6 Silvopasture
Interestingly enough, the animals have found their
way into almost every inch of the landscape, and thus
the practice of silvopasture is both throughout the
landscape and intertwined with the other agroforestry
systems on the farm. In this way, while silvopasture is
a specific practice, it often works well as part of other
practices, depending on the timing and season. For
instance, we rotate our ducks through the maple grove
three to four times a season to reduce slug pressure
on the mushrooms. Our sheep rotate through ripar-
ian buffer zones during dry times, which minimizes
harm to the more sensitive ecosystem while provid-
ing good forage during the hotter summer months.
So much of what we have found at the farm is that
paying attention and being flexible are key. Nature
often offers small windows of opportunity for the
right conditions to play out, and we need to be ready
as farmers to take advantage of all that is occurring at
a given point in time.
The Main Components
of Silvopasture
Since this is a book primarily about the practice of
silvopasture, it is useful at the outset to offer an over-
view of the key principles and approaches that are part
of the system, regardless of the specific species or site
context at play. Whether you choose to graze sheep in
a Christmas tree farm, move cows through a walnut
plantation, or graze chickens through an apple orchard,
these elements are universal for successful silvopasture.
1. Silvopasture can be established
in existing woodlands, or trees
can be brought into pasture.
One of the nice aspects of silvopasture is that you can
establish a system on almost any type of land. Of course,
establishing it in existing forest is in many ways a very
different process than bringing the trees into open pas-
ture. The similarities and differences of establishment
in such different contexts will be discussed in detail in
chapters 4 and 5.
The only land types on which we might consider
avoiding silvopasture are very sensitive areas such as
wetlands and healthy, maturing hardwood forests that
might be best left to their own process of succession.
Given that silvopasture has an experimental aspect to
it, working first on more marginal lands is the best way
to begin, offering the opportunity to learn with lower
stakes. In ecological approaches to farming, it’s good
to practice precaution, easing into the development of
novel systems, all while carefully monitoring for any
adverse impacts.
2. Animals are matched to land
type and successional stage.
It’s critically important from the outset that the
appropriate animal is chosen for a given site in order
to reduce the potential of inflicting damage on the
landscape. Animals are incredible at what they do, but
it cannot be overstated that they have just as much
potential to do harm as they do good. While we will
cover considerations for animals in depth in chapter 3,
here is a short list of potential risks for given species:
Cows. Excessive stocking/duration with their weight
could damage soil and tree roots, as well as cause
erosion; also, they can easily destroy young trees.
Pigs could root and trample desired vegetation and
make a moonscape of your woods or pasture in a
very short period of time. Pigs are the most challeng-
ing animals to incorporate into silvopasture.
Sheep and goats. Depending on forage type, sheep and
goats could overgraze the landscape and/or strip the
bark off young trees, killing them.
Poultry could scratch or root down to bare soil and
damage roots and plantings.
You can see from the above list that most of the
problems can be avoided by doing proper assessment
of the land and engaging with the animals to ensure
they are moved before they do harm. The key elements
of stocking rate, density, and duration in a paddock
come into play here; they must be well designed, and
redesigned each year, to optimize the system.
In addition to choosing the right type of animal for
the system, careful selection of the specific breed is an
essential task. Some breeds are able to utilize a wider
 What Is Silvopasture?
Figure 1.4. Silvopasture can be designed from either existing forest or pasture. On the left, cattle graze in an existing woodlot thinned
for silvopasture. On the right, cattle graze among established orchard trees. Photos courtesy of Eric Toensmeier (left) and USDA-SARE (right).
Figure 1.5. Many sheep and goats will eagerly strip the bark of
young trees such as this black locust, which can set the trees back
or even kill them if the damage is too severe. Still, in many cases
such as this, the trees recover even after severe damage so long
as the entire bark layer isn’t severed.
7
range of forage and conditions, whereas others are not as
willing to be as flexible. Chapter 3 discusses the role ani-
mals play in silvopasture systems in much greater detail.
3. Animals are always on a rotation.
Grasses evolved alongside grazing herbivores, and while
it might be surprising, they arguably benefit from being
grazed so long as they have a rest period. For wild graz-
ing animals, such rest is achieved when grazing animals
need to move on to new places because of the threats
predators pose or from seasonal changes to weather
and climate. In the context of modern grazing systems,
designated paddocks, the farmer, and electric fencing
act as the “predator.”
When the animal consumes the top of a plant, a
proportion of the roots are sloughed off or deposited
into the soil, which contributes organic matter content.
After plants are grazed, a rest period is critical to their
recovery, where the shoots grow back. Overgrazing
means these plants take a longer time to recover, while
severe overgrazing means the plant might die alto-
gether. Moving animals is also good for them, as they
have reduced exposure to disease risks and receive the
highest-quality food possible during the season.
