing housing
3) Pedestals
4) Main oil pump
5) Steam admission valves (ESV, IV, Control Valves)
6) Steam admission and exhaust piping
The design and constructional features are discussed later.
Fig.3.10 Main Components of Turbine

3.5.2. Turbine Casings
3.5.2.1 Limitations of Single Casing Design
The turbine cylinder, being a pressure vessel having length and massive weight, is supported at
each end. Consequently, the design must stand-up to hoop stress, which acts in transverse plane due to
inside steam pressure, and also to maintain longitudinal rigidity. The rigidity being necessary to maintain
clearances between rotor and stator blading.
Another design factor is imposed by the need for uniform heating of both the massive flange
metal (Parting plane joint) and rest of the cylinder.
The single casing design, which is practically obsolete, now, was adopted earlier for lower steam
parameters and medium to small capacity turbines. In this design the fixed blades, also called as
diaphragms, are housed directly in the grooves of casing. The rotor is centered axially and radially in side
the casing so as to maintain proper clearances during operation.
The design is complicated by the need of internal access, the casing being split along the
horizontal plane, allowing the rotor to be inserted as a complete assembly. Substantial thickness flanges
and bolting are required to withstand the pressure forces at the horizontal joint. The relatively massive
flanges compared to the casing wall thickness respond more slowly to temperature changes, particularly
during cold start-up of turbine, resulting in different rates of expansion and the setting-up of thermal
stresses and the distortion. This is explained in Fig. 3.11. This distortion is, however, minimized by
providing warm-up steam to flanges and studs during start-up and load-changes. Further stress
complexities are introduced by the gland housing located at the ends and also due to steam entry and exit
passages.
Fig.3.11 Distortion of Turbine Casing due to Thermal Stresses

HP & IP casings are of forged or cast construction and are circular in cross-section to minimise
non-membrane stresses. Flanges, bolting, steam chest and other features are as far as possible
symmetrically arranged to reduce thermal asymmetry and hence distortion. LP casings may be fabricated
or may have combination of castings and fabrications.
As with all pressure vessels, the integrity of the design is checked after manufacture with a
hydraulic pressure test at 15% of the highest working pressure.
3.5.2.2. Double Shell and Carrier Ring Design

The difficulties faced in single casing design due to slow warming up during start-up and distortion
due to thermal stresses, as discussed above, are overcome by adopting double shell (casing) design or to
some extent by carrier ring design.
W henever the steam conditions are high, the cylinder is generally of double shell design. The
inside shell serves as fixed blade carrier and encloses the rotor. The outer shell encovers the assembled
inner shell as shown in Fig. 3.12. The annular gap between inner shell and out-shell is filled up generally
by exhaust steam (in some cases inlet steam). This enables each shell to be designed for a relatively
small pressure differential as compared to single shell design (Fig. 3.12). Hence the reduced shell
thickness and flange thickness, together with the increase in area of contact with the steam, permits
quicker warming of turbine when starting without undue thermal stresses. Moreover casting becomes
simplified, resulting in sounder castings.
The modified form of double shell construction, using carrier rings, as shown in Fig. 3.13, is used
by some designers (LMW Design Turbine). In this case split carrier rings, which houses diaphragms, are
fitted in the grooves of the casing, this serves the job of partial double shell design.
3.5.2.3 High Pressure Casings

Most modern turbines with steam pressure 100 bar and ratings greater than 100 MW have HP
casings of double-shell design. This has been adopted because of the difficulty of designing a single shell
casing to withstand the thermal and pressure stresses and yet to be capable of flexible operation (quick
start-up, quick load changes). The inner shell is always split type, which encloses the rotor assembly,
whereas the outer shell may split type or barrel type design as discussed below.
A) Outer Casing Split Type :

The outer and inner shells are split into horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 3.10 and 3.14. The
space between the shells is filled with exhaust steam. A baffle is formed between the two casings near
the exhaust end as part of the inner casing casting. The baffle extends almost to the outer casing but
does not seal against it. The turbulent exhaust steam is directed by the baffle to the exhaust connections
and prevented from cooling the inner casing. This reduces the temperature differentials and hence
stresses on the inlet end of the inner casing. Steam leaking through the gland between the inner casing
and the rotor at the inlet end is piped away to the exhaust connections, so the space between the casings
contains steam at exhaust conditions with a gentle flow being maintained by leakage through the outer
casing gland. Therefore, the smaller pressure differential permits a thinner shell which, combined with the
larger surface area of a double casing, allows quicker warming of the turbine on start-up.
Triple casings have been used on some modern turbines to further reduce the stresses on the hot
inner casing, and hence reduce thermal distortion.
B. Development of Barrel-type Turbine:

In this type of design, the inner casing is enclosed in a barrel-like sleeve, which has no horizontal
joint. The inner casing is only lightly stressed and can be relatively thin with light flanges, whilst the
barred casing which encloses it is more highly stressed. The barrel casing, however, having no flanges
and being of uniform thickness can easily be designed to accommodate the stresses whilst also remaining
relatively thin. The pressure between the inner casing and the barrel is controlled by small radial
passages through the inner cylinder walls and piston ring seals between the inner and barrel casings.

Double Shell Design
Single Shell Design
Fig.3.12 Double& Single Shell Design
Fig.3.13 Carrier Ring Design

Fig.3.14 Inner & Outer Shells Split Type Design

In fact the use of the barrel-type turbine as a high pressure turbine with an axially split inner casing and
barrel-shaped outer casing with vertical casing joint flange dates back to the year 1928. The rise in steam
conditions determined the development and hence increasing significance of the barrel type turbine in the
following years. The recent design of the KW U, HP turbine is based on the Siemens radial-flow turbine
used in services as a HP turbine of large power plant turbines until 1953/54.
The transition to an axial blading system was necessary for the increasing turbine capacities to
allow greater steam flow rates. In the course of further development, the packing gland parts with the
intricate radial gland rings were replaced by an axial design with a number of individual segments. The
sophisticated radial and axial centering of the blade carrier was reduced to a design with mounting
bracket on one plane with axial fitted keys. Also, instead of self-aligning rings fitted in grooves, V-rings
were developed that press on plane faces, after having been stressed, and can be removed easily. It
proved to be of great benefit to replace the shrunk-fitted coupling by an integrally forged coupling bolts.
This resulted in general barrel-type turbine design illustrated in Fig. 3.15 used as HP turbine in
turbine generator sets of upto 740 MW . In this design, the exhaust section is bolted to the barrel casing in
radial plane. In the meantime, the design changes to develop joint loss barrel type casing with
consideration being given particularly to fabrication and simple assembly and also top further improve the
operating behaviour has resulted into new design barrel type HP turbine as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Bolted Exhaust End
Fig.3.15 Old Barrel Type Design
W hen the old barrel type casing (Fig. 3.15) is compared with the new design (Fig. 3.16), the
advantages of the new development stand out. The most striking change is missing radial flange to barrel
casing where the exhaust section was bolted together. Thus, mass accumulations are avoided thereby
and the wall thicknesses in all parts are approximately identical. This gives an advantage during
operation of reduced thermal stresses due to reduced mass accumulations. The new barrel type turbine
design, as viewed in Fig. 3.16, is resistant to deformation even during rapid temperature changes and at
high pressure. Inner casing (split type) and barrel are forged out of creep resistant alloy steel.
3.5.2.4 I P Casings
In reheat turbines, the design aspects for IP cylinders are similar to those for HP cylinders since the
reheat steam temperature is as high as main steam temperature. But the lower steam pressure permits
the IP casings to be thinner as compared to HP casings, which helps in minimizing the thermal stresses.
Mostly in modern turbines, the double casing design (both split) with double-flow arrangement is adopted
which allows faster start-up of axial thrust. Double flow casing design has an advantage eliminating the
rotor gland at high-pressure end and self-balancing of axial thrust.

Steam Inlet
Steam Exhaust
Fig.3.16 Modern Barrel Type Turbine, With Integral Exhaust Section
Grooves for Blade Fixing
Fig.3.17 Solid Forged Rotor (Integral Disc Type)

The gap between inner and outer casing is filled with exhaust steam. The inner and outer casings are
machined from forged alloy steel. All casings have bolted horizontal flange joints.
3.5.2.5 L P Casings
L P cylinders are generally of double-casing and double flow construction with an inner casing
containing diaphragm supports, bled steam and water extraction belts. Outer casing directs the exhaust
steam from the last stage to the condenser, which is located at bottom of LP turbine.
The large size of LP outer casings combined with their low-pressure loading favours a fabricated
(welded) structure rather than cast construction. Inner casings being more complicated may be of cast
construction. All casings have bolted horizontal flange joints.
3.5.3 Turbine Rotors

3.5.3.1 Types of Rotors
Turbine rotors may be of four main types as follows:
i) Solid Forged or Integral Rotor
ii) Forged Steel Drum Rotor
iii) Built-up or Disc Rotor
iv) W elded or Fabricated Rotor
3.5.3.2 Solid Forged Rotor

This type of rotor has discs and shaft machined from one solid forging. Since the whole rotor
being one complete piece, this rotor is also called as integral rotor, as shown in Fig. 3.17. This design
offers rigid construction and eliminates troubles due to loose wheels of the shrunk on type construction at
high temperature application. Grooves are machined in the wheel rims to fix the moving blades.
Solid forged rotors are used in HP and IP turbines that employ impulse type blading and
sometimes for LP turbines when reaction type blading are used. The HP and IP turbines are subjected to
high temperature of steam. Under the high temperature and stress conditions, the phenomenon of creep
takes place after a large number of running hours. Hence other types of rotors, except integral or solid
forged rotor, may not withstand during the life of the turbine. Fig. 3.18 shows fully bladed integral type
rotor for HP turbine. However, the integral types of rotors are difficult to forge and due to high rejection
rate are expensive. Also a large amount of machining time and waste material is involved.
Impulse Stage Riveted

Shrouding
Reaction Stages
Disc
Fig.3.18 Integral Disc Type Forged Rotor for HP Turbine

3.5.3.3 Forged Steel Drum Rotor
In the drum type rotor the steam inlet end of the rotor is a single steel forging (drum portion) and
the exhaust end shaft and disc is another separate forging. After machining, the drum is shrunk on to the
exhaust end disc forging and secured by bolts and driving dowels. Grooves are machined in the body of
the drum to take the necessary blades. The assemble rotor sectional view is shown in Fig. 3.19.
Fig.3.19 Hollow Drum Type rotor
Drum rotors are used for large turbines using 50% reaction blading. These rotors may be further
classified as:
i) The hollow drum rotor (Fig. 3.19), which is designed with the same thickness of material
as the casing. This feature offers the advantage of even temperature distribution.
ii) The solid drum rotor (Fig. 3.20), which is suitable for cylinders where there are lower
temperatures but large diameter as in case of IP turbine without reheat.
Fig. 3.20 Solid Drum Type Rotor

The drum rotor is limited in its application because of the excessive stresses, which would occur if
it were made in large sizes. It is, therefore, suitable for small machines. The main advantage of this
design is that there is approximately the same mass of metal in the rotor as in the cylinder casing.
Therefore, there is approximately the same response to changing temperature conditions (transient
conditions during start-up and shut down) in both rotor and casing. This feature facilitates in keeping the
working clearances minimum.
3.5.3.4 Built-up Rotor

The built-up or Disc Rotor is made up of a number of separately forged discs or wheels and the
hubs of these wheels are shrunk fitted and keyed on to the central forged steel shaft. This type of rotor is
shown in Fig. 3.21.
Fig.3.21 Built-up Rotor

The outer rims of the wheels have suitable grooves machined to allow for fixing the blades. The
shaft has stepped diameters construction so that the wheel hubs can be shrunk fitted to their correct
positions. Suitable clearances are left between the hubs to allow for axial expansion along the line of the
shaft. Under operating conditions, the temperature of the wheels may rise quicker than that of the shaft
and this tends to make the wheel hubs become loose. Also the excessive over speeds will have the same
effect. Therefore, considerable attention is paid during construction of the rotor to ensure that the wheels
are shrunk-on tight enough to satisfy normal operation within correct stress values.
The built-up rotor tends to be cheaper since the discs and shaft are relatively easy to forge and
inspection for flaws and the matching of these components can be carried out concurrently.
Built-up rotors cannot be used for high temperature applications. Such as HP and IP turbines due
to danger of loss of shrunk fitting and loosening of discs after a long hours of operation. However, these
can well be used for LP turbines where the steam temperatures are low.
3.5.3.5. Welded Rotors

W elded rotors are built up from a number of discs and two shaft ends as shown in Fig. 3.22(a).
These are joined together by welding at the circumferences. Since there are no central holes in the discs
the whole assembly has considerable strength. Small holes are drilled in the discs to allow the steam to
enter inside the rotor body to give uniform heating when coming on load. Grooves are machined in the
discs to carry the blades. Fig. 3.22(b) shows the rotor after welding and Fig. 3.22 (c) shows the section
after blading.
This type of rotor offers the main advantage of lower stresses in the discs as in the case of LP
turbine. W ith regard to LP rotors, the main concern is one of centrifugal stress due to higher diameter.
Hence the last stage disc being most heavily stressed part of the turbine. The centrifugal load of large
rotating blades sets up a tensile stress in the rim of the disc and this stress increases with decreasing
radius. The maximum value of this tensile stress being at the bore of the hub. The larger the bore of the
hub, higher is the maximum stress. If the bore is exceedingly small, the hoop stresses throughout the
disc are halved. This aspect is made use of in certain welded LP rotors, which have no central hole;
hence it contains much lower stresses.
The other advantage of this rotor is that it obviates the need for large shaft forgings, which are
expensive and difficult to manufacture.
3.5.3.6. High Temperature Design Aspects

Modern high capacity large steam turbines are designed for higher steam inlet conditions. Hence the
rotor design has become more critical. Fundamental considerations include creep and thermal fatigue,
both requiring control of the temperature distribution in components during steady and transient operation
(start-up and fast load changes). It is ensured at the design stage that the creep that occurs as a function
of time, temperature and stress level do not exceed specified values and that thermal stresses due to
cyclic operation (start-up and shut-down) are not exceeding the limit to cause thermal fatigue during the
life of the turbine.
Creep can be restricted by proper geometry in critical areas, such as blade fastenings, in order to
control the stress concentration features. Rotor stresses are generally kept within limit for high
temperature working by employing creep resistant steels.
Thermal fatigue is caused due to cyclic reversals of thermal stresses resulting from transient
temperature gradients established during heating and cooling periods (start-up and shutdown). The
steam admission sections of HP & IP rotors are the critical areas for thermal fatigue, demanding careful
attention to design detail and operational practices. Modern turbines are equipped with "Turbine Stress
Evaluator/Controllers" package to control the speeding-up and loading gradients during machine
operation.

Fig.3.22 Welded Rotor

3.5.4 Turbine Blading
3.5.4.1 Design Aspects
As described in Chapter – 1, there is either impulse force (impulse type blading) or a combination
of impulse and reaction forces (reaction type blading) acting on the blades due to steam flow. The longer
the blade, the greater the bending force at the root or fixing point of the blade with the disc or rim.
In addition there is a centrifugal force, caused by the speed at which the blade is rotating, trying to
throw the blade outwards. These two forces, the bending force and the throwing out force increases with
the increase in wheel diameter or blade height. Hence, these forces stresses in the blade are maximum
in the largest blade wheel at the LP turbine exhaust end (last two stages). Thus the stresses, which these
forces impose, limit the size of the blades and the diameter of the last wheel. Due to this limitation, the
blade height of last stages is restricted to maximum 1m by designing double flow in the LP cylinder and in
large turbines (above 500 MW ) two or three double flow LP cylinders.
The mechanical stresses as described above are smaller in HP turbine moving blades but on the
other hand, this blading is subject to very high temperature and material is subject to creep after long
running hours.
3.5.4.2 HPT & IPT Blading

Shorter Blades:
At high pressure of steam, which is the case in HP turbine initial stages, the flow area required is
small. Furthermore, the blades following the nozzles are very short, hence difficult to fabricate. Such
short blades are also less efficient. Hence it is preferred to use a minimum height of 20 mm for the initial
blades. Blade height depends on the total annular area required to pass the desired flow of steam. As
the steam passes from inlet to exhaust, the pressure of steam reduces while expanding through fixed and
moving blade stages. W ith this to accommodate higher specific volume steam, the flow area of
subsequent stages and hence the blade heights, keep on increasing HP turbine to IP turbine.
Impulse Type Moving Blading:

In impulse stage, the majority of the heat drop occurs in the stationary blading and the driving
force on the stage arises from the change in momentum of the steam across the moving blades. The
impulse design possesses the advantages of compactness and comparative insensitivity to blading
clearance since little pressure drop (due to friction) takes place over the moving blades. On the other
hand, since the momentum change is relatively high, the moving blades have to be robust and tend to be
heavy. It is therefore regular practice to attach the individually blades to a wheel disc, often by inverted
"T" root in initial stages and hook type roots in the exhaust side stages. The roots engage tightly with
corresponding slots machined on the wheel rim. The passage between two blades has equal area from
inlet tip to the outlet tip of the blade as shown below.
The HP moving blades for impulse type turbine are machined from solid bar and the spacers are
formed with the blade. Such construction avoids the use of distance pieces or packers when assembling

the blades in the wheel slot. Fig. 3.23 shows the impulse type moving blade with inverted "T" root
whereas Fig. 3.24 shows the blade with hook type root. Tangs (Protruded tip) are left at the tips of the
blades so that when fitted in position in the wheel the shrouding can be attached. The shrouding is made
up from sections of metal strip punched with holes to correspond with the tangs. The strip is passed over
the tangs, which are then formed in, to rivets to secure the strip in position. The shrouding is fitted in
separate sections to allow for expansion. The close view of assembled blades with shrouding in position
is illustrated in Fig. 3.25.
Fig.3.23 Impulse Type Blades Fig.3.24 Blades with Hook

With Inverted T- root Type Root
Fig.3.25 Riveted shrouding of Impulse Stages

As described earlier, there is little pressure drop across the moving blades of an impulse turbine
and therefore, the sealing arrangement are not of such great importance as in the reaction type. The
shrouding on the impulse blading helps to guide the steam through the moving blades, allowing larger
radial clearance, as well as increasing the rigidity of the assembly to reduce the blade vibrations.
Impulse Type Fixed Blading:

The fixed blading in an impulse turbine takes the form of nozzles mounted in diaphragms. The
diaphragm is made in two halves, one half being fixed to the upper half of the cylinder and the other half
diaphragm to the lower half cylinder. The diaphragms are located in the cylinder casings by means of
keys so that when expansion occurs, fouling of the shaft seals is avoided. The diaphragms are located in
the grooves provided in inside casing (double casing design) carries rings are generally used to support
the diaphragms in HP & IP cylinders.
At the HP end of the turbine the diaphragms are of the built-up type. Each nozzle is machined
separately from a solid bar and on earlier design turbines, is attached by grooves and rivets to the
diaphragm plate. In most cases now the nozzles are welded together and to the plate. Fig. 3.26 shows
the manner in which the nozzles are built-up around the diaphragm plate.
Fig.3.26 Built- up Diaphragm

For the low-pressure end of the turbine, diaphragms of the cast in type are used. These consist
of iron castings with steel nozzle plates embedded in them. An example of this type of diaphragm is
shown in Fig. 3.27. Because of the steam pressure difference on each side of the diaphragm, seals are
provided at the bore where the shaft passes through the diaphragms, to prevent steam leakage along the
shaft.
Fig.3.27 Diaphragm with Cast- in Nozzle Plate
Reaction Type Blading:

For blading subject to high temperatures in HP & IP cylinders, the blades are made complete with
root section and shrouding in one piece and are formed in groups or packets for convenience of handling.
The shrouds have projecting portion, which is thinned down to form a single knife-edge on the moving
blades. On the fixed blades a second strip is added which is tapered to form a double knife-edge. The
blade packets are then fitted in the grooves to form complete row of either fixed or moving blades. The
blade packets are serrated along the roots and secured in the grooves, which are also serrated by means
of side locking strips. Typical small & medium size reaction type blades are shown in Fig. 3.28.
Fig.3.28 Reaction Type Blades

3.5.4.3 LP Turbine Blading
In LP turbine initial stages, the reaction type blading is employed which are longer than IP
turbine blading. In this case, due to low pressures, the leakage past the blading is not such an important
factor. The clearance between blading is only a small proportion of the blade length and end tightening is
not used. A radial seal only is provided and this is achieved by using blades without shrouding but having
thin tapered tips as shown in Fig. 3.29. By this method a fine clearance can be maintained and due to the
thin tips of the blades, any rubbing, which might occur, would not be serious. The clearance is fixed
during manufacture of the turbine and cannot be altered except by reblading.
Moving Blades
Fixed Blades
Fig.3.29 Unshrouded Reaction Type Thin Tipped Blades
For the larger LP blades the side locking strips are not generally used and the blade roots are
parallelogram shaped for fitting into serrated grooves. On the very large LP blades, which are sometimes
of hollow construction to reduce weight, a side entry method of fixing is used (Fig. 3.30). For vibration
considerations lacing wires are passed through holes in the blades and either brazed in position or in
some designs the loose wire uses the centrifugal forces to restrain the blades.
The last stage is very important in turbine design. As the pressure of steam decreases during
expansion, the specific volume becomes very high. The volume flow of steam increases necessitating an
increased flow area consequently blade height and mean diameter increase with decrease of pressure.
Blades are held at one end with the rotor while the other end is free so they act as cantilevers with
distributed load of steam on them. They are subjected to bending stresses in addition to high centrifugal
stresses due to rotation. In the last stage of the LPT, both the bending stress and centrifugal stress reach
the maximum values. As per material considerations, the maximum blade velocity is also limited which is
about 350 – 400 m/s. Therefore, for 3000 rpm machine, the maximum diameter of the last stage comes
out to be 2.23 m. For straight blades, the maximum blade height is about 20% of the mean blade ring
diameter. W here it is necessary to exceed this ratio (Blade height/mean diameter) because of flow
requirements in large LP turbines, the blades may be tapered or twisted, thereby reducing both bending
and centrifugal stresses. W ith these modifications, the blade height may approach about 30% (0.7m) of
the mean blade ring diameter (2.23 m).

Holes for Lacing Wire
Serrated
Grooves
In Rotor
Fig.3.30 Blades with Serrated Roots
Fig.3.31 Twisted Blades for LPT Last Stages

The other object of twisted blade design (fig.3.31) is to prevent uneven steam flow caused by the
centrifugal forces, forcing the steam towards the blade tips. Changing the throat opening from root to tip
does this. A 0.7 m blade with zero reaction at the root has approximately 70% reaction at the tip. Hence
these blades produce varying conditions of impulse or reaction between roots and tip and are called
vortex blades. This is achieved by changing the throat opening from root to tip. Also the inlet angle of
the blade alters along its length giving a smooth and efficient steam entry. In some designs with twisted
blades, the lacing wire is eliminated which further improves the efficiency. LPT rotor with twisted blades is
shown in fig.3.32.
Fig.3.32 LPT Rotor with Twisted Blades
3.5.4.4 Root Fixings

Various types of root fixing shapes exist for turbine blading to suit both the conditions under which
the blade must operate and the preference of the designer. Commonly there are the types, which either
fit in their appropriate groove or straddle it, whilst other designs are fixed by rivets through the blade root.
Some examples of these blade root fixings are shown in Fig. 3.33.
In the case of reaction type turbines, the HP blading is built up in packets of up to ten blades and
held in the rotor grooves with "inverted T" root.
For low-pressure stages with longer blades, "Inverted Fir Tree" types of roots are designed for
firm fixing and rigid construction.
3.5.4.5 Clearances
Massive rotors weighing up to 100 tons and 20 m long have to revolve without touching the
diaphragm glands and the casing glands, which may have clearances of about 0.6 to 0.7 mm only to the

Fig.3.33 Various Types of Blade root Fixings

shaft. Considering the severe temperatures and the dynamic forces induced by the high speed of shaft
rotation, enables in visualizing the problem of avoiding shaft damage and heating, if the clearances are
somehow reduced to zero. Some other factors that may cause reduce the clearances during running of
turbine are:
i) Cylinder distortion at start-up or shut-down (transient condition)
ii) Cylinder distortion temporarily during running
iii) Permanent distortion of casing due to such thermal causes as metal creep.
Transient phenomena may be due to different heat losses from the top and the bottom half of
cylinders, after shutdown. This results into hogging of cylinders followed by rubbing. The phenomena
listed at (i) and (ii) above may largely be countered by effective lagging (insulation). The third type of
distortion can only be avoided by effective design.
Apart from radial, there are axial clearances. And in the case of 30 m long shaft axis, the differential
expansion between the rotor and the casing may produce about 25 mm movement at the output shaft
end, between extreme of operating conditions. Such movement may cause gland rubbing, if the gland
sealing is of labyrinth type, i.e. fins mounted alternatively on shaft and gland housing.
3.5.5. Gland Sealing

3.5.5.1 Working Principle
Glands are fitted to turbine where the shafts pass through the cylinders in order to reduce steam
leakage in HP/IP turbines and air leakage in case of LP turbines to minimum. Allowance must also be
made for movement of the shaft or casing without damaging the glands or reducing their efficiency.
In all modern turbines labyrinth seals are employed. Generally the glands are of the radial
clearance variety and are fitted at all points where there is a pressure difference between the turbine
internals and the atmosphere or between stages (particularly reaction type stages).
The labyrinth gland provides a series of very fine annular clearances, in the gap between the
cylinder wall and the shaft. The steam is throttled through this gap and its pressure reduced step by step.
In expanding through each clearance, the steam develops kinetic energy at the expense of its pressure
energy. Ideally, the kinetic energy is converted by turbulence into heat with no recovery of pressure
energy. In this way, the pressure is progressively broken down as the steam is throttled at successive
restrictions. By keeping the clearance area sufficiently small, the quantity of energy lost may be kept low
and as turbine output increases, the gland leakage loss becomes proportionately less.
To reduce the clearance, glands are made with a diameter as small as possible. The diameter is
limited by considerations of shaft strength and radial clearance, by clearance within the bearing and by
the possibility of shaft distortion during transient conditions.
Glands must allow for axial expansion of the shaft and casing to take place without causing a rub.
On the other hand, if a rub does take place because of shaft vibration, it is desirable that the heat
generated is minimised to prevent serious distortion. A typical modern gland comprises of stationary fins
on spring-loaded segments, while the shaft is either smooth or having alternate fins. If a rub takes place,
the segments receive the generated heat and can be replaced readily if they are damaged.
3.5.5.2 Gland Arrangement

W ith labyrinth glands, passages are provided in the gland housing for steam sealing and leak-off.
The gland at HP end of a turbine is always under steam pressure from the cylinder and has a small leak
off of steam. The LP cylinder glands are subject to vacuum from the casing side and must be sealed with
steam to prevent air leaking through. The intermediate cylinder glands may be under pressure or vacuum
from the casing according to the load on the turbine.
Fig. 3.40 shows the labyrinth gland arrangement for typical turbine with HP, double flow IP and
double flow LP turbine cylinders. In the high pressure turbine glands there are three pockets, the gland
sealing steam being supplied at the centre pocket. The gland steam leaks-off from the outer pocket to the

Steam Spaces
Fig.3.34 Turbine Shaft Glands

gland steam cooler maintained under vacuum by exhauster fans. The admission side inner pocket is
connected to the IP cylinder exhaust. This arrangement ensures that the energy of leaking steam is
utilized instead of allowing it to flow into the gland packing system, where it would create pressure control
problems. The exhaust side inner pocket is connected to the deaerator bled-steam line.
The intermediate and low-pressure turbine glands have two pockets. The gland sealing steam is
applied at the inner pocket and the gland leak-off is from the outer pocket into the gland steam cooler.
Gland steam cooler sucks the air + steam mixture from the glands.
2
The steam supply header pressure is maintained generally at 0.01 kg/cm by the pressure
regulating valve and the steam is supplied from PRDS or Cold Reheat System.
3.5.6 Dummy Piston (Balance Piston)

As explained earlier, there is a pressure drop across each row of blades in a reaction type turbine
and a considerable force is produced which acts on the rotor in the direction of the steam flow. In order to
counteract this force and reduce the load on the thrust bearing, dummy piston is machined out of the rotor
forging at the steam admission end (Fig.3.35).
The dummy piston diameter is so calculated that the steam pressure acting upon it in the opposite
direction to the steam flow, balances out the force on the rotor blades in the direction of steam flow. It is
preferable that the dimensions are so designed to keep a small but definite thrust towards the steam inlet
end of the turbine. In order to maintain this condition of thrust at all loads; a balance pipe is usually
connected from the casing, on the outer side of the balance piston, to some point at exhaust of the
cylinder.
Fig.3.35 Dummy Piston Arrangement for Thrust Balancing

The balance pipe maintains the steam pressure on the other side of the dummy piston to
correspond with pressure at the stage down the turbine cylinder to which the balance pipe is connected.
Both dummy piston and balance pipe arrangement are shown in Fig. 3.35.
3.5.7 Bearing & Pedestals

3.5.7.1 Journal Bearings
The purpose of journal bearings is to support the composite rotor system and to retain it in its
correct radial position, relative to the cylinders. Bearings provide a low friction support, which withstands
the static and dynamic loads of shat rotation.
Two bearings normally support each section of the turbine shaft. However, when rigid couplings
are used in some designs, only one bearing is used between cylinders in order to save length and bearing
losses. Plain white metal lined (babbit) journal bearings are invariably used because of their high loading
capacity, reliability and low wear due to hydro-dynamically generated films of lubricating oil. These films
are formed automatically due to wedge action of oil between the white metal and the shaft. The proper oil
film (by controlling inlet oil temperature and oil quality) ensures that no metal-to-metal contact is made.
The oil is continuously fed into the wedge by frictional drag and leaks away axially towards the edges of
the bearing.
A regulating valve or orifice is provided at the inlet of each bearing to adjust the oil supply, which
must not only lubricate but also cools the bearing by removing the frictional heat.
The view of the typical journal bearing is shown in Fig. 3.36. The bearing shell is split horizontally
and dowelled. The bearing rests on four pads fitted with shims. The bearing shell is made of cast iron
and the pads, which are bolted to it, are generally of spherical shape. The spherical seating feature
assures that on assembly, the bearing will automatically align to its correct axial tilt. This is necessary
because, when coupling faces are set and bolted flat together, the outer bearing on each shaft needs to
be higher than the inner bearing due to natural bending (sagging) catenary (shaft line) adopted by each
shaft under its self weight.
The inside surface of both the halves are lined with white metal (Tin & Lead alloy) which has very
low coefficient of friction. Modern bearings have a thin, uniform white-metal lining that adheres to the
shell by surface tinning.
High pressure jacking oil is admitted through small holes at the bottom of the bearing to lift the
journal (shaft) when starting from rest and upto about 540 rpm speed. This not only enables an oil film to
be established and so prevent wear when starting from rest, but it also reduces the starting torque on the
2
barring gear drive. The oil pipe is usually buried in the white metal so that the high pressure (120 kg/cm )
does not force the white metal away from the shell.
Typical large turbine bearings are upto 530 mm in diameter and have length to diameter (L/D)
ratio in the order of 0.5 to 0.7. Generator bearings tend to be rather longer, with L/D ratios of 0.6 to 1. In
this way, typical load on projected bearing area is kept below about 15 Kpa. The bearing clearance in
vertical direction is kept about 0.1 mm per 100 mm diameter while in horizontal direction it is 0.15 mm per
100 mm diameter of journal.
W ear of journal bearings mainly occurs with an oil film of very small thickness and mild local wear
taking place in a course of long running hours. However, severe wear is a symptom of trouble and can be
caused by following reasons.
• Contacting asperities on badly matched journal and bearing surfaces.
• Scoring by oil-borne solid particles
• Excessive local pressure or temperature
• Electrical pitting

Fig.3.36 Journal Bearing with White – metal Lining

Fatigue cracking of the white metal surface can be caused by heavy vibration or cavitation with the oil film;
the later is usually caused by starvation of oil. Corrosion is caused by water ingress into lube oil system
and acid formation due to oxidation.
Electrical erosion of bearings and journals occasionally occurs. Small shaft voltage is set up by
electromagnetic induction in the generator rotor. Higher voltages sometimes occur in the turbine,
produced electrostatically. Bearing erosion is prevented by effective insulation of the generator bearings
from earth and the application of an earthing brush to a suitable point on the turbine rotor system.
3.5.7.2 Combined Bearing

Generally for all modern turbines the bearing No. 2 between HP & IP turbine is a combined
bearing. In this design thrust bearing is combined with journal bearing in a common housing as shown in
Fig. 3.37. In this design the thrust housing is in two parts, a cast inner housing is located in a cast outer
housing. Both housings are split to form horizontal joints. The inner housing has a spherical outer
diameter with circumferential oil feed grooves; the bore is machined to form two bearing surfaces, one on
either side of a large annular groove in which the thrust pads are mounted. The bearing portions are lined
with white metal keyed in position.
The thrust collar on the HP turbine shaft runs between two sets of white metal lined pivoted pads
located in holding rings. Each holding ring and its associated pads are located and secured in both top
and bottom halves of the inner housing by stop plates and combined washer and screws fitted at the
horizontal joint. Liners fitted between the holding ring halves and the inner housing can be adjusted to
give the desired oil clearance between the thrust pads and the shaft thrust collar. The axial alignment of
the thrust assembly can be adjusted by liners fitted to each end of the outer casing.
The purpose of turbine thrust bearing is to provide a positive axial location for the turbine rotors
assembly relative to the cylinders. To achieve this, it must be able to withstand the unbalanced thrusts
due to blade reaction and steam pressure acting on unbalanced areas. It must be free from maintenance,
except at major outages. Thrust bearing should normally be located close to the areas where
blade/cylinder clearances are minimum and operating temperatures are highest. Hence it is preferably
located between HP and IP turbine.
Although the net thrust on the white metal lined pads in the running condition (on-load) is always
in one direction, i.e. typically towards the generator (which is taken up by working pads), a second set of
pads, termed non-working or surge pads, are incorporated on the opposite side of the thrust collar,
integral with the shaft, to take the reversals of thrust loads during transient operation (load rejection and
turbine trip condition).
In operation, the pad faces are slightly inclined to the face of the thrust collar and the wedge
shaped cavity thus formed fills with oil. As thrust pressure is applied, the wedge narrows and oil is forced
in the restricted end. This ensures that metal-to-metal contact between thrust pads and thrust collar is
prevented. The pads are shaped and mounted so that each is able to pivot independently.
As seen in Fig. 3.37, the bearing has four supporting pads, two in vertical center plane and two in
the horizontal centre plane. These pads have steel and brass shims fitted to their bases to allow the
thrust assembly to be adjusted vertically or horizontally if it becomes necessary to correct the alignment of
the turbine shafts.
Thermocouples are embedded in the four thrust pads adjacent to the horizontal joint in the bottom
half of the thrust bearing. The leads from these thermocouples are carried from the thrust pads to the
bearing pedestals, through dovetail grooves cut in the horizontal joint face of the inner housing bottom
and sealed in position by strips of nylon packing.

