58562.design and Analysis of Reinforcement Concret

CHAPTER 1
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Many structures are built of reinforced concrete: bridges, viaducts, buildings,
retaining walls, tunnels, tanks, conduits, and others.
Reinforced concrete is a logical union of two materials: plain concrete, which possesses
high compressive strength but little tensile strength, and steel bars embedded in the
concrete, which can provide the needed strength in tension.
First practical use of reinforced concrete was known in the mid-1800s. In the first
decade of the 20th century, progress in reinforced concrete was rapid. Since the mid-1950s,
reinforced concrete design practice has made the transition from that based on elastic
methods to one based on strength. Understanding of reinforced concrete behavior is still far
from complete; building codes and specifications that give design procedures are
continually changing to reflect latest knowledge.
1.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS

Every structure is proportioned as to both architecture and engineering to serve a
particular function. Form and function go hand in hand, and the beat structural system is the
one that fulfills most of the needs of the user while being serviceable, attractive, and
economically cost efficient. Although most structures are designed for a life span of 50
years, the durability performance record indicates that properly proportioned concrete
structures have generally had longer useful lives.
Reinforced concrete structures consist of a series of ―members‖ (components) that
interact to support the loads placed on the structures.
The components can be broadly classified into:
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1. Floor Slabs
Floor slabs are the main horizontal elements that transmit the moving live loads as well as
the stationary dead loads to the vertical framing supports of a structure. They can be:
Slabs on beams,
Waffle slabs,
Slabs without beams (Flat Plates) resting directly on columns,
Composite slabs on joists.
They can be proportioned such that they act in one direction (one-way slabs) or
proportioned so that they act in two perpendicular directions (two-way slabs and flat plates).
2. Beams
Beams are the structural elements that transmit the tributary loads from floor slabs to
vertical supporting columns. They are normally cast monolithically with the slabs and are
structurally reinforced on one face, the lower tension side, or both the top and bottom faces.
As they are cast monolithically with the slab, they form a T-beam section for interior beams
or an L beam at the building exterior.
The plan dimensions of a slab panel determine whether the floor slab behaves essentially
as a one-way or two-way slab.
3. Columns
The vertical elements support the structural floor system. They are compression members
subjected in most cases to both bending and axial load and are of major importance in the
safety considerations of any structure. If a structural system is also composed of horizontal
compression members, such members would be considered as beam-columns.
4. Walls
Walls are the vertical enclosures for building frames. They are not usually or necessarily
made of concrete but of any material that esthetically fulfills the form and functional needs of
the structural system. Additionally, structural concrete walls are often necessary as
foundation walls, stairwell walls, and shear walls that resist horizontal wind loads and
earthquake-induced loads.
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5. Foundations
Foundations are the structural concrete elements that transmit the weight of the
superstructure to the supporting soil. They could be in many forms:
Isolated footing - the simplest one. It can be viewed as an inverted slab transmitting
a distributed load from the soil to the column.
Combined footings supporting more than one column.
Mat foundations, and rafts which are basically inverted slab and beam construction.
Strip footing or wall footing supporting walls.
Piles driven to rock.
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1.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEHAVIOR
The addition of steel reinforcement that bonds strongly to concrete produces a
relatively ductile material capable of transmitting tension and suitable for any structural
elements, e.g., slabs, beam, columns. Reinforcement should be placed in the locations of
anticipated tensile stresses and cracking areas. For example, the main reinforcement in a
simple beam is placed at the bottom fibers where the tensile stresses develop. However, for
a cantilever, the main reinforcement is at the top of the beam at the location of the
maximum negative moment. Finally for a continuous beam, a part of the main reinforcement
should be placed near the bottom fibers where the positive moments exist and the other
part is placed at the top fibers where the negative moments exist.
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CHAPTER 2
MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
2.1 CONCRETE
Plain concrete is made by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water,
and frequently admixtures.
Structural concrete can be classified into:
Lightweight concrete with a unit weight from about ⁄
produced from aggregates of expanded shale, clay, slate, and slag.
Other lightweight materials such as pumice, scoria, perlite, vermiculite, and diatomite are
used to produce insulating lightweight concretes ranging in density from about
⁄ .
Normal‐weight concrete with a unit weight from about
⁄ produced from the most commonly used aggregates—
sand, gravel, crushed stone.
Heavyweight concrete with a unit weight from about
⁄ produced from such materials such as barite, limonite,
magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, iron, and steel punching or shot. It is used for shielding
against radiations in nuclear reactor containers and other structures.
2.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The strength of concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement, coarse and

fine aggregates, water, and various admixtures. The most important variable is (W/C ) ratio.
Concrete strength ( ) – uniaxial compressive strength measured by a compression test of
a standard test cylinder ( diameter by high) on the 28th day–ASTM C31, C39.
In many countries, the standard test unit is the cube (200 X 200X200 mm ).
The concrete strength depends on the size and shape of the test specimen and the manner
of testing. For this reason the cylinder (Ø150mm by 300mm high) strength is 80% of the
150mm cube strength and 83% of the 200mm cube strength.
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Stress-strain relationship:
Typical curves for specimens ( 150 X 300mm cylinders) loaded in compression at 28 days.
Lower-strength concrete has greater

deformability (ductility) than higher-strength
concrete (length of the portion of the curve
after the maximum stress is reached at a
strain between 0.002 and 0.0025 ).
Ultimate strain at crushing of concrete varies
from 0.003 to as high as 0.008.
 In usual reinforced concrete design

of (24 to 35 MPa) are used for
nonprestressed structures.
 of (35 to 42 MPa ) are used for
prestressed structures.
 of (42 to 97 MPa ) are used
particularly in columns of tall buildings.
2.3 TENSILE STRENGTH

Concrete tensile strength is about 10 to 15% of its compressive strength.
The strength of concrete in tension is an important property that greatly affects that extent
and size of cracking in structures.
Tensile strength is usually determined by using:
 Split-cylinder test (ASTM C496). A
standard 150 X 300mm compression test
cylinder is placed on its side and loaded in
compression along a diameter. The
splitting tensile strength is computed as
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 Tensile strength in flexure (modulus of rupture) (ASTM C78 or C293). A plain concrete
beam 150 X 150 mm X 750 mm long is loaded in flexure at the third points of 600-mm
span until it fails due to cracking on the tension face. Modulus of rupture is
computed as
It is accepted (ACI 9.5.2.3) that an average value for may be taken as
√ ;
Where
 Direct axial tension test. It is difficult to measure accurately and not in use today.
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2.4 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The modulus of elasticity of concrete varies, unlike that of steel, with strength.
A typical stress-strain curve for
concrete in compression is shown.
The initial modulus (tangent at
origin), the tangent modulus (at
), and the secant modulus are
noted. Usually the secant modulus at
from 25 to 50% of the compressive
strength is considered to be the
modulus of elasticity. The empirical
formula given by ACI-8.5.1
√
For normalweight concrete, shall
be permitted to be taken as
√
Where:
⁄ .
2.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE

Creep and shrinkage are time-dependent deformations that, along with cracking, provide
the greatest concern for the designer because of the inaccuracies and unknowns that
surround them. Concrete is elastic only under loads of short duration; and, because of
additional deformation with time, the effective behavior is that of an inelastic material.
Deflection after a long period of time is therefore difficult to predict, but its control is needed
to assure serviceability during the life of the structure.
Creep (or plastic flow) is the property of concrete (and other materials) by which it
continues to deform with time under sustained loads at unit stresses within the accepted
elastic range (say, below ). This inelastic deformation increases at a decreasing rate
during the time of loading, and its total magnitude may be several times as large as the
short-time elastic deformation.
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Frequently creep is associated with shrinkage, since both are occurring simultaneously and
often provide the same net effect: increased deformation with time.
The internal mechanism of creep, or "plastic flow" as it is sometimes called, may be
due to any one or a combination of the following: (1) crystalline flow in the aggregate and
hardened cement paste; (2) plastic flow of the cement paste surrounding the aggregate; (3)
closing of internal voids; and (4) the flow of water out of the cement gel due to external load
and drying.
Factors affecting the magnitude of creep are (1) the constituents—such as the composition
and fineness of the cement, the admixtures, and the size, grading, and mineral content of
the aggregates: (2) proportions such as water content and water-cement ratio; (3) curing
temperature and humidity; (4) relative humidity during period of use; (5) age at loading; (6)
duration of loading; (7) magnitude of stress; (8) surface-volume ratio of the member; and (9)
slump.
Creep of concrete will often cause an increase in the long-term deflection of members.
Unlike concrete, steel is not susceptible to creep. For this reason, steel reinforcement is
often provided in the compression zone of beams to reduce their long-term deflection.
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Shrinkage, broadly defined, is the volume change during hardening and curing of the
concrete. It is unrelated to load application. The main cause of shrinkage is the loss of water
as the concrete dries and hardens. It is possible for concrete cured continuously under
water to increase in volume; however, the usual concern is with a decrease in volume. In
general, the same factors have been found to influence shrinkage strain as those that
influence creep—primarily those factors related to moisture loss.
2.6 STEEL REINFORCEMENT
The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing steels in tension as well as compression, the
yield strength is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural concrete
and well over 100 times its tensile strength.
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Steel reinforcement may consist of:
 Bars (deformed bars, as in picture

below) – for usual construction.
 Welded wire fabric – is used in thins
slabs, thin shells.
 Wires – are used for prestressed
concrete.
The ―Grade‖ of steel is the minimum

specified yield stress (point) expressed in:
 MPa for SI reinforcing bar Grades 300,

350, 420, and 520.
 Ksi for Inch-Pound reinforcing bar
Grades 40, 50, 60, and 75.
The introduction of carbon and alloying additives in steel increases its strength but reduces
its ductility. The proportion of carbon used in structural steels varies between 0.2% and
0.3%. The steel modulus of elasticity ( ) is constant for all types of steel. The ACI Code
has adopted a value of ( )
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CHAPTER3
3-1 Load paths

Structural systems transfer gravity loads from the floors and roof to the ground through load
paths that need to be clearly identified in the design process.
Identifying the correct path is important for determining the load carried by each structural
member. The tributary area concept is used to determine the load that each structural
component is subjected to.
3-2 Loads on structural members

Load is distributed over the area of the floor. This distributed load has units of (force/area),
e.g. kN/m2.
3-2-1 Loads on (one-way) beams

In order to design a beam, the tributary load from the floor carried by the beam and
distributed over its span is determined. This load has units of (force/distance), e.g. kN/m.
Notes:
-In some cases, there may be concentrated loads carried by the beams as well.
-All spans of the beam must be considered together (as a continuous beam) for design.
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This tributary load is
determined by multiplying “q”
by the tributary width for the
beam.
3-2-2 Loads on (two-way) beams

The tributary areas for a beam in a two way system are areas which are bounded by 45-
degree lines drawn from the corners of the panels and the centerlines of the adjacent
panels parallel to the long sides.
A panel is part of the slab formed by column centerlines.
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NOTE
-An edge beam is bounded by panels
from one side.
-An interior beam is bounded by panels
from two sides.
For edge beams:

Q=S/2
For interior beams:

Q=S
3-2-3 Loads on columns

The tributary load for the column is concentrated. It has units of (force) e.g., kN. It is
determined by multiplying by the tributary area for the column.
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Example1
Determine the loads acting on beams B1 and B2 and columns C1and C2. Distributed load
over the slab is q = 10 kN/m2. This is a 5 story structure.
B1:
4
B2:
5
C1:
C2:
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3-3 Load types
All structural elements must be designed for all loads anticipated to act during the life
span of such elements. These loads should not cause the structural elements to fail or
deflect excessively under working conditions.
3-3-1 Classification by direction
1- Gravity loads
2- Lateral loads
3-3-2Classification by source and activity
1- Dead loads
Including:
•Weight of all permanent construction.
• Constant magnitude and fixed location.
Examples:
* Weight of the Structure (Walls, Floors, Roofs, Ceilings, Stairways, Partitions).
* Fixed Service Equipment.
2- Live loads
The live load is a moving or movable type of load such as occupants, furniture, etc.
Live loads used in designing buildings are usually specified by local building codes. Live
loads depend on the intended use of the structure and the number of occupants at a
particular time. See table below.
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3- Environmental loads
Wind load (W.L)

The wind load is a lateral load produced by wind pressure and gusts. It is a type of dynamic
load that is considered static to simplify analysis. The magnitude of this force depends on
the shape of the building, its height, the velocity of the wind and the type of terrain in which
the building exists.
Earthquake load (E.L) or seismic load
The earthquake load is a lateral load caused by ground motions resulting from earthquakes.
The magnitude of such a load depends on the mass of the structure and the acceleration
caused by the earthquake.
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CHAPTER 4
BEAM DESIGN METHODS AND REQUIREMENTS
4.1 ACI BUILDING CODE

When two different materials, such as steel and concrete, act together, it is
understandable that the analysis for strength of a reinforced concrete member has to be
partly empirical. These principles and methods are being constantly revised and improved
as results of theoretical and experimental research accumulate. The American Concrete
Institute (ACI), serving as a clearinghouse for these changes, issues building code
requirements, the most recent of which is the Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-14), hereafter referred to as the ACI Code.
The ACI Code is a Standard of the American Concrete Institute. In order to achieve legal
status, it must be adopted by a governing body as a part of its general building code. The
ACI Code is partly a specification-type code, which gives acceptable design and
construction methods in detail, and partly a performance code, which states desired results
rather than details of how such results are to be obtained. A building code, legally adopted,
is intended to prevent people from being harmed; therefore, it specifies minimum
requirements to provide adequate safety and serviceability. It is important to realize that a
building code is not a recommended practice, nor is it a design handbook, nor is it intended
to replace engineering knowledge, judgment, or experience. It does not relieve the designer
of the responsibility for having a safe, economical structure.
ACI 318M-08 – Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary.
Two philosophies of design have long been prevalent:
 The working stress method (1900 – 1960).
 The strength design method (1960 till now, with few exceptions).
4.2 Design and Analysis Philosophies