The rotational process also benefits the farmer’s bot-
tom line, as it’s been shown to improve the quality and
quantity of forage on the pasture.4 More intensively
8 Silvopasture
Figure 1.6. Cows on a rotational grazing system on a farm in Virginia. Fencing, whether it’s permanent (like this) or temporary, is used to
keep livestock off forage until the timing is right. Perhaps this is where “the grass is always greener” comes from? Photo by Jeff Vanuga
and courtesy of NRCS/USDA.
managing pasture also allows you to feed more animals
on the same amount of land. The clear promise of man-
aged grazing comes in your ability to have more control
over food for your animals, on-site, with the potential
to increase the value of their feed and thus the number
of animals and/or the amount of land and duration of
the season that land can be grazed.
How long the organic matter remains in the soil,
known as sequestration, is another matter altogether.
Many rotational grazing proponents laud any practice
of rotational grazing as an important way to address cli-
mate change. But as always, the details matter. The soil
type, climate, and bioregion, along with the variables of
management, make it hard to be conclusive, and it’s an
open debate among scientists.5 Some studies show net
positive effects, while others show that all animal graz-
ing systems are emitters of greenhouse gases, no matter
the style or approach.6
Regardless of the climate impacts, rotational grazing is
essential to a healthy pasture system. This aspect of silvo-
pasture is non-negotiable, and is often the biggest hurdle for
adopting the practice, especially by graziers who have been
practicing continuous grazing for some time. Fortunately,
advances in our knowledge and technology have made
rotational grazing easier than ever before. Farmers new to
livestock are almost always convinced from the start that
rotating their animals is a good thing, though there are
many details as to what a rotation can look like, including
the size of paddocks, the duration of stay animals have
in a given paddock, and so on. These considerations are
discussed in chapters 3 and 6 in great detail.
Regardless of the specifics, it is the universal opinion
of silvopasture advocates that animals should not be
placed in tree-based systems if they will not be man-
aged through rotational grazing.
4. Trees should match the soil
type and microclimate
and have multiple functions.
You could arguably plant trees for the sole purpose of
shading the livestock, but why not aim a bit higher?
There are so many choices in the temperate climate for
 What Is Silvopasture?
FORAGE VOCABULARY
Here are a few key phrases we will use throughout
this book when referring to grazing practices:
Forage/fodder. Both of these terms are generally
all-encompassing for any type of plant an ani-
mal is consuming in the pasture, though fodder
usually refers to tree leaves.
Grasses are monocots and belong to the family
Poaceae (formerly Gramineae). Leaves of these
herbaceous plants generally appear as blades,
with parallel veins. Within grasses there are two
distinct types:
Cool-season grasses (C4) thrive during the
cooler times of year (spring and late sum-
mer/fall), when temps are between 40 and
75 degrees F (4–24 degrees C).
Warm-season grasses (C3) grow best during the
heat of the summer, when temps are between
70 and 95 degrees F (21–35 degrees C).
Forbs. The general term forb refers to any herba-
ceous, broadleaf plant (non-grasses) without
regard to family classification, and would include
legumes, flowers, and other forage plants.
Legumes. Pod-forming plants in the family Faba-
ceae (or Leguminosae) valued for their ability to
fix nitrogen from the atmosphere.
Browse. Plants other than grasses and forbs; these
are usually taller and often woody plants, such
as trees, shrubs, and vines. This word overlaps
with some definitions of fodder.
trees that will do well in even the worst of soils, that
provide not only shade but also a number of other pos-
sible yields. Of course, the yields will depend on how
the trees are managed and are often easier to “control”
when you’re establishing a silvopasture in open field
conditions versus an existing forest.
While you could choose any number of trees to plant
into a silvopasture, there is a shorter list of trees that offer
specific benefits in the context of silvopasture systems
(see chapter 5). These trees are generally fast growing,
hardy, and resilient to weather and climate. They often
9
offer both a potential food value to animals and poten-
tial wood and timber products down the road.
The goals of the farmer or landowner also come into
play, as there is no use planting apple trees, for instance,
if you don’t want to harvest apples. Some farmers want
to establish the lowest-maintenance trees possible.
Some want a yield of fruit in 3 to 5 years or of nuts in
5 to 10. And some are happy to plant timber species
and wait 50 or more years to harvest. We will discuss
options for tree species and weigh the pros and cons of
each in chapter 5.
5. Forage and fodder should be
diverse and support a resilient
food supply for animals.
One of the largest opportunities in silvopasture is
the creation of a wide range of ecotypes, which can
support a wider range of grasses, forbs, herbaceous
plants, and trees for animal feed. This gives animals
a more diverse and healthy diet that is not only
nutritious but also medicinal. In essence, the design
of a diverse silvopasture offers animals a habitat that
might resemble or even exceed their original experi-
ence grazing in the wild.
Modern farming has greatly oversimplified the ani-
mals’ experience of seeking food; in some operations
animals only visit the feed bin for grain or hay. This not
only offers animals a limited diet in terms of nutrition,
but also starves their innate desire to seek out food in
the landscape. Behavior specialists argue that this creates
boredom in animals, which can lead to disease and to a
lower quality in the final product. Ethics and markets
also come into play, as animals have an innate right to live
a good-quality life, and more and more consumers are
lining up with their dollars to support farming practices
that promote animal welfare. More on this in chapter 3.