Fig.3.37 Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing

3.5.7.3 Bearing Pedestals
The main function of the bearing pedestals is to support the turbine rotor, via the journal bearings,
in a fixed relationship to the cylinders so that gland clearances are maintained in all stages of operation.
Pedestals also support the turbine casing, which are resting on it with the help of lugs.
The front pedestal, which is located at, exhaust or front end of the HP turbine, supports the
journal bearing No. 1 and exhaust side casing brackets. The M.O.P., speed measurement transmitters
and overspeed trip devices are also located inside the pedestal. Front pedestal can slide freely in axial
direction, which is located, by axial guide and radial keys in order to provide free expansion of turbine
cylinders. Typical front & rear pedestal view for KW U HP turbine is shown in Fig. 3.38.
Fig.3.38 Front & Rear Pedestals of HP Turbine

The middle pedestal or pedestal No. 2 which supports combined journal and thrust bearing and
also support the HP & IP casings. This pedestal can slide in axial direction, which is guided in axial keys.
All other pedestals between IP/LP turbine and LP/Generator are fixed (firmly bolted) with base plate of
foundation block.
The pedestals incorporate facilities for the attachment of lubricating and jacking oil supply pipeline
and the associated bearing oil drain pipe work. Also the turbovisory parameters monitoring
instrumentation (axial shift, vibration, differential expansion pick-ups) connections are mounted inside and
outside the pedestals.
Attention is paid in design of pedestals to ventilate around the pedestals, keeping them cool so
that any vertical thermal expansion effects, which might disturb the overall vertical alignment of the
turbine, are minimised.
Pedestals are casted out of materials such as spheroidal graphite iron.
3.5.8 Couplings
As seen earlier, there has been limit to the length of the individual cylinders making up the
complete turbine. Similarly, there is a limit to the length of turbine shaft that can economically be
manufactured. Also, depending upon the steam temperature and stress level in cylinders, the need for
use of different material, suitable to it, arises. Hence the multi-cylinder construction of large turbo-
generators necessitates the use of coupled shaft system. The coupling joins the different rotors together
to transmit the driving torque to each other and finally to the generator rotor.
Depending on requirement, couplings may be selected to allow relative angular misalignment,

transmit axial thrust and ensure axial location or allow relative axial movement.
Couplings are classified as –

i) Flexible
ii) Semiflexible
iii) Rigid
Flexible Couplings:
Flexible couplings are capable of absorbing small amounts of angular misalignment, as well as
axial movement. Fig.3.39 shows some designs in common use. The claw coupling which may be single
or double is robust and slides easily when transmitting light load. At heavy loads, however, friction causes
it to be axially rigid.
The multi-tooth coupling transmits torque by internal and external gear teeth of involute form,
which are curved to accommodate angular misalignment. This type of coupling is used for coupling the
M.O.P. with H.P. turbine shaft in front pedestal.
The Bibby coupling is satisfactory upto medium sizes and provides, in addition to above, torsional
resilience, the torsional stiffness increasing with load.
All these couplings require continuous lubrication, normally provided with a jet of oil feeding into
an annular recess, from which it is fed centrifugally to the coupling teeth through drilled passageways.
Semi-flexible Couplings:
These types of couplings allow angular bending only. They require no lubrication and are
generally employed between LP turbine and generator (LMW turbine). It consists of a bellows piece
having one or more convolutions, as shown in Fig.3.40.
Rigid Couplings:
On turbines larger than 60 MW , the high torque to be transmitted generally renders the use of
flexible couplings impracticable. Consequently, it is now normal practice for rigid couplings to be

Fig.3.39 Flexible Couplings

Fig.3.40 Semi-flexible Coupling
Fig.3.41 Rigid Coupling

employed between the turbine cylinders (as in KW U turbine), so that the turbine shaft behaves as one
continuous rotor.
The long shaft that is formed naturally bends under its own weight (sagging) to form natural
catenary. Because of this, with the use of rigid couplings, the shaft alignment must be adjusted to ensure
that the coupling bending moment forces are minimised.
Rigid couplings may be integral with shaft forgings (monobloc) or are shrunk on to the shaft. It is
now common practice for the turbine rotors to have monobloc half couplings whereas shrunk on couplings
has been used on generator rotor.
Typical rigid coupling is shown in Fig. 3.41. Heating and shrinking them on to the shaft assemble
half couplings, which are forged separately from the shaft. Dowels are then inserted between the bore of
the coupling and the diameter of the shaft. An oil injection arrangement may be provided on the coupling
through which oil can be supplied under pressure to one or two annular grooves in the coupling. This
allows the coupling to be "floated" to ensure that it is seated correctly following the shrink-on procedure
and also assist easy removal.
The two halves of coupling have spigot fitting as shown in Fig. 3.41 couplings are designed to
withstand or close up three-phase fault or out-of-phase synchronizing without damage. The highest
torque under these conditions (typically 4-5 times full load torque) occurs at the generator/turbine
coupling.
Coupling halves are fitted together by standard coupling bolts, which fits in the reamed holes of
coupling and have cylindrical heads with an internal hexagon for tightening. Coupling bolts are recessed
into the coupling to cut down windage loss and noise.
3.5.9 Turning Gear

Turbine rotors must be continuously rotated at low speeds throughout the process of warming up
prior to start-up to ensure uniform warm-up of rotor and prevent its distortion. Similarly following a
shutdown, the rotor should be kept rotating at low speeds for uniform cooling. Rotor and cylinder
distortion could occur as a result of uneven heating or cooling if the facility for turning the rotor is not
available to provide circulation within the cylinders. As a result the phenomenon of hogging (bending)
takes place due to uneven heat transfer between the top and bottom portion of the rotor.
To prevent the rotor distortion, turning gear mechanism is employed with the turbine to rotate the
turbine shaft at low speeds, as specified by design, during start-up and shutdown of turbine.
Three types of turning gear facilitates are usually provided.

• Electrical turning gear
• Hydraulic turning gear
• Hand barring arrangement
Electrical Turning Gear:

The rotors are turned slowly, typically less than 30 rpm, during start-up and shutdown by the ETG.
An electric drive motor turns the rotors through a worm shaft and worm wheel, thereby providing a
reduction gear. A jacking oil pump supplies high pressure lubricating oil to the reduction gear.
Manual control of the motor is provided in the control room and automatic stop and start facilities
based on the turbine speed are also included in the motor switchgear. LMW design turbines are equipped
with this type of arrangement (3-4 rpm speed).
Hydraulic Turning Gear:

In some designs, the shaft system is rotated by hydraulic turbine wheel mounted on the shaft
coupling between IP and LP turbine. A velocity oil jet is issued by nozzles and impinges on the runner
2
blades. Oil is supplied at pressure 6-7 kg/cm from A.O.P. discharge header. The turning gear comes
into service after jacking oil system is charged. This arrangement is provided in KW U design turbines.

Hand Barring Arrangement:
In case the electric or hydraulic turning gear fails to operate or unavailable, provision is made by
the manufacturer to turn the rotors manually by mounting a lever and fulcrum apparatus at a prearranged
point on the cover of a hearing pedestal. This lever operates on a permanent toothed-wheel between two
turbine rotors. This is usually an operational feature to protect the turbine in a heat-soaked condition.
3.6 Rotor Testing & Balancing

3.6.1 Thermal Stability Test
It is ensured during manufacture of turbine rotors that the physical properties of the forging do not
change in service. There are three types of instabilities:
• Permanent, due to asymmetrical coefficients of expansion across the diameter. This is checked by
close metallurgical control of the forging process.
• Temporary, due to residual stress in the rotor. This is eliminated by stress relieving the rotor, both
before and after machining, in a special furnace in which the shaft is rotated.
• Transient, due to differences in conducting and emisivity. The use of ferritic materials throughout
has obviated the difficulties that occur.
The unstable shaft is likely to develop a 'bow' in service, producing out of balance forces and
consequential vibration.
3.6.2 Overspeed Testing

During manufacture, the rotors are tested for 20% overspeed above rated operating speed. This
allows the rotor balance to be satisfactorily established throughout its operational speed range, thereby
providing sufficient margin over normal operational overspeeds caused by electrical grid system
disturbances and the regular 10% overspeed experienced during overspeed striker bolts testing.
3.6.3 Rotor Balancing

The fully bladed rotor is balanced both statistically and dynamically. For built-up rotors, each bladed disc
is balanced individually prior to assembly.
Static Balance: This indicates that the weight is evenly disposed around the axis of the shaft. It can be
checked by rolling the rotor on horizontal knife-edge supports.
Dynamic Balance: This means that the moments of the out of balance weights along the axis about
either bearing nullifies to zero. This is checked by spinning the rotor on resilient bearings, detecting the
vibration. The correction is made by adding or subtracting weights until the vibration is negligible. HP &
IP rotors are normally balanced at low speed (400 rpm) in balancing tunnel. A modern balancing machine
enables balancing to be carried out with a high degree of accuracy and eliminates to a large extent the
trial and errors processes used earlier. The balancing weights, as calculated by machine, are adjusted in
two convenient planes, one at each end of the rotor. This adjustment may be by varying screwed plugs in
tapped holes, or by adding balance weights at specific circumferential positions. T-slots are machined
circumferentially in the periphery of the rotor front and rear half-coupling flanges to permit the weights to
be positioned and retained.
The purpose of balancing is to reduce the amplitude of vibration to a tolerable level, which can be
taken to be about 25 µm at the bearing pedestals.
The larger LP rotors and generator rotors having critical speeds below running speed are over-
speeded (above rated speed) and, if necessary, balanced in the fully bladed condition in a vacuum
chamber, where they can be run without being overheated due to windage.
3.6.4 Critical Speeds

A stationary shaft supported between bearings has a natural frequency of vibration, depending on
its diameter in relation to the distance between bearings. During operation if its speed of rotation

corresponds to its natural vibration frequency, the residual out-of-balance forces are amplified (resonance
occurs), and can built-up a dangerous level.
This critical speed is either above or below running speed, depending on rotor construction. If the
critical speed is below, the shaft is regarded as flexible. On the other hand if critical speed is above the
running speed, the shaft is regarded as rigid. In case of flexible shaft rotors, care must be taken during
start-up to ensure that the critical speeds are passed as quickly as possible.
The other factor on which critical speed depends is the rotor length and rotor diameter. Critical
speeds decrease with increased rotor length and with reduction in rotor diameter. The present trend in
modern turbine designs is to provide a rigid rotor (critical speeds above running speed).
In case the rotor length is required to be increased for accommodating number of moving blade
stages in large units, rigidly is accomplished by increase in rotor diameter.
The rotors of large machines are joined by rigid coupling (tandem compounded arrangement), so
that the composite shaft joining four rotors including generator rotor, has to be treated as a whole
assembly. Each rotor is supported on two bearings, which are not simple supports. The calculated
critical speeds of a complete shaft line are the functions of bearing flexibility, expressed as the deflection
of an equivalent spring under the static load upon the bearing. In case of such rotor arrangement, some
critical speeds are below and some are above the running speed. However, care is taken while designing
that no critical speed should fall in the range of + 20% of normal running speed.
3.7 Turbine Lagging (Insulation)

The hot internal surfaces of the cylinder are lagged, i.e. covered with a thick layer of thermal
insulation. The reasons for lagging are as follows:
• The loss of heat from the steam is reduced
• The thermal stresses in the outer casing are substantially reduced (particularly during start-up and
shutdown)
• Danger to personnel is reduced.
The insulation consists of upto 150 mm thickness of glass wool or mineral wool which is applied
either as fiber mattresses or sprayed on as loose fibers with a binder to set them in position. The
thickness is largely dependent on the temperature of the surface to be covered, enough insulation being
o
used to reduce the outside temperature to about 50 C. Asbestos was used extensively for sprayed
insulation in the past, but all modern insulation is asbestos-free, because of the health risk of inhaled
asbestos fibers.
The mineral wool is held in position firmly by wire mesh, which covers it and is attached to studs
welded to the outer casing and passing out through the mineral wool. If the mineral wool is thicker than
100 mm it is applied in two layers with an additional wire mesh support between them. The outside
surface wire mesh is finally covered with 6-8 mm of cement followed by a thin coat of oil proof and
waterproof sealant. A glass-reinforced plastic may be used as the sealant to provide suitable mechanical
strength and life.
It is essential that oil is not allowed to enter the lagging through gaps or damage to the covering,
as hot oil-soaked lagging has been responsible for some severe turbine fires.
3.8 Turbine Materials

3.8.1 Design Requirements
Steam turbine is basically characterized as a high speed-rotating machine. Therefore, rotating
parts are subjected to high stresses caused by centrifugal forces as well as high temperature cyclic load.
The static parts are also highly stressed due to steam pressure drop as well as high temperature cyclic
load. Hence to counter act these stresses under changing operating conditions, the selection of suitable
o
material plays a vital role in turbine design, particularly components in the temperature range 450 C and
above. In high temperature regions creep phenomenon becomes most important.

The major components working in creep range are HP & IP turbine steam chests, valves, casings,
rotors, diaphragms, blade nozzles, bolts and steam admission piping. On the other hand, components
working under low temperature zone (LP turbine) are highly stressed due to its obvious large size and
faced with problems like corrosion and erosion due to wet steam.
In modern concept of steam turbine design the conventional properties such as tensile, creep-
rupture are not only important, but the properties like fracture toughness, rate of crack growth are also
very important for evaluation of life of the components for non-base load turbine operation.
Metallurgical considerations besides the design requirements are of utmost importance in the
selection of materials in order to have greater reliability and good service during operation. The
metallurgical considerations are alloying elements and their effect on structure, heat treatment, weldability
and creep resistance characteristics. The other metallurgical considerations at elevated temperature are
microstructure stability, inter-crystalline corrosion, and embrittlement phenomenon.
3.8.2 Criteria for Selection of Materials

Turbine materials are selected on the basis of following considerations:
♦ Physical properties:
a) Thermal coefficient of expansion
b) Thermal conductivity
c) Modulus of elasticity
d) Poisons’ ratio
e) Density
♦ Mechanical Properties:
a) Hot yield (0.2% Proof Stress)
b) Creep and rupture
c) Relaxation properties
d) Cyclic loading behaviour
e) Fatigue behaviour
f) Fracture toughness
g) Rate of crack growth
h) Resistance to scaling
The physical properties are important for selection of material for the components working at
elevated temperature. The thermal conductivity is important for quick dissipation of heat in components in
order to minimise thermal stresses. Thermal coefficient of expansion and the modules of elasticity are
important because these play an important role in inducing thermal stresses and ensuring the design
clearance and the minimum values are favourable.
♦ Hot yield:
For components, which are working at moderately elevated temperatures but not in the creep
range, the hot yield is being taken into consideration for design. The hot yield is determined from the
o
stress-strains relationship at 650 C. The components are designed for stress occurring at 0.2% strain.
The hot yield of a steel decreases with an increase of temperature is as shown in Fig. 3.42.
♦ Creep and Rupture Properties:

The gradual deformation under the action of constant load test is called 'creep' and so a constant
load test is called 'Creep Test'. The conventional stress (load divided by initial cross-section area) is
called as 'Creep-stress' whereas the gradual strain is called as 'Creep Strain'. The creep strain curve is
shown in Fig. 3.43.
The secondary creep is only of interest to design for evaluation of material behaviour of
component at elevated temperature as shown in Fig. 3.43.

Fig.3.42 Stress – Strain Characteristics
Fig.3.43 Creep – Strain Characteristics

The rupture test is basically similar to creep test except that the test is always carried out up to
the failure of the material. The stress rupture test measures the effect of temperature on the long time
load sustaining characteristics, i.e. the basic information obtained from the test is the time to cause failure
at a given nominal stress for a constant temperature. It is customary to make elongation measurement as
a function of time and from this minimum creep rate is determined. The elongation and deduction of area
at fracture are also determined. This gives an idea regarding the behaviour of the steel with respect to its
deformation ability under given working condition.
The creep rupture data are generated for 100,000 hours. The stress required for causing 1%
creep is 100,000 hours and corresponding rupture stress are considered to evaluate material behaviour of
the steam turbine components.
♦ Stress Relaxation (Constant Deformation Creep):

There are some high temperature components in which the stress does not remain constant but
decreases with time at elevated temperature due to creep. A bolted flanged connection is an example of
this. The flange and bolt both tend to reduce the stresses in the bolt, producing a condition referred to a
stress relaxation.
The relaxation of stress in bolted joints may lead to loose joints and subsequent leakage. This
requires re-tightening of bolts. Similarly, due to stress relaxation, the shrunk fitted assemblies (e.g. disc
on rotor shaft) will become loose. Hence the material selected for above applications must have high
stress relaxation resistance. Also the stress relaxation data is required for the designing of bolts and
flanges, which is generated upto 30,000 hours at different temperatures.
♦ Cyclic Loading Behavior:

The components, which are working at elevated temperature under static loading and cyclic
loading, are subjected to creep fatigue due to combined stresses. The knowledge of material behaviour
under those conditions is essential for design.
♦ Fatigue Properties:
The fatigue behaviour of material is described under alternative cyclic stress and the fatigue curve
is drawn between stress Vs. number of cycles and this is known as S-N curves (Fig. 3.44).
Fig.3.44 Stress – Number of Cycles Curve

The S-N Curve, as shown in Fig. 3.44, can be divided into three different zones.
4
Zone – I : 1- 10 Cycles – Plastic deformation
4 7
Zone – II : above 10 –10 Cycles – Non-Plastic deformation
Zone –III : Non-failure zone
Zone I is also referred as low cyclic fatigue zone and zone – III is termed as high cycle fatigue zone.
Low cyclic fatigue behaviour of material is determined to know the number of cycles to initiate a
crack in a material. This data is being used for estimation of life of the components. High cyclic fatigue
7
test is performed for determination of endurance limit for 10 cycles.
♦ Resistance to Scaling:
The components, which are working at elevated temperature, may be subject to scale formation.
It is very important factor because the excessive scaling of components (e.g. tubes) carrying high
pressure steam can significantly reduce the effective thickness, so that remaining metal is overstressed
and may burst. W hen oxide scales tightly adhere to the surface, they sometimes act as insulating film,
thereby reducing heat transfer rates. The scale can accumulate at loops and plug tubing and pipeline or
they can be carried into downstream equipments can cause damage to turbine blades. Notches may also
be developed due to preferential oxidation, which may cause steel to behave in a brittle manner.
♦ Resistance to Corrosion & Erosion:

The chances of corrosion and erosion of component in low temperatures zone are much more
predominant as compared to components in elevated temperature zone. This is because of wet condition
of steam forms water droplets and strike the components at very high speed. This cause erosion, mostly,
of the LP turbine last stage blades. The eroded portion are further subjected to corrosion due to wet
atmosphere.
3.8.3 Materials used for Turbine Components

A large variety of heat resistant steels are used for meeting diverse and often conflicting technical
requirements of various components. Various grades of CR-MO-V and Cr-Mo ferritic steels have been
developed for turbine, which can be suitably used in the form of forgings, castings and rolled product.
Besides the properties already described above, the composition of alloy steels containing carbon,
chromium, molybdenum and vanadium are used according to weldability or hardenability of the
components described as follows.
♦ Blading Materials:
12% Cr. Stainless steels are used generally for LP turbine blading because of superior material
damping. Turbine blading alloys are chosen for their ability to provide properties peculiar to the
mechanical and environmental service, which they must endure. Some of the considerations for LPT
blading are –
- Corrosion and scaling resistance
- Adequate tensile strength to withstand steady centrifugal and bending stresses
- Impact strength to resist erosion and impact loading
- Material damping to cope up with vibratory stress developed in turbine blades.
The conventional 12% Cr steels have an ideal set of properties as described above for turbine
o
blading as long as temperature does not exceed about 480 C. Austenitic steels have been tried but, in
general, have not been satisfactory, except for the short blades of HP turbine where damping capacity is
not as crucial as it is for longer blades in the later stages of LP turbine.
For the shorter blades working at high temperature for HP turbine, the mechanical properties
have been improved by the addition of molybdenum and vanadium and suitable heat treatments to give
adequate creep resistance. Further the addition of nibolium to the 12% Cr MoV steels increases the
stress rupture strength and creep strength in the short term.

The intermediate blades, which are neither highly stressed nor very hot, can be made from 12%
Cr steels with leaner alloying content and heat treated to the appropriate hardness. The typical steel has
a composition of 11%Cr, 0.6 Mo, 0.25% V, 0.3% Nb. This alloy steel has good creep resistance upto
o
550 C.
The other material, which is developed, is Titanium, which has high strength to weight ratio and
excellent corrosion resistance. Titanium is considered as an alternative to 12% Cr steel for low-pressure
turbine blading. Since the density of titanium is about 60% of the steel, a titanium blade nearly 40%
longer than the steel blade can be substituted, assuming comparable stress levels in the blade root.
The yield strength of a typical titanium alloy in the annealed condition is approximately 50% better
than standard 12% chromium stainless steel. However, the titanium alloy is not as readily forgeable as
12% Cr steel Further Titanium alloys are very active chemically at high temperatures, surface
contamination is another problem encountered when forging. Also further, this material has poor vibration
characteristics and higher cost as compared to 12% Cr steel. In view of these limitations, titanium is not
popularly used for blading but generally used for lacing wire and for cover banding and shrouding.
♦ HP & IP Rotor Materials

HP & IP rotors work in high temperature zone, so they require having a combination of creep strength,
rupture strength and ductility. This is conferred by rotors manufactured from forged chromium –
molybdenum – vanadium alloy steel (Cr MoV). This is a ferrite material, which provides the best possible
creep properties. Creep is a high temperature phenomenon and traditional design methods involve the
selection of materials, which provide the required creep strength and creep rupture ductility during the
required design life.
5
Typically, high temperature turbine design is based on a creep strain of 0.2% during 10 hours of
operation.
Though the best possible creep properties are required on both HP & IP rotor forgings, smaller
dimensions of HP rotor as compared to IP rotor simplify the HP problem. The IP rotor poses a serious
problem, especially in turbines employing a reheat cycle. Full steam temperature is encountered on discs
at the IP inlet stages, which have larger diameters and blades than equivalent stages on the HP rotor
exposed to steam at the same temperature. Both at the rim and the bore, the stresses are such that
steam cooling may be necessary, even with steels having best creep properties.
The reduced temperatures encountered at the last two stages of the IP turbine are offset by
increased bore stress due to the longer blade length, which demands an adequately high proof strength.
This is achieved by the use of 1 Cr – 1 Mo – 0.25 V alloy steel.
♦ LP Rotors:
LP rotors work in low temperature zone & have longer blades and diameter due to which they
encounter the impact of moisture in the last stages. Hence the main requirements of these rotors are high
tensile strength combined with high toughness.
The 3.5 Ni Cr MoV monobloc rotor forging is currently used as it avoids the complication of shrink
fits in the case of built-up rotors. The use of vacuum degassed ingots and the use of larger hydraulic
presses capable of such forging operations, have all contributed to a marked improvement in quality of
large LP rotor forgings. Vacuum degassing has eradicated the former problems of hydrogen
embrittlement cracking and gives good fracture toughness.
Ni Cr MoV steel containing upto 3.5% Ni has been used for both shafts and discs for built-up LP
rotors and is the first choice to achieve the tensile properties necessary for larger monobloc rotors.

♦ Turbine Casing Materials:
o
HP and IP casings where temperature over 350 C are encountered, are made from creep-
o
resistant steels. Two different alloy steels are used; 2.25 Cr 1 Mo for temperature upto 538 C and 0.5 Cr
o
0.5 Mo 0.25 V for temperatures upto 565 C. The 2.25 Cr material is slightly weaker and more ductile in
creep, but it is also tougher (i.e. less prone to fast fracture at low temperatures) and easier to weld.
Casings in these materials are cast rather than fabricated because of the difficulty of quality control and
likelihood of thermal distortion in the thick sections involved. LP cylinder casings are generally fabricated
from carbon steel, although the inner casing may be cast from spheroidal graphite iron.
High temperature bolts are made from low alloy steels designed specially for creep-resistant bolting. The
nickel alloys are more creep-resistant and stronger, allowing a more compact flange with better thermal
properties; however, they are subject to stress corrosion cracking, particularly if wet or contaminated with
sulphur compounds. Nickel alloy bolts are thus used mainly on inner cylinders where the compact flange
is most advantageous.
Low temperature bolts on LP casings are made from normal high tensile bolting steels.
-o0o-

Chapter 4
OVERVIEW OF KWU STEAM TURBINE

4.1 General Description
4.1.1 Modular Concept
The turbine is built on the well-proven design philosophy of "Modular Principle" in steam turbine
engineering field. The readily designed HP, IP & LP turbine modules are combined and sized to required
power output (120 MW , 210 MW , 250 MW and 500 MW capacity), as demanded by the customer. Steam
parameters and cycle configuration are designed to give most economical turbine set. This
maneuverability is achieved without imposing the reliability of the modules, which is governed by the
shape and configuration of rotors, cylinder and distance between the bearings.
For 210 MW design, the turbine comprises of modules H 30-25 for HP turbine, M30-20 for IP
turbine, and N 30- 2x5 for LP turbine. These modules incorporate the design and construction features,
which have proved their reliability in service and ensure trouble free operation over long operating periods
and at the same time ensuring high thermal efficiencies. All the materials used for manufacture of various
parts are most suitable for the duty required and have been selected after exhaustive research and long
experience.
4.1.2 Turbine Arrangement
Fig. 4.1 shows the sectional arrangement of 210 MW KW U Steam Turbine and Fig. 4.2 illustrates
the outline drawing with dimensions.
The turbine is of tandem compound design with separate HP, IP& LP cylinders. The HP turbine is
of single flow type while IP & LP turbines are of double flow type. Rigid couplings connect the individual
turbine rotors and the generator rotor.
The turbine is condensing type with single reheat. It is basically engineered on reaction principle
with throttle governing method. The fixed blade and moving blade stages are arranged in HP, IP & LP
turbines, driving the 210 MW AC generator.
The HP cylinder has throttle control valves. Steam admission circuit is shown in Fig. 4.3. The
main steam is admitted before the blading by two combined main steam stop and control valves. The
lines leading from the two HP exhaust branches to the reheater are provided with swing check non-return
valves (CRH NRVS), which prevent hot steam from the reheater flowing back into the HP turbine when
turbine is tripped.
The steam coming from the reheater is admitted to the IP turbine via two reheat stop and control
valves. The exhaust of IP turbine is connected to LP turbine via two cross-around pipes laid at floor level.
Six bled steam tapings are taken as follows:

th
- HPT exhaust (25 stage) to HP heater 6
th
- IPT, 36 stage to HP heater 5
th
- IPT exhaust, 45 stage to Deaerator (extraction 4)
th
- LPT, 48 stage to LP heater 3
th
nd
Penultimate stages of shaft gland seals are provided with steam at regulated pressure from gland
steam header whereas the last stages are connected to gland steam cooler.

Fig.4.1 Sectional Arrangement of Turbine
Chapter-4: Overview of KWU Steam Turbine 89

Side View
Top View Note: All Dimensions are in mm.
Fig.4.2 Turbine Outline Drawing

HP Turbine
LP Turbine
IPTurbine
Sectional Views from Fig.4.2
Fig.4.3 Steam Admission circuit

4.1.3 Barrel Type HP Turbine
The outer casing of the HP turbine is of barrel type construction without any massive horizontal
flange. This unique construction permits rapid start-up from any thermal state and high rates of load
changes of the turboset. The steam and metal temperature matching requirements are also less stringent
as there is no asymmetry of mass distribution in transverse and longitudinal planes.
Although HP inner casing is with a horizontal split joint, yet it acts like a thin thermal membrane.
As the inner casing is not subjected to large pressure drops across the wall, the horizontal flange joint and
bolts are made of thin sections thus permitting large transverse temperature changes. Inner casing is
kinematically supported within the outer barrel.
The barrel type casing permits flexibility of operation in the form of short start-up times and a high
rate of change of load even at high initial steam conditions.
4.1.4 Double Flow IP Turbine

The IP turbine is double flow and double casing type split horizontally. Double flow design
permits the axial thrust (produced due to reaction stages) balanced by itself and does not impose any
loading on thrust bearing.
IP inner casing is kinematically supported within outer casing. IP inner and outer casings are
suspended from top halves so as to totally eliminate the effect of TG centre line with the heating of
flanges. Although the casings are of horizontal split design yet these do not impose any constraints in
start-up period and rapid load changes.
The reheated steam is admitted to the inner casing through the top and bottom centre of the
casing. The arrangement of an inner casing confines the high steam inlet conditions to the admission
branch of the casing, while the joint of the outer casing is only subjected to the lower pressure and lower
temperature at the exhaust of the inner casing.
4.1.5 Double Flow L P Turbine

LP turbine is also double flow type with exhaust area optimally selected for the expected vacuum
conditions. The casing of LP turbine is connected with IP cylinder by two cross-around pipes, one on
either side of the machine and level with the floor.
The casing of the double flow LP cylinder is of three-shell design. The shells are axially split and
of rigid welded (fabricated) construction. The inner shell taking the first rows of guide blades is attached
kinematically in the middle shell. Independent of the outer shell, the middle shell is supported at four
points on longitudinal beams. Two rings carrying the last guide blade rows are also attached to the
middle shell.
Special design measures have been adopted to remove the moisture from last stages by reducing
the thickness of water film on guide blades. The axial clearances between guide blades. The axial
clearances between guide and moving blades have been so chosen so as to reduce the droplet sizes and
erosion of leading edges. Low-pressure extraction has been optimized not only from thermodynamic
considerations but to effectively drain out moisture also. Free standing blades (without lacing wire) have
been envisaged. The blades are designed to operate in the speed range corresponding to 47.5 to 51.5
Hz grid frequency.
4.1.6 Turbine Blading

In steam turbine, the blades transform the thermal energy into mechanical energy. It is obvious
that blading has got direct impact on the efficiency and reliability of turbine. Appropriate blade profile, with
high aero-thermodynamic efficiency having sufficient mechanical strength to withstand the steam forces,
are determined after excessive research. Utmost care is taken while designing to avoid resonance and to
ensure that the natural frequencies of unshrouded free standing rotor blades are compatible with the

rotational frequency of the machine. A final accurate check is made when the blades have been fitted into
the rotor. The opportunity is also taken to carefully check the root fastening of the blades.
a) HP & IP Turbine Blades:

These blades have a 50% reaction component and both fixed and moving blades have the same
profile. Each rotor blade is milled from a single piece of material complete with inverted T-root and
integral shroud as shown in Fig. 4.4 (a).
After they have been fitted in the rotor groove, they are caulked into position with brass wire. The
blade roots are made of appropriate size to give the required blade spacing, and hence the designed
width of blade passage, and hence the necessity of spacer-pieces.
Fixed blades are of the same type as the moving blades with an inverted T-root and integral
shroud. In medium and low temperature regions, the fixed blades are made of solid drawn material with
brazed on or loose spacer pieces and have a hook-type root (Fig. 4.4(b)). In this case the shrouding is
separate and riveted in place.
Fig.4.4 HP & IP Turbine Blade Roots
b) LP Turbine Blades :
The fixed and rotor blades of the first few stages of the LP turbine are similar to the IP turbine
blades. However, the last three stages of the LP turbine have twisted blades as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a) &
(b). The difference between the circumferential velocity at the rotor blade root and tip is quite
considerable and is taken into account by twisting the blade along its length. The rotor blade fastening is
of the fir-tree type (Fig. 4.5(c),(d)), which engages in milled axial grooves in the rotor and is then secured.
The fixed blades of the last two stages are hollow. They are fabricated from sheet steel and slots
are provided in the blade surface through which any water passing over the surface of the blades may be
drawn away to the condenser. The trailing edge of the blades is very thin in order to avoid any patches
and the formation of streams of water. The axial distance between the final stages is kept at optimum
value to facilitate the break-up of any water droplets, which may still remain. This will reduce the relative
velocity between the droplets and the leading edges of the moving blades.
The leading edges of the final stage rotor blades are flame hardened to give protection against
erosion.
These blades are free-standing and have neither lacing wire nor shrouding. Great attention is
paid at the design stage to achieve a resonance free operation with long life.

Fig.4.5 LP Turbine Last Stage Blades

c) Blade tip Sealing:
In reaction turbine stages, there is a drop in pressure across both the fixed and moving blades.
The pressure differential between the inlet and outlet sides of the blades also causes steam to flow over
the tips of the fixed and moving blades. This amounts to a loss of energy and in order to keep it as small
as possible, it is essential to provide proper sealing at this point. Thus, both fixed and moving blades are
provided with continuous shrouding in which steps have been turned to produce a labyrinth seal. Sealing
strips from the fixed or moving component projects into the steps turned into the shrouding.
The complete rings of shrouding on all rotor blades and on guide blades in high temperature
sections are built-up from the individual sections of shrouding which are machined integrally with each
blade and fitted to butt tightly together. In the case of guide blades for medium and low temperature
sections, the shrouding is riveted onto the blades. When the rotors and guide blade carriers have been
completely bladed, the blading is skinned on a lathe, the steps being machined on integral shrouding or
the rivet heads machined flush on riveted shrouding at the same time.
Various arrangements of tip sealing employing these rows of sealing strips, as shown in Fig. 4.6,
are used. The number of rows of sealing strips chosen depends on the stage pressure and the differential
axial expansion between the rotor and casing at the particular section of blading involved.
The sealing strips, which are caulked into the casing and shaft opposite the blade shrouding, are of
stainless steel. On one hand, they are strong enough to withstand the maximum pressure which will exist
across them on the other hand, the amount of heat generated by them and transmitted to the rotor or
casing in the event of their rubbing shall not be sufficient to cause deformation of the component.
The sealing strips are easy to replace. If the sealing strips wear out due to contact between fixed
and moving components (rubbing) at any time, then the worn out strips could be replaced with new one
within a short time to restore correct clearances at the next overhaul.
4.1.7 Valves
The HP turbine is fitted with two combined emergency stop and control valves. A stop and control
valve fitted in a common body with their spindles arranged at right angles to each other and in the same
plane. The stop valves are spring operated single-seat valves and similarly control valves also of single-
seat design having diffusers to reduce pressure losses. The two valves operate with two separate
servomotors independent of each other.
The IP turbine has also two combined reheat stop (IV) and control valves. The reheat stop valves
are spring-loaded single-seat valves. The control valves, also spring loaded and single seat design, have
diffusers. The control valves operate in parallel and are fully open in the upper load range. In the lower
load range, they control the steam flow to the IP turbine and ensure stable operation even when the
turboset is supplying only the station load.
Throttle governing method is adopted to regulate the turbine load. Both the emergency stop and
reheat stop and their control valves are supported kinematically on the foundation ceiling below the
machine floor before the turboset. Individual oil hydraulic servomotors actuate all valves.
4.1.8 Rotors, Couplings and Bearing

The rotating elements consisting of three monobloc rotors of HP, IP & LP turbines are coupled
together rigidly by means of integrally forged flanges (coupling halves), thus in effect forming a single
shaft system. The critical speeds of the HP and IP rotors are designed to be above the normal rated
speeds. Each rotor is subjected to 20% overspeed test.
The HP rotor is supported by two bearings, a double-wedge journal bearing at the front end of the
turbine and a combined journal and thrust bearing directly adjacent to the coupling with the IP rotor. The
IP and LP rotors have a journal bearing each at the end of the shaft. The combined journal and thrust

Fig.4.6 Blade Tip Sealing Arrangement

bearing incorporates a self-adjusting double-wedge journal bearing and a thrust bearing which takes up
residual thrust from both directions. The other journal bearings are self-adjusting elliptical bearings. The
bearing temperatures are measured by thermocouples in the lower shell directly under the white metal
lining. The temperature of the thrust bearing is measured in two thrust pads on each side.
The front and rear bearing pedestals of the HP turbine are placed on base plates. The pedestals
of the LP turbine are fixed in position, whereas the front pedestal and the pedestal between the HP and IP
turbine are able to move in axial direction to permit free longitudinal expansion of HP and IP turbine
casings.
The brackets at the sides of the HP and IP cylinders are supported by the pedestals at the level of
the machine axis. In the axial direction the HP and IP casings are firmly connected with the pedestals by
means of casing guides, without restricting radial expansion. Since the casing guides do not yield in
response to axial displacement, the HP and IP casings as well as the associated bearing pedestals move
forward from the front LP bearing pedestal on thermal expansion.
4.1.9 Shaft Glands

The rotor shafts of HP, IP and LP turbines are sealed at both the ends by employing labyrinth-
type gland seals. In case of HP and IP turbines, there consists of a series of sealing strips alternatively
caulked into the shaft and into stationary rings. In case of LP turbine, gland sealing strips are fitted in the
stationary rings only. The pressure of the steam leaking through the gland is reduced by converting the
pressure energy into velocity energy, which is then dissipated as eddies as the steam passes through
large number of strips.
Fig.4.7 Shaft Gland Sealing Arrangement

The number of sealing strip rings used depends on the pressure drop required. Each ring consist
of six or eight segments and is carried in grooves in the casing or inner casing to allow radial movement.
Each segment is held in position against a shoulder by two helical springs. In the event of the shaft
coming into contact with the strips in the segments, the affected segments will move away radially. A
possible slight contact between the shaft and the thin strips will generate only a small amount of heat that
cannot lead to a deformation. All the shaft glands, sealing the steam in the cylinder against atmosphere
are axial flow labyrinths. The sections of glands for HP, IP and LP turbines are shown in Fig. 4.7.
4.1.10 Turning Gear

The turbine is equipped with hydraulic turning gear capable to rotate the shaft system at high
speed during start-up and shutdown periods in order to minimize thermal distortion of the turbine casings
and shaft. Due to fanning action of the blades, the steam inside the casing brings about heat transfer
conducive to temperature equalization between the upper and lower parts of the casings.
The turbine gear assembly is located in the front bearing pedestal of LP cylinder and consists of
two rows of moving blades mounted on coupling flange IP turbine rotor, an inlet nozzle box with stationary
nozzles and guide blades. The turbine-generator shaft system is rotated by the double row wheel which
is driven by pressure oil supplied by the auxiliary oil pump. After passing through the blading, the oil
drains to the bearing pedestals and combines with the bearing lube oil returning to the main oil tank.
In addition, shaft system is equipped with facility for manual barring in the event of failure of
hydraulic turning gear.
As discussed above, high speed (160 rpm) hydraulic turning gear is envisaged to ensure uniform
and rapid heating and cooling of the casings and rotors during start-up and trip out respectively. The
turning gear is located on IP coupling flange, between IP and LP turbine coupling. As there is no
mechanical contact between the hydraulic turning gear and shat, the likelihood of a break-down is far less
than mechanical types employing disengaging gears, interlocks and checking devices.
4.2 Turbine Systems Overview

4.2.1 Governing System
The turbine is equipped with electro-hydraulic governing system backed up with hydro-
mechanical system ensuring stable operation under any grid fluctuations and load throw-off conditions.
The electro-hydraulic system has number of advantages, such as high accuracy, fast response and high
sensitivity. The linear power output/frequency characteristic can be adjusted between close limits even
while the machine is in operation.
An electric system measures and controls speed and output, and operates the control valves
hydraulically in conjunction with an electro-hydraulic converter. The electro-hydraulic governing system
permits run-up control of the turbine upto rated speed and keeps speed swings at low level following the
sudden load shedding.
4.2.2 Turbine Stress Evaluator

The turbine stress evaluator continuously scans the critical sections of E.S.V., HP control valves,
HPT casing, HPT shaft and IPT shaft by measuring temperature difference between surfaces in contact
with steam and 50% depth of metal wall. TSE provide instantaneous information regarding safe limits of
load fluctuations based on the fatigue life of the material and state of thermal stresses at that particular
instant. This ensures a stress consistent start-up operation.
4.2.3 Turbine Monitoring System

In addition to the measuring instruments and instruments indicating pressures, temperatures,
valve positions and speed, the monitoring system also includes instruments mounted on turbine to
indicate the following values.
- Absolute expansion, measured at the front and rear bearing pedestals of the HP turbine.
- Differential expansion between the turbine rotor and casing, measured at :
• Front bearing for HPT

• Bearing No. 3 for IPT
• Bearing No. 4 for LPT
- Axial shift measured at bearing No. 2 (combine thrust and journal bearing)
- Bearing pedestal vibrations measured at all turbine bearings
- Relative shaft vibrations (bearing pedestal shaft) measured at all turbine bearings
- Absolute shaft vibrations, obtained from bearing pedestal vibration and relative shaft vibration by
calculation
- Bearing babbit metal temperatures by RTDs
- Turbine speed by hall probe located in front pedestal on MOP shaft
- Top bottom turbine casing temperatures at 50% and 90% depth by thermocouples.
4.2.4 Oil Supply System

Turbine oil supply system provides oil for –
• Lubrication and cooling of bearings
• Control oil for turbine governing and protection system and hydraulic actuators
• Control oil for LP bypass governor
• Hydraulic turning gear
The main oil pump located in the front pedestal and directly driven by HP turbine shaft draws oil
from the main oil tank via injector, during normal operation of turbine. However, during start-up and
shutdown, Auxiliary Oil Pump (AOP) driven by AC motor maintains the oil supply. Before starting the
2
turning gear, a jacking oil pump forces high pressure (120 kg/cm ) oil under the shaft journals to lift the
shaft. This is in order to prevent boundary layer lubrication and metal-to-metal contact. The lubricating
and cooling oil is passed through water-cooled oil coolers before being supplied to the bearings.
Two AOPs, one EOP (DC motor) and two JOPs are mounted on the main oil tank.
4.3 Turbine Anchoring & Expansion

4.3.1 Fixed Points of Turbine
In designing the supports for the turbine on the foundation, attention is given to the expansion and
contraction of the machine during thermal cycling (warming up and cooling). Excessive stresses would be
caused in the components if the thermal expansion or contraction were restricted any way. The method of
attachment of the machine component and their coupling together, are also decisive factors in
determining the magnitude of the relative axial expansion (differential expansion) between the rotor and
turbine casing. The differential expansion aspect is most important factor, which is taken into account
while designing the internal clearances of the machine.
The installation of KW U design 210MW turbine is shown in Fig. 4.8. The fixed points of the
turbine are as follows:
i) The bearing pedestal between the IP and LP turbines. From this point the IP and HP casings
expand towards the front bearing pedestal of the HP turbine.
ii) The rear bearing housing of the LP turbine (LP/Generator bearing pedestal)
iii) The middle portion of each longitudinal girder of LP turbine. From these points the longitudinal
girders expand in both the directions (Turbine side and Generator side).
iv) The thrust bearing in rear bearing casing of HP turbine.
4.3.2 Casing Expansion

The front bearing pedestals of the HP & IP turbines can slide on their base plates in an axial
direction. Any lateral movement perpendicular to the machine axis is prevented by fitted keys. The HP &
IP casings are supported by lugs on bearing pedestals. The guides provided for supporting ensures that
the turbine casings maintain their central position while at the same time allowing axial movement. Thus
the origin of the cumulative expansion of the HP & IP casings is at front bearing pedestal of the LP turbine
(pedestal between IP & LP turbine). The IP expands towards HP turbine by which the middle pedestal
(between HP & IP turbine) also moves in the same direction. Hence the absolute expansion of IP turbine
is registered at middle pedestal.