Design involves the determination of the type of structural system to be used, the cross
sectional dimensions, and the required reinforcement. The designed structure should be
able to resist all forces expected to act during the life span of the structure safely and
without excessive deformation or cracking.
Analysis involves the determination of the capacity of a section of known dimensions,
material properties and steel reinforcement, if any to external forces and moments.
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4.3 Structural Design Requirements:
The design of a structure must satisfy three basic requirements:
1) Strength to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in the various structural
members.
2) Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service load conditions, which
implies providing adequate stiffness to contain deflections, crack widths and vibrations
within acceptable limits.
3) Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the structure, or part of it under the
action of loads.
There are two other considerations that a sensible designer should keep in mind: Economy
and aesthetics.
4.4 Design Methods (Philosophies)

Two methods of design have long prevalent.
 Working Stress Method focuses on conditions at service loads.
 Strength Design Method focusing on conditions at loads greater than the service
loads when failure may be imminent.
The Strength Design Method is deemed conceptually more realistic to establish structural
safety.
4.4.1 The Working-Stress Design Method
This method is based on the condition that the stresses caused by service loads without
load factors are not to exceed the allowable stresses which are taken as a fraction of the
ultimate stresses of the materials, fc’ for concrete and fy for steel.
4.4.2 The Ultimate – Strength Design Method

At the present time, the ultimate-strength design method is the method adopted by most
prestigious design codes.
In this method, elements are designed so that the internal forces produced by factored
loads do not exceed the corresponding reduced strength capacities.
Reduced strength provided ≥ [factored loads]
The factored loads are obtained by multiplying the working loads (service loads) by factors
usually greater than unity.
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4.5 Safety Provisions (the strength requirement)
Safety is required to insure that the structure can sustain all expected loads during its
construction stage and its life span with an appropriate factor of safety.
There are three main reasons why some sorts of safety factor are necessary in structural
design.
• Variability in resistance. *Variability of fc’ and fy, *assumptions are made during design
and *differences between the as-built dimensions and those found in structural drawings.
• Variability in loading. Real loads may differ from assumed design loads, or distributed
differently.
• Consequences of failure. *Potential loss of life, *cost of clearing the debris and
replacement of the structure and its contents and *cost to society.
4.6 Analysis of beams in bending at service loads

4.6.1Introduction
A beam is a structural member used to support the internal moments and shears and in
some cases torsion.
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4.6.2 Basic Assumptions in Beam Theory
1. Plane sections remain plane after bending. This means that in an initially straight
beam, strain varies linearly over the depth of the section after bending.
2. The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same
level, i.e. εs = εc at same level.
3. Concrete is assumed to fail in compression, when εc = 0.003.
4. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural strength.
5. Perfect bond is assumed between concrete and steel.
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4.7 WORKING STRESS METHOD
In the working stress method, a structural element is so designed that the stresses
resulting from the action of service loads (also called working loads) and computed by the
mechanics of elastic members do not exceed some predesigned allowable values.
Service load is the load, such as dead, live, snow, wind, and earthquake, which is assumed
actually to occur when the structure is in service.
The working stress method may be expressed by the following:
Where:
an elastic stress, such as by using the flexure formula for a beam, computed
under service load.
a limiting or allowable stress prescribed by a building code as a percentage of the
compressive strength for concrete, or of the yield stress for the steel reinforcing bars .
In this section, it is assumed that a small transverse load is placed on a concrete
beam with tensile reinforcing and that the load is gradually increased in magnitude until the
beam fails. As this takes place, the beam will go through three distinct stages before
collapse occurs. These are: (1) the uncracked concrete stage, (2) the concrete cracked–
elastic stresses stage, and (3) the ultimate-strength stage. A relatively long beam is
considered for this discussion so that shear will not have a large effect on its behavior.
4.8 Stages of flexural behavior

4.8.1 Uncracked Concrete Stage
At small loads when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of rupture (the bending
tensile stress at which the concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of the beam
resists bending, with compression on one side and tension on the other as shown in Figure
below. According to ACI 318-11 code the modulus of rupture is:
𝑟=0.62𝜆√ 𝑐′
Where 𝜆 =
1 for normal concrete.
0.85 For sand light weight concrete.
0.75 For all light weight concrete.
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4.8.2 Concrete Cracked–Elastic Stresses Stage
As the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the concrete is exceeded, cracks
begin to develop in the bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks begin to
form—that is, when the tensile stress in the bottom of the beam equals the modulus of
rupture—is referred to as the cracking moment, Mcr. As the load is further increased, these
cracks quickly spread up to the vicinity of the neutral axis, and then the neutral axis begins
to move upward. The cracks occur at those places along the beam where the actual
moment is greater than the cracking moment, as shown in Figure (a).
Now that the bottom has cracked, another stage is present because the concrete in the
cracked zone obviously cannot resist tensile stresses—the steel must do it. This stage will
continue as long as the compression stress in the top fibers is less than about one-half of
the concrete’s compression strength, , and as long as the steel stress is less than its yield
stress. The stresses and strains for this range are shown in Figure (b). In this stage, the
compressive stresses vary linearly with the distance from the neutral axis or as a straight
line.
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The straight-line stress–strain variation normally occurs in reinforced concrete beams under
normal service-load conditions because at those loads, the stresses are generally less
than . To compute the concrete and steel stresses in this range, the transformed-area
method is used. The service or working loads are the loads that are assumed to actually
occur when a structure is in use or service. Under these loads, moments develop that are
considerably larger than the cracking moments. Obviously, the tensile side of the beam will
be cracked.
4.8.3 Beam Failure—Ultimate-Strength Stage

As the load is increased further so that the compressive stresses are greater than , the
tensile cracks move farther upward, as does the neutral axis, and the concrete compression
stresses begin to change appreciably from a straight line. For this initial discussion, it is
assumed that the reinforcing bars have yielded. The stress variation is much like that shown
in Figure below.
To further illustrate the three stages of beam behavior that have just been described,
a moment–curvature diagram is shown in Figure below. For this diagram, θ is defined as the
angle change of the beam section over a certain length and is computed by the following
expression in which ε is the strain in a beam fiber at some distance, y, from the neutral axis
of the beam:
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Stages of flexural behavior
The first stage of the diagram is for small moments less than the cracking moment, Mcr,
where the entire beam cross section is available to resist bending. In this range, the strains
are small, and the diagram is nearly vertical and very close to a straight line. When the
moment is increased beyond the cracking moment, the slope of the curve will decrease a
little because the beam is not quite as stiff as it was in the initial stage before the concrete
cracked. The diagram will follow almost a straight line from Mcr to the point where the
reinforcing is stressed to its yield point. Until the steel yields, a fairly large additional load is
required to appreciably increase the beam’s deflection. After the steel yields, the beam has
very little additional moment capacity, and only a small additional load is required to
substantially increase rotations as well as deflections. The slope of the diagram is now very
flat.
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Example 1:
Calculate the cracking moment for the section shown below if
the value of
√ 𝑐
√
𝑦 ⁄
NOTE
 After cracking, the steel bars carry the entire tensile load
below the neutral surface. The upper part of the concrete
beam carries the compressive load.
 In the transformed section, the cross sectional area of the
steel, As, is replaced by the equivalent area nAs.
Where:
n = the modular ratio = Es / Ec
 To determine the location of the neutral axis,
𝑥 ( 𝑥)
 The height of the concrete compression block is x.

 The normal stress in the concrete and steel.
𝑦
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Example 2:
Calculate the bending stresses for the section shown, M= 180
kN.m,
solution
Note:
M > Mcr = 111 kN.m from previous example. Thus, section is
cracked.
√ √
𝑥
( ) ( 𝑥) 𝑥
𝑥
( 𝑥) ( ) ( )
𝑐
( )
𝑦 ( )
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Example 3:
Calculate the allowable moment for the section shown,
( 𝑤 )= , ( 𝑤 )= ,
Solution
( )
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Example 5:
For reinforced concrete beam shown in figure determine the stresses caused by a bending
moment M=61 kN.m. Take f `c=28 MPa and fy=420 MPa.
Solution:-
= 𝑠/ 𝑐 / √ 𝑐′
𝑠=3(510)=1530 2
𝑌` ( ( ) )/( ( ) )
=342 .
( ) ( ) ( )
( `) ( )
√ 𝑐𝑡
𝑡 𝑠 𝑐𝑡 𝑠 𝑢 𝑐𝑟 𝑐
( 𝑌) ( )
𝑌
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Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked
When the bending moment is sufficiently large to cause the tensile stress in the extreme
fibers to be greater than the modulus of rupture, it is assumed that all of the concrete on the
tensile side of the beam is cracked and must be neglected in the flexure calculations.
The cracking moment of a beam is normally quite small compared to the service load
moment. Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of the beam cracks. The
cracking of the beam does not necessarily mean that the beam is going to fail. The
reinforcing bars on the tensile side begin to pick up the tension caused by the applied
moment.
According to ACI-code Mcr can be calculated as shown
Where:
Ig= moment of inertia of cross section of beam.
yt = is the distance between the centroid of beam to the extreme fiber on tension
side.
Example 6:
For reinforced concrete beam shown in figure determine the stresses caused by a bending
moment M=122 kN.m. Take =28 MPa and fy=420 MPa.
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Solution:-
( )
𝑦 ⁄
The section is cracked.
Moment of compression area= Moment of tension area
𝑥
( 𝑥) 𝑠 𝑣 𝑡 𝑡𝑥
( )
( 𝑥) ( )
From above, we can note that the existence of cracks leads to reduce the moment of inertia
by about 54%.
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CHAPTER 5
STRENGTH DESIGN AND ANALYSIS METHOD according to ACI Code
5.1 INTODUCTION
In the strength design method (formerly called ultimate strength method), the service
loads are increased by factors to obtain the load at which failure is considered to be
"imminent". This load is called the factored load or factored service load. The structure or
structural element is then proportioned such that the strength is reached when the factored
load is acting. The computation of this strength takes into account the nonlinear stress-
strain behavior of concrete.
The strength design method may be expressed by the following:
Strength provided ≥ [strength required to carry factored loads]
Where the "strength provided" (such as moment strength) is computed in accordance with
the provisions of a building code, and the "strength required" is that obtained by performing
a structural analysis using factored loads.
5.2 SAFETY PROVISIONS
Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load
above what is expected under normal use. Such reserve capacity is provided to account for
a variety of factors, which may be grouped in two general categories:
 Factors relating to overload.
 Factors relating to understrength (that is, less strength than computed by acceptable
calculating procedures).
Overloads may arise from changing the use for which the structure was designed, from
underestimation of the effects of loads by oversimplification in calculation procedures, and
from effects of construction sequence and methods. Understrength may result from adverse
variations in material strength, workmanship, dimensions, control, and degree of
supervision, even though individually these items are within required tolerances.
In the strength design method, the member is designed to resist factored loads, which are
obtained by multiplying the service loads by load factors. Different factors are used for
different loadings. Because dead loads can be estimated quite accurately, their load factors
are smaller than those of live loads, which have a high degree of uncertainty. Several load
combinations must be considered in the design to compute the maximum and minimum
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design forces. Reduction factors are used for some combinations of loads to reflect the low
probability of their simultaneous occurrences. The ACI Code presents specific values of
load factors to be used in the design of concrete structures.
In addition to load factors, the ACI Code specifies another factor to allow an additional
reserve in the capacity of the structural member. The nominal strength is generally
calculated using accepted analytical procedure based on statistics and equilibrium;
however, in order to account for the degree of accuracy within which the nominal strength
can be calculated, and for adverse variations in materials and dimensions, a strength
reduction factor, , should be used in the strength design method.
To summarize the above discussion, the ACI Code has separated the safety provision into
an overload or load factor and to an under capacity (or strength reduction) factor, Ø. A safe
design is achieved when the structure's strength, obtained by multiplying the nominal
strength by the reduction factor, Ø, exceeds or equals the strength needed to withstand the
factored loadings (service loads times their load factors).
The requirement for strength design may be expressed:
( )
Where are "nominal" strengths in axial compression, bending moment, and

shear, respectively, using the subscript n.
are the factored load effects in axial compression, bending moment, and
shear, respectively, using the subscript u.
Given a load factor of 1.2 for dead load and a load factor of 1.6 for live load, the overall
safety factor for a structure loaded be a dead load, , and a live load, , is:
( )
2
5.3 LOAD FACTORS AND STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS
Overload Factors
The factors for overload as given by ACI-9.2 are:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Where:
3
Strength Reduction Factors
The factors for understrength are called strength reduction factors according to ACI-9.3
and are as follows:
Strength Condition
1-Flexure (with or without axial force)
 Tension-controlled sections …………………………….. 0.9
 Compression-controlled sections
o Spirally reinforced …………….………………….. 0.75
o Others ………………………………..……………. 0.65
2-Shear and torsion ……………………………….……..……..... 0.75
3-Bearing on concrete ……………………………….….………... 0.65
4-Post-tensioned anchorage zones …………………………….. 0.85
5-Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas in strut-and-tie models….0.75
Example:
A simple beam is loaded with a dead load of and a live load of . Check
the strength requirement according to ACI code if the nominal bending moment
4
5.4 FLEXURE IN BEAMS
Reinforced concrete beams are nonhomogeneous in that they are made of two
entirely different materials. The methods used in the analysis of reinforced concrete beams
are therefore different from those used in the design or investigation of beams composed
entirely of steel, wood, or any other structural material.
Two different types of problems arise in the study of reinforced concrete:
1. Analysis. Given a cross section, concrete strength, reinforcement size and location,
and yield strength, compute the resistance or strength. In analysis there should be
one unique answer.
2. Design. Given a factored design moment, normally designated as select a
suitable cross section, including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and
so on. In design there are many possible solutions.
The Strength Design Method requires the conditions of static equilibrium and strain
compatibility across the depth of the section to be satisfied.
The following are the assumptions for Strength Design Method:
1. Strains in reinforcement and concrete are directly proportional to the distance from
neutral axis. This implies that the variation of strains across the section is linear, and
unknown values can be computed from the known values of strain through a linear
relationship.
2. Concrete sections are considered to have reached their flexural capacities when
they develop 0.003 strain in the extreme compression fiber.
3. Stress in reinforcement varies linearly with strain up to the specified yield strength.
The stress remains constant beyond this point as strains continue increasing. This
implies that the strain hardening of steel is ignored.
4. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
5. Compressive stress distribution of concrete can be represented by the
corresponding stress-strain relationship of concrete. This stress distribution may be
simplified by a rectangular stress distribution as described later.
5
5.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM BEHAVIOR
Consider a simply supported and reinforced concrete beam with uniformly distributed load
on top. Under such loading and support conditions, flexure-induced stresses will cause
compression at the top and tension at the bottom of the beam. Concrete, which is strong in
compression, but weak in tension, resists the force in the compression zone, while steel
reinforcing bars are placed in the bottom of the beam to resist the tension force. As the
applied load is gradually increased from zero to failure of the beam (ultimate condition), the
beam may be expected to behave in the following manner:
Stage I: when the applied load is low, the stress