In addition to supporting the overall health and
well-being of the animals, a focus on diverse forage also
provides an economic incentive for the farmer. More
diversity in feeds should reduce the feed bill, and also
provide food in lean times, because tree-based systems
can often buffer better against long-term drought and
even excessive rain. Grasses grow on a bell curve, often
peaking in early summer with lower production in July
10
Figure 1.7. This sheep paddock at Wellspring Forest Farm includes access to willow and black locust fodder, as well as a clover- and orchard-
grass-rich pasture. This allows each animal to explore and meet its specific individual dietary needs, which are diverse, like those of people.
and August—unless the forages are shaded and can
thus remain better quality for a longer period of time.
The invitation to include trees into grazing systems is
ultimately one to create more dynamic ecosystems for
our animals to explore.
Careful matching of forages to the micro-envi-
ronments on the farm is the challenge. For example,
for most silvopasture in the eastern United States,
cool-season grasses are utilized, as they excel in part-
sun environments. Warm-season grasses are best for
overly sunny or dry areas, or warmer climates. The
trees effectively help retain optimal conditions for
cool-season grasses throughout the summer months.
This, coupled with the careful selection of trees that
leaf out at various times and provide a range of shade
conditions, can optimize production. For instance,
black locust is a great silvopasture species, as it leafs
out late in the spring, and when fully leafed out casts
Silvopasture
a mild shade, allowing the space underneath to be cool
and somewhat shady but not to the point where grasses
would be stressed for light. More on forage and fodder
considerations in chapter 5.
6. The system is ideally optimized
to stack inputs and outputs
in both space and time.
The beauty in silvopasture systems is not in the parts
but in the complex whole created by bringing all the
parts together. Yet with complexity comes a challenge
in management—this is indeed why agriculture in
the United States and other industrialized nations
has been on a general trend toward more straight
rows, single-species monoculture, and rationed feeds.
It’s easier to do the math. But as we will discuss, the
benefits of creating a more complex ecology outweigh
the time it takes to design, establish, and manage such
 What Is Silvopasture?
a system. Each chapter in this book walks readers
through the process, and helps make more sense of
the complexities.
Be patient with yourself. Few of us are raised in
cultures where we understand a more natural way of
farming. Many are interested in the concept of a more
complex ecology, yet find themselves overwhelmed and
frustrated as they try to comprehend things. It’s wise,
then, to start small and slow, especially if you are new
to one or more of the two main aspects of this prac-
tice: grazing and forestry. Draw upon the knowledge
of others, and recognize that you’re in for a lifetime of
learning. Get the foundations of grazing right from the
start, then bring in the forestry aspects. The content of
this book, along with the case studies of farms actively
practicing silvopasture, will help paint a picture of how
this can be done.
The Benefits of Silvopasture
Usually, farmers and landowners get into silvopasture
to take advantage of one or more of its benefits. In 2014
forestry professor and agroforestry advocate Joe Orefice
interviewed 20 farmers in the Northeast who were
intentionally practicing silvopasture on their land.7 His
research found that the top four reasons these farmers
were using this system were:
1. Shade for livestock.
2. Expanding pasture acreage and diversity.
3. Increased utilization of existing farm woodland.
4. Increased forage availability during midsummer
and droughts.
Other less important reasons mentioned by respondents
included diversifying livestock diet, overall animal
welfare, the management of undesired vegetation, tree
health/fertilization, and increased farm aesthetics.
Each landowner will have to determine for him- or
herself what the main motivations are for engaging in
silvopasture. While we can promote myriad benefits to
farms and the land, in the end the ability to manage
a system comes down to economics: Can we pay the
bills or not? So think about arranging benefits in two
11
categories: those that support the farm, and those that
support the larger world community. Here, we will
flesh out these benefits in order to get the big picture of
silvopasture as one of the more remarkable agricultural
systems available to us.
Benefits to the Farmer and Land
Most important to getting more silvopasture practiced
on the ground are the opportunities it provides to
farmers and land managers. The following can be seen
as the foundation of an argument for silvopasture,
while many of the secondary benefits are positive
effects on the regional and global scale, described in
the next section.
1. Increased use of farmland for production.
Whether or not it produces, land costs money to own.
There are many acres of land that are in farms, but not
used. These are often edges, hedgerows, and forest-
land. In New York State, for example, 21 percent of
farmland is forest, much of which is only periodically
visited and used for activities such as hunting, fire-
wood harvesting, and a periodic timber harvest. Much
of this forested land is not pristine woods but a mix
of young trees, thorny shrubs, and thickets that don’t
allow easy passage.
Silvopasture presents an opportunity to use these
more marginal stands of forest. Animals can benefit
from the protective aspects the forest has to offer, while
the farmer benefits from better utilization of his or her
land, as well as a diverse ecology of habitats to work
from in a dynamic and ever-changing climate.
On our small farm, we were amazed at just how
much land we were missing out on using on our own
property and the acreage we lease. Using Google Earth,
we quickly realized that by getting into the acres that
were “scrubby” and marginal we could increase grazable
land that we both own and lease from 22 to 30 acres, a
significant increase.
2. Increased carrying capacity and stocking rate.
While one aspect of being able to raise more animals is the
ability to utilize more acres of land, as addressed above,
a second is the ability to increase both the quantity and