Fig.4.8 Fixed Points of Turbine
Fig.4.9 Expansion of Turbine Casings

The HP turbine casing, which is supported on middle pedestal and front pedestal expands
towards front pedestals, which also moves on base plate. Hence the cumulative expansion of HP and IP
turbine is recorded at front pedestal as shown in Fig. 4.9.
The outer casing of the LP turbine is located axially by fitted keys at the middle of their
longitudinal beam members. Free lateral expansion is allowed. The centre guides for these longitudinal
beams are recessed in the foundation. There is no restriction on axial movement of the casings. At the
front and rear supports of the longitudinal beam members the casing is free to expand horizontally in any
direction. Hence, when there is a temperature rise, the outer casing of the LP turbine expands from its
fixed point towards IP turbine and generator, as shown in Fig.4.9. Differences in expansion between the
outer casing and the fixed bearing pedestals to which the housings for the shaft glands are attached, are
taken by shaft seal compensators (expansion bellows).
4.3.3 Rotor Expansion

The thrust bearing is incorporated in the rear bearing housing of the HP turbine (middle pedestal).
Since this bearing housing is free to slide on the base plate, the shafting system moves with it (Fig.4.10).
Both the rotor and casing of HP turbine expand towards front bearing housing with respect to rear bearing
housing of HP turbine (middle pedestal). On the other hand, the rotor and casing of IP turbine expand
towards the generator in a similar manner.
Fig.4.10 Expansion of Turbine Rotors
The LP turbine rotor is displaced towards the generator by the expansion of the shafting system
from the thrust bearing. The magnitude of this displacement due to expansion, however, is reduced by
the amount by which the thrust bearing is moved in the opposite direction by the casing expansion of the
IP turbine.
4.3.4 Differential Expansion

Differential expansion between the rotors and casing results from the difference between the rotor
expansion originating from thrust bearing and the casing expansion originating from the rear bearing
housing of IP turbine (Bearing No.3 housing). This means that the maximum differential expansion of the
HP and IP turbines occur at the end furthest from the thrust bearing.
Differential expansion between the rotor and casing of the LP turbine results from the difference
between the expansion of the shafting system originating from the thrust bearing and the casing
expansion originating from the fixed point of the LP turbine casing on the longitudinal girder.
-o0o-

Chapter 5
KWU TURBINE TECHNICAL DATA

5.1 Turbine Specification
1. Make : BHEL Haridwar

2. Type : Reaction, 3 cylinder, Tandem Compounded,
Reheat, Condensing type
3. Number of Cylinders : 3 (HP, IP& LP)
4. Rated output : 210 MW
5. Peaking Capacity with time duration : 221 MW
6. Most economical continuous rating : 210 MW
7. Rated Speed : 3000 rpm
8. Type of governing : Throttle Control
5.2 Constructional Data

a) Sr.No. Particulars HPT IPT LPT
1. Type H30-25-2 M30-20 N30-2x5
2. No. of flows Single Double Double
3. Height of first stage moving blades 43 mm 66 mm 73 mm
4. Height of last stage moving blades 99mm 100 mm 676 mm
5. Mean diameter of first stage moving 643 mm 756 mm 1471mm
blades
6. Mean diameter of last stage moving 695 mm 1041 mm 2132 mm
blades
7. Type of blade roots T & Hook T & Hook T & Axial Fir
Tree
2
8. Total exhaust area of LP turbine - - 2x5 m
9. Overall length of rotor 3905 mm 4145 mm 6300 mm
b) Rotor W eights Complete with blading
• HP Turbine : 7t
• IP Turbine : 13.3 t
• LP Turbine : 43 t
c) Rotor Lengths
• HP Turbine : 3905 mm
• IP Turbine : 4145 mm
• LP Turbine : 6300 mm
d) Casing W eights
• HP Outer Casing : 25 t
• HP Inner Casing : 7.9 t
• IP Outer Casing : 24.8 t
• IP Inner Casing : 15.4 t
• LP Inner Casing : 9.85 t
• LP Inner-outer casing : 16.16 t
• LP Outer casing
i) Upper half : 17 t

ii) End walls : 2 x 8.4 t
iii) Longitudinal beam : 2 x 8.1 t
e) Total weight of turbine : 490 t

f) Overall length of turbine : 16850mm
g) W idth of turbine(with cross around pipes): 10000 mm
h) LP exhaust dimensions at condenser : 6300 x 4750 mm
i) Heaviest part of turbine for erection : 60 t (HP turbine)
j) Journal Bearings
• Number : Three, Elliptical type
• Size of HPT front bearing : φ 280 mm x140mm
• Size of IPT rear bearing : φ 400 mm x 320 mm
• Size of LPT rear bearing : φ 500 x 400 mm
• Lining material : Babbit
k) Combined Journal cum thrust bearing

• Number : One, tilting pad type
• Size of thrust bearing : φ 280 mm x 240mm
• Size of journal bearing : φ 280 mm
• Lining material : Babbit
l) Bearing Shaft Span

• HP Turbine : 3350 mm
• IP Turbine : 4050 mm
• LP Turbine : 6325 mm
m) Coupling
• HP – IP : Rigid
• IP – LP : Rigid
• LP – Generator : Rigid
n) Control Valves (Combined with stop Valves) HP T IPT

• Number : 2 2
• Size : φ 125 mm φ 280 mm
• Stroke : 50mm 95 mm
• Type : Single spherical seat stop cum control valve
o) Moments of Inertia
2
• HPT rotor : 316.94 kg m
2
• IPT rotor : 1155.59 kg m
2
• LPT rotor : 9794.13 kg m
5.3 Speed Data
• Rated Speed : 3000 rpm

• Maximum speed no time limitation : 3090rpm (51.5 Hz)
• Minimum speed no time limitation : 2850rpm (47.5 Hz)
• Permissible below 47.5 Hz and
above 51.5 Hz in life time (total) : 2 hours
• Critical speeds : 1545,2126 rpm
• Speed exclusion range at
operation without load : 700 – 2850 rpm
• Overspeed trip : 3330 rpm
Chapter-5: KWU Turbine Technical Data 103

• Turning gear speed : 160 rpm (at normal vacuum in condenser)
• Maximum speed rise in the event
of tripping at MCR : 8% from full to house load
5.4 Steam Parameters

a) Steam Pressures
2
• At inlet of ESV : 150 kg/cm (abs) [100% & 80% load]
• At inlet of IV
2
 100% load : 34.35 Kg/cm (abs)
2
 80% load : 27.0 kg/cm (abs)
• At HPT exhaust
2
 100% load : 38.1 Kg/cm (abs)
2
 80% load : 31.0 kg/cm (abs)
• At IPT exhaust
2
 100% load : 7.05 Kg/cm (abs)
2
 80% load : 6 kg/cm (abs)
2
• At LPT exhaust : 0.0911 Kg/cm (abs)
b) Steam Temperatures
o
• At inlet of ESV : 535 C
o
• At inlet of IV : 535 C
• At HPT exhaust
o
 100% load : 334.8 C
o
 80% load : 328.1 C
• At IPT exhaust
o
 100% load : 314.5 C
o
 80% load : 316 C
o
• At LPT Exhaust : 45 C (approx.)
c) Steam Flow Rates

• Main Steam flow through ESV of HPT
 100% load : 627 t/hr
 80% load : 504t/hr
• Reheat steam flow IV of IPT

(all heaters in service)
 100% load : 564 t/hr
 80% load : 463t/hr
d) Design pressure and temperature of

Pressure Temperature
2 o
Kg/cm C
• Valve Chest (HP) : 150 535
• HPT casing : 150 535
• IPT Casing : 40 535
• LPT Casing : 8 350
e) Extraction steam parameters at 100% load

Extraction No. Location Pressure Temperature Flow
2 o
Kg/cm C t/hr.
th
6 25 stage at HPT
(exhaust stage) 39.15 336 56
th
5 36 stage at IPT 15.98 432 39.25
th
4 45 stage at IPT
(exhaust stage) 6.52 314 34.18
th
3 48 stage at LPT 2.23 198.8 27.41
th
2 50 stage at LPT 0.84 106.6 29.8
nd
1 52 stage at LPT 0.214 62 4.76
5.5 Limiting Values of Turbovisory Parameters

• Axial shift of rotor : - 0.5 to + 0.5 mm
• Differential expansion
 HP T : - 3.5 to + 5.5 mm
 IPT : - 3.0 to + 6.0 mm
 LPT : - 7.0 to + 30 mm
• Vibration
Bearing Shaft
 Nominal value for alarm : 35 µm 90 µm
 Maximum value alarm : - 120 µm
 Limit value for machine shutdown : 45 µm 200µm
• Bearing temperatures
o
 Alarm at : 90 C
o
 Machine must be shutdown at : 120 C
• Casing temperatures
o
 HPT exhaust temperature alarm at : 480 C
o
 Machine must be tripped at HPT exhaust temp: 500 C
o
 LPT outer casing temperature alarm at : 90 C
o
 Machine must be tripped at LPT exhaust temp : 110 C
 Difference between upper & lower casing
o
sections at HPT middle : + 30 C
 Difference between upper & lower casing
o
sections at IPT front & rear : + 30 C
5.6 Material for Turbine Components

a) Turbine Casings
i) HP inner and outer casing : GS-17 Cr Mo V 511
ii) IP casings : GS-17 Cr Mo V 511
iii) IP exhaust end : GS-22 Mo 4
iv) LP casing : St 37.2
b) Blades
Turbine Area First Stage Last Stage
i) HP Moving blades X 22 Cr Mo V 121 X 20 Cr 13
ii) HP stationary blades X 22 Cr Mo V 121 X 20 Cr 13/
X 20 Cr Mo 13
iii) IP moving blades X 22 Cr Mo V 121 X 20 Cr 13
iv) IP Stationary blades X 22Cr Mo V 121 X 20 Cr 13/
X 20 Cr Mo13
v) LP moving blades X 20 Cr 13 X 20 Cr 13
vi) LP Stationary blades 20 Cr 13/ 20 Mn 5/
X 20 Cr Mo 13 X 7 Cr AL 13

5.7 Turbine Governing Specifications
a) Type of Governing System : Electro-hydraulic backed-up by hydro-

mechanical system.
b) Steady State speed regulation : 5%(adjustable between 2.5 to 8%)
c) Dead band : 0.06% of rated speed
d) Emergency governor
(Eccentric strikers in HP Shaft)
i) Speed Setting : 111% of rated speed
ii) Range of adjustment of emergency
trip setting : 110 to 112% of rated speed
e) Motor operated speeder gear
i) Type of motor : A.C.
ii) Adjustable no-load speed change : Approx. 92 to 108%
iii) Speed droop adjustment : Approx. 2.5 to 8%
5.8 Emergency Main Stop Valves (ESV), Strainers & Control Valves
a) Number off : 2
b) Nominal diameter of ESV :φ 160 mm
c) Type : Single seated
2
d) Maximum pressure drop across the : Approx. 8 kg/cm (including
Valve assembly strainer, stop and control valve)
e) Material for construction
i) Valve body : GS-17 Cr Mo V 511
ii) Valve trim : Stellited
iii) Seats : Stellited
f) Mesh screen material for strainer : X 8 Cr Ni Nb 16 13
g) Maximum particles size, which will
Pass the screen : 1600 microns
h) Nominal diameter of HP control valve : φ125 mm
and type Single Rated
i) Sequence of opening control valves : Both control valves open together before
IP control valves.
j) Material of HPCV
i) Valve body : GS-17 Cr Mo V511
ii) Trip : Stelliited
iii) Stem : X 22 Cr Mo V 121 (Stellited)
5.9 Intercepter Valves, Strainers & IP Control Valves

a) Number off : 2
b) Nominal diameter of IV & Type : φ 320 mm, Single seated
c) Material of IV
ii) Valve trip : GS-17 Cr Mo V 511
iii) Seats : Stellited
d) Mesh material for strainer : X8 Cr Ni Nb 1613
e) Maximum particle size which will
Pass screen : 1600 microns
f) Nominal diameter of IPCV, and type : φ 280 mm, Single seated
g) Material of IPCV
ii) Trim & seats : Stellited
iii) Stem : X 22 Cr Mo V 121 (Stellited)

5.10 Main Condenser
• Type : Surface type, two pass,
single or double shell
2
• Cooling Surface area : 9655 m
• No. of tubes : 19,208
• Tube size : φ 25.4 x 1.254 mm thick
Length = 7500 m
• Tube material : Cu-Ni-10 Fe
(Both condensing & air-cooling zone)
• W ater velocity in tubes : 1.9 m/s
• C.W . flow rate with inlet
o 3
Temperature of 36 C : 27000 m /hr
• Assumed fouling factor : 0.85
• Tube plate material : Carbon Steel
• Tube plate thickness : 40 mm
• Condenser supported on Helical springs
o 2
• Condenser pressure at 36 C : 0.0911 kg/cm (abs)
2
C.W . inlet temp. (0.91 kg/cm vacuum)
• Tube & plate joint : By roller expansion
• W ater box and shell material : Carbon steel
2
• W ater box test pressure : 6 kg/cm (g)
• Shell test pressure : Static water pressure column upto 1 m
above top row of tubes
o
• Temperature rise of cooling water : 8.8 C
5.11 Limits of Casing temperatures

Wall temperature Alarm at Machine must be tripped at
o o
HP Turbine exhaust 480 C 500 C
o o
Outer casing of LP turbine 90 C 110 C
(Spray water to LPT comes
o
in to service at90 C)
5.12 Performance Parameters

a) Gross Turbogenerator heat rate : 1980 Kcal/KW hr
b) Gross unit heat rate : 2284 Kcal/KW hr
c) Gross Turbo generator cycle efficiency : 43.43%
d) Gross Unit efficiency : 37.64%
e) HP Cylinder efficiency : 83-85%
f) IP Cylinder efficiency : 90-91%
g) LP Cylinder efficiency : 88-90%
-o0o-

Chapter 6
HP TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
6.1 Design Features
The principal parts of the HP turbine are axially split type inner casing (guide blade carrier,
enclosing the rotor), and an outer casing of a barrel type construction. Sectional view of HP turbine is
shown in Fig. 6.1. As the barrel type casing has neither axial nor radial flanges, mass accumulations and
thus undue stresses are avoided. This result into almost complete rotational symmetry, also the wall
thickness can be kept moderate and equal in all parts. Thus, even with rapid temperature changes and at
high pressures, the barrel type casing has a stable shape, i.e. deformation is prevented.
Fig.6.1 Sectional View of HP Turbine
By incorporating the steam admission side shaft seal portion into the inner casing, the number of
parts to be assembled and with them the efforts involved in assembly and alignment are reduced. Due to

this modification, it is possible to reduce number of seals between the inner casing and casing inlet
section from five to two. A pre-stressed U-ring does the job of sealing function on the steam inlet side,
whereas the I-ring, which is fitted on the exhaust side, allows axial movement between the inner casing
and casing inlet section.
The attachment of the inner casing allows the casing to expand radially in all directions
independently of the casing inlet section and axially from a fixed point. A threaded ring fixes the inner
casing in the axial direction. As the combined journal and thrust bearing on the inlet side is also the rotors
fixed point, the inner casing and rotor shaft expand in the same direction, which makes small axial
clearances inside the turbine possible. The radial centering of the inner casing on the inlet side is
accomplished in 4 inner casing projections, which engage with matching grooves in the casing inlet
section and are provided with sliding pieces (fitted keys). On the exhaust side, the inner casing is
supported accordingly and guided by two projections.
The space between inner casing and barrel casing is filled with inlet steam during operation,
allowing fast warming and start-up.
The above design features of barrel type turbine with an integral exhaust section results in
simplification in fabrication, assembly and inspection. Also it results in improved operational behaviour of
machine.
6.2 Cylinder Supports and Guides

6.2.1 Supports
The manner in which the turbine casing is supported makes allowances for thermal expansion
and contraction. It is essential for the casing to retain concentric alignment with the rotor, which is
supported independently.
The supporting arrangement of HP cylinder is shown in Fig. 6.2. The casing (3) is supported on
two front brackets and two rear brackets in the plane of the machine axis on the bracket supports of the
bearing pedestals (2,4). This arrangement determines the height of the casing and also allows thermal
expansion to take place in the horizontal plane by the brackets sliding on the places (12) of the bearing
pedestals (2,4).
To prevent lifting of the turbine, casing (3), (Ref. Fig. 6.3) the brackets projecting into
corresponding recesses in the bearing pedestals are held by Cap (10). W hen the turbine is being
erected, a clearance "S" is kept between the disc (11) and bracket projection of the turbine casing (3).
6.2.2 Guides
The central location of the turbine casing at right angles to the machine axis is provided by the
guides shown in detail–A of Fig. 6.3. These guides allow the turbine casing to expand freely in the vertical
plane. In addition, the HP turbine casing guides join the casing and the bearing pedestal which follows
any axial expansion of the casing and slides on the base plate (1).
6.3 Internal Construction

6.3.1 Casing Arrangement
As shown in Fig. 6.1, the HP turbine has two casings :
i) The inner casing, which is axially split in vertical plane which carries fixed blades and encloses
rotor. This is shown as part (4) in Fig.6.1.
ii) The outer casing designed as a barrel type without axial joint and with integral exhaust section.
The barrel casing (3) encloses the complete assembly of inner casing with rotor.
Chapter-6: HP Turbine Construction 109

Fig.6.2 HP Turbine Supporting on Pedestals

Fig.6.3 Details of Hp Cylinder Supports & Guides
Fig.6.4 Steam Admission Connections

The axially split inner casing is constructed as a guide blade carrier. The location of guide blade carrier
within outer casing enables independent expansion of each other, i.e. radial in all directions and axial
expansions towards the exhaust side originating from fixed point with respect to barrel at inlet side.
The guide blade carrier is almost cylindrical in shape as the horizontal joint flanges are relieved by
the higher pressure arising outside, and thus can be kept small.
6.3.2 Connections to Control Valves

As shown in Fig. 6.4, the two main steam lines, left and right side, leading from respective control
valves are connected to the inlet connections, horizontally, by threaded sleeves (9). The threaded sleeve
of such a connection is supported with one shoulder against a shoulder of pipe and is screwed on to the
casing by its inner threads. The buttress threads provide safe connection between pipe (10) and casing
(3). The joint is sealed by the U-seal ring (8) that is expanded by the steam pressure arising and is forced
against the outer sealing surface. The contact surface and groove for U-seal ring is shown in Fig. 6.5.
The space round the sealing ring is connected to the seal steam header. The cylindrical pins (7) placed
between the end surfaces of the pipe and the casing prevent their turning with respect to each other.
Groove
Contact Surface, Groove for U-section

Seal Ring & Sleeve Nut
Fig.6.5 Threaded Sleeve Type Steam Line Joint
6.3.3 Anchoring of Inner Casing

The guide blade carrier (4) is kinematically supported and located in the barrel casing (Fig. 6.1).
This ensures free radial and axial expansion with respect to barrel casing from the fixed point at inlet side,
while maintainity concentricity relative to the turbine rotor.
On admission side, four projections of the guide blade carrier (4) and on the exhaust side two
projections fit into corresponding grooves in the barrel casing (3), as seen from Fig. 6.6 in section E-E and
section B-B respectively. In the horizontal plane these projections rest on fitted keys (12) as shown in
Section B-B and detail G. In the vertical plane they are guided by fitted keys (11) Section E-E. These
sliding contacts make it possible for the guide blade carrier to be exactly guided into the vertical and
horizontal planes.
As shown in Fig.6.7, the axial fixed point of the guide blade carrier is provided by a shoulder in the
barrel type casing (3) against which a collar of the guide blade carrier (4) rests. A ring (5) with a buttress
thread holds the guide blade carrier in the guide blade carrier in the barrel casing (4). As the combined

Note: Refer Fig. 6.1 for Section E-E & B-B
Fig.6.6 Support & Centering of Guide Blade Carrier

journal and thrust bearing on the inlet side of the turbine forms the fix point of the turbine shaft, the inner
casing and turbine shaft expand in the same direction, i.e. towards exhaust side. This feature reduces the
axial clearance of the HP turbine.
The axial thrust to which the guide blade carrier is subjected is transmitted to & absorbed by the
threaded ring (5) via spacer ring (16).
6.3.4 Sealing between Inner and Outer Casing

Admission side (Fig.6.7):
A pre-stressed U-ring (15) inserted between the groove provided in the barrel casing and the
collar of the inner casing performs the sealing function at inlet ,i.e., admission side. The U-ring is pressed
firmly by the threaded ring (5) against the inner casing collar.
Fig.6.7 Axial Holding & Centering of Guide Blade Carrier
Exhaust side (Fig. 6.8):

An I-sealing ring (19) is fitted on the exhaust side, which allows axial movement between the
inner casing and barrel casing. The I-ring seals the space between the guide blade carrier and the barrel
type casing from the adjacent spaces.
Fig.6.8 I-ring Seal at Exhaust Side

6.3.5 H P Turbine Blading
The HP turbine blading consists of 25 drum stages. All stages are reaction stages with 50%
degree of reaction. The stationary and moving blades of the front stages, as shown in Fig. 6.9, are
provided with inverted T-roots, which also determine the distance between the blades. Their cover plates
are machined integral with the blades and provide a continuous shroud after insertion.
Fig.6.9 Front Drum Stages Fig.6.10 Rear Drum Stages
The moving and stationary blades are inserted into approximately shaped grooves in the shaft (8)
or inner casing (1) and are bottom caulked with caulking material (9). The insertion slot in the shaft (8) is
closed by a locking blade, which is fixed either by taper pins or grub screws. Special end blades, which
lock with the horizontal joint, are used at the horizontal joints of the inner casing. Grub screws, which are
inserted from the joint into the material, secure the stationary blades in the grooves.
The rear stages (Fig. 6.10) have stationary blades with hook-type roots, which are secured in
annular grooves in the inner casing by filler pieces (2). The shrouds of these stationary blades are riveted
to the blades in sections. The moving blades of these stages have the same design as those of the front
stages.
Blade Tip Sealing :

Sealing strips (3,7) are caulked into the inner casing (1) and the shaft (8) to reduce tip leakage
losses at the moving blade tips (4) and fixed blade tips (5). Cylindrically machined surfaces on the blade
shrouds are opposite the sealing strips. These surfaces have stepped diameters in order to increase the
turbulence of the steam and thus the sealing effect is achieved. In case during operation any disturbance
cause the sealing strips to come into contact with opposite surface, they are rubbed away without any
considerable amount of heat being generated. They can then easily be removed at a later instance to
provide the specified clearance.
Fig. 6.11 shows the inner casing half complete with fixed blading and Fig. 6.12 shows the rotor
assembly inserted in half inner casing.

Fig.6.11 Bottom Inner Casing Complete with Fixed Blading
Fig.6.12 HPT Rotor Inserted in Inner Casing Half

6.3.6 Shaft Seals and Balance Piston Function
The function of the shaft seals is to seal the interior of the casing from the atmosphere at the
passages in the shaft on the admission and exhaust sides. The difference in pressure across the balance
piston, integral with the shaft at admission side seal, serves to counteract the axial thrust caused by
steam forces. At the inner side of the piston, main steam pressure acts while the steam leaking through
the radial labyrinth sealing is connected to the exhaust of HPT,& therefore, the exhaust pressure acts on
the other side of the piston. The protected area of the balance piston multiplied by the pressure difference
across it gives rise to force which is almost equal and opposite to axial thrust of the rotor.
Admission side seal :

Fig. 6.13 shows the section of admission side seal. This seal has 5 stages. The steam spaces
are provided after each stage to connect leakage/steam supply to the respective pipeline.
Fig.6.13 HPT Admission Side Shaft Seal
Q : Connected to HPT exhaust

R : Connected to IPT exhaust
S : Connected to gland steam supply/Leak off header
T : Connected to the header of gland steam cooler (under vacuum).
Exhaust side seal :

Fig. 6.14 shows the HPT exhaust side seal. This seal has four axial flow labyrinth sealing stages
and three steam spaces R, S & T which are connected as follows :
R : Connected to IPT exhaust

S : Connected to steam supply/leak off header
T : Connected to the header of gland steam cooler.

Fig.6.14 HPT Exhaust Side Shaft Seal
Fig.6.15 Installation of Sealing Rings

The seal ring segments (11) in the exhaust part of the casing are inserted in the retaining groove
through a recess in the end wall and slid to their final position. Each annular groove, filled with sealing
ring segments, is closed by a correspondingly formed fitted piece (7,9,10).
Installation of sealing rings

The sealing between the rotating and stationary part of the turbine is achieved by means of seal
strips (14, 17), caulked into the individual sealing rings (2, 11) and into the rotor (3), as shown in Fig. 6.13,
6.14 and detail D. The pressure gradient is reduced here according to the labyrinth principle by covering
the velocity of leakage steam into turbulence in many stages. The sealing rings (2,11), the number of
which depends on the internal pressure, are divided into several segments as shown in section A-A and
section B-B (Fig. 6.15). These segments are mounted in T-shaped annular grooves in the inner casing
(1), barrel type casing (13), and in the covers (5,6) (Ref. Fig. 6.13,614) so that they can move radially.
Each segment is forced against a shoulder by two helical springs (4) and kept in this position. This
provides the proper clearance for the seal gaps should rubbing occur, the section concerned can retreat.
The heat developed by the light rubbing of the thin sealing strips (14, 17) is so slight that it can not lead to
deformation of the rotor (3). W hen the turbine is started from the cold or semi-warm state, the sealing
rings naturally heat up faster than the casing. However, they can expand freely in the radial direction
against the centering force of the helical springs (4). The outer sealing rings are mounted in easily
removable covers (5,6).
6.4 Front Bearing Pedestal

6.4.1 Arrangement
The front bearing pedestal is situated at the end of the turboset on the turbine side (HPT
exhaust). Its function is to support the turbine casing and bear the weight of turbine rotor. The sectional
view of front pedestal is shown in Fig. 6.16, which comprises following turbine components.
- Journal bearing (9) for HP turbine rotor.

- Main oil pump (2)
- Hydraulic speed transmitter (3)
- Electric speed transmitter (4), called as Hall probe
- Overspeed trip (6)
- Shaft position measuring device
- Shaft vibration pick-up
- Bearing pedestal vibration pick-up.
6.4.2 Connection of Base Plate and Foundation

The base plate (18) (Fig. 6.16) is aligned to the foundation with hexagonal screws that are
screwed into the base plate at several points. To overcome friction resistance, balls are arranged under
the heads of these hexagonal screws. After alignment, the space under the base plate is filled in with
special grout, resistant to expansion and contraction. In addition to this, the base plate is connected to
the foundation by means of anchor bolts.
6.4.3 Connection of Bearing Pedestal & Base Plate (Ref. Fig. 6.16, 6.17)
The bearing pedestal (1) rests on four plates (15). By slightly lifting the bearing pedestal using
number of lifting devices and jack screws, these plates can be extracted and refinished or replaced if
necessary. This allows subsequent alignment of the bearing pedestal at any time. The bearing pedestal
(1) is connected to the base plate (18) by means of clamps (19) to permit free axial expansion. The centre
position of the bearing pedestal is guaranteed by two guide pieces (16) welded to the base plate (18) and
the fitted keys (17).

Fig.6.16 Front Bearing Pedestal
Fig.6.17 Cross-section of Journal Bearing

6.4.4 Main oil Pump
As shown in Fig. 6.18, M.O.P. is installed in the front bearing pedestal. The suction and
discharge pipe are connected from the bottom side of the pump. MOP is directly coupled to the turbine
shaft (Fig. 6.16) by gear coupling. On MOP shaft hydraulic speed transducer and electric speed
transducer (hall probe) are mounted. Through the bore of the MOP shaft test oil can be injected to test
the functioning of overspeed trip during ATT procedure.
Fig.6.18 Cross-section of Main Oil Pump
6.5 Rear Bearing Pedestal

6.5.1 Arrangement
Rear bearing pedestal, also called as middle bearing pedestal, is situated between HP & IP
turbines. Its function is to support the HP/IP turbine casings and bear the rotors at HP & IP turbine in
bearing number 2. As shown in Fig. 6.19, the rear bearing pedestal accommodates following turbine
components.
- Combined journal and thrust bearing (4)

- Shaft vibration pick-up (2)
- Bearing pedestal vibration pick-up (3)
- Thrust bearing trip
- HP/IP turbine coupling
6.5.2 Connection of Base Plate & Foundation (Ref. Fig.6.19, 6.20)

The base plate (14) is aligned to the foundation with hexagonal screws that are screwed into the
base plate at several points. To overcome friction resistance, balls are placed under the head of these
hexagonal screws. After alignment, the space under the base plate is filled in with special grout, resistant
to expansion and contraction. In addition to this, the base plate is connected to the foundation by means
of anchor bolts.
6.5.3 Connection of Bearing Pedestal & Base Plate (Ref. Fig. 6.19, 6.20)
The bearing pedestal (5) rests on four plates(13). By slightly lifting the bearing pedestal using
hydraulic lifting devices and jack screws, these plates can be taken out and refinished or replaced

Fig.6.19 Longitudinal Section of Rear Bearing Pedestal
Fig.6.20 Cross-section through Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing

whenever required. This allows subsequent alignment of the bearing pedestal at any time. The bearing
pedestal (5) is connected to the base plate (14) by means of clamps (11) bolted to the base plate to allow
free axial expansion. The centre position of the bearing is guaranteed by two guide pieces (16) welded to
the base plate (14) and the fitted keys (15).
6.6 Combined Journal and Thrust Bearing

6.6.1 Function
The function of this bearing is to support the turbine rotor and to take the residual axial thrust. The
magnitude and direction of axial thrust to be carried by the bearing depends on the load conditions of the
turbine. This bearing is located in the bearing pedestal between HPT and IPT. The thrust bearing
maintains desired axial clearances for the combined turbine and generator shaft system.
6.6.2 Construction
The sectional view of combined journal and thrust bearing is shown in Fig. 6.21 and 6.22. It
consists of upper and lower bearing shells (4, 12), thrust pads (6), Cap (2), spherical blocks (14, 16) and
keys (10, 17). The upper and lower halves (4,12) of the bearing shell are bolted and doweled at the
horizontal joint by means of four taper pins and four socket-head screws.
Fig.6.21 Combined journal & Thrust Bearing

Sections & Details from Fig.6.21
The journal bearing is constructed as elliptical sleeve bearing. The bearing liners are provided
with a machined babbit face. Additional scraping of babbit lining is neither necessary nor allowable.
In order to prevent the bearing from exerting a bending moment on the shaft, it is pivot-mounted
on spherical seat (16). The spherical block (14), with shims (13, 15), is bolted to the lower bearing shell
(12). A transverse projection in the upper part of the cap (2) and the fitted keys (3) prevent the bearing
shells from rising.
The bearing shells are located laterally by keys (10), The bearing is supported axially against the
bearing pedestal (1,9) by means of keys (17, 18) (Section H-H). This fixing is of great importance for axial
clearance in the whole turbine.
At each end of the bearing shell, thrust bearing pads (6) (Section F-F) form two annular surfaces
on which the integrally machined shaft collars rotate. These collars and thrust pads permit equal loading
of the thrust bearing in either direction. As shown in Section N-N, the thrust pads are of the tilting type,
secured in place by pins (23) and flexibly mounted on split backing rings (21).

6.6.3 Temperature Measurement
Metal temperatures of the journal bearing and thrust pads are monitored by the thermocouples
(19, 20) as shown in section E-E and G-G.
6.6.4 Oil Supply (Fig. 6.20)

Lubricating oil is admitted to the bearing shells from both sides, via oil lines (11) from where it
flows to the oil spaces into the upper and lower bearing shells at the horizontal joint.
Oil leaving the journal bearing flows to the two annular grooves adjacent to the bearing surface
and then to the thrust pads (6). Through the two oil return cowlings (5), oil is discharged into the drain
area in the pedestal (9).
Passages are located at the lowest point in the lower bearing shell through which high pressure
jacking oil is supplied under the journal at low speed of the turbine rotor during start-up and shutdown.
Thus dry friction is prevented and the breakaway torque on start-up with turning gear is reduced.
As shown in Fig. 6.20 and detail-C, high pressure oil "a" flows under the journals via the oil line
and via openings in the lower bearing shell (12). O-rings (24) located between the bearing liner (17) and
the lower bearing shell (12) prevent any oil from penetrating between the two elements.
Any oil leakage passing the seal will drain off to the bearing pedestal through a groove in the
lower bearing shell. This arrangement ensures that no oil penetrates between the bearing liner and the
bearing shell.
6.7 Journal Bearing

6.7.1 Function and Construction (Fig. 6.22)
The function of the journal bearing is to support the turbine rotor. Essentially, the journal bearing
consists of the upper and lower shells (3, 6), bearing cap (1), spherical block (7), spherical seat (14) and
the keys (11). The bearing shells are provided with a babbit face. Both bearing shells are fixed by means
of taper pins and bolted together.
In order to prevent the bearing from exerting a bending moment on the rotor (5), it is pivot-
mounted in the spherical seat (14). For this purpose, the spherical block (7) with shims (12,13) is bolted
to the bearing shell (6). A projection in cap (1) with shims (9) fits into a corresponding groove in the
bearing shell (3) and prevents vertical movement of the bearing shells. Centering of the bearing shells in
the vertical plane is achieved by means of keys (8) fitted on both sides of the projection.
The bearing shells are fitted laterally by the keys (11), which are bolted to each other. Each key
is held in position in the bearing pedestal (10) by two lateral collars. The temperature of the bearing
bodies is monitored by thermocouples (19) as shown in section C-C.
6.7.2 Oil Supply

Lubrication oil is admitted to the bearing shells from both sides, from where it flows to the oil
spaces milled in to the upper and lower shells at the horizontal joint that are open to the rotor. Oil from
the oil space, machined in the Babbitting, is carried through the rotor (5) and emerges from the bearing
shell from where it is collected in the oil return cowling (4) and drained into the bearing pedestal (10).
As shown in detail-B, a threaded nozzle (17) is arranged at the lowest point of the lower bearing
shell (6) through which high pressure oil is supplied under the journals at low speed of turbine rotor (on

Fig.6.22 Journal Bearing

start-up and shutdown). Thus dry friction is prevented and breakaway torque on start-up with turning gear
is reduced.
The lift oil (jacking oil) flows into the above mentioned threaded nozzle (17) through passages in
the lower bearing shell (6). A seal (18) prevents high pressure oil from penetrating the space between
threaded nozzle and ring (16) and thus prevent lifting the babbit lining. Any leakage oil can drain through
passages in the bearing shell below the ring.
6.7.3 Removal of Bearing Shells

Not only the upper bearing shell (3) but also the lower bearing shell (6) can be removed without
the removal of the shaft (5). To enable this to be done, the shaft is lifted slightly (within the clearance of
the shaft seals) by means of the lifting device. Now the lower bearing shell can then be rotated to the top
position and removed.
6.8 Assembly of HP Turbine

6.8.1 Assembly Phases
Assembly of HPT involves three phases.
i) Preliminary assembly – comprises of fitter work for making individual components ready for
assembly.
ii) Radial and axial clearances determination – an assembly device accommodating the inner
casings and shaft is used for this purpose.
iii) Installation of rotor inside the inner casing and enclosing the inner casing with barrel casing and
final inspection of clearances.
6.8.2 Preliminary Assembly Steps

1. Test of spring support on sealing segment (Fig. 6.23(a))
2. Mounting of thrust pads into the inner casing (Fig. 6.23(b))
3. Centering of the inner casing (guide blade carrier) with alignment shaft (Fig. 6.23(c))
4. Installation of inner casing in casing inlet section (Fig. 6.23 (d))
5. Alignment of inner casing with barrel casing at inlet section (Fig.6.24 (a))
6. Fitting in of fitted keys at exhaust side horizontal support lugs (Fig. 6.24(b))
6.8.3 Clearance Check

1. Horizontal alignment of top half inner casing on assembly device (Fig. 6.25(b))
2. HPT rotor insertion in the top half casing (Fig. 6.25(c))
3. Alignment of halved inner casing (Fig. 6.25 (d), (e))
Run-out gages are used as measuring instruments. After fixing the turbine rotor axially to the
alignment dimensions in the assembly drawing, the axial and radial clearances check is now
carried out.
4. Radial clearances are checked by measuring tapes 0.2 mm thinner than the setpoint clearance,
which are inserted between the blades and seal strips (Fig. 6.26 (a), (b)).
5. Axial clearances are checked between the rotor and stator blades by a test gauge and logged.
Finally the minimum axial clearance is checked again by moving the shaft (Fig. 6.26(c),(d)).
6. Alignment of bottom half casing with assembly device (Fig. 6.27(a)).
7. Insertion of turbine shaft into bottom half of inner casing (Fig. 6.27(b)) and measurement of radial
and axial clearances in the same way described for inner casing is carried out.
8. Shaft sealing segments are now mounted in the grooves of bottom half casing (Fig. 6.27(c)) and
then radial clearances (Fig.6.27(d)) and axial clearances (Fig. 6.28(e)) are measured by
measuring tape.

