Composition of Soil

Objectives
• Know the origin of soils
• Be aware of the processes involved in the
soil formation
• Be exposed to the different types of soil
• Classify soils based on texture
• Realize the influence of mineral content on
the properties of fine-grained soils
• Compare coarse-grained soils and fine-
grained soils
 Topics:
• Composition of Soil
 Soil Formation
 Soil Type
 Soil Texture
 Clay Minerals
 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water
 Soil Fabric
 Comparison of Coarse-Grained Soil
and Fine-Grained Soil for Engineering
Use
 Definition of Soil
• Several different ways to define soil
1) Geologic definition: Loose surface of the
earth as distinguished from solid bedrock
(support of plant life not required).

2) Traditional definition: Material which

nourishes and supports growing plants
(includes rocks, water, organic material,
air).
Origin of Soil
 Parent Rock
~ formed by one of these three different processes

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual formed by alteration

molten magma (lava) deposition, and in layers of igneous &
e.g., limestone, shale sedimentary rocks by
e.g., granite pressure/temperature

e.g., marble
 Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.
 Residual Soils
Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock

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 Transported Soils
Transported by: Special name:

 wind “Aeolian”
sea (salt water) “Marine”
lake (fresh water) “Lacustrine”
river “Alluvial”
ice “Glacial”
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Soil Formation
Soils are formed from the physical and
chemical weathering of rocks.

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 Weathering
• the physical breakdown (disintegration)
and chemical alteration (decomposition)
or rock at or near Earth’s surface.

Two types of weathering:

- physical weathering
- chemical weathering
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 Physical Weathering
• involves the reduction of size without any
change in the original composition of the
parent rock.

The main agents responsible for this process:

» frost wedging
» unloading or exfoliation
» biological activity
» thermal expansion
 Physical Weathering
» Frost wedging – alternate freezing and thawing of water in
fractures and cracks promotes the disintegration of rocks
 Physical Weathering
» Unloading – exfoliation of igneous and metamorphic rocks at
the Earth’s surface due to a reduction in confining pressure
 Physical Weathering
» Biological activity – disintegration resulting from plants and
animals
 Physical Weathering
» Thermal Expansion – alternate expansion and contraction
due to heating and cooling
 Chemical Weathering

• causes both reduction in size and

chemical alteration of the original parent
rock.

The main agents responsible for this process:

» hydration
» oxidation
» carbonation
 Chemical Weathering
» Hydrolysis
– The reaction of any substance with water
– Hydrogen ion attacks and replaces other positive
ions

Silicate mineral
weather by hydrolysis
to form clay
 Chemical Weathering
» Oxidation
– Chemical attachment of free oxygen to other
elements and compounds

Iron-bearing
silicate
mineral
weather by
oxidation
into an
orange color
 Chemical Weathering
» Carbonation
– Dissolving of calcium carbonate (limestone) in
acidic groundwater

The carbonation of
limestone results in
Karst Topography:
caves, sinkholes, etc.
Soil Types
 Soil Types
Residual Soils:
• soils that remain at the site of weathering.
• these soils retain many of the elements that comprise
the parent rock.
• these types of soils are typical of tropical regions.
• deposits can be several hundred meters deep.

Examples: decomposed granite, saprolite (rotten rock), literite

(tropical regions, usually cemented with iron oxides –
rusted color)
 Soil Types
Glacial Soils:
• soils that were transported and deposited by glaciers
• the action of glaciers grinds down soils and rock and
transports the resultant materials over large distances.
• The formed material is very heterogeneous. There are
particles of different sizes and mechanical properties.

Examples:
– Till: directly deposited by the glacier – E.g., ablation (morraines)
and lodgement (hardpan) tills
– glacio-fluvial: are formed after the ice melted due to outwash
– glacio-lacustrine: formed by the deposition of fine soils in large
bodies of water, they are usually layered
 Soil Types
Alluvial (Fluvial) Soils:
• are soils transported by streams and rivers.
• Very common soils, found in rivers flood plains.
• The profile of alluvial soils usually consist of layers of
different soils
• These soils are segregated by size along the length of
the river (large particles – gravels and sand - at the
origin and small particles at the delta – silts and
clays).
• In arid areas, the evaporation of water leaves
cemented agents that are deposited in the soil forming
very hard materials known as caliche
• Much of our construction activities has been and is
occurring in and on alluvial soils.
 Soil Types
Aolian Soils:
• are soils transported and deposited by the wind
• They are very poorly graded (uniform) and show very
high porosity
• The transport mechanisms include: suspension (dust
storms), saltation (dunes), and creep (dunes).
 Soil Types
Colluvial Soils:
• are soils transported by gravity, either slowly or fast.
• Examples: downhill creep, landslide, mudflow
 Soil Types
Lacustrian Soils are soils deposited in lakes
Marine soils are deposited in the sea and ocean floor.
• Grain sizes vary from silts to clays and deposited in
uniform layers or poor engineering properties
• Deltas are a common example of marine soils
Soil Texture
 Soil Texture
• Texture refers to the appearance or feel of the soil.
• Soil Texture is the relative proportion of the primary
particles in the soil.
Sand = 2mm – 0.05mm
Silt = 0.05mm – 0.002mm
Clay = < 0.002mm
 Soil Texture
• Coarse-grained soil
 sands and gravels
 feel gritty and hard
 coarseness is determined from
knowing the distribution of particle
size
 Soil Texture
• Fine-grained soil
 silts and clay
 feel smooth
 the type of minerals present and their
contents characterize fine-grained
soils
 the mechanical behavior, the response
of fine-grained soils to loads, depends
on the type of predominant minerals
present
 Soil Texture
• This proportion of
sand, silt, and clay
can be grouped into
textural classes.
• Soil texture has a
great deal to do with
many other soil
characteristics.
Soil Structure
 Soil Structure
• Soil structure is the Granular
Blocky

arrangement of soil (Subangular) (Angular)

particles into
aggregates. Platy

• Structureless soils do
occur as either single Prismatic Columnar

grained or massive.
Wedge
Clay Minerals
 Minerals
• are crystalline materials and make up the
solids constituent of a soil.
• the mineral particles of fine-grained soils
are platy.
A Clay Particle