distribution is essentially linear over the depth of
the section. The tensile stresses in the concrete
are low enough so that the entire cross-section
remains uncracked and the stress distribution is
as shown in below. In the compression zone, the
concrete stresses are low enough (less than
about ) so that their distribution is
approximately linear.
6
Stage II: On increasing the applied load, the
tensile stresses at the bottom of the beam
become high enough to exceed the tensile
strength at which the concrete cracks. After
cracking, the tensile force is resisted mainly by
the steel reinforcement. Immediately below
the neutral axis, a small portion of the beam
remains uncracked. These tensile stresses in
the concrete offer, however, only a small contribution to the flexural strength. The concrete
stress distribution in the compression zone becomes nonlinear.
Stage III: at nominal (so,-called ultimate)

strength, the neutral axis has moved farther
up-ward as flexural cracks penetrate more
and more toward the compression face. The
steel reinforcement has yielded and the
concrete stress distribution in the
compression zone becomes more nonlinear.
Below the neutral axis, the concrete is
cracked except for a very small zone.
7
At the ultimate stage, two types of failure can be noticed. If the beam is reinforced with a
small amount of steel, ductile failure will occur. In this type of failure, the steel yields and the
concrete crushes after experiencing large deflections and lots of cracks. On the other hand,
if the beam is reinforced with a large amount of steel, brittle failure will occur. The failure in
this case is sudden and occurs due to the crushing of concrete in the compression zone
without yielding of the steel and under relatively small deflections and cracks. This is not a
preferred mode of failure because it does not give enough warning before final collapse.
5.6 THE EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR COMPRESSIVE STRESS DISTRIBUTION

(COMPRESSIVE STRESS BLOCK).
The actual distribution of the compressive stress in a section has the form of rising
parabola. It is time consuming to evaluate the volume of compressive stress block. An
equivalent rectangular stress block can be used without loss of accuracy.
8
The flexural strength , using the equivalent rectangular, is
obtained as follows:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Notation:
a= depth of rectangular compressive stress block,
b= width of the beam at the compression side,
c= depth of the neutral axis measured from the extreme compression fibers,
d= effective depth of the beam, measured from the extreme compression fibers to the
centroid of the steel area,
h= total depth of the beam,
= strain in extreme compression fibers,
= strain at tension steel,
= compressive strength of concrete,
=yield stress of steel,
= area of the tension steel,
C= resultant compression force in concrete,
T= resultant tension force in steel,
= nominal moment strength of the section.
9
Example:
Determine the nominal moment strength of the beam section.
Take
5.7 TYPES OF FAILURE AND STRAIN LIMITS

Types of failure
Three types of flexural failure of a structural member can be expected depending on the
percentage of steel used in the section.
1. Steel may reach its yield strength before the concrete reaches its maximum strength,
In this case, the failure is due to the yielding of steel reaching a high strain equal to
or greater than 0.005 . The section contains a relatively small amount of steel and is
called a tension-controlled section.
10
2. Steel may reach its yield
strength at the same time as
concrete reaches its ultimate
strength. The section is called
a balanced section.
3. Concrete may fail before the

yield of steel, due to the
presence of a high percentage
of steel in the section. In this
case, the concrete strength and
its maximum strain of 0.003 are
reached, but the steel stress is
less than the yield strength,
that is , is less than . The
strain in the steel is equal to or less than 0.002. This section is called a
compression-controlled section.
The ACI Code assumes that concrete fails in compression when the concrete strain reaches
0.003.
In beams designed as tension-controlled sections, steel yields before the crushing of
concrete. Cracks widen extensively, giving warning before the concrete crushes and the
structure collapses. The ACI Code adopts this type of design. In beams designed as
balanced or compression-controlled sections, the concrete fails suddenly, and the beam
collapses immediately without warning. The ACI Code does not allow this type of design.
11
5.8 Strain Limits for Tension and Tension-Controlled Sections
The ACI Code, Section 10.3 defines the concept of tension or compression-controlled
sections in terms of net tensile strain (net tensile strain in the reinforcement closest to the
tension face). Moreover, two other conditions may develop: (1) the balanced strain condition
and (2) the transition region condition.
These four conditions are defined as follows:
1. Compression-controlled sections are those sections in which at nominal strength is
equal to or less than the compression-controlled strain limit (the compression-
controlled strain limit may be taken as a net strain of for
) at the time when concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain
limit of 0.003, ( ). This case occurs mainly in columns subjected to axial
forces and moments.
2. Tension-controlled sections are those sections in which the is equal to or greater
than 0.005 just as the concrete in the compression reaches its assumed strain limit
of 0.003.
3. Sections in which the lies between the compression-controlled strain limit of 0.002
(for ) and the tension-controlled strain limit of 0.005 constitute the
transition region.
4. The balanced strain condition develops in the section when the tension steel, with
the first yield, reaches a strain corresponding to its yield strength, or , just
as the maximum strain in concrete at the extreme compression fibers reaches 0.003.
In addition to the above four conditions, Section 10.3.5 of the ACI Code indicates that the
net tensile strain, , at nominal strength, within the transition region, shall not be less than
0.004 for reinforced concrete flexural members without or with an axial load less than
, where gross area of the concrete section.
12
Note that in cases where strain is less than 0.005 namely, the section is in the transition
zone, a value of the reduction lower than 0.9 for flexural has to be used for final design
moment, with a strain not less than 0.004 as a limit.
For transition region may be determined by

linear interpolation:
( )
( )
5.9THE BALANCED CONDITION

Let us consider the case of balanced section, which implies that at ultimate load the strain in
concrete equals 0.003 and that of steel equals (at distance ).
Substituting
And From equation of equilibrium ∑
13
For balanced condition,
Where as defined in ACI 10.2.7.3 equal:

( )
The reinforcement ratio for tension steel and balanced reinforcement ratio:
5.10 UPPER AND LOWER (MINIMUM) STEEL PERCENTAGES.

The maximum reinforcement ratio that ensures a minimum net tensile steel strain of
0.005.
* +
14
If the factored moment applied on a beam is very small and the dimensions of the section
are specified (as is sometimes required architecturally) and are larger than needed to resist
the factored moment, the calculation may show that very small or no steel reinforcement is
required. The ACI Code, 10.5, specifies a minimum steel area,
The above requirements of need not be applied if, at every section provided is at
least one-third greater than that required by analysis (
).This exception provides sufficient additional reinforcement in large
members where the amount required by the above equations would be excessive.
5.11 SPACING LIMITS AND CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT.
The minimum limits were originally

established to permit concrete to flow readily
into spaces between bars and between bars
and forms without honeycomb, and to ensure
against concentration of bars on a line that
may cause shear or shrinkage cracking.
According to ACI 7.6. The minimum clear
spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall
be , but not less than25mm. Where parallel
reinforcement is placed in two or more layers,
bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly
above bars in the bottom layer with clear
distance between layers not less than25mm.
Concrete cover as protection of reinforcement against weather and other effects is
measured from the concrete surface to the outermost surface of the steel to which the cover
requirement applies. Where concrete cover is prescribed for a class of structural members,
it is measured to the outer edge of stirrups, ties, or spirals if transverse reinforcement
encloses main bars. According to ACI, 7.7, minimum clear cover in cast-in-place concrete
beams and columns should not be less than 40mm.
15
5.12 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED CONCRETE RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
FOR FLEXURE.
Given: section dimensions ; reinforcement ; material strength .
Required: Nominal moment strength.
⇒ ⇒
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Summary:
To calculate the moment capacity of a section:
1. {
2.
3. ( )
4.
5. ( )
If : tension controlled = 0.9
If : in transition zone ( )
If : reject the section.
16
6. ( ) ( )
7.
Example
A singly reinforced concrete beam has the cross-section shown in the figure below.
Calculate the design moment strength. Can the section carry moment Mu = 350 kN.m, if
.
1-
2- .
3- .
Solution
457mm
533mm
1-
√ √
( )( )
2580mm2
( )( )
{
254mm
( )
Section is brittle- compression failure i.e. Dose not satisfy ACI requirements
Reject the section.
17
.
√ √
( )( )
( )( )
{
( ) ( )
( )
.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )( )
The section is adequate.
18
.
√ √
( )( )
( )( )
{
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )( )( )
The section is adequate.
19
5.13 DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED CONCRETE RECTANGULAR SECTIONS FOR
FLEXURE.
Given: factored moment ( ); material strength ( ).
Required: section dimensions ; reinforcement .
The main two objectives of design are to satisfy the:

1) Strength requirements.
( )
.
.
Assume:
( √ )
20
2) Serviceability requirements.
The serviceability requirement ensures adequate performance at service load without

excessive deflection and cracking.
Two methods are given by the ACI for controlling deflections:
1) by calculating the deflection and comparing it with code specified values.
2) by providing minimum values for the member thickness as give in the next slide.
h hmin
5.14 Concrete Cover

Concrete cover is necessary for protecting the reinforcement from fire, corrosion, and other
effects. Concrete cover is measured from the concrete surface to the closest surface of
steel reinforcement.
Spacing of Reinforcing Bars
21
5.15 Spacing of Reinforcing Bars
The ACI Code specifies limits for bar spacing to permit concrete to flow smoothly into
spaces between bars without honeycombing.
According to the ACI code, must be satisfied, where:
{ ACI 7.6.1 ACI 3.3.2
When two or more layers are used, bars in the upper layers are placed
directly above the bars in the bottom layer with clear distance between
layers not less than 25 mm. ACI 7.6.2
5.16 Estimation of the applied moment

Beams are design for maximum moments along spans in both negative and positive
directions.
The magnitude of each moment is found from structural analysis of the beam. To find the
moments in a continuous (indeterminate) beam, one can use: (1) indeterminate structural
analysis (2) structural analysis software (3) ACI approximate method for the analysis.
22
5.17 Approximate Structural Analysis ACI 8.3.3
ACI Code permits the use of the following approximate moments for design of continuous
beams, provided that:
1. There are two or more spans.
2. Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans not greater
than the shorter by more than 20 percent.
3. Loads are uniformly distributed.
4. Unfactored live load does not exceed three times the unfactored dead load.
5. Members are of similar section dimensions along their lengths (prismatic).
23
Discontinuous end of beam:
Beam end restrained against
rotation
= length of clear span measured face-to-face of

supports. For calculating negative moments, is
taken as the average of the adjacent clear span
lengths.
Discontinuous end of beam:

no rotational restraint only
vertical support
24
5.18 Design Procedures
Method 1: When b and h are unknown
1- Determine ( from deflection control) and assume .
 Estimate beam weight and include it with dead load.
2- Calculate the factored load and bending moment .
3- Assume that Φ=0.9 and calculate the reinforcement ( and ).
4- Check solution:
(a) Check spacing between bars
(b) Check minimum steel requirement
(c) Check Φ = 0.9 (tension controlled assumption)
(d) Check moment capacity ( ≥ )
5- Sketch the cross section and its reinforcement.
Method 2: When b and h are known

1- Calculate the factored load and bending moment Mu.
2- Assume that Φ=0.9 and calculate the reinforcement ( and ).
3- Check solution:
(a) Check spacing between bars
(b) Check minimum steel requirement
(c) Check Φ = 0.9 (tension controlled assumption)
(d) Check moment capacity ( ≥ )
4- Sketch the cross section and its reinforcement.
Example 1
Design a rectangular reinforced concrete beam having a 6 m simple span. A service dead
load of 25 kN/m (not including the beam weight) and a service live load of 10 kN/m are to be
supported.
Use fc’ =25 MPa and fy = 420 MPa.
25
Solution
& are unknown
Estimate beam dimensions and weight
Assume h=500mm and b=300mm
( ) ( )
( )
( √ ) 0.0116
( ) From table below or
Check spacing between bars
26
√ √
( )( )
( )( )
{
Check Φ =0.9 (tension controlled assumption)
( )
Check moment capacity

( ) ( )( )( )
OK
Sketch the cross section and its reinforcement
27
Example 2
The rectangular beam B1 shown in the figure has b = 800mm and h =316mm. Design the
section of the beam over an interior support. Columns have a cross section of 300x800 mm.
The factored distributed load over the slab is =14.4 kN/m2.
Use fc’ =25 MPa and fy = 420 MPa.
L1 = L2 = L3 = 6 m
S1 = S2= S3 = 4 m
Solution:
b & d are known
( )
28
Moment diagram using the approximate ACI method:
Design for the maximum negative moment throughout the beam:
( )
( √ ) 0.0102
( ) From table above or
Check spacing between bars
29
√ √
( )( )
( )( )
{
Check Φ =0.9 (tension controlled assumption)
( )
Check moment capacity