(a) Test of Spring Support on Sealing Segment Fig.6.23 ((b) Mounting Thrust Pads into the Inner Casing
(c) Aligning the Alignment Shaft in Inner Casing (d) Installation of Inner Casing in Barrel Casing
(a) Alignment of Inner Casing in Barrel Casing Fig.6.24 (b) Fitting-in of Fitted Keys

(a) Assembly Device
(b) Alignment of Halved Inner casing (c) Rotor Inserted in Top Half Inner Casing
(d) Alignment of Halved Inner Casing (e) Alignment of Halved Inner Casing
Fig.6.25 Rotor Centering in Half Casing

(a) Test of Radial Clearances (b) Test of Radial Clearances
(c) Test of Axial Clearances (d) Test of Axial Clearances
Fig.6.26 Radial & Axial Clearances Measurement

(a) Bottom Half Inner Casing in Horizontal Position (b) Insertion of Turbine Rotor
(c) Mounting of Shaft Sealing Segments (d) Test of Radial Clearances
(e) Test of Axial Clearances
Fig.6.27 Gland Seal Clearances Checking in Bottom Inner Casing

6.8.4 Final Assembly (Box-up) of inner casing
1. After ensuring the axial and radial clearances between rotor stages and fixed stages with top
inner and bottom inner casing, final assembly is started. The rotor is inserted in the bottom half
inner casing and aligned (Fig. 6.28(a)).
2. Top inner casing is placed over bottom half casing (Fig. 6.28 (b))
3. All the casing joint bolts are tightened up afterwards using a heating device (Fig. 6.28(c)). The
bolts are expanded and tightened ready for operation in accordance with calculated torque
angles.
4. Another clearance check is now carried out on the assembled inner casing by shifting the shaft
upwards, downwards, to the left and to the right until seal fin rub is noticed the movement of the
shaft as above is measured by dial gauges and so the minimum radial clearances are recorded
(Fig. 6.28(d)). Similarly, the minimum axial clearances are measured by centering the shaft with
inner casing with axial displacement.
(a) Rotor Placed in Bottom Half Inner Casing (b) Placement of Top Half Inner Casing
(c) Heating of Casing Joint Bolts on Inner Casing (d) Test of Radial Clearances in Assembled
condition
Fig.6.28 Inner Casing Box-up

6.8.5 Preparation of Inner Casing Assembly for Box-up in Barrel Casing
After boxing-up the rotor in inner casing (Fig. 6.29(a)), the final assembly with barrel casing is
carried out. To enable the shaft enclosed in the inner casing to be installed vertically in the barrel casing,
these parts must be firmly interconnected so that the alignment does not change during vertical assembly
procedure.
o
Radial fixation of the outlet by four plates staggered at 90 angles (Fig. 6.29(b)). Halved supports
are built on the inlet side for radial and axial fixation (Fig. 6.29(c)).
A journal with turning bolt is connected to the shaft for the tilting procedure assuming the tilting
blocks supporting function (Fig. 6.29(d)) when the turbine shaft is lifted.
(a) Rotor Enclosed in Inner Casing (b) Mounting of Support for Inner Casing
(c) Mounting of Support Rings on Inlet Side (d) Turning of Turbine Shaft with Surrounding
Inner Casing
Fig.6.29 Preparation of Inner Assembly for Insertion in Barrel Casing

6.8.6 Insertion of Inner Casing Assembly into Barrel
Internals are now installed in the barrel casing in vertical position (Fig.6.30 (a)). The barrel casing
is placed vertically on an assembly pedestal, aligned and clamped on (Fig. 6.30(b)). The U-ring is then
inserted into the barrel casing inlet side and secured by studs (Fig. 6.30(c)). A shaft guide piece is
mounted on the barrel casing exit side to guide the shaft while it is being mounted so that it is aligned
centrally to the casing. This guide piece takes over the shaft centering function before the I-sealing ring
engages in the inner casing groove.
The turbine shaft enclosed in the inner casing is then moved over the casing inlet section and
lowered into the latter vertically (Fig. 6.30(d)). The inner casing is then aligned radially to the barrel
casing. This position is fixed by installing the fitted keys added during preliminary assembly.
Then the threaded ring is mounted in the barrel casing inlet side (Fig. 6.31(a)). It is, however,
necessary to overcome U-ring pre-stress to move the inner casing into its operating position. For this, two
compression beams are mounted on the casing inlet section of barrel casing and then the inner casing is
moved into the operating position by means of two hydraulic cylinders (Fig. 6.31(b)). The axial
dimensions are then checked and logged. The threaded ring is now tightened-up against the inner
casing sliding blocks until the marks added during preliminary assembly are matched. Hydraulic cylinders
are then depressurised and beams are removed. Three safety pieces are fitted in and placed into position
to fix the threaded ring (Fig. 6.31(c)). Finally the main steam inlet inserts and associated parallel pipes are
installed (Fig. 6.31 (d)).
HP turbine is brought in horizontal position (fig. 6.32(a)). Then the shaft seal exhaust outlet side
segments are installed next. As the two inner rings are still in the barrel casing, the sealing segments
have to be inserted. The barrel casing is therefore provided with an insertion opening into which
segments are placed with the aid of a device (Fig. 6.32(b)). Seal strip axial clearances are measured
through the mounting opening and logged. The closure segment is then mounted and secured against
turning. The installation opening is bolted closed by a closure segment, which is dowelled.
Subsequently, the one-piece casing ring, into which the shaft sealing segments are inserted,
placed into position and secured, according to the same method (Fig. 6.32(c)), is attached. The
installation opening is then similarly bolted by closure segment (Fig. 6.32(d)).
After the shaft sealing segments have been installed, the rotor is placed into its bearings at the
front and rear to allow the shaft and inner casing fixation to be dismantled. The halved support rings on
the inlet side are unbolted and removed. The four plates used for radial fixation at the exhaust end are
removed through the exit nozzles (Fig. 6.32(e)). The turbine shaft is then aligned radially and axially and
first the bottom halves of the shaft sealing covers are mounted, aligned and bolted on. Then, the radial
and axial clearances are checked in completely assembled condition (Fig. 6.32(f)).
6.8.7 Major Inspection during Overhaul

Dismantling a barrel type turbine during a major overhaul is carried out accordingly in the reverse
sequence. The assembly device is required in this procedure for dismantling and subsequent reassembly
and the required clearances checks.

(b) Barrel Casing Ready to Accommodate Inner
casing
(a) Turbine Shaft in Vertical Position
(c) U-ring Inserted in the Groove at Inlet Side (d) Vertical Installation Turbine Shaft in the
Barrel
Fig.6.30 Insertion of Inner Casing Assembly into Barrel Casing

(b) Prestressing of U-ring
(a) Screwing-in Threaded Ring in Barrel Casing
(c) Mounting of Safety Pieces for Threaded Ring (d) Mounting 0f an MS Inlet Pipe
Fig.6.31 Closing of Inlet Side Barrel Casing

(a) HP Turbine in Horizontal Position (b) Installation of Shaft Sealing Segments at Inlet Side
(c) Mounting of Shaft Sealing Segments (d) Insertion Opening for Shaft Sealing Segments
closed
(e) Support of Turbine Shaft to inner Casing & (f) Radial & Axial Clearance Check in Completely
Centering of Inner Casing Assembled Condition
Fig.6.32 Installation of Outer Sealing Segments

6.9 HPT Components Photographs
Following figures showing the actual equipments photographs for demonstration of KW U HP
turbine set-up.
Inlet
Exhaust
Fif.6.33 HPT Barrel Casing in Vertical Position

Fig.6.34 HPT Barrel Casing Admission Side View
Fig.3.35 HPT Top-Bottom Inner Casing Assembled View

th
25 Stage Fixed Blades
Fig.6.36 Guide Blade Carrier View from Exhaust End
Fig.6.37 U-ring for Admission Side Sealing

Exhaust Side Seal Balance Piston Admission Side Seal
Thrust Collar
th
25 Stage
Admission Side Shaft Sealing Area

Exhaust Side Shaft Sealing Area
Fig.6.38 HP Turbine Rotor Views

MOP
Base Plate
Axial Guide Key
Fig.6.39 Front Pedestal & MOP Views

MOP Front End MOP Coupling End
Fig.6.40 MOP Installation
Front Journal Bearing Bottom Shell Mounting Combined Journal & Thrust Bearing Mounting
Thrust Bearing Pads
Fig.6.41 HPT Front & Rear Bearings

Valve Actuator
Stop Valve
Control Valve
Valve Seats
Fig.6.42 Combined HP Stop & Control Valve
-o0o-

Chapter 7
IP TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Design Features
The IP Turbine is split axially and is of double shell design. The outer casing accommodates a
2 o
double flow inner casing. The steam coming from the reheater (34 kg/cm , 535 C) is passed into the
inner casing via admission branches, which are symmetrically arranged in the top and bottom halves of
the outer casing. The axial thrust in this turbine is largely balanced due to opposite flow effect of the
steam through the blading passages as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Fig.7.1 Cut-away Section of IP Turbine
In addition, the bracket and bearing areas are not affected by the high temperature of the steam,
2
which enters at the centre, and leaves at the exhaust ends at low pressure and temperature (7 kg/cm ,
o
314 C). High temperatures occur only at the admission branches of the inner casing, while the flange
joint of the outer casing is subjected to the pressure and temperature of the steam leaving the blading (the
annular gap between inner and outer casing is filled with exhaust steam). This feature permits the flange
thickness to be designed relatively small with no need for over dimensioning the cylinder in this
particular area unlike old turbines. This has eliminated most of the operational problems encountered due
to deformation of the casing under non-steady state condition (start-up and shutdown).
Chapter-7: IP Turbine Construction 145

Fig 7.2 Supporting Arrangement of IP Turbine

The pressure within the outer casing acts to relieve the joint of the casing, which is only required to seal
the pressure differentials relative to the pressure within the blading. This also allows joint to be designed
for relatively low pressure.
The differing temperatures of the inner and outer casing require the inner casing to be located at
one point only and in all directions radially, while maintaining concentricity of the inner casing with respect
to the shaft. In order to fulfill this requirement, the inner casing, with four brackets on its upper part, rests
on the joint of the lower outer casing and carries its own lower part, which is bolted to it. Thus the casing
can freely expand in radial directions while maintaining concentricity relative to the shaft in this plane. To
locate the inner casing axially, shims are placed on both sides of front brackets (HP turbine side) of the
lower inner casing from where expansion in the axial direction originates. This does not affect radial
expansion since the brackets are allowed to move in the recesses of the lower outer casing.
This IP turbine design by KW U has been in use since 1972 for power plants and has proved extremely
successful in respect of operational behaviour and ease of maintenance.
7.2 Cylinder Supports & Guides

7.2.1 Supports
The manner in which the turbine casing is supported makes allowances for thermal expansion
and contraction. It is essential for the casing to retain concentric alignment with the rotor, which is
supported independently. The IP cylinder is supported at front side on bearing No.2 pedestal and on rear
side on fixed pedestal of bearing No.3 by two front brackets and two rear brackets in the plane of the
machine axis. This arrangement is shown in Fig.7.2. This arrangement determines the height of the
casing and also allows thermal expansion to take place in the horizontal plane by the brackets sliding on
Fig.7.3 Details of Supports & Guides (Ref.Fig.7.2)

the plates (7) of the bearing pedestals (2, 4).
To prevent lifting of the turbine casing (3) the brackets projecting into recesses in the bearing
pedestals are held by Cap (5) (Ref. Fig. 7.3 Section AA). W hen the turbine is being erected, a clearance
"S" is kept between the disc (6) and bracket projection of the turbine casing (3).
7.2.2 Guides
The central location of the turbine casing at right angles to the machine axis is provided by the
guides shown in details – B of Fig. 7.3. These guides allow the turbine casing to expand freely in the
vertical plane. In addition, the IP turbine casing guides join the casing and bearing pedestals into a single
unit in the axial direction by means of the keys (13). Due to this, the axial expansion of the turbine casing
initiates from the rear bearing pedestal (anchor point of IPT) (Part 4 in Fig. 7.2) and is transmitted to the
bearing pedestal (2) causing this to slide on the base plate (1).
7.3 Construction
7.3.1 Double Shell Construction
As discussed earlier, the IP turbine is split horizontally and is of double shell construction. The
construction of IP turbine is illustrated in Fig.7.4. A double flow inner casing (4,5) is supported in the outer
casing (2,3). Steam from HP turbine after reheating enters the inner casing from above and below
through two inlet nozzles (7) flanged to the mid section of the outer casing. This arrangement provides
opposed double flow in the two blade sections and compensates axial thrust. The centre flow prevents the
steams inlet temperature from affecting the support brackets and bearing sections.
In this arrangement the steam inlet conditions are limited to the inlet section of the inner casing
whereas the joint of the outer casing is only subjected to the lower pressure and lower temperature
prevailing at the outlet of the inner casing. The joint flange can thus be kept small and material
accumulations reduced to a minimum in the area of the flange. In this way difficulties arising from
deformation of a casing with flange joint due to non-uniform temperature rises, e.g. on start-up and shut-
down, are avoided.
7.3.2 Inlet and Extraction Nozzles

The angle sealing rings (8) makes the connection of the inlet and extraction nozzles (7,6) with
inner casing (4,5) as shown in Fig.7.5. One leg of the angle ring (8) at such a connection bears against
the back of the collar of the threaded ring (9) in the inner casing, while the other fits into an annular groove
in the inlet nozzle. The threaded ring (9) is fitted in such a way that the short leg of the angle sealing ring
can slide freely between the collar of the threaded ring and the inner casing. The steam pressure
prevailing on the inside, forces the sealing ring against the face of the inner casing. The tolerances of the
annular grooves in the inlet nozzle (7) are dimensioned to allow the long legs of the annular rings (8) to
slide in the groove. The angle rings are flexibly expanded by the pressure on the inside and their outer
areas forced against the annular grooves to provide the desired sealing effect.
W hile providing a tight seal, this arrangement permits the inner casing to move freely in all
directions The inlet nozzle (7) and the extraction nozzles (6) are bolted to the outer casing (2,3) (Fig. 7.5).
7.3.3 Supporting of Inner Casing

The inner casing, which carries guide blades and encloses rotor is axially split in horizontal plane
and both the halves are bolted together. Due to the different temperatures of the inner casing relative to
the outer casing, the inner casing is attached to the outer casing in such a manner as to be free to expand
axially from a fixed point and radially in all directions, while maintaining the concentricity of the inner
casing relative to the shaft. The steam inlet connections and the extraction connections are designed to
avoid any restrictions due to thermal expansion. The inner casing is attached to the outer casing in the
horizontal vertical plane.

Fig.7.4 Longitudinal Section of IP Turbine

(Refer Fig.7.4)
Inlet
Exhaust
Branches
Fig.7.5 Steam Admission Arrangement

In the horizontal plane, as shown in details "D" and "E" (Fig. 7.6), the four support brackets of the inner
casing, upper half (4), rest on blocks (13) which are supported by the joint of outer casing, lower half (3).
The shoulder screws (12) are provided with sufficient clearance to permit the inner casing to expand freely
in all directions in the horizontal plane. Thermal expansion in the vertical direction originates from the
point of support at the joint. This ensures concentricity of the inner casing relative to the shaft (1) in this
plane.
Fig.7.6 Inner Casing & Outer Casing Joint & Attachment
The support bracket provided at the inner casing, lower half (5) (section H-H), project into the
recesses of the outer casing, lower half (3) and have clearance on all sides. Located on top of each
bracket is a spacer disc (11), whose upper surface has a clearance "S" to the flange face of the outer
casing, upper half (2). This clearance thus determines the lift of the inner casing.
As shown in detail "D", the inner casing is located axially by the fitted keys (10) arranged on both
sides (front side) of the supports brackets of the inner casing, lower half (5). Thermal expansion in the
axial direction originates from these points and so the inner casing expands axially in the rear direction.
Radial expansion is not prevented by these fitted keys as they can slide in the recesses of the outer
casing, lower part.
In the vertical plane, as shown in detail "B" (Fig. 7.4, 7.7), two centering pins (14) each are fitted
in the upper and lower half of the outer casing and in bushings (15) and are anchored in T-blocks (16)

which are allowed to move in axial grooves on the inner casing. This arrangement allows axial
displacement of the inner casing in relation to the T-block (16) as well as radial expansion along the
centering pins (14), while the T-blocks (16) maintains transverse alignment. Thermal expansion
transverse to the axis of the cylinder originates from these T-blocks to maintain concentricity of the inner
casing relative to the shaft in vertical plane.
The bushings 15 fitted in the outer casing are drilled

eccentrically for aligning; the inner casing may be moved transverse to the axis of the cylinder by turning
these bushings. After alignment, the position of the bushings is locked by means of grub screws.
Fig.7.7 Centering of Inner Casing in Vertical Plane
7.3.4 I P Turbine Blading

7.3.4.1 Moving & Stationary Blading
The IP turbine blading consists of 20 drum stages per flow (2 x 20 for double flow). All stages are
reaction stages with 50% degree of reaction. The stationary and moving blades of the front stages (Refer
Fig. 7.8) are provided with T-roots. Their cover plates (shrouding) are machined integral with the blades
and provide a continuous shroud after insertion.
The moving and stationary blades are inserted into approximately shaped grooves in the shaft (8)
or inner casing (1) and are bottom caulked with caulking material (9), the insertion slot in the shaft (8) is
closed by a locking blade, which is fixed either by taper pins or grub screws. Special blades, which lock
with the horizontal joint, are used at the horizontal joints of the inner casing. Grub screws, which are
inserted from the joint, secure the stationary blades in the grooves.
The rear stages (Fig. 7.9) have stationary blades with hook-type root, which are secured in
annular grooves in the inner casing by filler pieces (2). The shrouds of these stationary blades are riveted
to the blades in sections. The moving blades of these stages have the same design as those of the front
stages.

Fig.7.8 Front Drum Stages Fig.7.9 Rear Drum Stages
7.3.4.2 Tip Gap Sealing

Sealing strips (3,7) as shown in detail "A" (Fig. 7.9) are caulked in to the inner casing (1) and the
shaft (8) to reduce leakage losses at the blades tips (4,5). Cylindrically machined surfaces on the blade
shrouds are opposite the sealing strips. These surfaces have stepped diameters in order to increase the
turbulence of the steam and thus the sealing effect. In case the operational problem cause the sealing
strips to come into contact with opposite surfaces, they are rubbed without any considerable amount of
heat being generated. They can then easily be renewed at a later date to provide specified clearances.
7.3.5 Shaft Gland Sealing

The function of the shaft seals is to seal the interior of the turbine against the atmosphere at the
front (thrust bearing end) and the rear of the IP turbine (LP turbine end).
The sealing between the rotating and stationary elements of the turbine is achieved by means of
seal strips (6), which are caulked into the individual sealing rings (3) and into the shaft (4) (Detail "D").
The prevailing pressure is reduced by converting the pressure energy into velocity energy, which then
passes the large number of strips. The steam space are connected as follows:
2
P: It is connected to seal steam hender maintained at 0.011g/cm pressure by seal leak off steam
Valve.
R: It is connected to the header of gland steam cooler maintained under vacuum.
Sealing Rings :
The sealing rings (3) (Fig.7.10), the number of which depends on the pressure drop required, are
divided into several segments as shown in section A-A (Fig.7.11). These segments are mounted in T-
grooves in the inner steam seal casing (2) and outer steam seal casing (5), respectively; to allow radial
movement. Each segment is held in position against a shoulder by two coil springs (8) so that a fixed
reference for the clearance of the shaft is provided. Should the shaft come into contact with the strips in
the segments, the affected segments will move away radially. A possible slight contact between the shaft
and the thin strips (6), which generate only a small, amount of heat which cannot lead to deformation of
the shaft (4). During a cold start or warm start, the sealing rings naturally heat-up more quickly than the
casing. The outer sealing strips are arranged in easily removable casing (5) to enable the labyrinths of
these rings to be checked without the turbine casing being opened.

Fig.7.10 Front & Rear Shaft Sealing
Fig.7.11 Section at Sealing Rings

7.3.6 Rear Bearing Pedestal
7.3.6.1 Arrangements
This bearing pedestal is situated between the IP & LP turbines. Its functions are to support the turbine
casing and support the IP/LP rotors on the bearing housed on it. The bearing pedestal houses following
components (Fig 7.12)
Fig.7.12 Rear Bearing Pedestal

(a) Journal hearing (1)
(b) Shaft vibration pick-up
(c) Bearing pedestal vibration pick-up
(d) Shaft position measuring device (for differential expansion measurement of IPT)
(e) Hydraulic turning gear (3)
7.3.6.2 Connection of Bearing Pedestal & Foundation

The bearing pedestal is aligned on the foundation by hexagonal screws that are bolted into the
bearing pedestal. To overcome friction resistance, balls are arrangement under the heads of these
hexagonal screws. After alignment, the space under the bearing pedestal is filled in with special group,
resistant to expansion & contraction. The bearing pedestal is also connected to the foundation by means
of anchor bolts.
7.3.7 Hydraulic Turning Gear

7.3.7.1 Function
The function of the hydraulic turning gear is to rotate the turbine shaft at sufficient speed before
start-up & after shutdown. This avoids irregular heating-up or cooling-down &thus the associated
distortion of the turbine shaft (i.e. Hogging is prevented). The blade ventilation during turning operation
provides good heat transfer at the inner wall of the casing which is Conductive to temperature
equalization, between upper & lower casing parts.
Hydraulic turning gear is located in bearing pedestal between IPT & LPT (Fig 7.12). The manual
turning gear is also provided that enable turning af the shaft by hand. It may be operated to start the
turbine rolling or to rotate the shaft assembly through a specific angle.
7.3.7.2 Arrangement & Operation

Depending on the size of the shaft assembly, one or two inlet nozzle boxes that drive the two-row
blade wheel, as shown in Fig 7.13(a), are required for the rotation of the shaft. The inlet nozzle box is
located on the mounting plate of the rear-bearing pedestal (Fig 7.12,7.13b) of the IP turbine. Inlet nozzle
box as shown in Fig 7.13 (c), so as to maintain the specified clearances.
During turning gear operation, the shaft system is rotated by a double-row blade, which is driven
by oil supplied by the auxiliary oil pump (AOP). However, to overcome the breakaway torque during start-
up and to prevent dry friction, the shaft is lifted off the bearings by means of jacking oil (from JOP) which
is introduced from the bottom of the bearing.
As said earlier, the oil passes via a check valve into the nozzle box (3) (Fig 7.14) and then into the
nozzles (6) which guides the oil jet in front of the blading (7,8). In order to reduce the gap leakage losses
at the moving blades (8), sealing strips (11) are caulked into the nozzle boxes (3). After passing the
blading, the oil drains into the bearing pedestal and flows along with the bearing oil into the return flow
piping.
7.3.8 Manual Turning Gear ( Mechanical )

A manual turning gear is provided in addition to the hydraulic turning gear, as described above
enables the turbine shaft to be rotated manually in the event of a failure of the normal hydraulic turning
gear.
This mechanism consists of a gear machined on the rim of the turning gear wheel (10) and pawl
(6) as shown in Fig. 7.15. This pawl engages the ring gear & turns the shaft system when operated by
means of a bar attached to the lever (1). The pawl (6) is shown disengaged and the lever (1) resting
against a stop. The lever (1) is held in position by latch (7).
Manual turning gear is operated by first removing cover (2), unlatching at (7) and by attaching a
bar to the lever (1).Barring of lever(1)will rotate the combined turbine generator rotor.

(a) Arrangement of Blade Rows & Gear Ring (b) Arrangement of Nozzle Box
(c) As-installed Clearances Inlet Nozzle Box Mounted in Position
Fig.7.13 Arrangement of Hydraulic Turning Gear

Fig.7.14 Turning Gear Cross-sectional Views

Fig.7.15 Manual Turning Gear
After barring has been completed, return lever (1) and pawl (6) to the position shown in Fig. 7.15.
Then secure the lever (1) by means of latch (7) and replace cover (2). The barring gear may only be
operated after the shaft system has been lifted with a jacking oil pressure.
7.4 Assembly of IP Turbine

7.4.1 Alignment of Casings
The IP turbine is generally assembled in the manufacturing shop upon completion of machining.
The turbines structural design is such that it can be transported fully assembled.
During the first stage of assembly, the individual casing sections must be prepared for assembly
in a preliminary stage involving nearly all the necessary touching.
The inner casing alignment with the outer casing is illustrated in Fig. 7.16(a,b,c,d). As a first step,
the individual casing sections must be prepared for assembly in a preliminary stage involving almost all
the required matching-up and fine fitting work, also installing the shaft seal retaining rings in the outer
casing and inserting the casing bolts.
• Fig. 7.16 (a) shows the setting of the bottom half outer casing down on four preponed trestles and
aligning it using a water level (Fig. 7.16(b)).
• Insertion of the eccentric bushings and centering pins in the outer casings and the sliding pads in
the bottom half inner casing.
• Installation of the bottom half inner casing (Fig. 7.16(c)) engaging its lugs in the recesses in the
outer casing (Fig. 7.16 (d)).
• Dummy shaft is placed for the alignment of casings as shown in Fig. 7.17(a). The dummy shaft is
set down on alignment pedestals, which can be shifted vertically and horizontally (Fig. 7.17(b)).
Inductive position sensors are fitted to the shaft to measure the concentricity of shaft at several

positions. By measuring the deviations, it is possible to align the sections of casing with each
other rapidly and accurately.
• Mount the top-half inner casing (Fig. 7.17(c)), taking care to ensure that the increased load on the
substructure does not cater the alignment of the turbine. Once the position becomes correct,
align the inner casing. For this purpose, two centering measurement relative to the outer casings
and three centering measurements relative to inner casings along the length of the inner casing
are taken (Fig. 7.17(d)).
• Having completed radial alignment using provisional spaces, establish the final thickness of the
shims required to establish the horizontal location of the inner casing.
• Before mounting the top-half outer casing, install the sliding pads in the casing guide (Fig.
7.18(a)) and secure them from sliding out by means of a set screw (Fig. 7.18 (b)).
• Place the top-half outer casing, as shown in Fig. 7.18(c). Check the horizontal alignment once
again with the water level and ensure the concentricity of the inner casing by means of the
inductive sensors.
• Insert the eccentric bushings and centering pins for the inner casing guide (Fig. 7.18(d)), and
adjust the eccentric bushings and pins for proper concentricity (Fig. 7.19(a)).
• Having corrected the concentricity, attach the shaft seal cover (Fig. 7.19(b)). The position of the
holes has already been checked at the preliminary assembly stage.
• Using the inductive sensors mounted on the dummy shaft, align the shaft seal cover to a
concentric position (Fig. 7.19(c)), and bolt it in place.
This completes the alignment procedure for the casing sections.
7.4.2 Clearance Measurements

Remove the top half casing and the dummy shaft in order to perform clearances measurements.
Having checked the seal strips set down the turbine shaft in the bottom-half inner casing (Fig. 7.20(a)).
The shaft is mounted on the front side on a dummy bearing and on rear side on a specially installed shaft
journal.
• Align the shaft in the radial plane and adjust it to the desired position in the axial plane (Fig.
7.20(b). Then check the axial clearance in the blading using block gauges (Fig. 7.20(c)).
• Check the radial clearances in the blading between shaft and bottom-half inner casing with a
feeler gauge (Fig. 7.21(a)).
• Then measure axial & radial clearances at the shaft seal (Fig.7.20 (d), 7.21(b)).
• Check the radial clearances in the top-half inner casing using lead wire. For this purpose slightly
lower the shaft and lay the wire on the blades and shaft seal strips (Fig. 7.21(c).
• Then carefully set down the top half inner casing. Check the clearances between inner and outer
casing by attaching plasticine to the casing contour and the cap nuts of the inner casing joint bolts
(Fig. 7.22(a)).
• Then mount the top –half outer casing briefly, raises the shaft into its operating position and then
lowers it again.

• Remove the top casings and measure the clearances between the casings (Fig. 7.22(b)) and the
blading clearances (Fig. 7.22(c)).
• If the clearances measured fall within the limits specified in the blading protocol, the final position
of the casing is established. In the event of deviation from the specified clearances, the relative
positions of the casing may be shifted as appropriate to the anticipated expansion of the turbine
components. Take the dimensions for the axial positioning pads and insert shims of appropriate
thickness (Fig. 7.22(d)).
(a) Bottom-half Outer Casing Placed (b) Aligning the Outer Casing with a Water Level
(c) Installing the Bottom-half Inner Casing (d) Bottom-half Inner Casing Installed in Bottom-half
Outer Casing
Fig.7.16 Placement of Bottom-half Inner Casing in Bottom-half Outer Casing

(a) Installing of Dummy Shaft (b) Installed Dummy Shaft with Inductive
Transmitters & Instrumentation Unit
(c) Mounting the Top-half Inner Casing (d) Adjusting the Inductive Sensors
Fig.7.17 Centering of Inner Casing with Dummy Shaft

(a) Installing the Sliding Pads in Inner Casing (b) Securing the Sliding Pads in Inner Casing
Guide Guide
(c) Setting Down the Top-half Outer Casing (d) Inserting the Centering Pins for the Inner
Casing Guide
Fig.7.18 Placement of Top-half Inner Casing & Inserting the Centering Pins

(a) Adjusting the Eccentric Bushings & (b) Attaching the Shaft Seal Cover
Centering Pins of Inner Casing Guide
(c) Aligning the Shaft Seal Cover
Fig.7.19 Fitting of Shaft Seal Cover

(a) Placement of IPT Rotor in Bottom-half (b) Axial Alignment of the Turbine Shaft
Casings
(c) Axial Clearance Check on Blading (d) Axial Clearance Check at Shaft Seal
Fig.7.20 Axial Alignment of IP Turbine Shaft

(a) Radial Clearance Check at Blading (b) Radial Clearance Check at Shaft Seal
(c) Applying Lead Wire for Measuring Radial Clearances in Top-

half Inner Casing
Fig.7.21 Radial Clearances Checking

(a) Plasticine for Checking the Clearances (b) Measuring the Clearances Between Inner &
Between Inner & Outer Casing Outer Casing
(c) Checking the Radial Clearances in the Top- (d) Inserting the Axial Shims & Measuring
half Inner Casing with Wire Calipers their Clearance to the Inner Casing
Fig.7.22 Measurement of Clearances Between Inner & Outer Casings

7.4.3 Final Assembly
• After the clearance checking is completed, the casings are fully disassembled to install the
temperature measurement lines on the bottom-half casings (Fig. 7.23).
• Before final assembly, mount the angle section rings to the inlet and extraction pipe units. The
angle section rings were fitted into the inlet and extraction pipe units at the preliminary assembly
stage (Fig. 7.24(a)). Check the concentricity of the inlet and extraction openings in the inner and
outer casings prior to installation of the angle section ring. Recheck the clearance between angle
section ring, threaded ring and the inner casing (Fig. 7.24 (b)).
• Having meticulously cleaned the casings and the turbine shaft, proceed with assembly. Following
the adjustments previously made, the positions of the shaft and the inner casing are now
definitely established (Fig. 7.24(c)).
• Recheck the radial clearances at the blading and the shaft seal in the course of assembly.
Expand the casing joint bolts using a gas fired bolt heater (Fig. 7.25(a)) and tighten the cap nuts
to the specified torque angle.
• W hen the bolts have cooled, measure and record the degree of elongation. Then install the
extraction units (Fig. 7.25 (b)).
• W hen the turbine is fully assembled, carry out the final radial and axial clearance check. W hile
turning the shaft, shift it horizontally, vertically and axially until rubbing is observed (Fig. 7.25(c),
(d)). This concludes the final assembly (box-up) of IP turbine, and then it becomes ready for
shipment as shown in Fig. 7.26.
Fig.7.23 Installing the Temperature Measurement Lines in the Inner Casing

(a) Fitting the Angle Section Rings into the Inlet Pipe (b) Installing the Angle Section Rings on the Inner
Units Casing
(c) Bottom-half Outer Casing with Inner Casing & Turbine

Shaft Installed
Fig.7.24 Final Assembly of Inner Casing

(a) Top Casing Installed & Hot Tightening Joint (b) Measuring the Elongation of Casing Joint
Bolts Bolts
(c) Installing the Extraction Units

(d) Performing the Clearance Check on Fully
Assembled IP Turbine
Fig.7.25 Bolts Tightening & Completion of Final Assembly

Fig.7.26 IP Turbine Ready for Dispatch

7.5 IP Turbine Photographs
Following Photographs demonstrate the IP Turbine set-up.
Inlet
Ext.No. -5
Inlet Chamber
Stationary Blades
Support Lugs
Fig.7.27 IP Inner Bottom-half Casing Complete with Stationary Blades

Parting Plane
Fig.7.28 Inner Top-half Casing
Sealing Rings
Fig.7.29 Gland Housing

Inlet
Exhaust
Branches
Thermocouple
Flange
Fig.7.30 Views of Outer Top-half Casing
Fig.7.31 Outer Bottom-half Casing Installed in Position

HPT Side LPT Side
Inlet
th
45 Stage Turning Gear Wheel
Fig.7.32 Views of IPT Rotor

Shaft Sealing
Fig 7.33 IPT Rotor Placed in Outer Casing

Fig.7.34 Turning Gear Stages
Fig.7.35 Interceptor Valve Seat Fig.7.36 IP & HP Control Valve Plugs
-o0o-

Chapter 8
LP TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
8.1 Design Features

The low pressure turbine is of double flow design. As shown in cut-away view in Fig. 8.1, the
casings of LP turbine has three casings with fabricated construction.
The outer casing consisting of the front and rear end walls, two longitudinal girders and a top
cover encloses two inner casings. The twin shell inner casing is supported kinematically at each end by
two support arms resting on the longitudinal girder of the outer casing.
The inner shell of inner casing acts as a guide blade carrier for the initial stages. Together with
the welded structure of the inner casing, these carriers form the ducts required for steam admission and
extraction.
Fig.8.1 Triple Shell, Double Flow LP Turbine

A diffuser bolted to the vertical flanges of inner outer casing acts as a guide and deflects the
exhaust steam thereby outlet steam velocity is partly recovered and reconverted into pressure in the
diffuser, reducing the leaving losses correspondingly.
In addition the condenser vacuum monitoring, which act on to trip the Turbine and the LP bypass
control station, so that the condenser & LP outer casing are protected against excessive pressure &
temperature by bursting diaphragms (4 Nos.) located at the top LP turbine.
The shaft is forged form solid ingot and is supported on only one bearing at the rear of the casing
(front side bearing is shared by IPT & LPT). The last three stages of the LP rotor have twisted blades.
The difference between the circumferential velocity at the rotor blade root and tip is quite considerable
and is taken into account by twisting the blade along its length.
The fixed blades of last two stages are hollow. They are fabricated from sheet steel and slots are
provided in the blade surface through which any water passing over the surface of the blades may be
drawn away to the condenser. Also the trailing edges of the blades are very thin in order to avoid any stall
patches and the formation of streams of water. Another important design feature of final stages is that the
distance between them is kept at optimum value to facilitate the break-up of any water droplets, which
may still remain.
Above blade design features reduces the relative velocity between the droplets and the leading
edges of the moving blades resulting into less wear and tear. However, the leading edges of the final
stage rotor blades are flame hardened to give protection against erosion. These blades are free standing
and have neither lacing wire nor shrouding.
8.2 Construction
8.2.1. Steam Admission
The vertical sectional view of LP Turbine is shown in Fig. 8.2. The exhaust steam from IP Turbine
o
(7kg/cm2, 314 C) is admitted into LP turbine inner casing (3,4) from both sides through steam inlet
nozzles at the center section before the LP blading. Expansion joints are installed in the steam piping to
prevent any undesirable deformation of the casing due to thermal expansion of the steam piping. The
steam flows through the blading in two opposite streams and finally exhausted to condenser from the
diffuser sections (6) attached at the ends of last stages.
8.2.2. Casing Arrangements

8.2.2.1 Fabricated Construction
The LP turbine casing consists of a double flow unit and has a triple shell welded casing. The
outer casing consists of the front and rear walls, the two lateral longitudinal support beams and the upper
part. The front and rear walls, as well as the connection areas of the upper part are reinforced by means
of circular box beams. The outer casing is supported by the ends of the longitudinal beams on the base
plates of the foundation.
8.2.2.2 Inner Casing

The double flow inner casing, which is of double shell construction, consists of the outer shell
(2,5) and the inner shell (3,4) as shown in Fig. 8.3, Section D-D. The inner shell is attached in the outer
shell with provision of free thermal movement. The inner shell carries stationary blading. The stationary
blade row segments of the LP stages are bolted to the outer shell of the inner casing. The complete inner
casing is supported by the longitudinal support members of the outer casing.
8.2.2.3 Support and Centering of Outer Casing

The outer casing of the turbine is carried on the side members, which rest on plates grouted into
the foundation alongside the turbine. Two guides are attached to the longitudinal beams of the outer
Chapter-8: LP Turbine Construction 179

Fig.8.2 Longitudinal Section of LP Turbine
casing lower part (7) below the center inlet as shown in detail–F (Ref. Fig. 8.3, 8.4) to prevent axial
displacement of the outer casing. The outer casing (1,7) expands axially in both directions from this point
with the longitudinal beams. The keys (12) in the casing guides allow radial expansion.
The vertical center plane guides for the casing are at the lowest point of circular box beam which
stiffen the front and rear end walls (see Detail – A, Fig. 8.2, 8.5). This location allows for radial and axial
expansion of the casing.
Two rectangular plates (16) are welded at right angles to the inner surface of each box beam. A
guide block (15) rigidly attached to foundation, fits between these plates to locate the casing. Keys (14)
are provided between the block (15) and the plates (16) to facilitate accurate vertical alignment of the
casing.
8.2.2.4 Attachment of Inner Casing in L.P.

