Relative positive acceleration(RPA) and Positive kinetic energy(PKE)

Development in internal combustion engines and their fuels was very fast in the early decades of
the 20th century, but today internal combustion engines are at their mature levels that any further
development to increase engine efficiency and minimize the emissions is expected to be very little
if ever possible. Any improvement in engine and fuel technology for better efficiency and
emissions either increases the cost to uncompetitive levels or brings additional environmental
problems when especially considering life cycle of the engines and fuels.

Electric vehicles, on the other hand, are becoming promising alternatives to be remedy for the
challenging triad and sustainable transport as they use centrally generated electricity as a power
source. It is well known that power generation at centralized plant is much more efficient and its
emissions can be controlled much easier than those emitted from internal combustion engines that
scattered all over the world. Additionally, an electric vehicle can convert the vehicle’s kinetic
energy to electrical energy and store it during braking and coasting.

Electric vehicles, on the other hand, are becoming promising alternatives to be remedy for the
challenging triad and sustainable transport as they use centrally generated electricity as a power
source. It is well known that power generation at centralized plant is much more efficient and its
emissions can be controlled much easier than those emitted from internal combustion engines that
scattered all over the world. Additionally, an electric vehicle can convert the vehicle’s kinetic
energy to electrical energy and store it during braking and coasting.

Positive Kinetic Energy:

Internal Combustion Engine(ICE)

The land transportation contributes large amount of CO2 emission due the low conversion
efficiency in transport vehicle. Normally, the energy conversion efficiency in road vehicle was
presented in term of amount of fuel per distance within specific condition. where it could not be
comparable in practice especially in logistic sector that the variation of load factor and dynamic
traffic condition were impacted. In this study, the alternative efficiency indicator was proposed
with applying kinetic energy concept to formulate road-vehicle efficiency factor (REF) which
include dynamic behaviour and weight of vehicle.

The motor vehicle is a primary machine on land transportation which consumes fossil fuel as main
energy which contributes approximately 90% of oil consumption. In addition, the fuel efficiency
in motor vehicle is relatively low in comparison with other types of transportation and contributed
large amount of CO2 emission. To reduce both CO2 emission and rate of fuel economy, the
demand side management (DSM) is the potential interest solutions because it is no need for further
modifications on motor vehicle. For instance, the fuel economy on motor vehicle can be improved
by both driver behaviour and traffic management.