( ) ( )( )( )
OK
Sketch the cross section and its reinforcement
30
Lecture 6 - Flexure
Lecture Goals
Doubly Reinforced beams
T Beams and L Beams
Analysis of Doubly Reinforced
Sections
Effect of Compression Reinforcement on the Strength
and Behavior
Less concrete is needed to
resist the T and thereby
moving the neutral axis
(NA) up.
T  As f y
C  T
Analysis of Doubly
Reinforced Sections
Effect of Compression Reinforcement on the Strength
and Behavior
Singly Reinforced 
 a1 
C  Cc ;M n
 As f y  d  
 2 
Doubly Reinforced 
 a2 
C  C c  C s ; M n
 As f y  d  
 2 
and a 2  a1 
Reasons for Providing
Compression Reinforcement
Reduced sustained load deflections.
 Creep of concrete in compression zone
 transfer load to compression steel
 reduced stress in concrete
 less creep
 less sustained load deflection
Effective of compression reinforcement on sustained
load deflections.
Increased Ductility
reduced increase in steel strain

stress block larger curvature are
depth obtained.
Effect of compression reinforcement on strength and
ductility of under reinforced beams.
r  rb
Change failure mode from compression
to tension. When r > rbal addition of As
strengthens.
Compression allows tension steel to

zone yield before crushing of
concrete.
Effective reinforcement ratio = (r  r’)

Eases in Fabrication
- Use corner bars to hold & anchor stirrups.
Effect of Compression
Reinforcement
Compare the strain distribution in two beams
with the same As
Effect of Compression
Reinforcement
Section 1: Section 2:
T  As f s
T  As f s
T  C s  C c 1
T  C c 1  0 . 85 f c ba  0 . 85 f c b  1 c 1
 A s f s  0 . 85 f c ba 2
As f s
c1 
0 . 85 f c b  1  A s f s  0 . 85 f c b  1 c 2
A s f s  A s f s
c2 
0 . 85 f c b  1
Addition of A’s strengthens compression zone so that less

concrete is needed to resist a given value of T. NA
goes up (c2 <c1) and es increases (es2 >es1).
Doubly Reinforced Beams
Four Possible Modes of Failure
Under reinforced Failure
 ( Case 1 ) Compression and tension steel yields
 ( Case 2 ) Only tension steel yields
Over reinforced Failure
 ( Case 3 ) Only compression steel yields
 ( Case 4 ) No yielding Concrete crushes
Rectangular Sections
Strain Compatibility Check
Assume es’ using similar
triangles
e s 0 .0 0 3
 
c  d ' c
c  d '
e s  * 0 .0 0 3
c
Strain Compatibility
Using equilibrium and find a
 As  A s  f y
T  C c  C s  a 
0 .8 5 f cb
a  As  A s  f y r  r ' d f y
c   
1  1  0 .8 5 f cb   1  0 .8 5 f c 
The strain in the compression
steel is
 d
e s   1   e cu
 c 
  1  0 .8 5 f c  d  
 1   0 .0 0 3
  r  r ' d f y 
 
Confirm
fy
e s  e y  ; es  ey
Es
  1  0 .8 5 f c  d   fy fy
e s   1   0 .0 0 3  
  r  r ' d f y  Es
3
29 x 10 ksi
 
Confirm
 1  0 .8 5 f c  d  fy  87
 
r  r ' d f y 87
  1  0 .8 5 f c  d   87 
 r  r '    
  87  f 

d fy
  y 
Find c
A s f y  0 .8 5 f c b a  A s f y
 As s  A s  f y
c   a   1c
0 .8 5 f c b  1
confirm that the tension steel has yielded
d c fy
es    e cu  e y 
 c  Es
If the statement is true than
 a 
M n
  As  A s  f y  d    A s f y  d  d  
 2 
else the strain in the compression steel
f s  E e s
Return to the original equilibrium equation
A s f y  A s f s  0 .8 5 f c b a
 A s E s e s   0 .8 5 f c b  1 c
 d
 A s E s  1   e c u  0 .8 5 f c b  1 c
 c 
Rearrange the equation and find a quadratic equation
 d
As f y  A s E s  1   e c u  0 .8 5 f c b  1 c
 c 
 0 .8 5 f c b  1 c 
2
 A E
s s
e c u  A s f y  c  A s E s e c u d   0
Solve the quadratic and find c.

Find the fs’
 d  d
f s   1   E se cu   1   87 ksi
 c   c 
Check the tension steel.
d c fy
es    e cu  e y 
 c  Es
Another option is to compute the stress in the
compression steel using an iterative method.
  1  0 .8 5 f c  d  
f s  2 9 x 1 0  1 
3
 0 .0 0 3
  r  r ' d f y 
 
Go back and calculate the equilibrium with fs’
A s
f y  A s f s 
T  C c  C s  a 
0 .8 5 f cb
a Iterate until the c value is

c 
1 adjusted for the fs’ until the
stress converges.
 d
f s   1   87 ksi
 c 
Compute the moment capacity of the beam
 a 
M n
  A s f y  A s f s   d    A s f s   d  d  
 2 
Limitations on Reinforcement Ratio
for Doubly Reinforced beams
Lower limit on r
3 f c 200
r min  
fy fy
(ACI 10.5)
same as for single reinforce beams.

Example: Doubly Reinforced
Section
Given:
f’c= 4000 psi fy = 60 ksi
A’s = 2 #5 As = 4 #7
d’= 2.5 in. d = 15.5 in
h=18 in. b =12 in.
Calculate Mn for the section for the given
compression steel.
Section
Compute the reinforcement coefficients, the

area of the bars #7 (0.6 in2) and #5 (0.31 in2)
A s  4  0 .6 in   2 .4 in
2 2
A s  2  0 .3 1 in   0 .6 2
2 2
in
2
As 2 .4 in
r    0 .0 1 2 9
bd 1 2 in .   1 5 .5 in . 
A s
2
0 .6 2 in
r   0 .0 0 3 3
bd 1 2 in .   1 5 .5 in . 
Section
Compute the effective reinforcement ratio and
minimum r
r e ff  r  r   0 .0 1 2 9  0 .0 0 3 3  0 .0 0 9 5 7
200 200
r    0 .0 0 3 3 3
fy 60000
3 fc 3 4000
or   0 .0 0 3 1 6
fy 60000
r  r m in  0 .0 1 2 9  0 .0 0 3 3 3 O K !
Section
Compute the effective reinforcement ratio and
minimum r
  1  0 .8 5 f c  d    87 
 r  r '    
 

d fy 87  fy 
  
 0 .8 5  0 .8 5  4 k s i    2 .5 in .   87 
     0 .0 3 9 8
 6 0 k s i  1 5 .5 in .    87  60 
 
0 .0 0 9 5 7  0 .0 3 9 8 Compression steel has not

yielded.
Section
Instead of iterating the equation use the quadratic
method
0 .8 5 f c b  1 c 
2
 A E
s s
e c u  A s f y  c  A s E s e c u d   0
0 .8 5  4 k s i   1 2 in .   0 .8 5  c 
2
 
   0 .6 2 in
2
 29000 k s i   0 .0 0 3    2 .4 in
2
 60 
ksi   c

  0 .6 2 in   29000 k s i   0 .0 0 3   2 .5 in .   0
2
3 4 .6 8 c  9 0 .0 6 c  1 3 4 .8 5  0
2
c  2 .5 9 6 9 c  3 .8 8 8 4  0
2
Section
Solve using the quadratic formula
c  2 .5 9 6 9 c  3 .8 8 8 4  0
2
  2 .5 9 6 9   4   3 .8 8 8 4 
2
2 .5 9 6 9 
c 
2
c  3 .6 5 9 5 in .
Section
Find the fs’
 d  2 .5 in . 
f s   1   E se cu   1   87 ksi
 c   3 .6 5 9 in . 
 2 7 .5 6 5 k s i
Check the tension steel.
 1 5 .5 in .  3 .6 5 9 in . 
es    0 .0 0 3  0 .0 0 9 7 1  0 .0 0 2 0 7
 3 .6 5 9 in . 
Section
Check to see if c works
As f y  As f s  2 .4 in
2
 60 k s i    0 .6 2 in
2
  2 7 .5 6 5 ksi 
c  
0 .8 5 f c  1 b 0 .8 5  4 k s i   0 .8 5   1 2 in . 
c  3 .6 5 9 in .
The problem worked

Section
Compute the moment capacity of the beam
 
 a 
M n
 As f y  As f s  d    As f s  d  d  
 
 2 
  2 .4 in 2   6 0 k s i  
 0 .8 5  3 .6 5 9 in .  
   1 5 .5 in . 
 
   0 .6 2 in   2 7 .5 6 5 k s i   
2
2 

  0 .6 2 in   2 7 .5 6 5 k s i   1 5 .5 in .  2 .5 in . 
2
 1 9 9 1 .9 k - in .  1 6 6 k - f t
Section
If you want to find the Mu for the problem
c 3 .6 6 in .
  0 .2 3 6
d 1 5 .5 in .
From ACI (figure R9.3.2)or figure (pg 100 in your
text) c
0 .3 7 5 >    0 .9
d
The resulting ultimate moment is

M u
M u
 0 .9  1 6 6 k - f t 
 1 4 9 .4 k - f t
Analysis of Flanged
Section
Floor systems with slabs and beams are placed
in monolithic pour.
Slab acts as a top flange to the beam; T-
beams, and Inverted L(Spandrel) Beams.
Analysis of Flanged
Sections
Positive and Negative Moment Regions in a T-beam
Analysis of Flanged Sections
If the neutral axis falls
within the slab depth
analyze the beam as a
rectangular beam,
otherwise as a T-beam.
Effective Flange Width
Portions near the webs are more highly stressed than
areas away from the web.
Effective width (beff)
beff is width that is stressed uniformly to give the same
compression force actually developed in compression
zone of width b(actual)
ACI Code Provisions for
Estimating beff
From ACI 318, Section 8.10.2
T Beam Flange:
L
b e ff 
4
 1 6 hf  bw
 b a c tu a l
Estimating beff
From ACI 318, Section 8.10.3
Inverted L Shape Flange
L
b e ff   bw
12
 6 hf  bw
 b a c tu a l  b w  0 .5 *  c le a r d is ta n c e to n e x t w e b 
Estimating beff
From ACI 318, Section 8.10
Isolated T-Beams
bw
hf 
2
b eff  4 b w
Various Possible Geometries of
T-Beams
Single Tee
Twin Tee
Box
Introduction1
A slab is a structural element whose thickness is small compared to its own
length and width.
t L , S
Slabs in buildings are usually used to transmit the loads on floors and roofs to the
supporting beams.
Slabs are flexural members. Their flexure strength requirement maybe expressed by:
Mu ≤ΦMn 7.5.1.1ACI code318M-14
1
Types of Slabs:
1- Solid slabs :- which are divided into

- One way solid slabs
- Two way solid slabs
2- Ribbed slabs :- which are divided into

- One way ribbed slabs
- Two way ribbed slabs
2
One-way solid slabs
A one-way solid slab curves under loads in one direction only. Accordingly, slabs
supported on two opposite sides only and slabs supported on all four sides, but L/S ≥ 2
are classified as one-way slabs. Main reinforcement is placed in the shorter direction,
while the longer direction is provided with shrinkage reinforcement to limit cracking.
3
Two-way solid slabs
A two-way solid slab curves under loads in two directions. Accordingly slabs
supported on all four sides, and L/S < 2 are classified as two-way slabs. Bending will
take place in the two directions in a dish-like form. Accordingly, main reinforcement is
required in the two directions.
4
Minimum thickness of one way slabs
7.3.1 Minimum slab thickness ACI 318M-14
7.3.1.1.1 For fy other than 420 MPa, the expressions in Table 7.3.1.1 shall be multiplied
by (0.4 + fy/700).
Minimum Cover
20.6.1.3 Specified concrete cover requirements ACI 318M-14
5
Spacing of Reinforcement Bars
a- Flexural Reinforcement Bars 8.7.2.2 ACI 318-14
Flexural reinforcement is to be spaced not farther than three times the slab
thickness (hs), nor farther apart than 45 cm, center-to-center.
for critical section
for other sections
b- Shrinkage Reinforcement Bars 24.4.3.3 ACI 318-14

Shrinkage reinforcement is to be spaced not farther than five times the slab
thickness, nor farther apart than 45 cm, center-to-center.
6
Loads Assigned to Slabs
=1.2 D.L + 1.6 L.L
a- Dead Load (D.L):

1-Weight of slab covering materials
2-Equivalent partition weight
3- Own weight of slab
b- Live Load (L.L):
a- Dead Load (D.L)

1-Weight of slab covering materials =2.315 kN/m2
Tiles (2.5cm thick) =0.025×23 kN/m2
Cement mortar (2.5cm thick) =0.025×21 kN/m2
Sand (5.0cm thick) =0.05×18 kN/m2
Plaster (1.5cm thick) =0.015×21 kN/m2
2-Equivalent partition weight

This load is usually taken as the weight of all walls (weight of 1m span
of wall × total spans of all walls) carried by the slab divided by the floor area
and treated as a dead load rather than a live load.
7
To calculate the weight of 1m span of wall:
Each 1m2 surface of wall contains 12.5 blocks.
A block with thickness 10cm weighs 10 kg = 0.1 kN.
A block with thickness 20cm weighs 20 kg = 0.2 kN.
Each face of 1m2 surface has 30kg plaster.
Load / 1m2 surface for 10 cm block =12.5 × 10 +2×30=185 Kg/m2 = 1.85kN/m2
Load / 1m2 surface for 20 cm block =12.5 × 20 +2×30=310 kg/m2 = 3.1 kN/m2
Weight of 1 m span of wall with height 3 m:

For 10 cm block wt. = 1.85 KN/m2 × 3 = 5.6kN/m.
For 20 cm block wt. = 3.1 KN/m2 × 3 = 9.3 kN/m.
3- Own weight of slab

Own weight of solid slab (per unit 1m2) = kN/m2
8
b- Live Load (L.L):
It depends on the function for which the floor is constructed.
Loads Assigned to Beams

Beams are usually designed to carry the following loads:
-Their own weight
-Weights of partitions applied directly on them
-Floor loads.
9
Design of one way SOLID slabs
One-way solid slabs are designed as a number of independent 1 m wide strips
which span in the short direction and are supported on crossing beams. These strips are
designed as rectangular beams.
( √ )
10
11
Check on tension/compression control (maximum allowed steel)
Method 1: Check t
Method 2: Check max
( )
12
Shrinkage Reinforcement Ratio
According to 24.4.3.2 ACI Code 318M-14 and for
Where, b = width of strip, and h = slab thickness
Minimum Reinforcement Ratio for Main Reinforcement
Check shear capacity of the section
Otherwise enlarge depth of slab

13
Approximate Structural Analysis
ACI Code permits the use of the following approximate moments and shears for
design of continuous beams and one-way slabs, provided:
• There are two or more spans.
• Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans not greater than
the shorter by more than 20 percent.
• Loads are uniformly distributed.
• Unfactored live load does not exceed three times the unfactored dead load.
• Members are of similar section dimensions along their lengths (prismatic).
due to gravity loads shall be calculated in accordance with Table 6.5.2.
14
Vu due to gravity loads shall be calculated in accordance with Table 6.5.4.
Summary of One-way Solid Slab Design Procedure

1- Select representative 1m wide design strip/strips to span in the short direction.
2- Choose a slab thickness to satisfy deflection control requirements. When several
numbers of slab panels exist, select the largest calculated thickness.
3- Calculate the factored load
4- Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for each of the strips.
5- Check adequacy of slab thickness in terms of resisting shear by satisfying the
following equation: √
Where b = 1000 mm. If the previous equation is not satisfied, go ahead and enlarge the
thickness to do so.
6- Design flexural and shrinkage reinforcement.
Flexural reinforcement ratio is calculated from the following equation:-
( √ )
Where b = 1000 mm
You need to check tension controlled requirement, minimum reinforcement requirement

and spacing of selected bars.
15
Compute the area of shrinkage reinforcement, where:
Where b = 1000 mm.