In the horizontal plane, the four brackets of the complete inner casing are supported by shims
(19) placed in the plates (22) bolted to the longitudinal support beam of the outer casing. The two

Detail-X
Fig.8.3 Inner Casing Arrangement
Detail-X
Casing Guide
Refer Fig.8.3, Detail-F
Fig.8.4 Axial Fix Point of Outer Casing

Fig.8.5 LP Turbine Outer Casing Guide Fig.8.6 LP Turbine Inner Casing Guide
Fig.8.7 (a) Inner Casing Fixed Point
Fig.8.7 (b) Inner Casing Non Fixed Point
Note: Refer Fig.8.2 & 8.3 also

brackets (Fig. 8.7(a)) towards the IP turbine end are fixed in the axial direction by fitted keys (20) as
compared to the brackets at the generator end (Fig. 8.7(b)), which are free to move due to thermal
expansion.
The spacer bolts (23) prevent lifting of the inner casing. Spacer bolt hole clearance is provided to
permit the inner casing to expand horizontally on shims (19) of the fixed support in the transverse
direction relative to the axis of the machine and on the shims of the non-fixed support in the transverse
and longitudinal direction relative to the machine axis. Since vertical thermal expansion originates at the
level of the horizontal joint, concentricity of the inner casing with the shaft is ensured in this plane.
As shown in Fig. 8.6, two casing guides are located at the lower half (5) of the outer shell to
prevent any transverse displacement of the inner casing from the centerline of the turbine. Radial and
axial expansion is permitted by fitted keys (18) in these casing guides (Also refer Fig.8.2 & 8.3).
8.2.2.5 Attachment of Inner Shell

The inner shell (3,4) is attached to the outer shell (2,5) in the horizontal plane and guided axially
in the vertical plane ( Fig. 8.8, 8.9). The upper half of the inner shell is supported in the horizontal plane
by four brackets resting on support plates (26,27) located at N & O of the joint face (Fig. 8.9) of the lower
half of the outer shell (Fig. 8.10, 8.11). Four brackets of the inner shell lower half that are covered by the
joint face of the outer shell prevent lifting of the inner shell. Small clearance between cover plates (25,28)
and joint face of the outer shell permits the inner shell to freely expand in the horizontal direction at the
support points. Thermal expansion in the vertical plane originates at the joint face. This ensures
concentricity of the inner shell with the shaft in the vertical plane.
Fig.8.8 Arrangement of Inner Shell in Outer Shell Fig.8.9 Top View of Joint-face

The brackets of the inner shell (Fig. 8.8), lower half (4) project into recesses of the outer shell,
lower half (5). These brackets are provided with clearance on all sides and serve to align the inner shell,
lower half in the outer shell, and lower half by the use of lifting bolts during erection. Fitted keys (24) are
located on each side of the brackets at the IP turbine end of the LP casing. As shown in Fig. 8.10, these
keys locate the inner shell in the axial direction as thermal expansion in the axial direction originates from
these two points.
Fig.8.10 Inner Casing Fixed Support Fig.8.11 Inner Shell Non-fixed Support
Fig.8.12 Centering of Inner Shell
In the vertical plane, there are four centering pins (31) (Ref. Fig. 8.12), which are guided in
bushings (30). The ends of the centering pins are fitted in Keys (32), which slide in axial grooves of the
inner shell. This arrangement permits axial displacement along the axis of the centering pins (31).
However, the keys prevent transverse displacement relative to the axis of the turbine. Transverse thermal
expansion relative to the axis of the turbine originates from these keys, so that concentricity of the inner
shell with the shaft is also maintained in this plane. Bushings (30) have an eccentric bore and by turning
them during erection, transverse alignment of the inner casing is adjusted. After the alignment is
completed, the bushings are locked in place by grub screws.
8.2.3 Atmospheric Relief Diaphragms

Atmospheric Relief Diaphragms (Fig. 8.14) (4 Nos.) are provided in the upper half of each LP
exhaust end section to protect the turbine against excessive pressure. In the event of failure of the low

vacuum trips, the pressure in the LP turbines exhaust rises to an excessively high level until the force
acting on the rupturing disc (1) ruptures the breakable diaphragm (2), thus providing a discharge path for
the steam.
The diaphragm consists of a thin rolled lead plate. To ensure that the blow-off steam does not carry the
remnants of the diaphragm and rupturing disc along, a cage with brackets (5) is provided. As long as
there is a vacuum in the condenser, the atmospheric pressure forces the breakable diaphragm and the
rupturing disc against the supporting flange (3). The assembled atmospheric relief diaphragm housing is
shown in Fig. 8.14.
Fig.8.13 Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm Fig.8.14 Assembled Diaphragm
8.2.4 Drum Blading

8.2.4.1 Initial stages
The drum blading stages 1 to 5 of the double flow LP turbine (Fig. 8.15) are of the reaction type
with 50% degree of reaction. The stationary blades are located in the inner shell of the inner casing, and
form the inlet group of blading of the LP turbine. The LP exhaust (3 stages) following these blades are
located in the outer casing.
The stationary blades (6) of the first stage have T-roots. They are fitted in the inner casing (1) in
grooves of corresponding design where they are secured by caulking material. The remaining stationary

blades (5) have hook-type roots and are secured in their grooves by means of filler pieces (2). Special
locking blades are used at the horizontal joint, secured by means of grub screws.
The moving blades (4) have T-roots, which are inserted into grooves of corresponding design in
the LP turbine shaft (8) and secured by caulking material (9). The insertion slot is closed by means of a
locking blade, which is attached to the adjacent blade by means of taper pins.
All T-root blades have integral shrouds, which, upon installation, form a continuous shroud. The
blades with hook-type roots have riveted shrouds. In order to kip the blade tip losses low, replaceable
sealing strips (3) are caulked into the inner casing (1) and the turbine shaft (8).
Fig.8.15 LP Turbine Blading for Initial Five Stages
8.2.4.2. Exhaust Stages

The last three stages of the LP turbine blading are designed as reaction stages. The stationary
blade rows are made into semicircular segment by welding the inner rings, blades and outer ring together
and bolting them to the inner casing (12). The last two stationary rows consist of hollow blades. Slots
are provided in the blade surface of the last stationary row. Through these slots any water passing over
the surface of the blades may be drawn away into condenser. The inner rings form a continuous
shrouding strip after assembly with stationary blade segment. Moving blades (3,5) with curved fir-tree
roots (view-x Fig. 8.16) are fixed in the axial grooves of the turbine shaft (10) by means of spring keys (6).
These blades are secured against axial movement by retaining strips (7), which are inserted into a circular

groove milled in the shaft and segments are spot welded at each joint. Moving blades (9) have inverted
T-roots placed in grooves of corresponding design in the shaft and fixed in position by caulking material.
In order to minimise blade-tip losses at the stationary blades (4,8,11), sealing strips (1) are
caulked into the turbine shaft (10). Opposite the sealing strips, shroud rings of the stationary blades have
cylindrically turned surfaces. This arrangement permits favourable radial clearances to be attained.
Fig.8.16 LP Turbine Blading for Last Three Stages
8.2.5 Shaft Seals

8.2.5.1 Function
The function of the axial shaft seals situated between the bearing casings and the LP exhaust
casing is to seal the inner space of the LP exhaust casing against atmospheric pressure at the passages
through the shaft. Thus it prevents air ingress into the turbine, which is under vacuum.
8.2.5.2 Gap Sealing
Fig. 8.18(a) & (b) show the LP front and rear seals. The sealing effect between the moving and
stationary parts of the turbine is achieved by means of sealing strips (4), which are caulked into the
individual seal rings (2). The prevailing pressure is reduced according to the labyrinth principle by
conversion into velocity with subsequent turbulence in many sections. The chamber "R" is connected to
gland seal steam supply header whereas "Q" is connected to gland steam cooler header.

(a) Front Seal (b) Rear Seal
Fig.8.17 LPT Front & Rear Seals
Fig.8.18 Sealing Rings

8.2.5.3 Sealing Rings
The sealing ring (2), the number of which depends on the pressure existing in the turbine, is split
into several segments as shown in section A-A (Fig. 8.18). Segments are arranged in T-shaped annular
grooves in the steam seal casing (1) so that they can move radially several helical springs (3) force each
segment against a shoulder and hold in this position. This permits the correct clearance in the sealing
gaps. Should rubbing occur, the segments contained retreat. The frictional heat developed by the thin
sealing strips (4) due to this light pressure is so small that it cannot cause deformation of the rotor (5).
W hen the turbine is started from the cold or semi-warm state, the sealing rings naturally heat-up more
quickly that the steam seal casings. They can then expand radially without hindrance against the
centering force of the helical springs.
8.2.6 Rear Bearing Pedestal

8.2.6.1 Arrangement
The bearing pedestal is situated between LP turbine and generator. Its function is to support LP
turbine and generator rotors. The bearing pedestal contains the following turbine components:
a) Bearing pedestal vibration pick-up

b) Journal bearing
c) Shaft position measuring device (for differential expansion)
d) Shaft vibration pick-up
8.2.6.2 Connection of Bearing Pedestal & Foundation (Fig. 8.19)
The bearing pedestal is aligned on the foundation by hexagonal screws that are bolted into the
bearing pedestal. To overcome friction resistance, balls are arranged under the heads of these
hexagonal screws. After alignment, the space under the bearing pedestal is fitted in with special grout,
resistance to expansion and contraction. The bearing pedestal is firmly connected to the foundation by
means of anchor bolts.
8.2.7 Journal Bearing (Fig. 8.20)

The function of journal bearing is to support the turbine rotor. Essentially, the journal bearing (Fig.
8.20) consists of the upper and lower shell (3,6), bearing cap (1), spherical block (7), cylindrical shell (14)
and the keys (10). The bearing shells are provided with a babbit lining on inside face. The sliding
surfaces of this bearing are machined and additional scraping is not required. Both bearing shells are
fixed by means of taper pins and bolted together.
In order to prevent the bearing from exerting a bending moment on the rotor (5), it is pivot-
mounted in the cylindrical shell (14). For this purpose, the spherical block (7) with shims (12,13) is firmly
bolted to the bearing shell (6). A projection in Cap (1) with shims (9) fits into a corresponding groove in
the bearing shell (3) and prevents vertical movement of the bearing shells. Centering of the bearing shells
in the vertical plane is thus maintained.
The bearing shells are fixed laterally by the keys (10), which are bolted to each other. Each key is
held in position in the bearing pedestal (1) by two lateral collars. The temperature of the bearing babbit
metal is monitored by the thermocouples (15) as shown in Section C-C (Fig. 8.20).
Lubrication oil is admitted to the bearing shells from both sides, from where it flows to the oil
spaces milled into the upper and lower shells at the horizontal joint that are open to the rotor end. Oil from
the oil space machined in the Babbitting is carried through the rotor (5) and emerges from the bearing
shell from where it is collected in the oil return cowling (4) and drained into the bearing pedestal (11).

Fig.8.19 Rear Bearing Pedestal (Generator Side)

Fig.8.20 Journal Bearing Arrangement
As shown in Section B-B (Fig. 8.20), two threaded nozzles (17) are arranged at the bottom side of
the lower bearing shell (6) through which high pressure oil is supplied during start-up. The high-pressure
oil relieves the bearing to overcome breakaway torque and prevent dry friction, thus reducing the torque
requirement of the hydraulic turning gear.
The jacking oil flows into the above mentioned threaded nozzles (17) through passages in the
lower bearing shell (6). A seal (18) prevents high-pressure oil from penetrating the space between
threaded nozzle and the ring (16) and thus from lifting the babbit. Any leakage oil can drain though
passages in the bearing shell below the ring.

8.3 LP Turbine Assembly
8.3.1 Supports and Centralizing Keys
The LP turbine is completely assembled at site only. However, the matching of internal parts and
clearance checking is performed at factory only.
As discussed earlier, the outer casing of the turbine is carried on the side members, which rest on
plates grouted into the foundation alongside the turbine. These end supports are provided with sliding
arrangement. The LP turbine is anchored below the center steam inlet as shown in Fig. 8.21, (also refer
Fig.8.3 & 8.4). The outer casing expands axial in both directions (IPT side and Generator side) from this
point with the longitudinal beams. The casing is guided at the bottom most centerline of the casing by the
fitting keys, which allow free radial expansion.
Fig.8.21 Anchor Point of LP Turbine
The supports of longitudinal beams are matched to ensure specified clearances in non-fixed
supports at the ends. Similarly fitted keys of center guide are matched. Then the outer casing is placed in
position.
8.3.2 Installation of Shaft

The LPT shafts of HMN series turbines are forged single block shafts with forged on coupling and
having slot for moving blades. The turbine shaft is treated with a protective agent and micro-finished areas
are protected with denso binding prior to dispatch as shown in Fig. 8.22. The rotor is transported to site
after removing the final blade rows (Fig. 8.23).
Before installation of the turbine shaft, the matching spigots and recesses must be measured and
compared to ensure that the coupling heads can be connected up (Fig. 8.24). Then the turbine shaft is
installed in the inner casing.
The bottom half outer shell of inner casing with the complete bottom half inner casing has been
adjusted axially and aligned radially. By mounting the top halves, the clearances achieved during
alignment using the alignment shaft are to be checked with the actual shaft installed. W hen the
prescribed checks have been performed, the top halves are assumed ready for operation and the casing
joints are drawn together by tightening the bolts to the prescribed torque. The steps for clearance
checking are as follows.
• Before proceeding for assembly, remove all traces of protective agents from the casing joints of the
inner casing.
• Screw in the guide bolts required for mounting the top half at the prescribed locations (Fig. 8.25).

• To determine the various radial clearances between the individual blade rows and the top half of the
shell, it is necessary to make a lead impression. For this, attach the fine lead wires of diameter
approximately 1mm larger than the anticipated radial clearance to the upper regions of the moving
and stationary blade rows (Fig. 8.28).
• Hook up the top-half of the inner shell of the inner casing to perfectly horizontal position using ropes
and shackles. Clean the blading and casing joint of all traces of protective agents. Carefully lower the
top half inner shell of the inner casing (Fig. 8.29).
• W hen the top half has been lowered until the casing joint is limited on all sides by the screwed-in
guide bolts, align the top half in both planes using a spirit level. W hile lowering when the gap between
the casings joint approaches 10 mm, insert the taper pins smeared with a corrosion inhibiting paste
(Molykote paste G) into the holes and install the support plates for the brackets. Then lower the top
half to close the casing joint and hammer in the taper pins.
• The casing joints may now be bolted together. Smear the threads of the stud bolts and the contact
surfaces of the cap tighten up on both sides in parallel proceeding from the center (Fig.8.30).
• Tighten the casing joint with the aid of a bolt heater (Fig. 8.31). Finally remove the guide bolts and
alignment screws from the bottom half.
• Attach fine lead wires of the required thickness to the last stages moving blades and to the seal strips
on the stationary blades (Fig. 8.32).
• Mount the top-half outer shell of the inner casing (Fig. 8.33) in the same manner.
• Observing the measures already discussed, tighten the bolts from the center outwards. Check using
feeder gauges to ensure that the casing joint surfaces make contact (Fig. 8.34).
• Remove the taper pins and casing joint bolts. Lift the outer casing by leveling with sprit level. Measure
the thickness of lead wires attached on the moving blades and scaling strips to ascertain the radial
clearances as specified.
• Apart from the above lead wire procedure, the axial (Fig. 8.27) and radial clearances (Fig. 8.26) can
be measured in the bottom half casing by using appropriate feeler gauges.
• The turbine shaft must be axially aligned as specified in drawing prior to measurement of the radial
clearances. The feeler gauge blades shall be long enough to be able to enable measurement at all
points of the lower half between the individual moving and guide blade stages.
• After the clearance check, the top inner casings are mounted again and bolts are hot tightened as
described before (Fig. 8.34).
8.4 Expansion joints at the Shaft Seals

The expansion joints are arranged between the shaft seals attached to the bearing pedestals and
outer casing of the LP turbine. They seal-off the space inside the LP turbine casing from the atmosphere
and have the function of compensating the pull on the end wall due to the vacuum within the casing,
thermal expansion and any possible vertical deformation and displacement of the foundation transverse
girders.
The expansion joint is delivered to the site as a complete unit pre-tensioned to

insertion length. The inner and outer surfaces of the thin-walled corrugated tube bellows are protected by
sheet metal sleeves backed with laminated paper. The installation of expansion joint is shown in Fig. 8.35
(a, b).

Fig.8.22 Turbine Shaft Treated with Protective Agent Fig. 8.23 Final Blades Removed for Transportation
Fig.8.24 Checking the Centering Fit Before Installation Fig.8.25 Screwing in the Guide Bolts
Fig.8.26 Measuring Radial Blade Clearances Fig.8.27 Checking Axial Clearances Using Feeler
Using Feeler Gauges Gauges

Fig.8.28 Attaching Lead Wires for Clearances Fig.8.29 Setting Down the Top-half Inner Shell of
Checking the Inner Casing
Fig.8.30 Inner Shell in Assembled Condition Fig.8.31 Heating the Casing Joint Bolts
Fig.8.32 Fixing Lead Wires for Tip Clearances Check Fig.8.33 Setting Down the Top-half Outer Shell

Fig.8.34 Outer Shell of Inner Casing Mounted
Fig.8.35 (a) LPT Rotor with Expansion Joint Fig.8.35 (b) Expansion Joint as Installed

8.5 LP Turbine Components Photographs
Front View
Side View
Fig.8.36 LP Turbine Outermost Top Casing

Front View
Side View
Fig.8.37 LP Turbine Top-Half Inner Outer Shell

Fig.8.38 Views of Top Innermost Shell

Fig.8.39 Bottom Inner Shells Mounted In Position
Front View
Side View
Fig.8.40 Longitudinal Beam End Fixed Supports

Twisted Blades
Fig.8.41 LPT Rotor Views
-o0o-

Chapter 9
TURBINE STEAM SYSTEM
9.1 Steam Circuit

KW U Steam turbine steam circuit includes following systems.
i) Steam admission and exhaust system
ii) Heating and drainage system of turbine
iii) Gland sealing system
iv) Extraction steam to heaters (Regenerative feed heating)
v) HP-LP Bypass system
These systems are described briefly in further sections to understand their functioning.
9.2 Steam Admission and Exhaust System

9.2.1 Description
Steam Admission and Exhaust schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 9.1, which consists of
following elements.
i) Main steam strainers – 2 Nos.

ii) Combined type main steam stop & control valves (ESV & HPCV) – 2 Nos.
iii) Cold reheat swing check non-return valves – 2 Nos.
iv) Reheat Steam Strainers - 2 Nos.
v) Combined type reheat steam stop & control valves (IV & IPCV) – 2 Nos.
Fig.9.1 Steam Admission Circuit for KWU Steam Turbine

2 o
Main steam at pressure 150 kg/cm and temperature 535 C admitted to HP turbine by two lines
horizontally connected to HP turbine (left and right side) via steam strainers and combined stop and
control valves.
The exhaust of HP turbine is passed to the reheater by left and right cold reheat lines via CRH
2 o
non-return valves. The reheated steam at pressure 34.5 kg/cm and temperature 535 C is admitted to IP
turbine through hot reheat pipelines (left and right), strainers and combined reheat stop and control valves
(2 Nos.).
2 o
The exhaust of IP turbine (7 kg/cm , 314 C) is directly admitted to LP turbine via cross-around
pipes laid at the floor level. The exhaust steam from LP turbine finally goes to condenser, which is
maintained under vacuum. This completes the steam admission and exhaust system.
9.2.2 Steam Strainer

Steam strainers are installed in the main steam lines and in the hot reheat lines from the boiler.
They protect the admission elements of the HP and IP turbines from foreign objects, which could be
picked-up in the boiler or associated piping.
The elements of strainer are shown in Fig. 9.2. The strainer screen (2) is made of corrugated
strip wound on a frame. This design offers a high degree of resistance, even to particles impinging at high
velocity. The frame consists of two rings (1, 6) and a number of rods (5) welded between the rings. The
rods are additionally held by reinforcing rings (4) welded inside them. The strainer is designed for a single
direction of flow from the outside inwards. For longer strainers, the screen is made up of several parts.
The end turns of the corrugated strip are then tacked to the T-section intermediate rings (3). The
maximum mesh size of the strainer, which is determined by the height of the corrugations, is 1.6 mm. The
effective area is made at least three times the cross sectional area of the pipe. The strainer is used for
both initial commissioning of the turbine and for regular operation.
Fig.9.2 Steam Strainer
Chapter-9: Turbine Steam System 203

9.2.3 Combined Main Stop & Control Valve (ESV & HPCV)
The main stop valves (ESV) rapidly interrupt the supply of the steam to the turbine after being
given trip signal (trip oil circuit is depressurised) in case dangerous or abnormal condition occurs.
Therefore, they have been designed for high-speed closing and maximum reliability.
The control valves, on the other hand, regulate the flow of steam to the turbine according to the
prevailing load.
One stop valve and one control valve share a common body in which stems are perpendicular to
each other (Fig. 9.3) and are placed in front of turbine. The two valves operate with two separate
servomotors independent of each other.
The steam is above the valve disc when the stop valve is in the closed position. The main valve
disc incorporates a pilot disc formed from the end of the valve stem to give relieving effect and thus
reduce the force necessary to open the valve. The stem is sealed by means of metallic packing rings. The
valve disc has got back seating arrangement to provide sealing when the valves are fully open.
This feature allows the working clearance between the stem and the rings to be relatively large
without allowing excessive steam leakage, with the result that the operating reliability of the valve is
improved. The valve body cover, which carries the packing rings, is held in the body by a screwed ring.
The gasket between the cover and the body is of "U" cross section and steam pressure presses the two
legs of the "U" against the sealing faces to give a tight joint. The stop valve is opened hydraulically and
closed by spring force (closing time 0.25 sec.).
The stem and disc of the control valve are in one piece. The valve disc, which is guided in a bush
is of the plug type and has balancing holes to reduce the opening force required. The guiding and sealing
of the valve stem in the cover and the design and jointing of the cover are similar to those employed on
the stop valve. The valve disc also has a back seat, which provides sealing when the valve is fully open.
The position of the servomotor, which operates the control valve, is subjected to disc spring force
in the closed direction and hydraulic pressure in the open direction. The position of the valve is
determined by the oil pressure under the piston, which in turn is controlled by the turbine governor through
a pilot valve and the secondary oil system.
The stems of the stop valve and control valve are armoured by plasmare process and the guide
bushes for the stem and valve disc are manufactured from solid stellite material to achieve optimum
rubbing compatibility (low wear and tear property).
9.2.4 Combined Reheat Stop and Control Valve (IV & IPCV)
Reheat stop valves are protective devices triggered by protection system to speedily close down
in the event of a dangerous condition to interrupt the flow of steam from the reheater system. The reheat
control valves are operative only in the lower load range (less than 20% load). Above this range they
remain fully open in order to avoid throttling losses.
One stop valve and one control valve are combined in a single unit (Fig. 9.4) and share a
common body with the stems perpendicular to each other. However, the two valves operate with two
separate servomotors independent of each other.
The stop valve is a single seat valve with a pilot disc for pressure equalization when opening.
The stem is sealed by means of metallic packing rings and there is also a raised seat on back of the valve
disc, which comes into contact with a neck bush when the valve is fully open and so provides additional
sealing at this point. The stop valve is opened hydraulically and close by spring force.
The control valve has a hollow plug type disc, which is guided and protected from side
impingement by the valve body cover. There are relief holes in the valve disc to reduce force, which must

Fig.9.3 Combined Main Stop & control Valve ( ESV & IV )

Fig.9.4 Combined Reheat Stop & Control Valve

be exerted by the servomotor to move the valve. This valve disc has got back-seating arrangement to
provide sealing when the valve is fully open. Spindle sealing is done by means of asbestos graphite
rings.
The control valve is operated by a servomotor containing a piston subjected to hydraulic pressure
in the opening direction and disc spring force in the closing direction. The position assumed by the valve
is determined by the oil pressure under the piston, which is controlled by a pilot valve linked to the turbine
governor through the secondary oil system.
W hen an emergency trip is initiated, pressure in the secondary oil system, which is supplied from
the trip oil circuit, also collapses to cause the control valve to shut very quickly with the stop valve.
The stems of the stop valve and control valve are armoured by the plasmare processes and guide
bushes for the stems and valve discs are made of solid stellite material in order to achieve optimum
rubbing compatibility.
9.3 Heating and Drainage System of Turbine

9.3.1 Function
As the steam enters during start-up, it condenses on cold walls of the piping and casings, which
could cause mechanical damage to the turbine blading due to accumulation of large amount of water. If
no measures are taken to allow the condensate to drain away, this would result in temperature differences
in the casing walls with subsequent deformation of the casing leading to considerable damage.
Therefore, to remove the condensate formed in the piping and casings, drain valves with automatic
control (MAL valves) and manual control are employed in the pipeline & turbine circuit.
9.3.2 Turbine Drainage

Condensate arising in the turbine and connected valves and internal steam lines is conducted by
means of motor driven drainage valves into the headers and relief pipes and from there into the
condenser. Separate headers and relief pipes are provided for various pressure areas. There is a
staggered arrangement of valves on the headers according to pressure so that the higher pressure is
conducted further away from the relief pipe. The headers and relief pipes are equipped with condensate
injection for limiting the temperature.
9.3.3 Main and Reheat Stop & Control Valves Drainage

The main steam and hot reheat steam stop/control valves are preheated with main steam and
reheat steam stop valves open (ESV, IV open). W arm-up steam along with condensate, if any, flows out
of the spaces behind the stop valves through the warm-up drainage valves into the condenser through
relief pipes.
9.3.4 Drainage Valves

The pressure of steam flowing through the valves is reduced in three stages by angle type three
stage valves. The throttle slots on the valve shaft are dimensioned and arranged so that pressure is
reduced simultaneously in all stages in the entire valve lift. One-stage valves with control cone are
employed as warm-up lift, one stage valves with control cone are employed as warm-up drainage valves
owing to the greater flow.
As a general rule drain valves must be open before charging of any steam line in order to avoid
hammering and for proper warming of pipe lines/main valves. After proper warming & removal of moisture
from pipelines, valves & other equipments drain valves are kept closed. The drainage steam or water
returns to condenser via flash boxes.

9.3.5 Open/Close Criteria for MAL Valves
Location Tag No. Criteria Position
1) Downstream of HPCV MAL 15/16 Difference between Valve
casing temp & Steam
saturation temp.
o
(a) W hen < 20 C Open
o
(b) W hen > 50 C Closed
2) HP Casing drain MAL 22 HP Casing top or bottom temp.

o
(a) W hen < 300 C and Open
Gen. Load > 2%
o
(b) W hen > 350 C and Closed
Gen. Load > 5%
3) Drain before swing MAL 65/66 (a) If NRV closed Open

check CRH NRV (b) If NRV Open Closed
4) Drain before IPCV & MAL 31/32 Difference between Valve

Drain before IV casing temp & Steam
saturation temp.
MAL 26/27
o
(a) W hen < 20 C Open
o
(b) W hen > 50 C Closed
5) Extraction line drains MAL 55, 54, If Extraction Valves closed Open
(A2, A3, A4, A5) 51, 47
6) Drain of Extraction (a) If position > 5% & Open

Valves A5, A3, A2 Load < 2%
(b) If position > 15% & Closed
Load > 10%
7) Drain of extraction NRV Pressure across NRV

A4
(a) If < 100 mm W C Open
(b) If > 300 mm W C Closed
8) Drain of Gland Steam MAL 81 Gland Steam Temp.

o
(a) If > 150 C Closed
o
(b) If < 120 C Open
9.4 Gland Steam System

The gland steam system for KW U Turbine is shown in Fig. 9.5, which comprises of –
i) Gland Steam Supply/Leak-off header
ii) Gland Steam Pressure Control Valves
- Supply valve (AS-2)
- Leak-off Valve (AS-1)
iii) Gland Steam exhaust header

Chapter-9: Turbine Steam System
Fig.9.5 Gland Sealing System for KWU 210 MW Steam Turbine
209
The function of this system is to ensure the sealing of glands in HP, IP & LP turbine under various
conditions. The turbine glands are self-seal type. Up to approximately 40% load, steam from auxiliary
source through valve AS-2 (Supply valve) is taken to seal off the entire HP, IP & LP glands. During this
period the valve AS-1 (Leak-off Valve) connecting this header to condenser is kept closed. After
approximately 40% load, valve AS-2 is closed and valve AS-1 is opened. Piping are so sized that the
leak-off steam from front and rear end of HP turbine goes to condenser through valve AS-1 while steam
from the IP front and rear glands is utilized for sealing the LP glands, thus ensuring proper temperature of
sealing steam. The leak-off steam and air from the last chambers of each rotor is sucked into gland
steam cooler.
Building up of vacuum in the condenser is the first step during turbine start-up. For this purpose it
is necessary to seal the turbine gland by supplying steam to the turbine shaft through valve AS-2 (from
PRDS). The control system opens the gland steam supply valve AS-2 until the pressure in the header
2
acquires a preset value [0.01 kg/cm (g)]. W hen the turbine picks-up load, the pressure of steam inside
HP & IP turbine builds-up resulting in the leakage of steam from the turbine gland steam supply header,
which in turn would result in increase of pressure. However, the gland steam pressure controller
gradually closes the gland steam supply valve AS-2 and opens gland leak off valve AS-1, if required.
The actuators of the two control valves are continuously under the control commands from the
electric controller through two electro-hydraulic converters. The positive voltage output opens the gland
steam supply valve (AS-2) while the negative voltage output opens the gland leak-off valve (AS-1). Each
hydraulic actuator has its own motor-driven oil pump supplied from station AC system. In the event of
pump failure, the valve remains in stay-put position. Subsequent operation of valve can be carried out
locally through a hand-pump.
The pressure in the header is measured by means of an inductive pressure transducer. This
measurement is used for control as well as display purposes. The measurement range is –100 to +
300mm water column.
The pressure controller has PI characteristics its output is fed to electro-hydraulic actuators via a
PID position controller. The function of this controller is to set the position of the valve as determined by
the pressure controller as quickly and accurately as possible.
In order to ensure stable control characteristics during the transition period of AS-2 closer to AS-1
opening or vice-versa, the valve travel of both the valves has got slight overlap.
The valves can be controlled manually from the control desk after switching of the auto control.
9.5 Regenerative Feed Heating System

9.5.1 Cycle Description
The thermal cycle for the plant has been designed in accordance with the latest trends and
concepts prevailing so as to achieve optimum heat rate. The regenerative feed heating system (Refer
Chapter-2) plays vital role in improving the thermal cycle efficiency.
Feed heating system for KW U turbine cycle is shown in Fig. 9.6. It consists of three low-pressure
heaters, gland steam condenser, drain cooler, deaerator and two high-pressure heaters. In addition to
this the condensate passes through inter-coolers of main ejectors used for extraction of non-condensable
gases from the condenser.
The condensate extraction pumps (2x100%) take suction from condenser hot well and deliversthe
condensate to deaerator through the tube systems of main ejector, gland steam cooler, drain cooler and
low pressure heaters. Boiler feed pumps (3 x 50%) take suction from deaerator and pump the feed water
to boiler through high-pressure heaters. The condensate/feed water gets heated up progressively by bled
steam from turbine extractions together with gland leak-off steam.

9.5.2 LP Heaters
L.P. Heaters No. 1, 2 & 3 get heating steam from LP turbine. Quick closing non-return valves
(swing check type) are provided in extraction lines of LP heaters No. 2 & 3 to prevent back flow of steam
into the turbine during trip.
Also the LP heater No. 2 & 3 are provided each with drain control valves (2 Nos.), one for
maintaining heater level at normal value and second control valve provides alternate path to condenser
through flash box by maintaining heater level at higher set point. No level is maintained in LP heater 1.
Its drain is connected through a siphon to condenser.
W henever level in LP heater Nos. 1, 2 & 3 reaches very high set point, the respective motorised
block valve in extraction line closes along with the opening of drip valve in extraction line (drip valves only
in LPH-2 & 3). Drip from next higher pressure heater is diverted to condenser through flash box b y
alternate drip control valve. Affected LP heater is isolated by closing condensate line isolating valves and
opening bypass valves across it.
9.5.3 H P Heaters
Two horizontal HP heaters No. 5 & 7 are provided in the system. HP heater No. 5 gets heating
steam from IP turbine and HP heater No. 6 from cold reheat line (after CRH NRV). Hydraulically operated
non-return valve is provided in extraction line to HPH-5 and motorised block valves near heater ends of
HPH 5 & 6.
HP heaters shall be automatically isolated on feed water and steam side under heater very high-
level condition. Quick opening group protection valves (FD16 & 17) are also provided for bypassing HP
heaters during very high heater level condition.
Normal level of HP heater No. 6 is controlled through control valves cascading the drip to HP
heater 5 and another valve cascading to deaerator and alternate drain control valve is provided to
condenser through flash box operating on high level.
9.5.4 Deaerator
Deaerator is designed to operate under variable pressure between 55% to 100% load on turbine
and during this range, steam is drawn from turbine extraction, i.e. IPT exhaust. During start-up of turbine,
deaerator is provided with steam supply from cold reheats line as well as external steam source, i.e.
auxiliary PRDS header.
During initial start-up, pegging of deaerator is done through a control valve connected to auxiliary
steam header at a pressure of 3.5 ata. till about 15-20% boiler MCR load, depending upon the type of
start-up (viz. cold, warm or hot).
After this, the steam supply to deaerator is switched over to cold reheat line through a control
valve and pegging is maintained at 3.5 ata. up to about 55% turbine load. Thereafter the steam supply to
deaerator is automatically switched over to turbine extraction and this is in service up to full load. During
HP/LP bypass operation also, the deaerator is pegged from cold reheat line at a pressure of 3.5 ata.
9.5.5 Hot well and Deaerator level control

Normal level in the hot well is maintained by positioning the hot well control valve CD-14 and
excess return dump valve CD-33 (goes to CST).
The minimum flow requirements of ejector, condensate pump and gland steam condenser is
approximately 210 T/hr. and the same is achieved by condensate recirculation control valve (CD-19).
This valve is a regulating type and remains open during start-up when main condensate valve (CD-14) is
closed. As the load on the turbine increases, main condensate control valve opens and the minimum
recirculation control valve closes proportionately to maintain minimum flow of 210 T/hr.