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

 Basic Structural Units
Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural
units.
hydroxyl or
oxygen oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron

 Tetrahedral Sheet
Several tetrahedrons joined together form a
tetrahedral sheet.

tetrahedron

hexagonal
hole
 Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets

For simplicity, let’s represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:

Si

and alumina octahedral sheet by:

Al
The main groups of crystalline
materials that make up clay are
the minerals:
kaolinite
illite
montmorillonite
 Different Clay Minerals
Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets form different clay minerals:

1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

 Different Clay Minerals
Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral
sheets form different clay minerals:

2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

 Kaolinite

Al
Si
Typically
70-100 Al
0.72 nm
layers Si
Al
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation Si
Al joined by oxygen
sharing
Si
 Montmorillonite
 also called smectite; expands on contact with water
Si
Al
Si

Si
Al 0.96 nm
easily separated Si
by water
Si
joined by weak
van der Waal’s bond Al
Si
 Montmorillonite
 A highly reactive (expansive) clay

swells on contact with water

Bentonite
 montmorillonite family

 used as drilling mud, in slurry trench walls,

stopping leaks
 Illite
Si
Al
Si
joined by K+ ions
Si
fit into the hexagonal 0.96 nm
Al
holes in Si-sheet
Si

Si
Al
Si
Surface Forces and
Adsorbed Water
 Specific Surface
 surface area per unit mass (m2/g)

 smaller the grain, higher the specific surface

e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

1 mm cube
10 mm cube
spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g
 Isomorphous Substitution
 substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower valence
(e.g., Mg2+) cations
 results in charge imbalance (net negative)

positively charged edges

+ +
+ _ _ _ _+ + _ negatively charged faces
+ _ _ _ __
+ _
_ _ _ _ __ _
_
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge

 Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)
known as exchangeable cations

 capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of

the net negative charge of the clay particle)

 measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)

milliequivalents

 The replacement power is greater for higher valence and

larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+
 A Comparison
Mineral Specific surface C.E.C
(m2/g) (meq/100g)
Kaolinite 10-20 3-10
Illite 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 800 80-120
Chlorite 80 20-30
 Cation Concentration in Water
 cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
+ clay particle +

+- - + cations
+ + + - +
- ++ +
+ + + + ++ + + + + +
+ + - - + +
+ + - + +
+ + + + + -+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + - - + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + -
+ -+ + +
+
+ +- -+ + +
+ + + +
+ +

+ double layer + free water

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The negatively charged faces of clay particles
attract cations in the water. The concentration
of the cations decreases exponentially with
the increasing distance from the clay particle.
The negatively charged clay surface and the
positively charged cations near the particle
form two distinct layers, known as “electric
double layer” or simply “double layer”.
 Adsorbed Water
 A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin

 1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick

 more viscous than free water

- - adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- - 57
Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water
 Clays
 Clay particles are like plates or needles. They are
negatively charged.

 Clays are plastic; Silts, sands and gravels are non-plastic.

 Clays exhibit high dry strength and slow dilatancy.

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 Montmorillonite
 Montmorillonites have very high specific surface,
cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water.
They form reactive clays.

 Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+),

plasticity index and activity (1-7).

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Soil Fabric
During deposition, the mineral particles are
arranged into structural frameworks called
soil fabric.

The environment under which deposition

occurs influences the structural framework
that is formed.
Two common types of soil fabric:
• Flocculated structure
formed under saltwater or freshwater
environment
particles tend to orient perpendicular
to each other
gives higher strength and stiffness
• Dispersed structure
majority of the particles tend to orient
parallel to each other
Two common types of soil fabric:
edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
 Soil Fabric
 The soil fabric is the brain; it retains the memory of the birth
of the soil and the subsequent changes that occur

 Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,

cations present in the water) during the time of
sedimentation influence clay fabric significantly.
Pore Spaces
 Voids
• spaces between the mineral particles
which may be filled with liquids
(essentially water) and gases
(essentially air)
• occupy a large proportion of the soil
volume
• interconnected voids form the
passageway through which water flows
in and out of soil
 Voids
• change in the volume of voids will
cause the soil to either compress
(settle) or expand (dilate)
• freewater, not the adsorbed water ,
and/or air trapped in the voids are
forced out when settlement occurs
 Comparison of
Coarsed-Grained and
Fine-Grained Soils for
Engineering Use
 Comparison
Coarse-Grained Soil Fine-Grained Soil
good load-bearing capacity poor load-bearing capacity

good drainage quality impermeable

strength and volume change volume and

change charateristics are not strength with variations in
significantly affected by moisture condition and frost
change in moisture susceptible
conditions
 Comparison
Coarse-Grained Soil Fine-Grained Soil
incompressible when
dense

vibration accentuate
volume changes from loose
to a dense configuration
 Comparison
Coarse-Grained Soil Fine-Grained Soil
engineering properties are engineering properties are
controlled mainly by the controlled by the
grain size of the particles mineralogical factors rather
and their structural than grain size
arrangement
Thin layers of fine-grained soils, even with
thick deposits of coarse-grained soils, have
been responsible for many geotechnical
failures and therefore, special attention
should be addressed to fine-grained soils.