7- Draw a plan of the slab and representative cross sections showing the dimensions
and the selected reinforcement.
16
Example 1
Using the ACI-Code approximate structural analysis, design for a warehouse, a
continuous one-way solid slab supported on beams 4.0 m apart as shown in Figure.
Assume that the beam webs are 30 cm wide. The dead load is 3kN/m2 in addition to the
own weight of the slab, and the live load is 3kN/m2. Use fc’=28MPa, fy= 420MPa
Solution:
1- Select a representative 1 m wide slab strip:
The selected representative strip is shown in the figure below
2- Select slab thickness:

The clear span length,
= 4.0 – 0.30 = 3.70 m
For one-end continuous spans,

= l/24 =4.0/24=0.167m
Slab thickness is taken as 17 cm
17
3- Calculate the factored load wu per unit length of the selected strip:
Own weight of slab = 0.17× 25 = 4.25 kN/m2
= 1.20 (3+4.25) +1.60 (3)= 13.5 kN/m2
For a strip 1 m wide, =13.5 kN/m
4- Evaluate the maximum factored shear forces and bending moments in

the strip:
=13.5 kN/m & = 3.7m, Units of moment are in kN.m
18
Units of shear are in kN
5- Check slab thickness for beam shear:

Effective depth d = 170 – 20 –6 = 144 mm, assuming Φ12 mm bars.
= 28.7 kN.
√ √
i.e. Slab thickness is adequate in terms of resisting beam shear. No need to shear
reinforcement.
6- Design flexural and shrinkage reinforcement:

Assume that Φ=0.9, For max negative moment, = 18.5 kN.m
( √ ) ( √ )
19
Tension failure and
For max positive moment, = 16.8 kN.m
( √ ) ( √ )
Tension failure and

20
Calculate the area of shrinkage reinforcement:
Area of shrinkage reinforcement = 0.0018 (1000) (170) = 306 mm2/m
For shrinkage reinforcement use Φ 10 mm @ 250 mm
21
Example 2:- A one-way single-span reinforced concrete slab has a simple span
of 3m and carries a live load of 5.75 kN/m2 and a dead load of 0.96 kN/m2 in
addition to its self-weight. Design the slab and the size and spacing of the
reinforcement at mid-span assuming a simply supported moment, given:
`=28 and =420
Solution
For simply supported span,

= l/20 =3.0/20=0.15m
Slab thickness is taken as 150 mm.
= 1.2(0.96+3.6) +1.6(5.75) = 14.7 kN/m2

For a strip 1 m wide, =14.7 kN/m.
The clear span length,
= 3.0 m
=14.7 kN/m & = 3.0m.
Check slab thickness for beam shear:

= 22.05 kN.
√ √
i.e. Slab thickness is adequate in terms of resisting beam shear. No need to shear
reinforcement.
Design flexural and shrinkage reinforcement:

Assume that Φ=0.9, for max positive moment,
= =16.53 kN.m
22
=
( √ ) ( √ )
Tension failure and

Area of shrinkage reinforcement = 0.0018 (1000) (150) = 270 mm2/m
For shrinkage reinforcement use Φ 10 mm @ 290 mm.
23
Example 3:- Design the one-way slab shown in the accompanying figure to
support a live load of 12 kN/m2.Do not use the ACI thickness limitation for
deflections. Use = ,`=28 and =420
Solution
Assume h slab=200 mm, Assume that Φ=0.9.
= 1.2(4.8) +1.6(12) = 24.96 kN/m2

= =199.68 kN.m
( )
( )
24
Own weight of slab = × 24 = 5.2 kN/m2
= 1.2(5.2) +1.6(12) = 25.44 kN/m2

= =203.5 kN.m
( )
( )
Check slab thickness for beam shear:

= = 101.76 kN.
√ √
i.e. Slab thickness is adequate in terms of resisting beam shear. No need to enlarge the
section.
Design flexural and shrinkage reinforcement:

For max positive moment, middle span.
25
Tension failure and (note we used maximum ratio of steel)

Area of shrinkage reinforcement = 0.0018 (1000) (220) = mm2/m
For shrinkage reinforcement use Φ 12 mm @ 280 mm.
26
Deflections
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The ACI code provisions for control of deflections are concerned only with deflections that occur
at service load levels under static conditions and may not apply to loads with strong dynamic
characteristics such as those due to earthquakes, transient winds, and vibration of machinery.
Note:
Two methods are given in the Code for controlling deflections:-
- For nonprestressed one-way slabs and beams, including composite members, the minimum
overall thickness required by ACI-318M-14 7.3.1 and 9.3.1 is considered to satisfy the
requirements of the Code for members not supporting or attached to nonstructural elements
likely to be damaged by large deflections.
7.3.1 Minimum slab thickness

7.3.1.1 For solid nonprestressed slabs not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to
be damaged by large deflections, overall slab thickness h shall not be less than the limits in Table
7.3.1.1, unless the calculated deflection limits of 7.3.2 are satisfied.
9.3.1 Minimum beam depth

9.3.1.1 For nonprestressed beams not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be
damaged by large deflections, overall beam depth h shall satisfy the limits in Table 9.3.1.1, unless the
calculated deflection limits of 9.3.2 are satisfied.
1
- For nonprestressed members that do not meet these minimum thickness requirements, for
nonprestressed one-way members that support or are attached to nonstructural elements likely
to be damaged by large deflections, and for prestressed flexural members, deflections are
required to be calculated by 24.2.3 through 24.2.5. Calculated deflections are limited to the
values in Table 24.2.2.
1-Immediate Deflection of Beams and One-Way Slabs (Nonprestressed)
Initial or short-term deflections of beams and one-way slabs occur immediately on the application of
load to a structural member. The principal factors that affect the immediate deflection of a member are:
a. magnitude and distribution of load,
b. span and restraint condition,
c. section properties and steel percentage,
d. material properties.
e. amount and extent of flexural cracking.
2-Long-Term Deflection of Beams and One-Way Slabs (Nonprestressed)
Beams and one-way slabs subjected to sustained loads experience long-term deflections. These
deflections may be two to three times as large as the immediate elastic deflection that occurs when the
sustained load is applied. The long-term deflection is caused by the effects of shrinkage and creep, the
formation of new cracks and the widening of earlier cracks. The principal factors that affect long-term
deflections are:
a. stresses in concrete
b. amount of tensile and compressive reinforcement
c. member size
d. curing conditions
e. temperature
f. relative humidity
g. age of concrete at the time of loading
h. duration of loading.
Note:
Total deflection = Immediate Deflection + Long-Term Deflection

2
Calculation of immediate deflections
The idealized short-term deflection of a typical reinforced concrete beam is shown in Fig. below.
There are two distinct phases of behavior:
(i) Uncracked behavior, when the applied moment (Ma) is less than the cracking moment
(Mcr).
(ii) Cracked behavior, when the applied moment (Ma) is greater than the cracking
moment (Mcr).
Two different values for the moment of inertia would therefore be used for calculating the deflections:
the gross moment of inertia (Ig) for the uncracked section, and the reduced moment of inertia for the
cracked section (Icr).
Note
For the uncracked rectangular beam shown in Fig. above, the gross moment of inertia is used
(Ig = bh3/12). The moment of inertia of a cracked beam with tension reinforcement (Icr) is computed in
the following manner:
3
Taking moment of areas about the neutral axis
Find “kd”
Use
√
Moment of inertia of cracked section about neutral axis,
Expressions for computing the cracked moment of inertia for sections with
compression reinforcement and flanged sections, which are determined in a similar manner,
are given in Table below.
4
Effective Moment of Inertia for Beams and One-Way Slabs (Nonprestressed)
The flexural rigidity EI of a beam may not be constant along its length because of varying amounts of
steel and cracking at different sections along the beam. This, and other material related sources of
variability, makes the exact prediction of deflection difficult in practice.
The effective moment of inertia of cantilevers, simple beams, and continuous beams between
inflection points is given by:
[ ] (24.2.3.5a)
Where:
(24.2.3.5a)
√
Ma = maximum service load moment (unfactored) at the stage for which deflections are being
considered.
yt= the maximum distance from the tension side to the neutral axis.
NOTE 24.2.3.6
For continuous one-way slabs and beams, Ie shall be permitted to be taken as the average of
values obtained from Eq. (24.2.3.5a) for the critical positive and negative moment sections.
NOTE 24.2.3.7
For prismatic one-way slabs and beams, Ie shall be permitted to be taken as the value obtained
from Eq. (24.2.3.5a) at mid-span for simple and continuous spans, and at the support for cantilevers.
The initial or short-term deflection (Δi ) for cantilevers and simple and continuous beams may
be computed using the following elastic equation given below. For continuous beams, the mid-span
deflection may usually be used as an approximation of the maximum deflection.
Where:
Ma = the support moment for cantilevers and the mid-span moment for simple and continuous
beams.
l = the span length.
√
For uniformly distributed loading w, the theoretical values of the deflection coefficient K are
shown in Table below. Since deflections are logically computed for a given continuous span based on
the same loading pattern as for maximum positive moment, Eq. (#1) is thought to be the most
convenient form for a deflection equation.
5
Calculation of long-term deflections (time-dependent deflections)
According to 24.2.4.1.1, additional long-term deflections due to the combined effects of
shrinkage and creep from sustained loads Δ(cp+sh) may be estimated by multiplying the immediate
deflection caused by the sustained load(Δi )sus by the factor λΔ ; i.e.
Δ(cp+sh) =long term deflection= λ(Δi )sus
Values for ξ are given in Table 24.2.4.1.3 for different durations of sustained load. Figure
R24.2.4.1in the commentary to the code shows the variation of ξ for periods up to 5 years. The
compression steel (ρ′ = As′ / bd) is computed at the support section for cantilevers and the mid-span
section for simple and continuous spans. Note that sustained loads include dead load and that portion
of live load that is sustained.
Deflection Limits
Deflections computed using the preceding methods are compared to the limits given in Table
24.2.2. The commentary gives information for the correct application of these limits, including
consideration of deflections occurring prior to installation of partitions.
6
Example
A simply supported beam with span of 6 m carry a dead load of 15kN/m and live load
of 10kN/m. Find the total maximum deflection, consider that 30% of live load are
sustained.
( )
( ) * ( ) +
b
√
kd
N.A
d-kd
√ √
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ]
√
To find long term deflection first we find
( )
Δ(cp+sh) =long term deflection=
Example
A simply supported beam with span of 7.5 m carry a dead load of 29kN/m including
self-weight and live load of 20.5kN/m. Find the total maximum deflection,
consider .
355mm
546mm
635mm
( )
( ) ∅
√
( ) * ( ) + b
kd
√
N.A
d-kd
√ √
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ]
To find long term deflection first we find
( )
Δ(cp+sh) =long term deflection=

Example
A simply supported beam carries a dead load of 10kN/m including self-weight and
concentrated load in the middle of the span as shown in the figure below.
Consider
1- Find the maximum concentrated load (PL).