212
Fig.9.6 Regenerative Feed Heating System for 210 MW KWU Turbine
Normal level in the deaerator is maintained by the D.M. make up valves DM-32 & 35 operated by
level controller of deaerator. These valves change the proportion of make-up water to hot well and hence
the hot well level. In turn, the hot well level control valve CD-14 adjusts the position to bring back the hot
well level normal and in doing so, maintains the deaerator level indirectly.
9.6 HP-LP Bypass System

9.6.1 Function
HP bypass system provides an alternate path from main steam line to cold reheat line bypassing
the HP turbine. Similarly, LP bypass system enables an alternative path for dumping the steam from
reheater outlet (HRH line) directly into condenser at suitable parameters bypassing the IP & LP turbines.
The important functions of HP-LP bypass system are as follows:

- Fast build-up of steam parameters suitable to turbine start-up enabling quick start-up of unit.
- Bypass excess steam during load rejection preventing floating of boiler safety valves and
conserving DM water.
- Prevent boiler trip to turbine trip (reheater protection) by bypassing 60% of steam with fast
opening during turbine trip-out. This enables quick re-start and loading of turbine after short
tripping.
HP-LP bypass system offers following advantages:

- Increases availability of unit
- Facilitates quick start-up and loading of turbine
- Conservation of DM W ater
- Reduces the frequency of boiler tripping and hence low thermal stress cycles on boiler parts.
9.6.2 HP Bypass Station

A 60% HP/LP bypass system has been provided for each unit, as shown in Fig. 9.7.
The HP bypass valve is a combined type of pressure reducing and desuperheating station with
spray water being tapped off from BFP discharge and is supplied to HP bypass downstream chamber via
spray control valve (BPE1, 2).
The HP bypass valve dumps the depressurised and desuperheated steam with suitable
parameters into cold reheat lines.
The HP bypass station while operating with a LP bypass station enables boiler operation by
establishing steam flow from main steam line to cold reheat line and from hot reheat line to condenser
without co-ordination with turbine. This allows quick raising of steam parameters to a level acceptable to
turbine for roll-off during start-up. This also facilitates holding of stable firing rate from the starting of
turbine roll-off till the entire flow from the bypass station is transferred to the turbine.
HP bypass station consists of the following:
• 2 Nos. combined pressure reducing and desuperheating valves complete with valve mounted
electro-hydraulic actuators. Each valve has been sized to pass 210 T/hr of steam at inlet steam
2 o
condition of 150 kg/cm , 540 C.
• 2 Nos. throttling device, one after each HP bypass valve
• 1 No. Spray water pressure control valve complete with valve mounted electro-hydraulic actuator.
• 2 Nos. spray water pressure control valve complete with valve mounted electro-hydraulic
actuators for temperature control.
• 1 No. automatic pressure control loop consisting of the elements:
- Pressure master controller (PI characteristics)

214
Fig.9.7 HP-LP Bypass System for KWU 210 MW KWU Turbine
- 2 Nos. positioning loops for bypass valves.
- 1 No. common set point setter
- 2 Nos. pressure transmitters.
• 2 Nos. automatic temperature control loops
• Oil supply unit, which is a self-contained unit and ensures the system demand for all conditions as
required by the logic scheme and interlocks provided. The supply oil pressure is maintained at
2
110 kg/cm by the pump and accumulator unit.
Modes of HP Bypass Operation:

The possible phases of operation of HP bypass station can be classified under following
conditions.
 Boiler start-up with TG set at stand still

 Raising of steam parameters to a level acceptable to turbine for roll-off
 Turbine start-up and loading while steam flow gets transferred to the turbine
 Parallel operation with turbine on load rejection
 Allowing boiler operation following turbine trip-out.
The control system is designed to maintain the steam pressure ahead of bypass valves to the
given set value. The pressure set point can be adjusted from control desk manually. The steam
temperature at downstream of the valves is automatically controlled to the given set value. The
temperature set point can also be adjusted from control desk manually. Therefore, the operation of the
HP bypass station is manipulated by the pressure and temperature set points and is independent of LP
bypass operation. Depending upon the initial pressure condition at the time of boiler firing, the pressure
set point is to be adjusted to a value equal to steam pressure ahead of bypass valves plus a bias
pressure. This would result in opening of the valves. The pressure controller would then try to maintain
the set pressure by allowing a flow matching with firing rate. As the firing rate increases the set point
needs to be manipulated in the same manner to allow matching flows. This, however, shall be possible till
the maximum flow capability of the valves is reached (210 T/hr per valve). Upon reaching the steam
parameter for turbine roll-off, the boiler firing rate can be maintained at that level.
Consequent upon steam admission in the turbine, the pressure ahead of bypass valves shall tend
to fall in view of constant firing rate. This shall result in closing of bypass valves due to pressure controller
action. This process continues till the HP bypass valves are completely closed. After this, further loading
of TG set can be achieved by increasing the firing rate and the bypass pressure set point can be
2
increased to rated turbine throttle pressure plus pressure bias (5-6 kg/cm higher). This maximum limit of
set point should be below the safety valves set pressure for superheater. W ith this pressure set point, the
HP bypass station shall automatically open to balance the discrepancy between steam generation and
consumption arising out of load rejection under constant pressure operation.
The control loop for the steam temperature at the down steam of HP bypass valves can be
operated by modulation of set point as required for different mode of start-ups governed by boiler/turbine
characteristics as well as warm-up requirements of steam piping. During normal turbine operation, the set
point is set at a value closer to the turbine exhaust temperature.
Interlocks:
The following safety interlocks have been envisaged.
i) If HP bypass valve opening below 2%, the spray water isolating valve (BD Valve) shall
automatically close.
ii) If HP bypass valve opening is above 2%, the control of spray water isolating valve (BD valve)
opens and the spray water control valves (BPE Valve) shall be changed to "Auto" mode
notwithstanding their initial conditions.
iii) If the downstream steam temperature of HP bypass valve (BP valves) becomes high (3800C),
the valve will close on priority. This is accomplished with an alarm.

2
iv) If condenser vacuum is very low [less than 0.75 kg/cm (abs)], the HP bypass valves close.
v) The bypass station has a fast acting channel for full opening of the valves in about 3 sec.
(normal timing 8 sec) after initiation of the signal from following conditions:
a) Generator circuit breaker opens
b) Turbine trips
c) Turbine load shedding relay operates
d) Control deviations greater than a preset value
e) Manual operation
9.6.3 LP Bypass Station

LP bypass valves maintain the required pressure in the reheat system by bypassing the surplus
steam through steam dumping device into condenser. The desuperheating and pressure reduction takes
place in the dumping device. The spray water for desuperheating in dumping device is taken from CEP
discharge.
LP bypass controls are energised to dump the excess steam present in the reheater circuit due to
its large "Time Constant" during transient non-steady state. LP bypass valves get opened and dump
steam to condenser to such an extent as to maintain the reheater pressure at a value desired from criteria
representing the HP turbine flow conditions at any given instant during load changes. This control
criterion ensures that only the requisite flow is maintained through he IP & LP turbines. The control of LP
bypass system is hooked-up by same control oil which is envisaged for the turbine governing system.
LP bypass, though has an independent control system, works in conjunction with HP bypass
system as and when necessitated by system requirements such as warming-up stage or dumping of large
quantity of steam following a heavy load rejection.
Under certain operating conditions, such as start-up the variable set point (sliding set point) is
replaced by a fixed set point value. The controls of LP bypass system are essentially a combination of
electrical and well-proven hydraulic system. Electro-hydraulic converter provides the necessary link
between electrical system and hydraulic actuation system.
The electronic controller acts as a pressure controller and regulates the reheater pressure either
to the fixed set value or suitable desired set value. If the reheater pressure exceeds this set value, the
controller causes the electro-hydraulic converter to operate and initiate bypass operations.
Emergency stop and control valves of the LP bypass are combined in a common body. The
double shut-off arrangement separates the condenser from the reheater during normal operations.
The electro-hydraulic LP bypass control system includes the necessary safety device for the
protection of the condenser. These devices prevent the dumping of the steam into condenser if the water
injection pressure is too low or if pressure inside condenser is too high. In case, flow of bypass steam is
too large, the bypass control valve closes proportionately. As a measure of additional protections, LP
bypass station closes in following eventualities.
i) Condenser vacuum low

ii) Spray water pressure low
iii) Temperature of condenser wall high
Set value Formation:

The set values (fixed and variable) are formed for the LP bypass control system and the one to be
used is determined by a maximum value selector, i.e. higher of fixed set point or sliding set point value is
used by controller. For the formation of sliding set point, a pressure transducer is used to measure the
steam pressure at first stage in HP turbine & the one third of this pressure is derived as a sliding set point.
-o0o-

CHAPTER 10
TURBINE OIL SYSTEM
10.1 Function
The turbine oil system fulfills following functions:
• Lubrication and cooling of bearings
• Jacking up the shaft and provide hydrostatic lubrication during low speed operation (viz. turning
gear operation, start-up and shutdown)
• Supply of control oil to governing and protection system
• Supply of control oil to LP bypass governing
10.2 Oil Specification

Turbine oil should comply with the requirement given in Table 2.1 below for proper operation.
Normally Servo Prime-46 oil supplied by Indian Oil Corporation fulfills these specifications.
Table 2.1 Oil Properties

Sr. No. Property Value
o
1. Kinematic Viscosity at 37.8 C 47.5 C.S.
o
2. Kinematic Viscosity at 50 C 28 C.S.
3. Viscosity Index Min. 97
4. Inorganic Acidity Nil
5. Organic Acidity Max. 0.14 mg of KOH per gm. of oil
6. Neutralization No. (Total acidity) Max. 0.2 mg of KOH per gm. of oil
7. Specific Gravity 0.852
o
8. Flash point Min. 200 C
o
9. Pour Point - 6 C Max.
10. Total Acidity after 1000 hrs. Operation Max. 2.0 mg of KOH per gm of oil
o
11. Deaeration Capacity at 50 C Max 6 minutes.
12. Ash (% by weight) Max. 0.01%
13. W ater separation capacity after steam treatment Max. 300 Sec.
10.3 Oil System

Schematic diagram of oil system, Fig. 10.1, illustrates important elements and their inter
connections. Turbine oil system supplies oil for the lubrication of the turbine and generator bearings, for
actuation of various components of governing and control system and seal oil to generator hydrogen
seals, in the event of any emergency. It also supplies oil for the jacking of turbine shaft and hydraulic
turning gear during start-up and shutdown of the set.
The oil system consists of (Fig. 10.1, 10.2) 1 x 100% Main oil pump coupled to the HP turbine; 2 x
100% Auxiliary oil pump mounted on the MOT and driven by AC motor; 1 x 100% Emergency oil pump
mounted on MOT and driven by DC motor; 2 x 100% Jacking oil pump mounted on MOT and driven by
AC motor (now a days one JOP with DC motor).
Oil Supply during Operation:

During normal operation, the main oil pump supplies oil at approximately 8 bar (g) to the
lubricating and governing system. The oil is drawn from the oil tank through injector to provide necessary
suction head to the MOP. The high-pressure oil for injector is drawn from the pressure oil line through an
orifice. The normal supply of oil for generator oil seals is through separate AC driven oil pumps.
Chapter-10: Turbine Oil System 217

Fig.10.1 Lube Oil Circuit for 210 MW KWU Turbine
Fig.10.2 Main Oil Tank Connections

The oil for lubrication is cooled in oil coolers. The amount of oil required for each bearing is
adjusted on start-up, by means of variable orifices. A duplex oil filler (Fig. 10.3) has been provided, before
the variable orifice, for the combined journal and thrust bearing.
Fig.10.3 Duplex Filter with Changeover Device
Oil supply during start-up and shut-down:

During start-up and shutdown the oil requirement of the TG set is met by auxiliary oil pumps
(A.O.P.). They draw oil directly from the oil tank and discharge into the pressure oil header and continue
in operation till main oil pump takes over the oil supply, which is approximately at 90 to 95% of rated
speed (2850 rpm). A pressure switch in pressure oil line gives the signal for switching off the A.O.P.
During shutdown, another pressure switch automatically switches on the A.O.P.
The Jacking Oil Pump is mounted on the oil tank and discharges oil into a header whose pressure
2
(120 kg/cm ) is maintained by a pressure limit valve. As shown in Fig.10.4, the jacking oil pressure
required for each bearing is adjusted by its regulating globe valve.
Fig.10.4 Jacking Oil System

The pressure limit valve can be tripped by opening bypass valve thereby interrupting the lifting of rotor.
Non-return valves provided down stream of the respective regulating globe valve, non return valve and
pressure gauge for each bearing are located in the bearing pedestal and can be approached from outside
to facilitate any regulation when needed. This arrangement is provided to avoid any possible leakage
outside, in the atmosphere.
Oil Supply during Disturbances:

W hen pressure in the pressure oil line falls below a set point, the auxiliary oil pumps are
automatically started by pressure switches. The setting of pressure switches is arranged in stages so that
on fall in oil pressure, first one A.O.P. is started and the second A.O.P. is started only when first pump
fails to establish necessary oil pressure in the pressure oil line.
In case main and auxiliary oil pumps cease to operate simultaneously, a pressure switch in the
lube oil line starts D.C. emergency oil pump. It bypasses the oil coolers and discharges oil directly into
the lubricating oil lines thereby ensuring oil supply to bearings during rundown of the TG set.
10.4 Oil Pumps and their Functions

10.4.1 Main Oil Pump
The M.O.P. (Fig. 10.5) is sized for supplying the whole requirement of governing system,
lubrication system and seal oil system during operation of the turboset at rated speed. The pump is
located in the front bearing pedestal and is directly driven by the HP turbine shaft through gear coupling.
If develops rated discharge pressure at 90-95% of rated speed.
The double flow impeller is mounted on the pump shaft by means of a feather key. The impeller
is located axially by means of the bearing bush and the spacer sleeve. The delivery and suction
chambers are sealed off against each other by sealing rings, which are split and secured against turning
the joint. The pump shaft is supported by journal bearing at coupling end and combined journal and thrust
bearing at free end. Bearing are lubricated by oil drawn from the delivery chamber of the M.O.P. the oil
lines. During testing of emergency governor by testing device, pressure oil at "a" is passed through the oil
tube fitted in the pump shaft. The oil is carried to the bottom of eccentric strikers to lift them at rated
speed for testing the operation of overspeed trip 1 & 2.
The pump shaft also carries the hydraulic speed transmitter, which also runs, in the bearing and
in the rings. The speed transmitter operates on the principal of pump impeller developing the pressure
signal (primary oil pressure) in proportion to speed, which actuates the hydraulic governor. The hydraulic
speed transmitter is supplied with the governing oil coming from the hydraulic governing rack. Besides
the hydraulic speed transmitter electric speed transducer, a hall probe is fitted on the shaft to convert the
speed signal into electrical pulses, which forms the actual speed signal feedback to speed controller of
electric governor module.
10.4.2 Auxiliary Oil Pumps

2 x 100% AC A.O.P. supplies the oil requirements of the turbine during start-ups and shut down.
The pumps can either be switched on manually or automatically through pressure switches, which operate
when the oil pressure drops to approximately 60% of the normal value. The settings of the pressure
switches are staggered so that one pump comes into operation before the other one with the second one
remaining in service. These continue to remain available for immediate service through AOP automatic
control system. AOP is stopped when the TG set has come to 2850 rpm & MOP has taken –up.
10.4.3 D.C. Emergency Oil Pump

This pump is a standby pump, which can be started manually or automatically through a pressure
switch when the lube oil pressure drops to 50% of the normal value. This happens only when MOP &
AOP cease to operate or there is a failure of A.C. electrical supply to AOPs. D.C. emergency lube oil
pump

Fig.10.5 Main Oil Pump
Fig.10.6 Oil Cooler Arrangement

pump is, therefore, fed from station batteries because it has to be in operation and cater to the need of
bearing lubrication and cooling till shaft comes to rest to prevent damages.
10 .4.4 Jacking Oil Pumps

W hen the set is stationary the shafts come into metallic contact with the bottom bearing babbit
lining. The normal bearing oil supply at low speed is unable to penetrate to these surfaces and
considerable force is required to rotate the shaft from rest. This is overcome by forcing high pressure oil
through bottom bearing shells thereby lifting the shafts in the bearings and allowing an oil film to form,
thus facilitating rotation of shafts by turning gear. The Jacking oil pump is a high pressure & low discharge
pump and therefore it is positive displacement type.
10.4.5 Main Oil Tank

The M.O.T. contains the oil necessary for the various requirements mentioned earlier. In addition
3
to serving as a storage tank, it helps in dearerating the oil. The capacity of the tank (32m ) is so chosen
that the full quantity oil circulating through the system is retained for a controlled time ensuring thereby
proper sedimentation and air removal.
The space above the maximum oil level in the tank is sufficient to accommodate the oil, which is
in the circuit and will flow back into the tank in the event of tripping of the set. The tank is divided
longitudinally by a partition; oil returning to the tank from the system enters through a submerged inlet to
the riser section of the tank where the first stage of deaeration takes place as the oil rises to the top of the
tank. Oil overflows from the riser section through a basket type strainer into the adjacent section of the
tank. After circulating around the longitudinal partition of the tank, the oil is drawn-off by the pumps,
mounted on the top of the tank. The tank is made as air tight as possible oil vapour extractor is mounted
on the tank, which produces a slight vacuum in the tank, bearing pedestals and drain lines oil vapour is
therefore exhausted in the controlled manner.
10.4.6 Data
1. Pumps :
Sr. Name No. Power Capacity Discharge
No. Pressure
3 2
1 Main Oil Pump (MOP) 1 x 100% 115 KW 500 m /hr 8.2 kg/cm
3 2
2 Auxiliary Oil Pump (AOP) 2 x 100% 75 KW 267 m /hr. 6.11 kg/cm
3 2
3 Emergency Oil Pump 1 x 100% 7.5 KW 169 m /hr. 1.53 kg/cm
(EOP, DC Motor)
3 2
4 Jacking Oil Pump (JOP) 2 x 100% 3 KW 4.54 m /hr 120 kg/cm
2. Oil Coolers (W ater cooled) : 2 Nos.
3. Oil Injectors for MOP Suction : 2 Nos.
4. Lube Oil Temp. Control Valves : 1 No.
5. Oil Vapour Extraction Fans : 2 Nos.

3
6. Main Oil Tank Volume : 32 m
2
7. Lube Oil Header Pressure : 4.5 kg/cm
o
8. Lube oil inlet temperature : 45 C
-o0o-

Chapter 11
GOVERNING & PROTECTION SYSTEM
11.1 Features of KWU Turbine Governing

The increasing size of thermal units, plant complexity and use of high steam parameters demand
sophisticated turbine control and instrumentation. The turbine control system developed for KW U Steam
Turbine meets the demand of precise control with high response and safety. This sate-of-the-art control
system has following functional areas.
a) Electro-hydraulic governing as the main control system
b) Hydraulic governing as the back-up control system
c) Electrical turbine protection system with hydraulic operated turbine trip gear.
The main control system, i.e. electro-hydraulic governing system, facilitates the operation of the
turbo-set in an interconnected grid system. The electrical measuring and processing of signals, after the
advantages such as flexibility, dynamic stability and simple representation of complicated functional
relationship. The salient features are listed below:
 The types of governor used are electro-hydraulic backed-up by hydraulic speed governor.
 Throttle governing method is adopted to control the turbine load
 Hydraulic governor always tracks the EHC during normal operation through tracking device
 Electro-hydraulic control system has three control loops:
• Speed control loop
• Load control loop
• Pressure control loop
The signals for speed, load and M.S. Pressure are acquired by electrical transducers, processed in
electronic circuit cards and then converted in to hydraulic pressure signal in electro-hydraulic
converter. Hydraulic signal is further amplified for actuation of control valves. Speed, load and
pressure control loops provide flexible operation of turbine in various modes of operation & are
designed to encounter emergencies.
 Regulation range of electro-hydraulic speed controller can be adjusted from 2.5 – 8%, even while the
machine is in operation, in steps of 0.5%. The normal regulation setting is 5%.
 Precise load frequency droop (in load controller) with high sensitivity.
 Hydraulic speed governor regulation is set at 5%
 Control valves open in proportion to signal of secondary oil pressure and actuated by constant control
oil pressure.
 Transient speed rise (TSR), i.e. maximum speed rise above rated speed when the turbine trips at full
load:
i) W hen control valves are mounted near turbine casing : 8%
ii) W hen control valves are mounted away from the turbine casing : 8.5%
 Oil required for governing system : 100 lit/min.
 Dead Band (No response speed in %) :
i) Electro-hydraulic governor : 0.01%
ii) Hydraulic governor : 0.1%
 Closing time of valves
i) Emergency stop valve (ESV) : 0.26 sec.
ii) H P Control Valve (HPCV) : 0.4 sec.
Chapter-11: Governing & Protection System 223

iii) Interceptor Valve (IV) : 0.8 sec.
iv) IP control valve (IPCV) : 0.8 sec.
 All governing components such as Main trip valves, EHC, follow-up pistons, starting and load limiting
device, hydraulic governor are installed outside the turbine pedestal and assembled in hydraulic
governing rack.
 All types of turbine starts-ups are performed through HP control valves and they control the load from
0-100%. However, IP control valves have a controlling function alongwith HPCV upto 20% load.
Above 20% load IP control valves remain open 100% and load control is performed by HP control
valves 1 & 2.
 The Trimming Device provided for the IP control valves, is used for controlling the HP exhaust
pressure to prevent churning in HP turbine in case following conditions occur.
2
• HP exhaust pressure > 32 kg/cm and
• Load less than 20% of rated load
 The solenoid valves fitted on IP secondary oil and auxiliary secondary oil lines operate through
energisation of load shedding (rejection) relay if following conditions occur.
• Load throw off > 50% &
• Balance load < 20% &
• Grid frequency > 49 Hz
W hen solenoid valve opens, it drain IP secondary oil and auxiliary secondary oil & de-pressurizes it
resulting in to closure of HP & IP control valves for 1.3 sec. This prevents over speeding of turbine.
Afterwards governing system controls the turbine load with proportionate opening of HP & IP control
valves.
One contact of load shedding relay operate the fast opening device of HP bypass valves to open it
quickly to prevent the abrupt rise of pressure in M.S. lines.
 Automatic turbine tester (ATT) is provided to check the operation of protective devices and normal
closing of ESV, IV, HPCV & IPCV while the machine is running on load.
 Automatic Turbine Run-up System (ATRS) is integrated with electro-hydraulic controller for automatic
turbine start-up upto block load.
 Isolated grid operation facility with reliable operation of turbine at block load.
 Turbine Stress Evaluator/Controller (TSE, TSC) influence to prevent overstressing of turbine parts, is
incorporated in speed controller and load controller of E.H.G. This ensures safe operation at all loads
and steam conditions.
 Interfacing of Coordinated Master Control with electro-hydraulic governing system and boiler master
fuel controller for controlling the unit with single set point, i.e. unit target load set point.
11.2 Description of Governing System

The turbine is equipped with electro-hydraulic governing backed up by hydraulic governing. The
governing scheme is designed to operate the turbine in integrated grid system to ensure stable and
reliable operation in all eventualities.
Fig. 11.1 shows the structure of turbine control system, comprising of electro-hydraulic controller
and mechanical hydraulic controller. In case of EHC, the processed governing signal in the electrical
voltage form is converted into hydraulic signal, which is further amplified to derive secondary oil pressures
for operation of control valves. Similarly, the hydraulic speed signal (primary oil pressure) or the speeder

Fig.11.1 Structure of Turbine Control System
Fig11.2 Action of Protection & Governing System on Turbine Stop & Control Valves

gear position signal is converted into auxiliary secondary oil pressure and finally amplified to secondary oil
pressure signal in mechanical hydraulic controller.
Since the EHC & HC are connected in parallel to respective secondary oil lines (HP secondary oil
and IP secondary oil), the minimum value secondary oil pressure signal passed on to the control valve
servomotors to control the process. This way the controller with lower position takes over the other
controller, which remains as back-up.
The load of the turbine is controlled by throttling the main steam pressure upto full load range by
HP control valves (2 Nos.) and by throttling the hot reheat pressure upto about 20% load range after
2
which IP control valves remain full open. The secondary oil pressure signal varying from 2.5 – 5 kg/cm
opens the control valves from 0 – 100% in both the cases.
2
The protection oil circuit which generates trip oil pressure (6- 7.5 kg/cm ) acts on the servomotors
of Emergency stop valves and Interceptor valves to open it fully. Hence in the absence of trip oil
pressure, stop valves close rapidly due to spring force. The protection devices drain the trip oil in the
event of electrical or mechanical tripping signal from protection logic.
Fig. 11.2 shows the action of governing and protection system on turbine control stop valves &
Fig.11.5 elaborates the governing & protection oil circuit.
11.3 Trip Oil Circuit

The trip oil circuit is explained in Fig. 11.3. The filtered control oil from AOP/MOP is supplied to
remote trip solenoid valves 1 &2, connected in series, which generates trip oil. W hen the solenoids are
de-energised, trip oil is passed to the main trip valves. In the event of electrical tripping signal from
protection logic, solenoids are energised and in that case, control oil supply is blocked and trip oil is
connected to drain for tripping of turbine.
Fig.11.3 Generation of Trip Oil
In the normal course, trip oil is passed through the main trip valves connected in series. W hen
main trip valves are in lifted condition, trip oil is supplied at normal pressure (6 – 7.5 kg/cm2) through
changeover valve to turbine stop valves (ESV & IV) and governing system for generation of secondary oil
to regulate control valves position. The main trip valves are held in lifted position in turbine running
condition by the auxiliary trip oil pressure. The auxiliary trip oil is connected to hydraulic protective devices
viz. overspeed trip, thrust bearing trip and low vacuum trip.

In the event of actuation of these hydraulic protective devices due to abnormal turbine condition,
the auxiliary trip oil is drained rapidly and due to which main trip valves come to downward position. In
this position, trip oil circuit is connected to drain and the trip oil pressure falls to zero. Due to absence of
trip oil pressure turbine stop valves close rapidly and also the control valves due to falling of secondary oil
pressure. This way turbine is tripped instantaneously.
The changeover valve is employed in the trip oil circuit (Fig. 11.3) to change over the trip oil
supply from protection circuit to test oil supply from solenoid valves during the automatic turbine tester
(ATT) procedure. This permits the testing of the operation of protective devices without tripping the
turbine on load.
11.4 Secondary Oil Circuit

The source oil for generation of secondary oil is trip oil. Secondary oil pressure decides the
control valves position, which is in turn regulated by governing system. As shown in Fig. 11.4, trip oil from
trip oil header is supplied to follow-up pistons of hydraulic converter and electro-hydraulic converter
through orifices. The sleeves of follow-up pistons are operated by respective hydraulic governor and
electro-hydraulic converter so as to adjust the trip oil draining rate through the ports. The resulting
pressure is the secondary oil pressure which serves as signal for proportionate opening of control valves.
Since the secondary oil generated by electro-hydraulic converter and hydraulic converter are
connected in parallel to respective HP Secondary oil and IP secondary oil circuits, the governor with
minimum position controls the process by generating required secondary oil pressure, i.e. the hydraulic
minimum is achieved.
Fig.11.4 Generation of Secondary Oil
Electro-hydraulic Governing:
The electro-hydraulic converter receives the governing signal in the form of electrical voltage from
electrical governor. Electrical governor has three control loops as follows :
 Speed Control : Used for rolling the turbine upto rated speed and loading to block load

228
Fig.11.5 Governing & Protection Oil System for KWU Steam Turbine
 Load Control : For loading the turbine from block load to full load and normal operation
 Pressure Control : This comes into service if the main steam pressure drops by limit set (generally
2
10 kg/cm ) with respect to pressure set point. This controller takes over the load controller
automatically if above condition occurs so as to restore the main steam pressure by adequate closing
of control valves.
The selection circuit employed in the electric governor logic automatically selects the appropriate
controller depending upon turbine control requirement. The output from selection circuit is passed to
the valve position controller which checks the error between actual valve position and control signal
and accordingly generates the output, which is finally supplied to electro-hydraulic converter.
Electro-hydraulic converter converts the electrical signal into HP & IP secondary oil pressure signals
for the actuation of control valves to control the turbine speed/load.
Hydraulic Governing:
The hydraulic governor receives turbine speed signal in the form of primary oil pressure and
reference speeder gear position. Accordingly the equilibrium is achieved and it generates auxiliary
secondary oil pressure. Auxiliary secondary oil pressure signal operates the follow-up pistons of hydraulic
converter, which in turn generate HP & IP secondary oil pressure signals.
In normal course of turbine operation, speeder gear of hydraulic governor is positioned at 100%
so that E.H.C. can assume the turbine control throughout the loading range since it remains at minimum
position. The tracking device, which constantly adjust the position of starting and load limiting device with
respect to EHC position ensures that turbine load does not rise abruptly in the event of failure of EHC
(which goes to 100% in case of coil failure). S.L.L.D. locks the position of hydraulic governor bellow
position for limiting the load.
11.5 Description of Control Loops

11.5.1 Speed Control Loop
The block diagram of electro-hydraulic governing system is shown in Fig. 11.6, which represents
three control loops viz. speed, load and pressure.
The speed control loop is formed by a speed reference limiter, speed reference & speed
controller. The speed controller compares the speed reference generated by the speed reference limiter
circuit with the actual speed of the turbine and accordingly provides an output for valve position controller.
The actual turbine speed (nact) is acquired by three digital speed pick-ups based on the hall probe
principle. The output of each pick-up is processed in three different channels. The output from only one
channel is used and other channel provides redundancy.
The speed reference is generated by the speed reference limiter loop. The desired reference
speed value is set with the help of potentiometer remotely from control desk or manually from the panel.
In the speed reference limiter the reference speed signal is juxtaposed with the output from the turbine
stress evaluator and a time dependent limited speed reference is generated corresponding to the highest
permissible rate of speed increase, which is consistent with the safe operation of the turbine (max. rate
600 rpm/min, minimum rate 108 rpm/min). After attaining the target reference speed the output of the
speed reference speed limiter is held constant.
The output of speed reference limiter is automatically blocked in the event of a fault in T.S.E. and
the speed of the set cannot be changed (speed reference blocked) until and unless TSE influence is
made off.

230
Fig.11.6 Electro-Hydraulic Controller for KWU Steam Turbine

The speed controller exhibits a steady state proportional control to form the necessary droop
characteristic. The dynamic response is improved by the addition of proportional integral and differential
elements.
The speed controller realizes the following operations:

- Start-up of the turbine
- Synchronization of the generator
- Provide a minimum load operation (10% of rated load).
11.5.2 Load Control Loop

This comprises of following elements:
- Load reference limiter
- Frequency load drop
- Load controller
The reference load is set by a motor operated potentiometer, which is transmitted to the load
reference limiter. The load reference set value and output signal from turbine stress evaluator are
juxtaposed in the time dependent limited reference load setting depending upon the influence of the TSE
at the highest permissible rate consistent with the thermal stresses of the turbine both during load
increase and decrease. After attaining the target load reference, the reference limiter output is held
constant. The turbine stress evaluator influence is rendered ineffective upon failure of TSE and the load
reference limiter is held constant (blocked). It is possible to increase or decrease the load when turbine
stress evaluator is disconnected. The load gradient setter also influences the time dependent load
reference signal but the actual maximum permissible load rate is governed by the turbine stress evaluator.
The grid controller can also be activated to exercise control on the load reference setter, which in
turn is effective via the load reference limiter and TSE. This facilitates loading of the set from load
dispatch centres.
The load controller receives the reference load signal from the load reference limiter and also
from the frequency controller depending on the frequency of the grid. These two signals are summed in
the load controller and net value derived for controlling the valve position. The droop characteristics of the
frequency controller can be varied from 2.5 to 8% in steps of 0.5%.
To limit the total power delivered by the turbine, the system is equipped with maximum load
reference limit, Pmax, which has priority over all other influences acting directly or indirectly on the valve
position controller.
The actual active load value is acquired in three independent channels and transmitted to the load
controller. In case of a deviation of more than 5% in between the measurement channels, an alarm
"actual load signal faulty" is initiated.
The load controller exhibits a proportional-integral action and has an excellent dynamic response.
The load controller comes into operation only when the turbine is synchronized and the block loading has
been achieved. This controller and the speed controller signals are transmitted to valve position controller
through maximum and minimum selection circuits.
In case the sudden loss of export load, the output of the load controller is immediately reduced
below the output of the speed controller, which is set at station load (10% of rated load). Due to maximum
selection speed controller assumes control and returns the turbine fact to almost the rated speed. Hence
this provision prevents the over speeding of the turbine.
11.5.3 Pressure Control Loop

Operation of the initial steam pressure controller initiates the unloading of the set in case initial
steam pressure falls below a preset value. The unloading of the set continues proportionally

corresponding to available boiler pressure. The loading of the set begins only if the firing rate in the boiler
is increased.
On the other hand in the limit pressure mode, the pressure controller does not come into picture
2
unless the main steam pressure drops by preset limit (generally 10 kg/cm ) with respect to the M.S.
pressure setpoint. In this case pressure controller takes over the load controller and closes the control
valves to restore the pressure. During this period, load controller tracks the actual load value of generator
and takes over the control as soon as pressure becomes normal and pressure controller output become
more than the load controller output. The load controller/speed controller output and the pressure
controller output are passed through the minimum gate. In normal course, pressure controller output is
maximum so that load controller is always active.
11.5.4 Valve Position Controller

The electrical voltage signal from the selection circuit (selected from speed, load or pressure
control loop as per prevailing condition) is provided to valve position controller. This input signal is
continuously compared to actual valve lift (feed back signal) in the valve lift controller and the error signal
output is transmitted to the electro-hydraulic controller.
The feed back signal representing the valve lift is derived from position of electro-hydraulic
converter plunger as an analogue value from the differential transformer type transducer. There are two
transducers (Collins) continuously scanning the position of the plunger. The characteristics of valve
position (lift) controller are Proportional-Integral and differential type, which ensures high overall sensitivity
and improves transient response.
The outputs from the speed control loop and load control loop are juxtaposed and tied to each
other by means of a maximum selection circuit. In a separate circuit the output of speed control loop is
summed with load reference valve. This signal is compared with the signal from maximum selection
circuit of speed and load controller and minimum of the two juxtaposed with the output signal from
pressure control loop in yet another minimum selection circuit. The output of this minimum selection
circuit is fed to valve position controller.
11.6 Starting and Load Limiting Device (SLLD)

The SLLD is clubbed with hydraulic governor. The functions of SLLD are :
 To latch the protective devices and HP/IP stop valves (ESV, IV) when SLLD is brought to bottom most
position (0%). In this position SLLD generates auxiliary start-up oil, which latches protective devices
and also generates start-up oil to latch stop valves servomotor (ready for opening).
 To open ESVs and IVs
 To compress the governor bellows at the beginning of start-up so that control valves opening is
prevented till ESVs and IVs are opened fully at 56% SLLD position. Further raising of SLLD causes
control valves to open (when EHG is out of service) the speed of the turbine is raised to 2400 rpm
(approx. 80% of rated speed). At this speed hydraulic governor takes over the control.
 To provide the load limiting function in case of hydraulic governor operation or when EHC fails.
11.7 Load Rejection Relay (LRR)

The load rejection relay constitutes a supplement to the hydraulic controller to ensure that the
speed of the turbine is kept safely below the response value of the mechanical-hydraulic overspeed trip
device during bulk load trip device during bulk load rejection.

The relay is mostly necessary when the hydraulic governor is controlling, but is also kept in
operation when the EHC controls the turbo-generator. Upon actuation of the LRR, the HP & IP control
valves are closed completely for a short interval (1.4 sec. max.), supporting the hydraulic control system.
For activating the LRR following three conditions have to be fulfilled.

i) Load throw-off more than 50%
ii) Remaining load less than 20% of rated load
iii) Frequency more than 49 Hz.
The LRR measures the electrical load rejection at generator. Any load rejection of the turbo-set,
i.e. a bulk negative load change, is therefore acquired instantaneously by the LRR and is then
transformed into an electrical pulse, the duration of which is related to the magnitude of load rejection.
This pulse energizes two solenoid valves:
 One solenoid valve connects the auxiliary secondary oil (hydraulic output signal of hydraulic speed
governor) supply line to a drain, causing a rapid drop of the pressure of that fluid and therefore closing
of the HPCVs and IPCVs.
 The second solenoid valve connects the secondary oil of IPCVs to a drain causing IP control valves to
close rapidly than the action of first solenoid valve (due to its hydraulic characteristics).
According to above arrangement, all the control valves close at a maximum speed. The fast
response of the LRR is caused by measuring the change of generator load before the turbine speed rising
starts. The LRR acts therefore earlier on the hydraulic control system, i.e. before the hydraulic control
takes action due to speed increase.
After the electrical pulse issued by the LRR has ended, the solenoid valves will close again.
Auxiliary secondary and secondary oil pressures will build-up again, corresponding to balance load on the
turbine since by this time hydraulic governor will resume normal control of the turbine.
To prevent any response of LRR at frequencies below rated one, a frequency lock is employed. If
the transmission system is operating below rated frequency while a load rejection occurs, without this
lock-out, the LRR will issue its signal and cause the control valves to close immediately. After its signal
has disappeared, however, the hydraulic speed governor will find a big mismatch between the actual
speed and the hydraulic speed set point causing the turbine control valves to open rapidly and in turn
accelerate the turbine that it most likely will run into an overspeed trip. Therefore, the frequency relay
blocks the LRR signal below an adjustable value 49 Hz and releases it when this frequency is exceeded
again.
The contact of LRR is also provided to fast opening device of HP bypass system to open HP/LP
bypass valves rapidly during load throw-off to prevent abrupt rise of steam pressures.
11.8 Trimming Device

In order to avoid excessive heating of HP exhaust during HP-LP bypass operation, a sequence-
trimming device has been provided. This device comes in operation if HP exhaust pressure exceeds a
2
preset value (32 kg/cm ) and load drops below 20% of rated value. W hen the trimming device is operated,
IP control valves are closed and do not tend to open unless HP control valves opened wide. Trimming
device is operated through the solenoid-operated actuator provided to adjusting device for IP control
valves, follow-up pistons.
11.9 Functioning of Protection System

The turbine protection logic comprises of protective devices function of which is to trip the turbine
by instantly closing Emergency Stop and Interceptor valves thereby cutting off the steam supply. The
obligatory turbine protection covers following functions.

Fig.11.7 Turbine Protection System

 Protection of the turbo-set from inadmissible operating conditions.
 It prevents consequent damage in case of plant failure
 It restrict occurrence of failures to minimum,
The comprehensive turbine protection scheme is explained in Fig. 11.7. The design of the
mechanical-hydraulic protection devices are in accordance with the hydraulic break-current principle and
consists of :
 Two tripping devices, i.e. Main trip valves with integral manual trip arrangement
 Two remote trip solenoid valves operated by electrical protection system to cut-off trip oil supply
 Two channels of Electrical protection logic and turbine trip relays
 Two overspeed trip devices operated at 11% overspeed.
 One thrust bearing trip device (high axial shift due to thrust bearing wearing)
 One mechanical low vacuum trip device, which is a back up to electrical vacuum trip.
Operation:
The operation of trip system close all stop and control valves of turbine rapidly. The main trip
valves draw oil from pressure oil circuit cascaded through remote trip solenoid valves (ref. Fig.11.3). The
oil coming out of main trip valves is supplied via changeover valve to ESV, IV, Secondary oil circuit and
auxiliary secondary oil circuit of governing system as trip oil. The main trip valve remains in lifted
condition (normal position) against the spring force by the auxiliary trip oil pressure acting below the spool.
W hen the auxiliary trip oil pressure under the differential piston in the main trip valve falls below a
certain adjustable value, due to the response of some protective device, the spring moves the piston
downwards, opening the drain for the trip oil and closing the pressure oil inlet from remote trip solenoid
valves. This in turn totally blocks oil to control circuits and causes closure of ESV, IV, Control Valves and
extraction swing check valves. W hen the pressure in the trip oil circuit falls below a certain value, the
upper piston and lower piston of the ESV & IV servomotors are separated by springs and valves are
instantaneously closed.
The turbine can be tripped manually by pressing the lever of the main trip valves or by pressing
the "Emergency Trip" knob from the control room.
The turbine protection system can be tested during operation. A device to initiate turbine trip
during protective device testing is provided with the automatic turbine testing system so that the turbine is
protected continuously during the period the protective devices are being tested.
-o0o-

Chapter 12
TURBINE SUPERVISORY INSTRUMENTATION

12.1 Vibration, Expansion & Axial Shift Measurement
12.1.1 Significance of Monitoring System
In operation of large steam turbines certain vital parameters are required to be continuously
supervised and monitored in order to provide information related to the operational conditions of the
turbine during various stages of operation like start-up, loading, load changes and coasting down.
The aim of the monitoring of these parameters is early detection of malfunction due to wear,
thermal stresses and the effect of external forces so as to save the possible damage. The operation of
the highly stressed machine, i.e. turboset, operating at high temperatures and pressures is affected by
expansion and vibrations encountered.
This special measurement system includes all necessary sensors mounted on the turbine with
flexible leads for connection to junction boxes, circuits for processing the sensors signal along with power
supply monitoring, signal level monitors, test circuits etc., in a cabinet to generate information about the
following parameters.
a) Absolute bearing vibrations

b) Absolute shaft vibrations
c) Axial shaft position of the rotor
d) Differential expansion
e) Absolute expansion
f) Valve position
Other important parameter like speed is measured electrically by Hall Probe & signals are
provided to Electro-hydraulic governor & for display in unit control room after conditioning.
12.1.2 Absolute Bearing Vibration

Turbine rotors are manufactured and balanced with high degree of precision. Some residual
unbalance is unavoidable. It results during operation in vibrations, which transmitted through the bearing
on to the casing. Hence bearings should provide proper damping of vibrations.
For measurement of absolute shaft vibrations, the seismic mass type pick-ups are mounted on
the pedestal cover. The bearing vibrations are transmitted directly to the seismic device.
The device operates on the plunger coil principle. The mechanical vibrations are converted to an
electrical signal, which is proportional to velocity of vibration. In seismic device (Fig. 12.1), a coil is
suspended in an air gap in a resilient way by a spring. The magnetic flux in an air gap is constant. The
permanent magnet is firmly connected to the housing and to the magnetic return path. Above the natural
frequency, the plunger coil is steady in space due to its mass inertia. Thus a fixed point in space is
created and vibrations can be referred to this point. The relative motion between the coil and magnet
generates a voltage, which is proportional to the rate of vibration.
The measurement system is designed to operate satisfactorily over a frequency range of 16 Hz to

200 Hz and measures the amplitude of the vibrational displacement. The output voltage of the sensor is
amplified in a differential amplifier, which suppresses any interference voltages picked up by the cable.
Then the signal is integrated in an active integrator to form signal proportional to the vibrational
displacement. It is then rectified and displayed.

The functioning of the amplifier can be checked with the help of a standard oscillator built in the
system. Failure of sensor and field cable will be annunciated. Similarly, supply voltage is also monitored.
The range of measurement is 0- 160 microns peak-to-peak.
Fig.12.1 Seismic Type Vibration Pick-up
12.1.3 Absolute Shaft Vibrations

Measurement of absolute shaft vibrations is done by measuring the relative shaft vibration with
respect to the bearing pedestal and adding the absolute bearing vibration to it.
The measurement of relative shaft vibration is carried out by a contactless pick-up according to
the eddy current method. An oscillating circuit consisting of the disc-shaped coil of the sensor and the
cable capacitance of the feed line receives a high frequency alternating current from the adaptor mounted
on the bearing cover, corresponding to the resonant frequency of this oscillating circuit. The
electromagnetic alternating field generated in the process includes eddy currents on the shaft opposite to
the coil. The smaller the distance between coil and the shaft larger is the current. The eddy current feed
back to the coil is felt as an increasing effective load, so that the a.c. voltage at the coil is proportional to
the distance between the sensor and the shaft.
This signal is filtered in a band-pass filter, then rectified and smoothened. A linerisation circuit
corrects the output of the sensor, which is a measure of relative shaft vibrations.
The vibration signals from the absolute bearing vibration measuring unit and relative shaft
vibration measuring unit are added in a computing unit for obtaining the absolute shaft vibration. The
measuring range is 0 – 400 microns peak-to-peak.
12.1.4 Axial Shaft Position of the Rotor

This measurement yields information on the position of the shaft in the thrust bearing and on wear
of the bearing pads. It is imperative to continuously monitor the position of the shaft, as axial shift beyond
permissible limit would lead to mechanical interference and surface rubbing.
The measuring principle is based on the fact that the impedance of a coil with iron core depends
upon the size of the gaps in the magnetic circuit as shown in Fig. 12.2. There are two such coils
(Fig.12.3) mounted on either side of the measuring disc and connected to form a measuring bridge. A
high frequency voltage is fed to the bridge, the output of which changes proportionally to the change in air
gap (Fig.12.4). The bridge output voltage is rectified by phase selection and amplified. On load test
facility of the measuring attachment is provided. The range of measurement is –0.5 to +0.5 mm.
Chapter-12: Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation 237

Fig.12.2 Impedance Characteristic of Inductive Coil with Air Gap
Fig.12.3 Inductive Type Axial Shaft Position & Differential Expansion Pick-up
Fig.12.4 Bridge Circuit

12.1.5 Differential Expansion
W hen steam turbine is running relative displacement occurs between rotors of the turbine and their
casings due to their different thermal inertia. This is the case particularly during start-up and in case of
major load changes. These expansions are monitored continuously by contactless measurements.
Differential expansions of HP, IP and LP turbines are monitored in the same way as described
earlier for axial shaft position measurement by inductive type of sensors.
Fig. 12.5(b) elaborates the location of sensors for the measurement of differential expansion of
HP, IP and LP turbine, which are fitted in front pedestal, pedestal No.3 and pedestal No.4 respectively.
The difference lies in the size of the measuring discs and the sensors arrangements. For the large range
of relative expansion in LP turbine, the measuring disc is in the form of a double cone to produce less
change in expansion.
As the bridge output for a larger air gap changes non-linearly a linearising network is employed.
The ranges of measurement are –
For HP turbine - 5 to + 16 mm
For IP turbine - 5 to + 16 mm
For LP turbine - 10 to + 32 mm
Fig.12.5 (a) Casing & Rotor Expansions
Fig.12.5 (b) Location of Differential Expansion Sensors for HP, IP & LP Turbines

(b) Measurement of Shaft Position in Thrust Bearing
(a) Mechanical Shaft Displacement Indicator
(c) Pick-up for Absolute Expansion Measurement
(d) Measurement of LPT Differential Expansion
Fig.12.6 Expansion & Shaft Position Pick-ups

12.1.6 Absolute Expansion
Measurement of absolute expansion is carried out both at the front pedestal as well as at the
middle-bearing pedestal (Fig. 12.5(a)). The displacement sensor is mounted on the foundation and
connected to the casing via a rope (Fig.12.6(c)). The other end of the rope is connected to a rotatable
measuring device, which forms the magnetic return path for the two sensor coils. The rotating measuring
device rotates eccentric to the two sensor coils, which creates different air gaps and thereby different
inductances. Thus the air gaps between the measuring device and the coils depend on the angle of
rotation. The principle of measurement is same as in the case of axial shaft position measurement
described earlier.
12.1.7 Valve Position

The measurement is carried out for both the HP & IP control valves with the help of displacement
sensors. The principle of measurement is the same as has been described for absolute expansion
measurement.
12.2 Turbine Stress Evaluator

12.2.1 Function
The turbine is equipped with Turbine Stress Evaluator to assist in attaining optimized start-up,
operation and shutdown without impairing the expected operating life. As such during start-up and
loading operations of steam turbine, time is of prime importance as also reaching full load keeping the
stresses of the turbine components within permissible limits. Turbine wall stress evaluator is specifically
designed for achieving the above objectives. During changes in operation of the turbine, the internals of
turbine are subjected to temperature fluctuations resulting in thermal stresses. The maximum thermal
stress is proportional to the difference in temperature at the surface on the steam side and the mid wall
temperature. This difference is compared with the permissible temperature difference, which is
determined on the basis of -
- Estimated load cycle on turbine

- Thermal fatigue strength of material
- The geometry of the components.
The difference between permissible temperature difference and the actual difference between
surface & middle wall temperatures is known as available temperature margin. The margins are
evaluated in an analogue computing circuit and displayed in the instruments as upper and lower
temperature margins upto the stage of synchronization and as load margins during subsequent loading.
The display also indicates the component, which is critical at any given time.
12.2.2 Arrangement
The scheme of TSE consists of following five computing channels as shown in Fig. 12.7 :
1. Emergency Stop Valve

2. IP turbine shaft
3. HP turbine casing
4. HP turbine shaft
5. HP Control Valve
Channels 1 & 5 (ESV & HPCV) form the steam admission area and channels 2, 3 & 4 form the
turbine area. The indicator (TSE Display) is shown in Fig. 12.8.
The input to turbine stress evaluator is supplied by thermo-couples mounted on stop valve, high
pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine. Ni Cr-Ni thermocouples (W T Sensors), as shown in

Fig.12.7 Turbine Stress Evaluator Scheme
Fig.12.8 Turbine Stress Evaluator Display

Fig.12.9, are used for measuring the surface temperature near steam (θi) and mean temperature (midwall
temperature) (θm) for the above five channels mentioned. But for channels 2 & 4 (HP & IP shaft), the
mean shaft temperature θm is derived by computation from θi. The output of thermocouple is fed to
analog signal conditioning cabinet CJJ05 where it is converted into 4 – 20 mA signal and fed to TSE
cabinet CJJ01.
The actual load of the turbine generator set Pact is measured separately and a current signal of
4-20 mA is available for load indication and computation of load margins. The speed is also measured
separately and 4 – 20 mA signal is available for display in TSE indicator.
Fig.12.9 Wall Temperature (WT) Sensor
12.2.3 Computation
The permissible temperature margins are converted into permissible load margins with the help of
mechanical stress calculations for on load operation of the TG set. The available temperature margins are
converted into corresponding load margins by TSE circuitry with the help of mathematical algorithms.
These load margins are the guiding factors to further load or unload the TG set on both manual and
automatic mode.
12.2.4 Principle of Operation

In each computing channel, the difference between θm and θi is calculated as ∆θ and this is
compared with the permissible upper and lower temperature difference ∆θu per. and ∆θL per. which are
dependent on the midwall temperature and are derived from function generators. The difference between
∆θu per. and ∆θ gives the upper temperature margin whereas difference between ∆θL per and ∆θ gives
the lower temperature margin. These margins are called available temperature margins and are

represented by ∆θu and ∆θL. the lower temperature margins of admission area and turbine area are
selected for display and for further processing.
During no load and start-up and shutdown operations the temperature margins are indicated for
admission (or for the turbine area whichever is lower or as selected), together with the instantaneous
speed. During on load operation the upper and lower load margins ∆Pu and ∆PL are computed from
available minimum temperature margins and are displayed together with instantaneous load value.
12.2.5 TSE Display

The TSE indicator (Fig.12.8) has two separate sections one for starting upto synchronization sage
and the other for on load conditions. The sections are illuminated according to the operating mode. The
sector shaped aperture formed by two semicircular discs display margins. The top rectangles get
illuminated & indicate the component, which is the cause for imposing the minimum margin. The upper
boundary of the transparent sector indicates the upper margin for start-up/increasing load and the lower
boundary indicates lower margin for decreasing load/lowering of speed.
During speeding up and upto synchronization, the markings on the white scale indicate the actual
speed of the set. The operature formed by the red discs indicates the safe temperature margin (in degree
Kelvin) in which components remain stressed within the permissible level only.
These indicated margins along with the actual metal temperature help to assess the matching
steam temperature requirement prior to rolling. Correcting action has to be taken when the margin
narrows down or become zero.
During the loading operation the display indicates the load range in which the output can be
altered without any restriction on rate offload load change. The margin is a step change in load permitted
on the turbine at that moment. The actual load is indicated in the white scale. It is possible to switch back
to the variable speed range in order to check the instantaneous temperature margins at admission area or
turbine area.
Two 12-point recorders of Kompensograph model are provided for recording of absolute
temperature, temperature margins actual speed, actual load and load margins.
For checking the proper functioning of the computing circuit from the input section upto display, a
known input can be applied to get a predetermined reading in the indicator for each channel. It is
advisable to test the circuits periodically. If there are deviations the TSE should not be used till the fault is
cleared.
12.2.6 Significance of TSE Margins

The difference between permissible temperature difference and actual difference in temperature
is known as temperature margin. Fig. 12.10 gives the maximum permissible temperature difference
allowed Vs θm (midwall temperature). These curves depend upon the thickness of the material at the
point where the margins are calculated, and as well as on material composition. Hence all the five
channels of TSE (as described earlier) have different curves.
The basic philosophy for computing the margin remains the same. For example, as shown in Fig.
o
12.10, the margins with respect to θm of 250 C are computed as follows :
o
Steam Temperature θi = 280 C
o
Midwall temperature θm = 250 C
∴ ∆θact = (θi - θm)
o
= (280 – 250) = 30 C

Fig.12.10 Computation of TSE Temperature Margins
Fig.12.11 Effect of TSE Influence on Speeding Rate Fig.12.12 Effect of TSE Influence on Loading Rate

o
From Upper Curve, Fig.12.10, when θm is 250 C;
o
Maximum upper permissible difference = 60 K
o
Maximum lower permissible difference = 30 K
∴The maximum upper margin = ∆θ permissible - ∆θact
o
= 60 – 30 = 30 K
Similarly from Lower curve,Fig.12.10 :
o
The maximum lower margin = - 80 – 30 = - 110 K
o
Hence θi maximum = 280 + 30 = 310 C
o
θi minimum = 280 – 110 = 170 C
The inference of the above computation of upper and lower temperature margins is that the steam
o o
temperature θi can be increased by 30 C (to the level of 310 C) safely. This is known as upper margin.
o
Similarly θi can be decreased by 110 C safely and this is known as lower margins.
The temperature margins for all the five channels are calculated in the similar way and the
minimum upper margin and minimum lower margin among them is selected separately for display
purpose as well as fed to Electro-hydraulic controller for controlling the rate of rise of speed and rate of
rise/fall of load. However, the rate of fall of speed can not be controlled as it will come down on its own
after trip out or closing of valves.
The influence of margin during rolling is such that the rate of rise of speed is directly proportional
o
to TSE margins between 0 – 30 K as shown in Fig. 12.11.
o
If margin is more than 30 K, then the speed increases at a constant maximum rate of 600
rpm/min.
During loaded condition, the rate of rise of load depends upon upper margin and rate of decrease
of load depends upon lower margin as follows:
o o
TSE Margin 0 – 30 K = 0 – 25 MW /min. If the margin is more than 30 K load will
o
increase/decrease at a constant maximum rate of 25 MW /min. As shown in Fig.12.12, between 0 – 30 K
of margin, the rate of rise of load is directly proportional to margin
o
Hence operator should maintain TSE margins well above 30 K while rolling & loading the set by
proper control of MS & HRH steam temperatures.
-o0o-

Chapter 13
TURBINE OPERATION
13.1 General Operation Philosophy
The objective of starting-up the turbogenerator is to bring a unit on load and raise it to the rated
output within the optimum time but without undue stresses on the turbine components. The proper
procedure gives a logical sequence of start-up, ensuring that no part of the system is overlooked and
gives the confidence to the operating personnel that each step is completed as specified. For this
purpose, the essential requirement of any pre-start check sheet is that it is complete in itself and includes
very simple to most serious checkpoints in the logical sequence. The parameter values, or the sequence
of operation may change from one type of design to other but the operation philosophy remains same in
the broad sense.
The unit operation is an integrated exercise of boiler, turbine and generator operation with proper
coordination so that operating parameters are maintained as recommended by manufacturer. Frequent
crossing of high or low limits of critical parameters may lead to serious damage to the equipment. Hence
operating personnel should observe following points during normal operation –
 Achieving and maintaining the required output of the unit

 Maintaining plant conditions at their optimum efficiency
 Inspection for plant deterioration by studying the operation trends of main equipments and their
auxiliaries (condition monitoring). The maintenance logs can be generated from this information.
 Testing of stand-by plant auxiliaries, protective devices, alarms and automatic cut-in feature.
 Changing over of auxiliaries depending on their running hours.
 Generation of shift logs, event logs, post trip logs etc.
 Readiness to respond to abnormal conditions.
In short by observing proper procedure number of trippings / outages can be brought to minimum.
The long shut-downs lead to cold start-ups which cause plant equipments, particularly working at high
temperatures, to undergo stress cycle. This deteriorates the plant life besides huge power generation
loss coupled with shut-down and start-up losses.
Efforts should be made during shutdown to keep the equipments hot and reduction of shutdown
period so that hot start-up can be performed saving time, power generation loss and reducing the stress
level in the components.
13.2 Turbine Start-up Requirements

13.2.1 Types of Start-ups
Turbine start-ups are classified as cold start-up, warm start-up and hot start-up depending on the HP
turbine metal temperature as follows:
o
If HPT metal temperature >350 C - Hot start-up
o
If HPT metal temperature between 150 - 350 C - W arm start-up
o
If HPT metal temperature < 150 C - Cold start-up
The start-up procedure decides following aspects:
i) Steam parameters suitability viz. pressure and temperature & its raising rates.
ii) Soaking time for turbine and main valves
iii) Turbine speed raising, loading rates
iv) Total time required reaching the full load.
Chapter-13: Turbine Operation 247

Generally absolute cold start-up of turbine takes 6 hours to reach the full load. The turbine after
two hours shutdown may require only half an hour to one hour to reach the full load (depending on boiler
load). The rate of rise of steam parameters and turbine parameters, (speed, load) are specified by start-up
curves for the regime. Operators should provide necessary time for proper soaking of turbine at specified
speeds (600 and 3000 rpm), as shown by the curves, for permitting expansions at normal rate. This will
give good temperature & load margins after synchronization.
13.2.2 Cold Start-up Steps

Turbine start-up involves following steps:
1. Pre-start checks and testing of supplies

2. Establishing lube oil and jacking oil system
3. Putting turbine on barring gear
4. W arming of main steam pipe lines (steam line drains and turbine SLC drains must be kept open)
5. Pulling-up vacuum in condenser by starting ejector
2
6. Establishing turbine gland sealing (at about 0.2 kg/cm vacuum)
2
7. Putting main ejector into service (at about 0.7 – 0.8 kg/cm vacuum) and withdrawing starting
2
ejector. Normal vacuum of 0.91 kg/cm is obtained.
8. Charging of reheater through HP-LP Bypass system
9. Building of steam parameters suitable to turbine condition, viz. for cold start-up parameters are as
follows:
M.S. H.R.H.
2 2
Pressure 30- 35 kg/cm 10-12 kc/cm
o o o o
Temperature 320 – 350 C 320 – 350 C
Flow 95 –100 t/hr.
o
10. W arm-up of turbine stop valves (ESV & IV) to get the TSE margins >30 K & fulfillment of steam
pressure and temperature criteria (X1, X2,X3)
11. Turbine trip resetting by bringing S.L.L.D. to zero position.
12. Opening of stop valves (ESV & IV) by raising the SLLD (starting device) to 42% and 56%
respectively.
13. W arming of HP control valves by opening warm-up control drains valves through warm-up
controller.
14. Fulfillment of steam temperature criteria with respect to mid wall temperature of turbine metal to
ensure that main steam temperature is greater than turbine metal temperature & degree of
o
superheat is > 50 C as recommended by criteria curves X4 and X5 respectively. TSE margins are
o
ensured greater than 35 K.
15. Preparing the electro-hydraulic governing system ready for operation by setting the speed & load
controller reference values & keeping hydraulic governor as back-up by raising speeder gear
position to 100%.
16. Turbine rolling to 600 rpm through speed controller.
17. Soaking of turbine at 600 rpm to fulfilled X6 criterion (approx. 1 hr), which ensures the proper
warming of HP turbine with respect to main steam temperature. Turbine parameters monitoring.
18. Speed raising to 3000 rpm by setting speed reference value at 3000 rpm without stopping in
between.
19. Soaking of turbine at 3000 rpm to fulfilled X7 criterion (approx. 45 min.), which ensures proper
warming of IP turbine with respect to HRH temperature. Monitoring turbine expansion and
shaft/bearing vibration trend.
o
20. Ensuring TSE upper temperature margin of turbine greater than 35 K.
21. Synchronization of generator to grid.
22. Load raising to 10% (20MW) through speed reference setter.
23. Closing of all manual operated drains
24. Ensuring closure of HP-LP bypass valves by increasing pressure set point above M.S. pressure.
25. Check that load controller becomes active at about 20 MW .
2
26. Raising the M.S. pr. to 50 kg/cm by taking coal mill into service and load is raised to 40 MW .
27. Charging of LP heaters from steam side and putting the level controllers of LPH 2 & 3 on auto.

28. Changing over the 6.6 KV supply from station transformer to unit auxiliary transformer.
29. Taking second coal mill into service and raising steam pressure. Ensure that HP bypass set point
is kept at higher value than actual pressure.
30. Raise the turbogenerator load to 100 MW . Take HP heaters into service.
31. Establish second air cycle, second BFP, third coal mill and raise the steam parameters.
32. Changing over the deaerator pegging steam supply from CRH to extraction-4 at about 55% load
(when the NRVs release is obtained).
33. Raising the load to 150 MW
34. Taking the fourth coal mill into service. Put at least two mills on Auto. Stabilize the M.S. pressure
2
at about 140 kg/cm .
35. Putting CMC in to service after adjusting the M.S. Pressure set point to match with actual
pressure.
36. Raising the turbogenerator load to 210 MW through unit target load set point at CMC.
37. Monitoring of turbovisory parameters, viz. absolute expansion, differential expansions, axial shift,
bearing & shaft vibrations, casing temperatures at admission and exhaust locations, bearing
temperatures.
13.3 System Checks & Operation

13.3.1 General Preparation for Start-up
• It should be ensured that all the repair works on turbine system have been completed and all the
permits are cancelled ensuring that equipments are healthy and in operative condition
• First of all bring all the electrical equipments to a state of readiness i.e., switch-on the necessary
switchgear for motors, valve actuators, controls protections and monitoring system.
• After this, carry out the necessary interlocks and protection checks feasible under stationary
condition of turbine. Certain tests and checks require bypassing of certain interlocks. All such
deliberate bypassing of interlocks must be prominently displayed in the control room during the
test. After the test, all interlocks and protections should be brought to normal state.
• Various valves as per the scheme are to be kept in open or close position. It must be ensured
that these valves are kept up in the required position. The isolating valves for all measuring
control and protective device should be kept in fully open position.
• Turbine oil quality should be checked for viscosity, neutralization number, sludges etc. If
required, the oil should be drained from MOT and topped up with fresh oil in order to restore the
quality.
• Condenser tube leakage should be checked by charging the CW system and watching the
increase in hot well level. If good amount of leakage is noticed, then action must be taken to plug
the leaking tubes.
13.3.3 Turbine Oil System

Check that:
 MOT level is normal ( 0+350 mm ) and basket strainers are cleaned
 Fire protection shut-off valve is closed and solenoid is reset at turbine floor and in MOT room.
 Readiness of Lube oil pumps and JOPs
 Sub-group control of oil system "Auto-ON"
 Ensure one of the lube oil coolers is in service from oil side and water side.
Operation :
 AOP and JOP can be started manually from PCR or on auto through “SLC-ON” or through SGC
"Auto-ON"
 Take the standby trial of AOP, EOP and JOP

 W atch drop in MOT level after AOP is started (280 mm).
 Put temperature controller SLC "ON"
o o
 W atch the oil temperature at oil cooler outlet and ensure that it is maintains between 40 – 45 C
by temperature controller.
 W atch following parameters :

2
i) Discharge pressure of AOP : 6.5 kg/cm
2
ii) Oil Pressure before cooler : 5.4 kg/cm
2
iii) Oil pressure after cooler : 4.8 kg/cm
iv) MOT level : + 25 mm
2
v) Jacking Oil Pressure : 120 kg/cm
 W hen the turbine is running, check the bearing drain oil temperature and babbit temperatures :
o
Bearing drain oil temperature : < 60 C
o
Journal bearing babbit temperature : < 90 C
o
Thrust bearing babbit temperature : < 110 C
 Permissives for starting turning gear :

2
i) Seal oil to H2 DP : > 1 kg/cm
2
ii) Seal oil pressure TE & EE : > 4.4 kg/cm
2
iii) H2 gas pressure : > 3.3 kg/cm
iv) H2 purity : > 97%
v) Liquid in generator : Not present
 Turning gear can be started by opening gate valve either manually or through SLC. Observe that
turbine speed on turning gear is as follows :
i) W hen no vacuum in condenser : 110 – 120 rpm
ii) At normal vacuum condition : 150 – 160 rpm
 After turning gear is ON, AOP amperes will increase to 125A from 105A.
 AOP, JOP and turning gear trip and pick-up speeds are as follows :
Trip Speed rpm Pick-up Speed rpm
i) Turning gear 240 210
ii) J.O.P. 540 510
iii) A.O.P. 2850 2800
2
 W hen MOP takes over, the discharge oil pressure will be 8.5 – 9.5 kg/cm depending on turbine
speed.
 Interlocks of AOP, EOP & JOP
2
- The standby AOP (SLC ON) will pick-up if discharge oil pressure < 4.8 kg/cm OR
- The running AOP is OFF
2
- DC Emergency Oil Pump will pick-up when SLC is ON and if lube oil pressure is < 1.1 kg/cm
- The standby JOP (SLC ON) will pick-up if running JOP trips.
13.3.3 Vacuum Pulling and Gland Sealing Checks

- Line-up the steam ejectors
- Ensure 220 V DC supply to the solenoid of vacuum breaker valve and it is closed
- Ensure water sealing to glands of all the valves in vacuum circuit
- CW system is established
- Condensate system is established
- Ensure gland steam cooler siphone is filled-up
- Ensure electrical supply to the motors of seal steam leak-off controller and seal steam supply
2
controller. Their oil pumps are working on auto to maintain oil pressure of 60 kg/cm
- Check that valve AS301 (CRH Steam to glands) is in closed position
- The turbine is put on turning gear

Operation :
- Charge the gland steam header by opening AS 378 valve and build up the pressure 6 –6. 5
2 2
kg/cm . Set the pressure 6.5 kg/cm and put the ejector steam pressure control on auto.
- Start vacuum pulling through starting ejector by first opening steam valve and then the air
valve.
- Start one exhauster fan of gland steam cooler
2
- After building up 0.2 kg/cm vacuum, open the gland seal steam supply valve and charge the
2
header at pressure 0.01 kg/cm (g). Put the gland steam pressure control on auto.
- After opening the steam supply valve, the header drain valve MAL-81 will close on auto.
- After establishing the gland sealing, the condenser vacuum will improve at a faster rate
2
- W hen vacuum builds-up to 0.7 kg/cm , take one main ejector in to service by opening first its
steam valve (AS02 or AS03) and then the air valve. Cut-off the starting ejector by closing air
valve and then steam valve.
2
- Note the final value of vacuum at which it stabilizes (0.92 kg/cm ) and also note HPT/IPT &
LPT differential expansions.
13.3.4 Warming of Steam Piping

Checks :
- Ensure all the drain valves M.S., CRH and HRH lines are open
2
- M.S. line to be charged when drum pressure is raised to 10 kg/cm after blow-down
Operation :
- Charge the M.S. line by opening the boiler outlet bypass valves (MS 301A/302A)
- Ensure that there is no hammering in M.S. pipeline.
- W atch the temperature rise of ESV mid wall
o o
- Rate of heating of steam pipelines should not exceed 25 to 30 C/5 min.
- During heating of M.S. & R.H. steam pipelines; the temperature difference between LHS &
o o
RHS pipelines should not exceed 15 C. But this difference should not exceed 10 C when the
set is on load.
13.3.5 HP-LP Bypass System

Checks :
- Ensure that HP Bypass control oil pumps are running on auto and maintaining the pressure
2
oil pressure 110 kg/cm and oil tank level is normal
- All the oil supply/return/leak-off Sulzer valves are open and there is no oil leakage in the
system
- ESV and IVs are closed
- Cooling water to HP BP valve gland from CEP is open
- Isolating spray valve before BD valve is open and BD valve is closed on auto. Ensure that it
is not passing.
- All controls of HP bypass are on manual mode and all valves are closed.
- Ensure power supply to HP BP panel is normal
2
- Ensure that control oil pressure to LP bypass station is > 5.5 kg/cm
- All manually operated & auto injection water valves (V1, V2, V3, V4) of LP bypass station are
closed.
- All the drain valves of HP &LP bypass are open
2
- Ensure condenser vacuum is > 0.75 kg/cm
- BFP & CEP are running and discharge header pressures are adequate
Operation :
2
- Set the fixed pressure set point of LPBP at 3 kg/cm
- Put the LP Bypass controller on “Auto”
- Make the automatic control interface "ON"
- Ensure drain valves of CRH, HRH and W arm-up valves are open

- Open HPBP warm-up valves locally.
2
- Set the pressure master set point at 35 kg/cm
- Put spray water control valves BPE1 & BPE2 of HPBP on “Auto”
- After warming up for 15 min. open HPBP valves BP-1 and BP-2 about 5%.
- Increase the BP1 & BP2 position manually in a step of 5%
- Check that LPBP valves and injection water valves open on auto to maintain HRH pressure
- Close LPBP warm-up valve
- W hen LPBP position goes to 25% increase the oil-firing rate in boiler by taking into service
CD oil elevation pairs 1-3 & 2-4.
- W hen the controller demand of HP BP matches with BP1 and BP2 actual position, put BP1 and
BP2 on auto to maintain M.S. pressure as per the set point.
- Automatic control interface of LP bypass will increase the fixed pressure set point value to 12
2
kg/cm and then it will be off.
- Check the following parameters :
2
• HRH pressure which maintains at 10 –12 kg/cm
• CRH temperature after attemperation which should rise
• M.S./HRH temperature should rise
- The steam parameters suitable to turbine condition are build-up through this process to get
the required steam temperature and flow at preset pressure before rolling of turbine.
13.4 Turbine Warming-up Criteria

13.4.1 Steam Parameters Matching
Before initiating the rolling of the turbine, it is necessary to raise the parameters of the steam in
the boiler to a level matching with the thermal state of the turbine. The required steam temperature is a
function of the turbine metal temperature as well as pressure conditions. The automatic Turbine Run-up
System (ATRS) takes care of the matching of the steam metal temperature and does not permit the entry
of steam into turbine until the temperature at the boiler outlet has been raised to a value higher than the
barest minimum requirements depending upon the metal temperature of the turbine.
13.4.2 Start-up Diagrams

The start-up diagrams are only representative of indicating the warm-up time and loading rates.
The actual duration of warm-up, soaking time and loading rates are dynamically determined by the turbine
stress evaluator and the margins are displayed for the benefit of the operator.
13.4.3 Start-up Considerations

During the start-up and loading, the turbine is subjected to "Non-steady-state-operation". This
covers the operating conditions of a steam turbine where speed, output, pressure and temperature
change with time. Under these conditions, parts of the turbine in contact with steam are being subjected
to changes in temperature, which gives rise to thermal stresses as a result of expansion of the various
components. From turbine life point of view, it is necessary to limit the extent of these temperature
changes.
In addition to limiting temperature changes, the relative expansion of shaft and casing must also
be taken into account. The axial and radial clearances between the rotating and stationary parts are
sufficient to accommodate any normal expansion, which may occur within the permitted range of
temperature change. In the event of abnormal conditions, however, factors other than temperature, such
as differential expansion, vibration, casing deformation etc. also have to be considered.
13.4.4 Significance of Turbine Stress Evaluator

The temperature changes in the high pressure and intermediate pressure turbine parts depend
primarily upon following factors:
- Changes in initial steam temperature

- Changes in turbine load/speed.

The turbine is equipped with turbine stress evaluator, which provides adequate guidance to the operator
by indicating temperature margins and load margins. These margins have been derived on the basis of
actual thermal stress and material fatigue. Therefore, the operator should be guided by the reading of the
TSE and not by the start-up diagrams. However, the starting and loading diagrams have been based on
the assumption that the materials get stressed to maximum permissible limits only, without impairing the
life of the components. Frequent and substantial departures from the rates/values indicated on diagrams,
or from the TSE indications, can result in reduction of the total life of the turbine, non-permissible
deformation and cracking of the components.
The TSE temperature margins also influences the speed or loading rate of the turbine if the
margins are not adequate to sustain loading.
13.4.5 Turbine Warming-up Criteria Curves

The raising of the steam pressure at the turbine admission and the warming-up of the initial steam
lines and valve bodies can begin when the steam temperature at the turbine inlet is –
o
- At least 50 C above the saturation temperature applicable to the available steam pressure at the
turbine inlet.
o
- Approximately 50 C above the maximum temperature at the mid thickness of the turbine casing as
measured by TSE.
The raising of pressure at the turbine admission during cold start-ups must be done slowly, in
order to prevent any condensation of steam. The raising of the pressure in the steam line is carried out by
establishing flow through HP-LP bypass system. W arming up of pipe line upto emergency stop valve is
done by steam flow through the drain before ESV. W arming of control valves body is carried out by
establishing flow through the drain between ESV and Control valve. Opening of this drain valve is
controlled by the TSE margins.
The criteria curves from X1 to X7, as described below, are to be fulfilled during the start-up of
turbine to rated speed and synchronization of generator thereafter.
a) Criteria for opening main stop valves (ESV) :

Before opening the main stop valves (ESV), the main steam parameters should meet following
recommended values.
i) Minimum main steam temperature with respect to Steam Pressure: This criterion ensures that
o
degree of superheat in the main steam at the applicable steam pressure is greater than 50 C, as
shown in Fig. 13.3.
o
∴ TMS > Ts + 50 C
W here TMS = Main steam temperature at boiler outlet

Ts = Temperature of saturated steam depending upon main steam pressure.
ii) Minimum and maximum values of main steam temperature with respect to HP control valve body
temperature at 50% wall thickness (criteria X1 & X3): As shown in Fig. 13.1, these criteria ensure
that the main steam temperature before HP bypass is always more than curve A. W ith respect to
midwall (50% depth) temperature of HPCV, but should be less than curve B with respect to
midwall HPCV temperature. So the recommended zone for main steam temperature before HP
bypass is only between curve A and Curve B (X1 & X3 criteria). This ensures the proper steam
temperature for warming-up operation.
∴ TMS > ƒ (Tmid HPCV) for Curve A

TMS < ƒ (Tmid HPCV) for Curve B

W here TMS = Main steam temperature before HP bypass
Tmid HPCV = Temperature of HP control valve body at 50% wall thickness
Criteria X1 & X3
Recommended minimum
(curve A) & maximum (curve B)
main steam temperature ahead
of HP turbine when opening
the main stop valves (ESVs)
Fig.13.1 Minimum & Maximum Allowable Main Steam

Temperatures for Opening of Main Stop Valves
iii) Maximum main steam pressure ahead of the turbine with respect to mid wall temperature of
HPCV (criterion X2): This criterion (X2) is shown in Fig. 13.2 which illustrates that if the steam
pressure selected is too high (i.e. high saturation temperature), the surface metal will be heated
up to saturation steam temperature due to which the temperature difference between surface and
midwall will increase beyond permissible limit. Hence steam pressure selected for rolling should
be within the reasonable limit (below the curve).
∴Pmax = ƒ (Tmid HPCV)
Note : However, if the control valve temperature at 50% thickness (Tmid HPCV) exceed the
temperature of the saturated steam belonging to the main steam pressure, the pressure criterion
must not be observed.
b) Criteria for opening HP control valves, i.e., raising the speed to 600 rpm (X4 & X5):
Before opening the main control valves (HPCVs), the main steam and reheat steam temperature
should fulfill the following conditions.