2- Find the instantaneous deflection at the middle of span due to dead
and live loads.
PL
60
W
∅
8m
𝑊𝑙 𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑎
𝑚𝑚
250
kd
∅ Kd-d’
65
d-kd
𝑚𝑚
nAs
( )
[√ ( ) ( ) ( )]
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
Chose M=153.27kN.m
( ) 250
kd
Kd-d’
d-kd
nAs
( )
[√ ( ) ( ) ( )]
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ]
( ) [ ( ) ]
√ √
CHAPTER 9
TWO-WAY SLABS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
When the slab is supported on all four sides and the length, , is less than twice the
width, , the slab will deflect in two directions, and the loads on the slab are transferred to
all four supports. This slab is referred to as a two-way slab. The bending moments and
deflections in such slabs are less than those in one-way slabs; thus, the same slab can
carry more load when supported on four sides. The load in this case is carried in two
directions, and the bending moment in each direction is much less than the bending
moment in the slab if the load were carried in one direction only.
1
9.2 TYPES OF TWO-WAY SLABS
Structural two-way concrete slabs may be classified as follows:
1. Two-Way Slabs on Beams: This case occurs when the two-way slab is
supported by beams on all four sides. The loads from the slab are transferred to all
four supporting beams, which, in turn, transfer the loads to the columns.
2. Flat Slabs: A flat slab is a two-way slab reinforced in two directions that usually
does not have beams or girders, and the loads are transferred directly to the
supporting columns. The column lends to punch through the slab, which can be
treated by three methods
a. Using a drop panel and a column capital.

b. Using a drop panel without a column capital. The concrete panel around the
column capital should be thick enough to withstand the diagonal tensile stresses
arising from the punching shear.
c. Using a column capital without drop panel, which is not common.
2
3. Flat-Plate Floors: A flat-plate floor is a two-way slab system consisting of a
uniform slab that rests directly on columns and does not have beams or column
capitals (Fig. a). In this case the column tends to punch through the slab, producing
diagonal tensile stresses. Therefore, a general increase in the slab thickness is
required or special reinforcement is used.
4. Two-Way Ribbed Slabs and the Waffle Slab System: This type of slab consists
of a floor slab with a length-to-width ratio less than 2. The thickness of the slab is
usually 5 to 10 cm and is supported by ribs (or joists) in two directions. The ribs are
arranged in each direction at spacing of about , producing square
or rectangular shapes. The ribs can also be arranged at or from the
centerline of slabs, producing architectural shapes at the soffit of the slab. In two-
way ribbed slabs, different systems can be adopted:
a. A two-way rib system with voids between the ribs, obtained by using special
removable and usable forms (pans) that are normally square in shape. The ribs are
supported on four sides by girders that rest on columns. This type is called a two-
way ribbed (joist) slab system.
3
b. A two-way rib system with permanent fillers between ribs that produce horizontal
slab soffits. The fillers may be of hollow, lightweight or normal-weight concrete or any
other lightweight material. The ribs are supported by girders on four sides, which in
turn are supported by columns. This type is also called a two-way ribbed (joist) slab
system or a hollow-block two-way ribbed system.
c. A two-way rib system with voids between the ribs with the ribs continuing in both
directions without supporting beams and resting directly on columns through solid
panels above the columns. This type is called a waffle slab system.
4
9.3 ECONOMICAL CHOICE OF CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Various types of floor systems can be used for general buildings, such as
residential, office, and institutional buildings. The choice of an adequate and
economic floor system depends on the type of building, architectural layout, aesthetic
features, and the span length between columns. In general, the superimposed live
load on buildings varies between 4 and . A general guide for the
economical use of floor systems can be summarized as follows:
1. Flat Plates: Flat plates are most suitable for spans of 6 to 8 m and live loads
between . The advantages of adopting flat plates include low-cost
formwork, exposed flat ceilings, and fast construction. Flat plates have low shear
capacity and relatively low stiffness, which may cause noticeable deflection. Flat
plates are widely used in buildings either as reinforced or prestressed concrete
slabs.
2. Flat Slabs: Flat slabs are most suitable for spans of 6 to 9m and for live loads
of . They need more formwork than flat plates, especially for
column capitals. In most cases, only drop panels without column capitals are used.
3. Waffle Slabs: Waffle slabs are suitable for spans of 9 to 15m and live loads
of . They carry heavier loads than flat plates and have attractive
exposed ceilings. Formwork, including the use of pans, is quite expensive.
4. Slabs on Beams: Slabs on beams are suitable for spans between 6 to 9m and
live loads of . The beams increase the stiffness of the slabs,
producing relatively low deflection. Additional formwork for the beams is needed.
5. One-Way Slabs on Beams: One-way slabs on beams are most suitable for spans
of 3 to 6m and a live load of . They can be used for larger spans
with relatively higher cost and higher slab deflection. Additional formwork for the
beams is needed.
6. One-Way Joist Floor System: A one-way joist floor system is most suitable for
spans of 6 to 9m and live loads of . Because of the deep ribs, the
concrete and steel quantities are relatively low, but expensive formwork is expected.
The exposed ceiling of the slabs may look attractive.
5
9.4 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF TWO-WAY SLABS.
The ACI Code, Section 8.3.1 specifies a minimum slab thickness in two-way
slabs to control deflection. The magnitude of a slab's deflection depends on many
variables, including the flexural stiffness of the slab, which in turn is a function of the
slab thickness h . By increasing the slab thickness, the flexural stiffness of the slab is
increased, and consequently the slab deflection is reduced. Because the calculation
of deflections in two-way slabs is complicated and to avoid excessive deflections, the
ACI Code limits the thickness of these slabs by adopting the following three empirical
limitations, which are based on experimental research. If these limitations are not
met, it will be necessary to compute deflections.
1-For
( )
( )
but not less than 125 mm.
2-For
( )
but not less than 90 mm.
3- For
Where:
6
Where:
, and are the modulus of elasticity of concrete in the beam and the slab,
respectively.
The gross moment of inertia of the beam section about the centroidal axis (the
beam section includes a slab length on each side of the beam equal to the projection
of the beam above or below the slab, whichever is greater, but not more than four
times the slab thickness).
The moment of inertia of the gross section of the slab.
However, the thickness of any slab shall not be less than the following:
1. For slabs with then thickness
2. For slabs with then thickness
If no beams are used, as in the

case of flat plates, then
and . The ACI Code
equations for calculating slab
thickness, take into account the
effect of the span length, the panel
shape, the steel reinforcement
yield stress, , and the flexural
stiffness of beams. When very stiff
beams are used, Eq. (1) may give
a small slab thickness, and Eq. (2)
may control. For flat plates and flat
slabs, when no interior beams are
used, the minimum slab thickness
may be determined directly from
Table 8.3.1.1 of the ACI Code,
which is shown here.
7
Other ACI Code limitations are summarized as follows:
1. For panels with discontinuous edges, end beams with a minimum equal to 0.8
must be used; otherwise, the minimum slab thickness calculated by Eqs. (1) and (2)
must be increased by at least 10% (ACI Code, Section. 8.3.1.2.1).
2. When drop panels are used without beams, the minimum slab thickness may be
reduced by 10%. The drop panels should extend in each direction from the centerline
of support a distance not less than one-sixth of the span length in that direction
between center to center of supports and also project below the slab at least .
This reduction is included in Table 8.3.1.1.
3. Regardless of the values obtained by Eqs. (1) and (2), the thickness of two-way
slabs shall not be less than the following:
(1) For slabs without beams or drop panels,125mm.

(2) For slabs without beams but with drop panels,100 mm.
(3) For slabs with beams on all four sides with, ,90mm and for
, 125mm (ACI Code, Section 8.3.1.1(a) and (b)).
8
The thickness of a slab also may be governed by shear. This is particularly likely if
large moments are transferred to edge columns and for interior columns between
two spans that are greatly different in length. The selection of slab thicknesses to
satisfy shear requirements will be discussed later. Briefly, it is suggested that the trial
slab thickness be chosen such that at edge columns and
at interior columns.
9.5 SLAB REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS.
Placement Sequence.
In a flat plate or flat slab, the moments are larger in the slab strips spanning
the long direction of the panels. As a result, the reinforcement for the long span
generally is placed closer to the top and bottom of the slab than is the short-span
reinforcement. This gives the larger effective depth for the larger moment. For slabs
supported on beams having greater than about 1.0, the opposite is true, and the
reinforcing pattern should be reversed. If a particular placing sequence has been
assumed in the reinforcement design, it should be shown or noted on the drawings. It
also is important to maintain the same arrangements of layers throughout the entire
floor, to avoid confusion in the field. Thus, if the east–west reinforcement is nearer
the top and bottom surfaces in one area, this arrangement should be maintained
over the entire slab, if at all possible.
Concrete Cover.
ACI Code Section 8.7.1.1 specifies the minimum clear cover to the surface of
the reinforcement in slabs as and smaller bars, provided that the
slab is not exposed to earth or to weather.
9
Spacing Requirements, Minimum Reinforcement, and Minimum Bar Size.
ACI Code Section 8.6.1.1requires that the minimum area of reinforcement
provided for flexure should not be less than (Table 8.6.1.1—As,min):
1. For slabs in which grade 280 ( ) or 350 ( )

deformed bars are used .
2. For slabs in which grade 420 ( ) deformed bars or welded bars or
welded wire fabric are used .
The maximum spacing of reinforcement at critical design sections for positive and
negative moments in both the middle and column strips shall not exceed two times
the slab thickness (ACI Code Section 8.7.2.2), and the bar spacing shall not exceed
at any location (ACI Code Section 24.4.3.3).
Although there is no code limit on bar size, the top steel bars add steps in slab
should be enough to give adequate rigidity to prevent displacement of the bars under
ordinary foot traffic before the concrete is placed.
Bar Cutoffs and Anchorages

For slabs without beams, ACI Code Section 8.7.4.1.3 allows the bars to be
cut off as shown in the figure below (ACI Code Fig. 8.7.4.3.1a). Where adjacent
spans have unequal lengths, the extension of the negative-moment bars past the
face of the support is based on the length of the longer span.
ACI Code Section 8.7.4.1.1-a requires that the Positive moment
reinforcement perpendicular to a discontinuous edge shall extend to the edge of slab
and have embedment, straight or hooked,150mm at least in spandrel beams,
columns, or walls.
ACI Code Section 8.7.4.1.1-b requires that all negative-moment steel

perpendicular to an edge be bent, hooked, or otherwise anchored in spandrel
beams, columns, and walls along the edge to develop in tension. If there is no
edge beam, this steel still should be hooked to act as torsional reinforcement and
should extend to the minimum cover thickness from the edge of the slab.
10
Fig. 8.7.4.1.3a—Minimum extensions for deformed reinforcement in two-way slabs without beams.
ACI Code Section 8.7.3.1 requires that at exterior corners of slabs supported
by edge walls or where one or more edge beams have a value of greater than , top
and bottom slab reinforcement shall be provided at exterior corners in accordance
with 8.7.3.1.1 through 8.7.3.1.3.
11
8.7.3.1.1 Factored moment due to
corner effects, Mu, shall be assumed to
be about an axis perpendicular to the
diagonal from the corner in the top of
the slab and about an axis parallel to
the diagonal from the corner in the
bottom of the slab.
8.7.3.1.2 Reinforcement shall be

provided for a distance in each
direction from the corner equal to one
fifth the longer span.
8.7.3.1.3 Reinforcement shall be placed

parallel to the diagonal in the top of the
slab and perpendicular to the diagonal
in the bottom of the slab. Alternatively,
reinforcement shall be placed in two
layers parallel to the sides of the slab in
both the top and bottom of the slab.
R8.7.3.1 Unrestrained corners of two-

way slabs tend to lift when loaded. If
this lifting tendency is restrained by
edge walls or beams, bending
moments result in the slab. This section
requires reinforcement to resist these
moments and control cracking.
Reinforcement provided for flexure in
the primary directions may be used to
satisfy this requirement. Refer to Fig.
R8.7.3.1.
12
9.6 SHEAR STRENGTH OF TWO-WAY SLABS.
In a two-way floor system, the slab must have adequate thickness to resist
both bending moments and shear forces at the critical sections. To investigate the
shear capacity of two-way slabs, the following cases should be considered.
9.6.1 Two-Way Slabs Supported on Beams

In two-way slabs supported on beams, the critical sections are at a distance
from the face of the supporting beams, and the shear capacity of each section
is √ . When the supporting beams are stiff and are capable of
transmitting floor loads to the columns, they are assumed to carry loads acting on
floor areas bounded by lines drawn from the corners, as shown in the figure
below. The loads on the trapezoidal areas will be carried by the long beams
and , whereas the loads on the triangular areas will be carried by the short
beams and . The shear per unit width of slab is highest between and in
both directions, and , where is the uniform factored load per unit area.
13
If no shear reinforcement is provided, the shearing force at a distance from the
face of the beam, must be equal to
Where:
( )
9.7 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TWO-WAY SLABS.
An exact analysis of forces and displacements in a two-way slab is complex,

due to its highly indeterminate nature; this is true even when the effects of creep and
nonlinear behavior of the concrete are neglected. Numerical methods such as finite
elements can be used, but simplified methods such as those presented by the ACI
Code are more suitable for practical design. The ACI Code, Chapter 8, assumes
that the slabs behave as wide, shallow beams that form, with the columns above and
below them, a rigid frame. The validity of this assumption of dividing the structure
into equivalent frames has been verified by analytical and experimental research. It
is also established that factored load capacity of two-way slabs with restrained
boundaries is about twice that calculated by theoretical analysis, because a great
deal of moment redistribution occurs in the slab before failure. At high loads, large
deformations and deflections are expected; thus, a minimum slab thickness is
required to maintain adequate deflection and cracking conditions under service
loads.
14
The ACI Code specifies two methods for the design of two-way slabs:
1. The direct design method. DDM (ACI Code, Section 8.10), is an approximate
procedure for the analysis and design of two-way slabs. It is limited to slab systems
subjected to uniformly distributed loads and supported on equally or nearly equally
spaced columns. The method uses a set of coefficients to determine the design
moments at critical sections. Two-way slab systems that do not meet the limitations
of the ACI Code, Section 8.10.2, must be analyzed by more accurate procedures.
2. The equivalent frame method, EFM (ACI Code, Section 8.11), is one in which a
three-dimensional building is divided into a series of two-dimensional equivalent
frames by cutting the building along lines midway between columns. The resulting
frames are considered separately in the longitudinal and transverse directions of the
building and treated floor by floor, as will be shown later.
The systems that do not meet the requirements permitting analysis by the
"direct design method" of the present code, has led many engineers to continue to
use the design method of the 1963 ACI Code (The coefficient method) for the
special case of two-way slabs supported on four sides of each slab panel by
relatively deep, stiff, edge beams. It has been used extensively here since 1963
for slabs supported at the edges by walls, steel beams, or monolithic concrete
beams having a total depth not less than about 3 times the slab thickness. While
it was not a part of the 1977 or later ACI Codes, its continued use is permissible
under the current code provision (ACI Code 8.2) that a slab system may be designed
by any procedure satisfying conditions of equilibrium and geometric compatibility, if it
is shown that the design strength at every section is at least equal to the required
strength, and that serviceability requirements are met.
15
9.8 SLAB ANALYSIS BY THE COEFFICIENT METHOD.
The coefficient method makes use of tables of moment coefficients for a