Criterion X2
Allowable maximum main steam

pressure ahead of HP turbine when
opening the main steam stop
valves (ESVs)
Fig.13.2 Maximum Allowable Main Steam Pressure for

Opening of Main Stop Valves
Criterion X4
Steam with superheat

0
greater than 50 C
Fig.13.3 Minimum Degree of Superheat in Main Steam

Before Opening Main Control Valves

Criterion X5
Recommended minimum main

steam temperature ahead of turbine
before opening main control valves
(HPCVs)
Fig.13.4 Recommended Minimum Main Steam Temperature

Before Opening Main Control Valves
Recommended minimum reheat

steam temperature ahead of IP
turbine before opening the reheat
control valves (IPCVs)
Fig.13.5 Recommended Minimum Reheat Temperature For

Opening IP Control Valves

i) Criterion X4 :
o
A degree of superheat in main steam should be greater than 50 C as shown in Fig. 13.3.
o
∴TMS > Ts + 50 C
W here TMS = Main steam temperature ahead of turbine

Ts = Temperature of saturated steam depending on steam pressure.
ii) Criterion X5:
Main steam temperature (TMS) ahead of the turbine should be greater than Middle wall
temperature of HP casing or simulated middle phase shaft temperature (Tmid HP shaft or casing) as
shown in Fig. 13.4.
∴TMS > ƒ (Tmid HP Casing)
Similarly the hot reheat temperature ahead of IP turbine (THRH) should be greater than middle
phase temperature of IPT shaft (Tmid IP shaft), as shown in Fig. 13.5.
∴THRH > ƒ (Tmid IP shaft)
The X5 criterion ensures that inlet steam temperature is greater than turbine metal temperature so
that cooling of turbine & thereby contraction is prohibited, particularly in hot rolling.
c) Criterion for raising the speed from 600rpm to 3000rpm rated speed (X6):
This criterion, called as X6, should be fulfilled before raising the speed to rated speed, i.e. 3000
rpm. This ensures the proper warming of HP turbine rotor and casing which is a function of time
(about 1 Hr.). X6 criterion is shown in Fig. 13.6 in which the recommended zone is below the
curve. W hen the turbine is brought to 600 rpm, the middle phase HP shaft temperature will be in
the not recommended zone, but after soaking for about 1 hr. the mid-shaft temperature will be in
the recommended zone.
∴TMS < ƒ (Tmid HP Shaft)
W here, TMS = Main steam temperature ahead of the turbine

Tmid HP shaft = Simulated middle phase HP shaft temperature
d) Criterion for loading the turbine (synchronization of generator) after soaking at 3000 rpm (X7):
This criterion, called as X7, should be fulfilled before synchronization of generator and loading the
turbine. As shown in Fig. 13.7, this criterion exhibits the relationship between hot reheat
temperature and the simulated middle phase temperature of IP shaft. The recommended zone is
below the curve, which ensures proper warming of IP turbine components during soaking period
(approx. 45 min.) at 3000 rpm speed.
∴ THRH > ƒ (Tmid IP Shaft)

W here, THRH = Hot reheat steam temperature ahead of IP turbine
Tmid IP Shaft = Simulated middle phase temperature of the IP turbine shaft.

Criterion X6
Recommended HP turbine shaft

middle phase temperature before
the turbine is brought to rated
speed. This ensures proper
soaking of HP turbine
Fig.13.6 Criterion for Bringing the Turbine Speed to Rated Speed
Criterion X7
Recommended IP turbine shaft

middle phase temperature before
the turbine is loaded. This
ensures proper soaking of IP
turbine
Fig.13.7 Criterion for Loading the Turbine

13.5 Turbine Rolling Procedure
13.5.1 Checks Before Rolling
The following checks must be completed before imitating the rolling procedure.
- The opening/ closing of valves, fittings etc. must be in desired status.
- The lubricating oil, jacking oil and control oil pressures are normal
o o
- The temperature of lube oil is within the specified limit (42 -45 C)
- Turning gear is in operation
2
- Condenser vacuum is greater than 0.85 kg/cm to allow the vacuum protection to release
the opening of valves.
- Purity of steam must be within the recommended limit before it is admitted to the turbine.
- Unit has been cleared for start-up.
13.5.2 General
After above checks have been completed, steam can be admitted to the turbine. Typical cold-
start-up curves for 210 MW KW U steam turbine are depicted in Fig.13.8. It must be ensured that steam
parameters at the turbine inlet are matching with turbine metal temperature as discussed before. W hile
increasing the speed to 600 rpm, first the gate valve gearing (turning gear) is closed at 240 rpm and then
JOP is tripped at 540 rpm. The turbine speed during warming-up period should be preferably kept
constant. The duration of soaking period (first soaking at 600 rpm and then at 3000 rpm) depends on
casing temperature and steam pressure and temperature, as determined by TSE.
After holding the set at warm-up speed for soaking purposes, the speed can be raised to the rated
value provided the following parameters are within permissible limit.
o
- Adequate temperature margin available on TSE (greater than 35 K)
- The differential expansion of the turbine are within limits
o
- The top and bottom temperature difference of the casing within permissible limits (less than 30 C)
- Sufficient steam generation in the boiler to meet the requirement of the turbine for loading to block
load after synchronization ( > 96 t/hr ).
The speeding-up of the turbine is carried out with the help of speed-controller. The speed should
be raised quickly in the range of critical speed. The MOP takes over the supply of oil to the oil system at
about 2850 rpm and at this speed AOP is switched-off automatically.
During speeding up, bearing temperatures should be monitored closely and also the rubbing
sound in the glands.
If the turbine is to run for a long period at no load, before it is synchronized (as the case in
improving the I.R. value of generator, proper care must be taken to ensure that the exhaust-hood
o
temperature of LPT does not increase more than the permissible value (90 C), otherwise the exhaust-
hood spray valves get opened when on auto.
Before synchronization all the turbovisory parameters are checked and ensured that they are well
within the limits. After the second soaking of turbine at rated speed in case of cold start and as per the
requirements of TSE, proceed to synchronize the generator with the grid and immediately take a block
load (10% of rated load). W hen the frequency, voltage and phase angles are as per the desired
conditions, the generator circuit breaker is closed and the loading of the turbine begins. The amount of
load, which may be placed on the turbine after synchronization, and thereafter permissible rate of load,
depends on the margins indicated by TSE.
After the 5% load has been taken on the set, the cylinder drains are closed. The load controller
takes over the speed controller at about 10% loading (21MW ) and thereafter load is raised through load
reference setter.

Fig.13.8 Cold Start-up Curves for 210 MW KWU Steam Turbine

Fig.13.9 Turbine controls

13.5.3 Turbine Resetting and Stop Valves Opening
1. Turbine Reset Operation
Ensure : • All protections of turbine are reset
• Turbine trip solenoid supply normal
2
• Control oil pressure = 6 – 6.5 kg/cm
Operation : Bring the SLLD position = 0%
Observe : • Turbine trip indication resets

• Governing oil pressures as follows :
2
- Control oil pressure = 6 – 6.5 kg/cm
2
- Trip oil pressure = 5.5 – 6 kg/cm
2
- Start-up oil pressure = 5.5 – 6 kg/cm
2
- Aux. Start-up oil pressure= 5.5 – 6 kg/cm
2
- Aux. trip oil pressure = 5.5 – 6 kg/cm
Note : If control oil pressure is less, rotate the filters in governing and ATT oil circuit.
2. Opening of Stop Valves

Ensure : • Steam parameters for cold start-up are as follows :
2
- M.S. Pressure = 32 – 35 kg/cm
o o
- M.S. Temperature = 320 – 350 C
- M.S. Flow = 95- 100 t/hr.
2
- H.R.H. Pressure = 10 – 12 kg/cm
o o
- H.R.H. Temperature = 320 – 350 C
• The criteria X1, X2, and X3 for opening the stop valves are fulfilled
o
• TSE is selected in admission mode and upper temperature margin > 30 K
• HP/IP trim device is "ON"
• Following SLCs are "ON"
- Oil pumps and turning gear
- Condensate pumps
- LP W ater injection valves
- MAL drain valves
- HPCVs warm-up controller drain valves
Operation : Raise the SLLD position to 42%
Observe : • ESV 1 & 2 are open

• HPCV warm-up controller drain valves are open and HPCV body temperature
at 100% and 50% depth shows increasing trend.
Note : Before opening the IVs, wait till the temperature of the ESVs, HPCVs at 50% depth
increase and stabilize (normally a time period of 45 min. is required).
Operation : Raise SLLD position to 56%
Observe : • IV & IV2 are open

• Governing oil pressure as follows –
2
- Control Oil pressure = 6.5 kg/cm
2
- Trip oil pressure = 5.5 kg/cm
2
- Auxiliary trip oil pressure = 5.5 kg/cm

- Start-up oil pressure =0
- Auxiliary start-up pressure= 0
13.5.4 Rolling of turbine with EHC

1. Raising the speed to 600 rpm (w arm-up speed)
Ensure : • Criteria X4 and X5 for opening of control valves are fulfilled.
o
• TSE upper temperature margin > 40 K
Operation : • Make the tracking device "ON"

• Set the speed reference to 600 rpm.
Observe : • Gate valve gearing (turning gear) closes at 240 rpm.

• JOP trips at 540 rpm
• Turbine speed stabilizes at 600 – 650 rpm.
• All turbovisory parameters are normal.
2. Turbine Trip healthiness test

Operation: • Press the "Turbine Trip" push button
Observe : • Turbine trips and following indications appears

- Turbine trip
- Turbine manual trip
- Turbine trip gear operated
- ESVs closed
• AOP starts at 2800 rpm , JOP at 510 rpm & turning gear
at 210 rpm
Note : Check that HP / IP stop valves and control valves are closed.
3. Re-rolling of turbine to 600 rpm and soaking

Observe : Values of following parameters are within limit.
- Turbine overall and HP differential expansions (should be +ve)
- Absolute shaft (specially HP rear and front) and bearing pedestal
vibrations.
o
- Bearing metal temperatures (< 90 C)
o
- Bearing drain oil temperatures (< 65 C) and drain oil flow
o
- HPT top/bottom (mid wall) temp. (@ 160/150 C)
o
- Inlet of HP casing (270 C)
o
- Exhaust of HP casing (200 C)
o
- IPT top/bottom (midwall) (90 C)
2
- Vacuum (0.91 kg/cm )
- HPCVs position (@20%)
- IPCV position (just start opening)
2
- HP secondary oil pressure = 2.6 kg/cm
2
- IP Secondary oil pressure = 1.7 kg/cm
- CRH NRVs open
Note : Selection the TSE in turbine mode
4. Raising the speed to rated value (3000 rpm) and soaking
Note : Soaking at 600 rpm is completed when the above parameters stabilize and TSE
o
upper margin (admission mode) is achieved @ 35 K. During soaking period ensure

that none of the above parameters drop drastically. Normally, one hour soaking is
required to fulfill X6 criterion.
Ensure : X6 criterion is fulfilled.
Operation Raise the speed reference to 3000rpm without stopping in between.

:
Observe : • W atch the vibration level at critical speeds 1545 rpm and 2126 rpm.
• A.O.P. trips at 2850 rpm.
2 2
• M.O.P. discharge pressure 9.7 kg/cm and lube oil pressure @ 5.5 kg/cm
• Turbine speed stabilizes at 3000 rpm.
• Turbine expansion and axial shift are normal Expansion should increase
steadily.
• Absolute shaft vibrations < 120 µm

o
• Bearing metal temperature < 90 C
o
• Bearing drain oil temperature < 65 C
• HPT casing T/B, Inlet end & exhaust end temperatures
• IPT casing T/B, LP exhaust temperature and condenser vacuum. It may be
noted that LP exhaust temperature will increase. Check LP injection spray
o
valves open at 90 C
• Governing oil parameters as follows :
2
- Control oil pressure = 8.5 kg/cm
2
- Trip oil pressure = 7.5 kg/cm
2
- Aux. trip oil pressure = 7.5 kg/cm
2
- Aux. secondary oil pressure = 3.8 kg/cm
2
- Secondary oil pressure for HP = 3.0 kg/cm
2
- Secondary oil pressure for IP = 2.8 kg/cm
2
- Primary oil pressure = 2.3 kg/cm
o o
• Lube oil temperature is maintained between 42 – 45 C
Ensure Soaking of turbine at 3000 rpm (about 45 min) till X7 criterion for raising IP mid shaft
temperature is fulfilled.
Note 1) Control valves open in proportion to secondary oil pressure for HPCV and IPCV.
2
Control valves starts opening at 2.5 kg/cm sec. oil pressure and opens 100% at 5
2
kg/cm sec. oil pressure signal.
o
2) The rate of rise of speed is controlled by TSE margin, i.e., 0 - 30 K of TSE margin
o
gives 0 - 600 rpm/min speeding rate. However, if the margin is more than 30 C,
the speed increases at constant rate of 600 rpm/min. If TSE is faulted, it blocks
the further raising of speed or load. If the speeding rate is < 108 rpm/min then
dn/dt protection relay operates and brings down the speed set point to 600 rpm to
safeguard the turbine in critical speed zone. To get rid of this situation, operator
o
should ensure that TSE margin is > 35 K before rasing the speed and the speed
reference should be raised to 3000 rpm without stopping in between.
13.5.5 Rolling of turbine with Hydraulic Governor

(After opening of stop valves as per procedure 13.5.3)
Ensure : - Tracking device is "OFF"

- CM C " O F F "
- ESV & IV Open (SLLD 56%)
- Position of following devices is 'zero'
a) S.L.L.D.,
b) Speeder gear

c) Speed reference
d) EHC
Operation : Raise the speed reference to 100%(3150 rpm)

Observe : EHC position goes to 100%
Operation : Slowly raise SLLD above 56% so that turbine speed increases and stabilizes at
600 rpm.
Note : Soaking of turbine at 600 rpm and monitoring of turbine parameters are to be done
as per earlier procedure.
Operation : Raise the SLLD to 100% nonstop.

Observe : HPCV & IPCV open and turbine speed increases to about 2700 rpm
( 90% of rated speed)
Note : 1) Hydraulic governor takes over at about 90% of rated speed i.e. at 2700 rpm.
Hence further raising of speed is done through raising the speeder gear.
2) TSE influence is not provided in Hydraulic governing system. Hence operator
o
should ensure TSE margins > 35 K before raising the speed to 3000 rpm.
Operation : Raise the speeder gear position so that turbine speed increases to 3000 rpm.
Observe : Turbine speed stabilizes at 3000 rpm.
Note : 1) Turbine soaking should be performed at 3000 rpm till X7 criterion is fulfilled
before synchronization and loading of turbine.
2) W atch all the turbine parameters as mentioned in 13.5.4.
13.6 Turbine Loading

13.6.1 Generator Synchronization and Loading to block load
Ensure : - X7 criterion is fulfilled
- TSE Influence is 'ON'
- HP/IP trim device is 'ON'
- All turbovisory parameters are normal.
Operation : • Switch 'ON' load control

• Set load reference to 20MW
• Set load limit to 50 MW
• Switch 'ON' load gradient
• Set load gradient to 20MW (dp/dt set)
• Select "Limit Pressure" mode
• Synchronize the generator
• Increase the load on turbine to 5-7 MW by giving pulses to speed reference.
• Close all the drain valves of M.S., CRH & HRH lines.
Observe : • TSE disc changes over to load side and starts showing load margins
• CRH NRVs open fully
• TSE load margins shows increasing trend
• LP Bypass sliding set point comes into service
Operation : After soaking the turbine at 5 – 7 MW for about 15 minutes, raise the load on the
turbine to 20 MW by increasing speed reference.

Observe : Load controller becomes active and takes over speed controller at about 20 MW .
13.6.2 Loading the Turbine to Rated Load (210 MW)

Observe : Load controller is active.
Ensure : Adequate TSE upper load margins
2
Operation : - Close HP bypass valves by raising the pressure master set point to 55 kg/cm
2
(Always keep set point higher than M.S. pressure by 6 – 8 kg/cm ).
- Increase the HP bypass temperature master set point as per the HPT exhaust
temperature time-to-time.
- Raise the M.S. Pressure by taking into service coal mill-A.
- Increase the load on the turbine to 40 MW through load reference (after
ensuring TSE upper load margins).
- Take LP heaters, 1, 2 & 3 in to service from steam side by opening respective
extraction steam valves (Ensure release for A2, A3 NRVs is available)
- Increase the load on the turbine after noting following.
Note : The load on the turbine should be increased through load reference by ensuring
following conditions:
1) Steam pressure shows rising trend and observe arbitrarily the difference
between M.S. pressure & turbine load about 10 till 60% load. Then up to 80%
2
load M.S. pr. Can be raised to 140 kg/cm .
2) TSE upper load margins are improved adequately by soaking at intermediate
loads 40 MW , 80 MW , and 100 MW etc.
3) After 80% load, rated values of M.S. Pressure can be achieved.
4) HP heaters can be taken into service after 100 MW load.
5) After about 40% load, gland seal steam supply valve closes and leak-off valve
2
starts opening to maintain gland steam header pressure at 0.01 – 0.015 kg/cm .
6) At about 55% load A4 NRV of Extraction-4 to deaerator is released.
Changeover the deaerator pegging steam supply from CRH to Extraction-4
(by opening Ex-301 valve).
7) Put HP bypass pressure master set point on 'Auto' in order to maintain 6 – 8
2
kg/cm positive bias with respect to M.S. Pressure as per load. This ensures
the HP bypass valves remain closed during normal operation of turbine.
8) CMC can be taken into service after 80% load on turbine and further raising of
load to rated value can be achieved by raising the unit target load set point.
13.6.3 Rated Parameters

Steam and Water Parameters :
2
- M.S. Pressure before ESV : 150 kg/cm
o
- M.S. Temperature before ESV : 535 C
- Main steam flow : 627 t/hr.
2
- Hot reheat pressure : 34.8 kg/cm
o
- Hot reheat temperature : 535 C
2
- Condenser Vacuum : 0.91 kg/cm
- Condensate flow : 501 t/hr.
- Feed water flow : 650 t/hr.
2
- Deaerator pressure : 6.5 kg/cm
2
- Seal Steam pressure : 0.012 kg/cm
Turbovisory Parameters :

- HPT differential expansion : -2.0 to + 5 mm
- IPT differential expansion : -2.0 to + 5 mm
- LPT differential expansion : - 7 to +25 mm
- HPT overall expansion : 26 mm
- IPT overall expansion : 13 mm
- Axial shift : + 0.3 mm
- Turbine bearing vibration : < 30 microns
- Turbine shaft vibration : < 120 microns
Levels :
- Deaerator level : 2375 mm
- HPH-6 level : 250 mm
- HPH-5 level : 250 mm
- LPH-3 level : 410 mm
- LPH-2 level : 350 mm
Governing System Parameters :

- EHC Position : 70 – 75%
- HPCV1, 2 position : 50 – 55%
- IPCV1, 2 position : 100%
- Oil Pressure
2
• Control Oil pressure : 8.5 kg/cm
2
• Trip oil pressure : 7.5 kg/cm
2
• Aux. trip oil pressure : 7.5 kg/cm
2
• Aux. Secondary oil pressure : 4.3 kg/cm
2
• HP Secondary oil pressure : 4.3 – 4.5 kg/cm
2
• IP secondary oil pressure : 6.5 kg/cm
2
• Primary oil pressure : 2.1 – 2.2 kg/cm
13.7 Changing over of Governing Systems on Load

13.7.1 Change over from EHC to Hydraulic Governing
It is assumed that turbine is running at full load and the status of governing controls may be as
follows on EHC.
Status before Changeover :

• Speed gear position : 100%
• EHC position : 70 – 75%
• Load Control : ON
• Tracking Device : ON
• Trimming Device : ON
Changeover Procedure
1) Switch 'OFF' tracking Device
2) Reduce speeder gear till HP secondary oil pressure drops slightly thereby load drops
3) Observe that EHC position automatically goes to 100%
4) Raise the load reference set point to 100% (so that hydraulic governor can function in
entire load range).
5) Raise the SLLD position to 100%.
6) The turbine load now can be changed by the operation of speeder gear.
Note : TSE influence is not incorporated in Hydraulic Governor, hence operator should follow TSE
13.7.2 Changeover from Hydraulic Governor to EHC Status before changeover
• EHC position : 100%

• Speeder gear position : 75%
• Load Control : ON
• Load reference set point : Maximum
• Tracking Device : O FF
Changeover Procedure :
1) Reduce the load reference setpoint below the actual load
2) The EHC position start coming down from 100% & stabilizes at lower position with respect to
speeder gear.
3) HP secondary oil pressures drops slightly and hence the load on turbine.
4) Increase the speeder gear position to 100%
5) Switch “ON” Tracking Device
Now the load on the turbine can be changed with load reference in full range with TSE influence
included in it.
13.8 Turbine Unloading and Shutdown

The following procedure for normal shutdown (planned shutdown) are based on the assumption
that the unit is operating at full load with CMC in service and that the intention is to cool the turbine
completely for undertaking some work.
1) Gradually reduce the load on the turbogenerator through lowering the unit target load set point of
CMC. Operator should observe the lower load margin of TSE so that the step change of load
should not be below this margin. The rate of reduction of steam parameters and metal
temperatures should not exceed prescribed limits and there should not be sharp changes.
2) W ith the reduction of turbogenerator load, the firing rate of the boiler should be reduced
proportionately so that HP-LP bypass valves should not open.
3) W hen the load on the machine has gradually reduced to 160 MW and all the parameters are
stabilized, HP heaters 5 & 6 are withdrawn from steam side and feed water side. Also CMC
should be taken out of service.
4) At load about 150 MW observe that steam supply to deaerator pegging changes from extraction
No.4 to CRH on interlock or change manually if needed.
5) Further bring down the turbine load to 90 MW . The M.S. pressure is brought to the level of about
2 o
100 – 110 kg/cm and M.S. temperature about 510 C by adjusting the firing rate. Out of two, one
of the BFPs can be stopped and also one air cycle may be taken out of service. W atch should be
kept on turbovisory parameters,
6) Reduce the load on the turbine further to 50 MW . At this load changeover the feed water supply
line from 100% to 30% low load line (FD 20 line). At this point only two coal mills are in service
with respective oil elevation.
7) W hen the load on the machine is reduced to 40 MW and even below, change over the auxiliary
supply from UAT to station transformer. W ithdraw L.P. Heaters 1, 2 and 3 from steam side.
2
8) Ensure that HP bypass pressure set point is adjusted to 8-10 kg/cm higher than actual M.S.
pressure.
9) Reduce the load to 30 MW and stabilize the parameters. Trip the turbine manually or through the
protection trial.
10) W hen the turbine is tripped, ensure that generator trips on Reverse Power Protection.

11) Check the following
- ESVs, IVs and all control valves are closed

- CRH NRVs closed
- Trip oil pressure is “zero”
- Extraction NRVs and extraction valves are closed
- HP-LP bypass valves open
2
- Check the hot-well level, deaerator level and pressure (3.5 kg/cm ) are maintained.
- As the turbine speed drops down, observe;
• AOP 1 or 2 picks up on Auto at about 2850 rpm. If AOP does not pick-up on Auto, start it
2
manually otherwise EOP will pick-up at 1.2 kg/cm oil pressure.
• At 510 rpm JOP 1 or 2 picks-up on Auto
• At 210 rpm gate valve gearing start. Turbine speed drops to this level in about 30 min.
period.
Note : If due to some reasons, the turbine speed is to be dropped quickly, open the vacuum
breaker to break the vacuum in the condenser immediately.
o
12) If the turbine oil temperature is dropping below 40 C, isolate the oil cooler from water side.
13) Take the HP bypass valves on manual and slowly close the valves after reducing the boiler firing.
Trip the boiler.
14) Charge the PRDS header from adjacent unit and close boiler outlet valves (MS 301,302).
15) After maintaining the hot well and drum level, CEP &BFP should be stopped.
o
16) Turning gear can be stopped when the HPT (T/B) casing and shaft temperature are below 100 C.
17) Stop A.O.P. and J.O.P.
18) Open the turbine and pipeline drains
19) Stop CW pumps
13.9 Turbine Operational Emergencies

13.9.1 General
Any deviation from specified normal operation defines the emergency operation condition for a
turbine. Emergency occurs due to abrupt change of important parameters to unacceptable values, which
may lead to temporary or permanent damage to the equipment.
In case of severe emergency, generally the turbine is tripped abruptly either through lockout relay
or manually.
Following are the emergency conditions under which the set should be tripped irrespective of the
protection systems to act.
13.9.2 Under Frequency

Since the turbine design is based on constant speed operation, there are some limits on low
frequency that the set can be operated without damage to some of the components. The operation of low
frequency below 6% from the rated frequency (50 Hz) for certain sustained period is not allowed as the
natural frequency of LP turbine block falls within this range and may cause high vibration level particularly
in the last stage blading. This will cause higher stresses at the root of blades, which may fail
subsequently. Therefore, efforts should be made to increase the grid frequency by loading number of
sets connected in grid to improve the frequency. Generally, turbine trips through the generator protection
of very low frequency (47.5 Hz). Otherwise, turbine should be tripped manually and vacuum is broken.

13.9.3 Overspeed
The turbine governing system is designed to control the speed on loss of bulk load (through load
rejection relay). However, in case of total isolation of the machine from the grid or failure of speed
governor/emergency governor may cause speed rise to dangerous levels of 112%. The maximum speed
limit is 3360 rpm. The machine should not be allowed to cross this limit in any case. This can be
achieved by manually tripping the turbine by emergency turbine trip push button.
Frequent overspeeding of turbine may lead to failure of LP turbine last stage blading.
13.9.4 Sudden Drop in Steam Temperature/Thermal Shock

Sometimes it happens that the boiler output does not match with the turbine output, which causes
fall in steam temperature. This temperature mismatch, particularly at the 1st stage of HP turbine, occurs
due to too fast load change at the control valves causing decrease in steam temperature at the greatly
reduced flow. This sharp drop in steam temperature gives serious thermal shocks. The surface stresses
may surpass the yield strength, thereby reducing the life of turbine (fatigue and creep).
Measures to be taken :
o o
i) So in case of sharp temperature drop from 535 C to 520 C, start unloading the set by 3 MW /min.
o
and the set should be unloaded to 100 MW corresponding to 480 C. Below this temperature
turbine should be tripped immediately.
ii) To avoid thermal shocks, load or unload the set as per the recommended curves of the
manufacturer.
iii) Avoid priming of superheater in boiler as it sharply drops the temperature.
iv) Avoid mismatch of temperature beyond recommended limits during rolling the turbine.
v) In case of boiler trip, turbine should be tripped immediately.
vi) Increase the excess air percentage to increase the final superheater outlet temperature.
13.9.5 Total A.C. failure

In case of total power failure of the grid or the station getting isolated from the grid, the following
emergency operations should be carried out on turbine side.
i) Start DC lube oil pump (EOP) to save the bearings if it is not started on auto.
ii) Remove main ejectors and gland steam cooler from service and kill the condenser vacuum by
opening vacuum breaker valves or air valve of starting ejector. Stop gland sealing when machine
comes to rest.
iii) If the turbine emergency board is charged through the starting of DG set, start AOP and put the
machine on turning gear. If hydraulic turning gear cannot be established, rotate the rotor by
manual barring.
iv) See that all the extraction NRVs have closed.
v) Monitor bearings babbit metal temperature and bearings drain oil temperature.
13.9.6 High Axial Shift

The increase in axial shift will lead to overloading of the thrust pads of the thrust bearing and
eventual failure. It also contributes to high bearing vibration and abnormal differential expansion.
Protection has been incorporated to trip the turbine and break vacuum at a limiting value of + 1 mm of
axial shift.
Some of the possible causes of increase in the axial shift are :

a) Abrupt change in load
b) Sudden drop of steam temperature
c) Sudden drop of vacuum
d) Sudden closure of extraction NRVs or IVS / IPCVs.
e) Sudden closure of HP heaters
f) Lube oil failure to thrust bearing
g) Turbine overload or scaling in the blades

13.9.7 Condenser Vacuum Low
2
In case of condenser vacuum going low limit 0.75 kg/cm , hand trip the turbine if not tripped
through protection, low vacuum in condenser may be due to following reasons.
a) Partial or complete loss of cooling water

b) High condenser level
c) Leakage in vacuum system causing air ingress
d) Loss of gland seal steam
e) Malfunction of air ejectors
2
f) Fouled condenser tubes i.e. condenser DP high ( > 0.5 kg/cm )
The rapidity of fall of vacuum due to cause (a) to (e) depend on severity of cause, whereas, in
case of (f) the fall of vacuum is very gradual over a period of time. In case the vacuum drop rate is fast,
reduce the load on turbine at the first instant. Then find out the cause of vacuum deterioration and rectify
the same.
13.9.8 Exhaust Hood Temperature High

o
If the exhaust hood temperature goes high (105 C) accomplished with low vacuum, the turbine
should be tripped immediately. Turbine may be restarted only if the exhaust part and condenser have
o o
cooled down to 55 C. At 90 C exhaust hood spray comes into service.
The possible causes for this problem are :

- Fall of vacuum in condenser
- High steam parameters during cold start-up
- Running at 3000 rpm without synchronization of generator or at low load operation for long time.
- Steam dumping (LPBP) water injection valve failure at low loads
- High load from steam dump to condenser at low vacuum or steam dumping at high temperature
- Motoring of generator after turbine trip out.
This malfunction will lead to following responses :

 LPC differential expansion may go excessive (negative side).
 Prolonged high exhaust hood temperature may cause vibration, unusual sounds from LPC, seal
rub, loosening of shrunk fit rotors.
Operator should take following actions :

• Increase CW flow if possible
• Try to improve vacuum
• Reduce steam dumping to condenser
• Do not hold the turbine on low load for long time
• Charge LP heaters as early as possible
• Check gland steam temperature and pressure are maintain at recommended values
• Steam throw spray can be maximized to bring down exhaust hood temperature
• If above measures do not serve the propose, trip the turbine, break the vacuum and cool down
the exhaust hood before restarting the machine.
13.9.9 High Bearing & Shaft Vibration

During rolling and loading of turbine, shaft and bearing vibrations should be watched carefully and
in case it exceeds permissible limit, turbine should be tripped to prevent severe damage. W hile rolling the
set, the critical speeds should be surpassed as quickly as possible without pause. Noise or any rubbing
sound should be heard very carefully from turbine glands and bearings.
High bearing vibrations may be due to many reasons. Most probable causes are :

 Sudden change in inlet steam temperature
 Too high or too low lube oil temperature and pressure at the inlet of bearings and thereby
deteriorating the oil film.
 Moisture content in the lube oil
 Gland steam temperature very low
o
 High differential temperature between top and bottom cylinders of turbine (50 C)
 High differential expansion
 High eccentricity of shaft
 High axial shift
Operator should control the steam parameters as per the load on the turbine and should maintain
the lube oil temperature, pressure and oil quality as specified. Also, proper and adequate soaking of
turbine should be performed during start-up so as to reduce the thermal stresses on turbine parts, normal
o
differential expansion and top/bottom casing temperature difference (< 30 C).
13.9.10 High Differential Expansion

In case of excessive differential expansion, metal-to-metal contact may occur between stationary
and rotating parts of the turbine because of close running clearances. Hence it is necessary to maintain
the HPT, IPT and LPT differential expansions within prescribed limits.
Increase in differential expansion may be caused due to, too fast a change in the inlet steam
temperature or due to too rapid change in the steam flow to the turbines. Hence in normal running
conditions, maintaining the steam temperatures as close as possible to the metal temperatures and
controlling the rate of change of temperature to the minimum will help in maintaining the differential
expansion within the limit. Operator should load the turbine as directed by Turbine Stress Evaluator
particularly during cold start-up and should follow the start-up curves while raising the steam parameters
with recommended rates.
During cold start-up when the steam temperature is much higher than the metal temperature the
expansion tends to go towards +ve, i.e. the rotor expands more than the casing, even though provisions
are made for warming up the turbine prior to rolling in many designs. Hence, the recommended start-up
procedure regarding the inlet parameters is to raise the inlet steam parameters, turbine speed at normal
rates and give adequate time for soaking at recommended speeds. Similarly, during a hot start, when the
rotor tends to contract, the steam temperature should be high enough and rate of rise of load should be
controlled to maintain the differential expansion in +ve side.
13.9.11 Water Hammering

It is a very serious phenomenon, which may lead to disastrous consequences of failure of
hangers and supports, leakage of flange joints, cracking of material due to severe vibrations and noise
level and jerks. W ater hammering mainly occurs during start-up or shutdown. During initial start-up,
condensate accumulation in steam pipes should be properly drained through the drain valves and piping
connected to flash tanks and to condenser. W ater spray lines should be properly isolated. Turbine
casings should also be thoroughly drained. During shutdown after tripping of the set, special care should
be taken from feed heaters side that no back flow of water takes place towards the turbine. Extraction
NRVs should be force closed by its hydraulic actuators.
Further the wet steam due to priming in boiler or fall in boiler outlet pressure abruptly may cause
flashing and decrease in turbine load coupled with severe vibration and noise in the turbine. Hence boiler
outlet steam parameters should be maintained as per requirement of turbine condition.
13.9.12 Turbine Trip

A running turbine may trip due to variety of reasons such as:
- Malfunction or trouble in one or more of its auxiliaries
- Turbine parameters crossing the specified limits or abnormal condition
- Boiler trip or generator trip

A direct turbine trip is initiated in following cases :
- Overspeed ( > 110%)
- High axial shift ( + 0.5 mm )
2
- Condenser vacuum very low ( < 0.7/kg/cm )
2
- Low lube oil pressure ( < 1.2 kg/cm )
o
- Main steam temperature low ( < 480 C )
- Boiler trip
- Drum level very high ( > 225 mm )
- Generator fault/trip
- Fire protection 1 or 2 operated
- Emergency trip push button pressed
Plant Response :
Turbines trip initiates closing of ESVs, IVs and all control valves through protection and governing
oil circuit. Simultaneously generator trip is initiated with some time-delay. However, if HP-LP bypass
valves do not open, boiler also trips on reheater protection.
Immediately after turbine tripping check and ensure that :

- Turbine is coasting down at normal rate (reduction of speed)
- AOP is started at 2850 rpm and maintains adequate lube oil pressure to bearings
- JOP is started at 510 rpm and turning gear at 210 rpm. If not so, manually start them.
- Check and ensure closure of all the extraction line steam isolating valves and NRVs.
- Ensure seal oil supply to generator shaft sealing
- Turning gear maintained 150 –160 rpm speed.
If the cause of trip is such that unit can be brought on line shortly, it is not needed to break the
vacuum. However, in some cases (fire hazard, abnormal sound, very high vibration etc.), it is necessary
to bring rotor to a quick stop, in that case open the condenser vacuum breaker valve and starting ejector
air valve. This will quickly bring down the turbine at rest.
13.10 Automatic Turbine Tester (A.T.T.)

Healthiness of the protective devices, stop & controls valves is most important for the operation
reliability and availability of turbine. Hence it is utmost necessary to keep these equipments/devices fully
serviceable and thoroughly checked. Hence ATT program is used to test the working of protective
devices and stop/control valves while the turbine is running (by simulating the condition).
The ATT is subdivided into functional groups for each device. Each group contains the device
itself and all necessary signal transmission elements for initiation of a normal trip. The automatic turbine
tester has following two subgroups.
1. Protective devices testing 2. Stop and control valves testing
The complete testing of all components, which must operate when an automatic trip becomes
necessary, is assumed. The main trip valves which store the trip signal by mechanical/hydraulic means
are operated together with each protective device and the subsequent satisfactory drop in the trip oil pr.
after the valves is monitored, which initiates turbine trip alarm along with the protective device signal.
During testing of stop valve and control valves, the closing time is monitored to assure the
satisfactory operation.It is recommended to carry out the A.T.T. once in a week by bringing down the load
on the machine to about 80% (during slack hours).
-o0o-

REFERENCES
1. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Bhopal

Steam Turbine : Operating & Maintenance Instructions
2. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., NALCO

Steam Turbines Manual
3. Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Khaperkheda TPS ( 2 x 210 MW )

Steam Turbine, Turbo-Generator & Associated Auxiliaries
4. British Electric International

Modern Power Station Practice, Volume - C
Turbine, Generator and Associated Plants
5. C.E.G.B.
Turbine Operator Course
Lesson 13, Turbine Plant Efficiency
6. C.E.G.B.
Principles and Operation of Power Plant - Part I,
Lesson 14, Steam Turbine
7. C.E.G.B.
Principles and Operation of Power Plant - Part II
Lesson 19, Plant Performance and Optimisation
8. Gill A.B.
Power Plant Performance, (Year 2003).
9. P.K. Nag
Power Plant Engineering, Second Edition
10. J. Arogyaswam y
Power Station Practice

Power Plant Familiarisation V III+ Allfreesharez

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STEAM TURBINES FOR POWER GENERATION

NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE

STEAM TURBINE THEORY

1.2 Evolution of Steam Turbine

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory

2 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

1.3 Energy Conversion in Steam Turbine

Fig.1.2 Basic Elements of Turbine

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 3

Fig.1.3 Action of Steam on Curved Blades

1.4 Impulse and Reaction Principle

1.4.2. Impulse Turbine

4 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

a) The simple Impulse Turbine

Fig.1.4 Arrangement of Simple impulse Turbine

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 5

6 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

b) The Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine

c) The Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine

d) The Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 7

Fig.1.8 Velocity &Pressure Compounded impulse Turbine

1.4.3 Impulse-reaction Turbines

8 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 9

Fig.1.10 Double Casing Impulse-Reaction Turbine

1.4.4 Distinction between Impulse & Reaction Designs

10 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

1.5 Blade Efficiency & Internal losses in Turbine

Work done by moving blades

Fig.1.11 Ideal Efficiency Curves for Impulse & Reaction Stages

1.5.2 Profile Loss

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 11

12 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

1.5.3 Secondary Loss

Fig.1.13 Secondary Flows in Blades

1.5.4 Tip Leakage Loss

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 13

1.5.5 Disc Windage Loss

1.5.6 Loss due to Lacing Wires

Fig.1.15 LP Turbine Blades Stiffened by Lacing Wire

14 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

1.6 Stage Efficiency

Actual heat drop in the stage

1.7 Cylinder Efficiency

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 15

16 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

Fig.1.18 HP, IP Cylinder Efficiencies Fig.1.19 LP Cylinder Efficiencies

Chapter-1: Steam Turbine Theory 17

18 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

STEAM CYCLE THEORY

Fig.2.1 Simplified Power plant cycle

18 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

2.2 Rankine Cycle Development

The thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by:

Work Done (area A B C D)

• Maximum temperature of the superheated steam is limited by material properties.

Chapter-2: Steam Cycle Theory 19

Fig.2.3 Basic Rankine Cycle T-S Diagram

20 Steam Turbines for Power Generation

2.3.2 The Reheat Cycle

Chapter-2: Steam Cycle Theory 21

Fig.2.5 Superheated Cycle T-S Diagram