variety of conditions. These coefficients are based on elastic analysis but also
account for inelastic redistribution. In consequence, the design moment in either
direction is smaller by an appropriate amount than the elastic maximum moment in
that direction. The moments in the middle strips in the two directions are computed
from
Where:
The method provides that each panel be divided in both directions into a
middle strip whose width is one-half that of the panel and two edge or column strips
of one-quarter of the panel width (see figure below). The moments in both directions
are larger in the center portion of the slab than in regions close to the edges.
Correspondingly, it is provided that the entire middle strip be designed for the full,
tabulated design moment. In the edge strips this moment is assumed to decrease
from its full value at the edge of the middle strip to one-third of this value at the edge
of the panel. This distribution is shown for the moments in the short span
direction in figure below. The lateral variation of the long span moments is
similar.
16
The discussion so far has been restricted to a single panel simply supported
at all four edges. An actual situation is shown in next figure, in which a system of
beams supports a two-way slab. It is seen that some panels, such as , have two
discontinuous exterior edges, while the other edges are continuous with their
neighbors. Panel has one edge discontinuous and three continuous edges, the
interior panel has all edges continuous, and so on. At a continuous edge in a slab,
moments are negative, just as at interior supports of continuous beams. Also, the
magnitude of the positive moments depends on the conditions of continuity at all four
edges.
17
Correspondingly, Table 1 gives moment coefficients , for negative moments
at continuous edges. The details of the tables are self-explanatory. Maximum
negative edge moments are obtained when both panels adjacent to the particular
edge carry full dead and live load. Hence the moment is computed for this total load.
Negative moments at discontinuous edges are assumed equal to one-third of the
positive moments for the same direction. One must provide for such moments
because some degree of restraint is generally provided at discontinuous edges by
the torsional rigidity of the edge beam or by the supporting wall.
For positive moments there will be little, if any, rotation at the continuous
edges if dead load alone is acting, because the loads on both adjacent panels tend
to produce opposite rotations which cancel, or nearly so. For this condition, the
continuous edges can be regarded as fixed, and the appropriate coefficients for the
dead load positive moments are given in Table 2. On the other hand, the maximum
live load positive moments are obtained when live load is placed only on the
particular panel and not on any of the adjacent panels. In this case, some rotation
will occur at all continuous edges. As an approximation it is assumed that there
is restraint for calculating these live load moments. The corresponding
coefficients are given in Table 3. Finally, for computing shear in the slab and loads
on the supporting beams, Table 4 gives the fractions of the total load that are
transmitted in the two directions.
18
19
20
21
22
Example (Design of two-way edge-supported solid slab):
A monolithic reinforced concrete floor is to be composed of rectangular bays

measuring , as shown. Beams of width and depth are
provided on all column lines; thus the clear-span dimensions for the two-way slab
panels are . The floor is to be designed to carry a service live load
and a dead load on the slab due to self-weight plus weight of :
• Tiles= .
• Mortar = .
• Sand = .
• Plaster= .
• Partitions= .
Given: .
Find the required slab thickness and
reinforcement for the corner panel shown.
Solution:
1. Minimum thickness (deflection requirements):
For slabs of this type the first trial thickness is
often taken equal to
=0.154m take h=16 cm.

Check for the minimum thickness of the slab:
 Exterior beam:
( )
=36.2 cm
23
 Interior beam:
( )
 Slab section for Exterior beam:
( )
Short direction
( )
Long direction
24
 Slab section for Interior beam:
Short direction
Long direction
25
( ) ( )
First trial thickness .
Take slab thickness
26
3. Moments calculations:
The moment calculation will be done for the slab middle strip.
 Negative moments at continuous edge (table1):
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
27
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
 Positive moments (Table 2 and Table 3):
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
28
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
 Negative moments at Discontinuous edges ( ):
4. Slab reinforcement:
 Short direction:
Assume bar diameter for
main reinforcement.
29
 Midspan:
=1.15MPa
( √ ) ( √ )
Use
Note that in the edge strips the positive moment, and the corresponding steel
reinforcement area, is assumed to decrease from its full value at the edge of the
middle strip to one-third of this value at the edge of the panel, which will not be
provided.
30
 Continuous edge:
Assume bar diameter for main reinforcement.
=1.96MPa
( √ ) ( √ )
Use
31
 Discontinuous edge.
The negative moment at the discontinuous edge is one-third the positive moment in
the span.
Use
 Long direction.
H.W-Design for positive and negative moment as in the short direction. Note that the
effective depth for the long direction will be:
5. Check for shear:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
32
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The reactions of the slab are calculated from Table 4, which indicates that 70% of
the load is transmitted in the short direction and 30% in the long direction.
 The total load on the panel being
 The load per meter on the long beam is( )
 The load per meter on the short beam is( ) .
The shear to be transmitted by the slab to these beams is numerically equal to these
beam loads, reduced to a critical section a distance from the beam face. The shear
strength of the slab is
√ √
The thickness of the slab is adequate enough.

at the face of support, at distance from the face of support
will be smaller.
Even, if for solid slabs, the thickness of the slab will be enough.
33
1
10-COLUMNS:
10.1 Introduction.
Columns are vertical compression members of a structural frame intended to support the load-
carrying beams. They transmit loads from the upper floors to the lower levels and, then to the
soil through the foundations. Since columns are compression elements, failure of one column in
a critical location can cause the progressive collapse of the adjoining floors and the ultimate
total collapse of the entire structure. Structural column failure is of major significance in terms of
economic as well as human loss. Thus extreme care needs to be taken in column design, with a
higher reserve strength than in the case of beams and other horizontal structural elements,
particularly since compression failure provides little visual warning. In reinforced concrete
buildings, concrete beams, floors, and columns are cast monolithically, causing some moments
in the columns due to end restraint. Moreover, perfect vertical alignment of columns in a
multistory building is not possible, causing loads to be eccentric relative to the center of
columns. The eccentric loads will cause moments in columns. Therefore, a column subjected to
pure axial loads does not exist in concrete buildings. However, it can be assumed that axially
loaded columns are those with relatively small eccentricity, e , of about 0.1h or less, where h is
the total depth of the column and e is the eccentric distance from the center of the column.
Because concrete has a high compressive strength and is an inexpensive material, it can be
used in the design of compression members economically. Columns may be classified based
on the following different categories:
1. Based on loading, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Axially loaded columns, where loads are assumed acting at the center of the column section.
2
b. Eccentrically loaded columns, where loads are acting at a distance e from the center of the
column section. The distance could be along the x-or y-axis, causing moments either about the
x-or y-axis.
c. Biaxially loaded columns, where the load is applied at any point on the column section,
causing moments about both the x-and y-axes simultaneously.
2. Based on length, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Short columns, where the column's failure is due to the crushing of concrete or the yielding of
the steel bars under the full load capacity of the column.
b. Long columns, where buckling effect and slenderness ratio must be taken into consideration
in the design, thus reducing the load capacity of the column relative to that of a short column.
A column that has large secondary moments is said to be a slender column, and it is necessary
to size its cross section for the sum of both the primary and secondary moments. The ACI's
intent is to permit columns to be designed as short columns if the secondary or PΔ effect does
not reduce their strength by more than 5%. Therefore, the
transition from the short column (material failure) to the long
column (failure due to buckling) is defined by using the ratio of the
effective length klu to the radius of gyration r The height, lu is the
unsupported length of the column, and k is a factor that depends
on end conditions of the column and whether it is braced or
unbraced. For example, in the case of unbraced columns, if is
less than or equal to 22, such a column is classified as a short
column, in accordance with the ACI load criteria. Otherwise, it is
defined as a long or a slender column.
The ratio is called the slenderness ratio.

3
3. Based on the shape of the cross-section, column sections may be square, rectangular,
round, L-shaped, octagonal, or any desired shape with an adequate side width or dimensions.
4. Based on column ties, columns may be classified as follows:
a. Tied columns containing steel ties to confine the main longitudinal bars in the columns. Ties
are normally spaced uniformly along the height of the column.
b. Spiral columns containing spirals (spring-type reinforcement) to hold the main longitudinal
reinforcement and to help increase the column ductility before failure. In general, ties and
spirals prevent the slender, highly stressed longitudinal bars from buckling and bursting the
concrete cover.
4
5. Based on frame bracing, columns may be part of a frame that is braced against sidesway or
unbraced against sidesway. Bracing may be achieved by using shear walls or bracings in the
building frame. In braced frames, columns resist mainly gravity loads, and shear walls resist
lateral loads and wind loads. In unbraced frames, columns resist both gravity and lateral loads,
which reduce the load capacity of the columns.
6. Based on materials, columns may be reinforced, prestressed, composite (containing rolled

steel sections such as -sections), or a combination of rolled steel sections and reinforcing bars.
Concrete columns reinforced with longitudinal reinforcing bars are the most common type used
in concrete buildings
5
10.2 BEHAVIOR OF AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS.

When an axial load is applied to a reinforced concrete short column, the concrete can be
considered to behave elastically up to a low stress of about . If the load on the column is
increased to reach its ultimate strength, the concrete will reach the maximum strength and the
steel will reach its yield strength . The nominal load capacity of the column can be written as
follows:
Where: and the net concrete and total steel compressive areas, respectively.
Gross concrete area.

6
Two different types of failure occur in columns, depending on whether ties or spirals are used.
For a tied column, the concrete fails by crushing and shearing outward, the longitudinal steel
bars fail by buckling outward between ties, and the column failure occurs suddenly, much like
the failure of a concrete cylinder. A spiral column undergoes a marked yielding, followed by
considerable deformation before complete failure. The concrete in the outer shell fails and
spalls off. The concrete inside the spiral is confined and provides little strength before the
initiation of column failure. A hoop tension develops in the spiral, and for a closely spaced spiral,
the steel may yield. A sudden failure is not expected. The Figure shows typical load deformation
curves for tied and spiral columns.
Up to point a, both columns
behave similarly. At point a, the
longitudinal steel bars of the
column yield, and the spiral
column shell spalls off. After the
factored load is reached, a tied
column fails suddenly (curve b),
whereas a spiral column deforms
appreciably before failure (curve
c).
7
10.3 ACI CODE LIMITATIONS:
The ACI Code presents the following limitations for the design of compression members:
1. For axially as well as eccentrically loaded columns, the ACI Code sets the strength-
reduction factors at for tied columns and for spirally reinforced columns.
The difference of 0.1 between the two values shows the additional ductility of spirally reinforced
columns. The strength-reduction factor for columns is much lower than those for flexure
( ) and shear ( ). This is because in axially loaded columns, the strength
depends mainly on the concrete compression strength, whereas the strength of members in
bending is less affected by the variation of concrete strength, especially in the case of an under-
reinforced section. Furthermore, the concrete in columns is subjected to more segregation than
in the case of beams. Columns are cast vertically in long, narrow forms, but the concrete in
beams is cast in shallow, horizontal forms. Also, the failure of a column in a structure is more
critical than that of a floor beam.
2. The minimum longitudinal steel percentage is 1%, and the maximum percentage is
8% of the gross area of the section (ACI Code, Section 10.9.1). Minimum reinforcement is
necessary to provide resistance to bending, which may exist, and to reduce the effects of creep
and shrinkage of the concrete under sustained compressive stresses. Practically, it is very
difficult to fit more than 8% of steel reinforcement into a column and maintain sufficient space
for concrete to flow between bars.
8
3. At least four bars are required for tied circular and rectangular members and six bars
are needed for circular members enclosed by spirals (ACI Code, Section 10.9.2). For other
shapes, one bar should be provided at each corner, and proper lateral reinforcement must be
provided. For tied triangular columns, at least three bars are required.
4. The ties shall be arranged that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have
lateral support provided by the corner of s tie having an included angle of not more than
and no bar shall be farther 150 mm clear on either side from such a laterally supported
bar. The Figures below show the arrangement of longitudinal bars in tied columns and the
distribution of ties. The minimum concrete cover in columns is 40 mm.
5. The minimum of volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio which defined as the ratio of the
volume of spiral steel to the volume of core concrete, , according to the ACI Code, Eq. 10.5,
and as explained in Section 10.9.3, is limited to
Where:
Gross area of section.
6. The minimum diameter of spirals is 10 mm, and their clear spacing should not be
more than 75 mm nor less than 25 mm, according to the ACI Code, Section 7.10.4. Anchorage
of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit.
7. Ties for columns must have a minimum diameter of to enclose longitudinal

bars of or smaller and a minimum diameter of for larger bar diameters (ACI
Code, Section 7.10.5).
9
8. Spacing of ties shall not exceed the smallest of:
 48 times the tie diameter,

 16 times the longitudinal bar diameter, or
 the least dimension of the column.
The Code does not give restrictions on the size of columns to allow wider utilization of
reinforced concrete columns in smaller sizes.
10
10.4 DESIGN OF TIED AND SPIRAL SHORT CONCENTRICALLY LOADED

COLUMNS.
It is highly improbable to attain zero eccentricity in actual structures. Eccentricities could

easily develop because of factors such as slight inaccuracies in the layout of columns
and unsymmetric loading due to the difference in thickness of the slabs in adjacent
spans or imperfections in the alignment. For many years the Code specified that such
columns had to be designed for certain minimum moments even though no calculated
moments were present. This was accomplished by requiring designers to assume certain
minimum eccentricities, e , for their column loads. These minimum values were , 25mm
or 0.01h, whichever was larger, for spiral columns and , or for tied columns. (The term h
represents the outside diameter of round columns or the total depth of square or
rectangular columns.) A moment equal to the axial load times the minimum eccentricity
was used for design .
To reduce the calculations necessary for analysis and design for minimum eccentricity,
the ACI Code specifics a reduction of 20% in the axial load for tied columns and a 15%
reduction for spiral columns. Using these factors, the maximum nominal axial load
capacity or columns cannot be taken greater than:
11
[ ( ) ]
[ ( ) ]
Spiral Reinforcement. Spiral reinforcement in compression members prevents a sudden crushing

of concrete and buckling of longitudinal steel bars. It has the advantage of producing a tough
column that undergoes gradual and ductile failure. The minimum spiral ratio required by the ACI
Code is meant to provide an additional compressive capacity to compensate for the spalling of the
column shell. Volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio, , shall be not less than the value given by:
( )
Where: = gross area of section.
area of core of spirally reinforced column measured to the outside

diameter of spiral.
yield strength of spiral reinforcement.
Once the required percentage of spiral steel is

determined, the spiral may be selected with the expression to
follow, in which is written in terms of the volume of the
steel in one loop:
( )
12
In this expression, is the diameter of the

core out to out of the spiral, is the cross-
sectional area of the spiral bar, and is the
diameter of the spiral bar. Here reference is made
to next Figure. The designer can assume a
diameter for the spiral bar and solve for the pitch
required. If the results do not seem reasonable, he
or she can try another diameter. The pitch used
must be within the limitations listed before (ACI
requirements).
Example: Design an axially loaded short square tied column for
Solution:
13
10.5 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS: AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING.
Members that are axially, i.e., concentrically, compressed occur rarely, if ever, in
buildings and other structures. Components such as columns and arches chiefly carry loads in
compression, but simultaneous bending is almost always present. Bending moments are
caused by continuity, i.e., by the fact that building columns are parts of monolithic frames in
which the support moments of the girders are partly resisted by the abutting columns, by
transverse loads such as wind forces, by loads carried eccentrically on column brackets, or in
arches when the arch axis does not
coincide with the pressure line. Even when
design calculations show a member to be
loaded purely axially, inevitable
imperfections of construction will introduce
eccentricities and consequent bending in
the member as built. For this reason
members that must be designed for
simultaneous compression and bending are
very frequent in almost all types of concrete
structures.
When a member is subjected to combined axial compression and moment, such as in

the figure (a), it is usually convenient to
replace the axial load and moment with an
equal load applied at eccentricity, as in figure
(b). The two loadings are statically equivalent.
All columns may then be classified in terms of
the equivalent eccentricity. Those having
relatively small are generally characterized by
14
compression over the entire concrete section, and if overloaded, will fail by crushing of the
concrete accompanied by yielding of the steel in compression on the more heavily loaded
side. Columns with large eccentricity are subject to tension over at least a part of the section,
and if overloaded, may fail due to tensile yielding of the steel on the side farthest from the
load. For columns, load stages below the ultimate are generally not important. Cracking of
concrete, even for columns with large eccentricity, is usually not a serious problem, and lateral
deflections at service load levels are seldom, if ever, a factor. Design of columns is therefore
based on the factored load, which must not exceed the design strength, as usual, i.e.
The design limitations for columns, according to the ACI Code, Section 10.2, are as
follows:
1. Strains in concrete and steel are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
2. Equilibrium of forces and strain compatibility must be satisfied.
3. The maximum usable compressive strain in concrete is 0.003.
4. Strength of concrete in tension can be neglected.
5. The stress in the steel is .
6. The concrete stress block may be taken as a rectangular shape with concrete stress
of that extends from the extreme compressive fibers a distance , where
is the distance to the neutral axis and where as defined in ACI 10.2.7.3
equal:
15
The eccentricity, , represents the distance from the plastic centroid of the section to the
point of application of the load. The plastic centroid is obtained by determining the location of
the resultant force produced by the steel and the concrete, assuming that both are stressed in
compression to and , respectively. For symmetrical sections, the plastic centroid
coincides with the centroid of the section. For nonsymmetrical sections, the plastic centroid is
determined by taking moments about an arbitrary axis, as explained in example below.
Example Determine the plastic centroid of the section in figure. Take
Solution:
16
6.6 LOAD-MOMENT (STRENGTH) INTERACTION DIAGRAM
When a normal force is applied on a short reinforced concrete column, the following
cases may arise, according to the location of the normal force with respect to the plastic
centroid.
1. Axial compression ( ) – Point A. This is a theoretical case assuming that a large axial
load is acting at the plastic centroid; and . Failure of the column occurs by
crushing of the concrete and yielding of steel bars. This is represented by on the curve
of Fig. a.
2. Maximum nominal axial load : This is the case of a normal force acting on the
section with minimum eccentricity. According to the ACI Code, for tied
columns and for spirally reinforced columns, as explained in before in this chapter.
In this case, failure occurs by crushing of the concrete and the yielding of steel bars.
17
3. Compression failure: This is the case of a large axial load acting at a small eccentricity.
The range of this case varies from a maximum value of to a minimum value
of (balanced load). Failure occurs by crushing of the concrete on the
compression side with a strain of 0.003, whereas the stress in the steel bars (on the
tension side) is less than the yield strength, ( ). In this case and .
18
The strain distribution at Point B corresponds to the axial load and moment at the onset
of crushing of the concrete just as the strains in the concrete on the opposite face of the column
reach zero. Case B represents the onset of cracking of the least compressed side of the
column. Because tensile stresses in the concrete are ignored in the strength calculations, failure
loads below point B in the interaction diagram represent cases where the section is partially
cracked.
Region A–C - Compression-Controlled Failures. Columns with axial loads and moments
that fall on the upper branch of the interaction diagram between points A and C initially fail
due to crushing of the compression face before the extreme tensile layer of reinforcement
yields. Hence, they are called compression-controlled columns.
4. Balanced condition ( ) – Point C: A balanced condition is reached when the

compression strain in the concrete reaches 0.003 and the strain in the tensile
reinforcement reaches simultaneously; failure of concrete occurs at the same time
as the steel yields. The moment that accompanies this load is called the balanced moment,
, and the relevant balanced eccentricity is .
5. Tension failure: This is the case of a small axial load with large eccentricity, that is, a
large moment. Before failure, tension occurs in a large portion of the section, causing the
tension steel bars to yield before actual crushing of the concrete. At failure, the strain in the
tension steel is greater than the yield strain, , whereas the strain in the concrete
reaches 0.003 . The range of this case extends from the balanced to the case of pure
flexure. When tension controls, and .
Point D - Tensile-Controlled Limit. Point D corresponds to a strain distribution with 0.003

compressive strain on the top face and a tensile strain of 0.005 in the extreme layer of tension
steel (the layer closest to the tensile face of the section.) The failure of such a column will be
ductile, with steel strains at failure that are about two and a half times the yield strain (for Grade-
420 steel). ACI Code Section 10.3.4 calls this the tension-controlled strain limit.
19
Region C–D - Transition Region. Flexural members and columns with loads and moments
which would plot between points C and D are called transition failures because the mode of
failure is transitioning from a brittle failure at point C to a ductile failure at point D, corresponding
respectively to steel strains of 0.002 and 0.005 in the extreme layer of tension steel. This is
reflected in the transition of the factor, which equals 0.65 (tied column) or 0.75 (spiral
column) at point C and equals 0.9 at point D.
6. Pure flexure: The section in this case is subjected to a bending moment, , whereas the
axial load is . Failure occurs as in a beam subjected to bending moment only. The
eccentricity is assumed to be at infinity. Note that radial lines from the origin represent
constant ratios of eccentricity of the load from the plastic centroid.
20
10.7 BALANCED STRAIN CONDITION – RECTANGULAR SECTIONS.
The balanced strain condition represents the dividing point between the “section compression
controlled” and the “transition zone” of the strength interaction diagram (point C on the
interaction diagram). It is the simultaneous occurrence of a strain of 0.003 in the extreme fiber
of concrete and the strain on
the tension steel. It may be noted that
in the case of bending moment without
axial load, the balanced strain
condition is not permitted by ACI –
10.3.5. However, in the case of
combined bending and axial load, the
balanced strain condition is only one
point on an acceptable interaction
diagram.
Substituting
Or:
Force equilibrium requires
Where:
And if compression steel yields at balanced strain condition:

( ) ( ) Or
21
Thus the equation (1) becomes

( )
The eccentricity is measured from the plastic centroid, which has been defined before in this
chapter. For symmetrical sections the plastic centroid is at the middepth of the section.
Rotational equilibrium of the forces is satisfied by taking moments about any point such as the
plastic centroid,
( ) ( ) or
( ) ( )( )
Equations (**) and (***) may be solved simultaneously to obtain
The balanced eccentricity is
Example:
Determine the eccentric balanced compressive strength and the eccentricity for a
balanced strain condition on the section below. Take:
22
Example Determine the eccentric balanced compressive strength and the eccentricity for
a balanced strain condition on the section below. Take:
23
10.10 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH. PRACTICAL DESIGN APPROACH.
Generally, designers have access to published interaction diagrams or computer

programs to compute interaction diagrams based on a sectional analysis for use in design.
Occasionally, this is not true, as, for example, in the design of hollow bridge piers, elevator
shafts, or unusually shaped members. Typical interaction charts are given below.
The design of eccentrically loaded columns using the strain compatibility method of
analysis described requires that a trial column be selected. The trial column is then investigated
to determine if it is adequate to carry any combination of and that may act on it should the
structure be overloaded.
Graphs A.6 through A.14 (pages 106-132) are representative of column design charts, in
this case for concrete with and steel with yield strength , for
varying cover distances. Graphs A.6 through A.8 are drawn for rectangular columns with
reinforcement along two opposite faces. Graphs A.9 through A. 11 are for rectangular columns
with reinforcement distributed around the column perimeter. Circular columns with bars in a
circular pattern are shown in Graphs A. 12 through A. 14. Instead of plotting versus ,
corresponding parameters have been used to make the charts more generally applicable, i.e.,
load is plotted as
while moment is expressed as

24
Families of curves are drawn for various values of ⁄ between 0.01 and 0.08.
The graphs also include radial lines representing different eccentricity ratios ⁄ , as well as
lines representing different ratios of stress ⁄ or values of strain (compression
controlled limit), and (tension-controlled limit) in the extreme tension steel. Charts
such as these permit the direct design of eccentrically loaded columns throughout the common
range of strength and geometric variables. They may be used in one of two ways as follows. For
a given factored load and equivalent eccentricity :
1. Select trial cross-sectional dimensions b and h.

2. Calculate the ratio based on required cover distances to the bar centroids, and
select the corresponding column design chart.
3. Calculate and , where (for rectangular section)
4. From the graph, for the values found in (3), read the required reinforcement ratio .
5. Calculate the total steel area .
6. Select the reinforcement ratio .
7. Choose a trial value of and calculate and .
8. From the corresponding graph, read and calculate the required .
9. Calculate .
10. Revise the trial value of if necessary to obtain a well-proportioned section.
11. Calculate the total steel area .
Important Note:
The interaction diagrams are drawn for materials strength
To convert from MPa to ksi : 1 Mpa = 0.145 ksi

25
Example Design a rectangular tied column with bars in four faces to support the
following loads:
Solution:
1-Assume h=500mm.
2-compute the ratio ⁄
The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall depth
of the column. Assume for bars.
3. Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine
From the interaction diagram, try then;
Take column dimensions h =500mm and b= 350mm
4. Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine for the selected dimensions:
h =500mm and b= 350mm. The interaction diagrams are entered with

26
5. Select the reinforcement:
Take
Or Take
Note that in last combination of bars ( ) the

ratio will be different when using this bars
arrangement, it will be greater than 0.75, which gives
less .
6.Try another section taking h=500mm and b=400mm.
Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine for the

selected dimensions. The interaction diagrams are
entered with
27
Take
Example Design a rectangular tied column with bars in four faces to support the
following loads:
Solution
1-compute the ratio ⁄
To construct the line, take value 0.22 on axis and value 1.0 on axis.
28
The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall depth
of the column. Assume for bars.
Because the interaction diagrams are given for = 0.75 and = 0.9 it will be necessary to
interpolate. Also, because the diagrams only can be read with limited accuracy, it is
recommended to express with only two significant figures.
2. Use interaction diagrams trying :
Diagram A-9b (for = 0.75).
Diagram A-9c (for = 0.9). ).
Use linear interpolation to compute the value for = 0.81
( ) or
( )
Take column dimensions: h=650mm and b=300mm
3. Use interaction diagram A-9b and A-9c to determine for the selected dimensions:
H=650mm and b=300mm
Diagram A-9b (for
Diagram A-9c (for

29
( )
Take
Example Design a circular spiral column section to support the following loads:
Solution
1- Try D=600 mm
2- Compute the ratio :
-The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall
depth of the column. Assume for bars.
30
interpolate.
3. Use interaction diagram A-12b and A-12c to determine for the selected diameter:
D=h=600mm
Diagram A-12b (for
Diagram A-12c (for
4-Try D=h=550mm.
To construct the line, take value 0.22 on axis and value 1.0 on axis.
interpolate.
5- Use interaction diagram A-12b and A-12c to determine for the selected diameter:
D=h=550 mm.
31
Diagram A-12b (for
Diagram A-12c (for
( )
Take
32
For all previous examples, the ties design and the check for ACI requirements must be
provided as in examples for concentrically loaded columns:
- Design of Ties:
Use ties with spacing of ties shall not exceed the smallest of:
1. 48 times the tie diameter,
2. 16 times the longitudinal bar diameter,
3. the least dimension of the column.
- Check for code requirements:

1. Clear spacing between longitudinal bars:
2. Gross reinforcement ratio,
3. Number of bars.
4. Minimum tie diameter.
5. Spacing of ties.
6. Arrangement of ties.
33
10.11 BIAXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS.

The analysis and design of columns under eccentric loading was discussed earlier in this
chapter, considering a uniaxial case. This means that the load was acting along the
, causing a combination of axial load and a moment about the equal to
or acting along the with an eccentricity , causing a combination of an
axial load and a moment .
If the load is acting anywhere such that its distance from the is and its
distance from the , is , then the column section will be subjected to a combination
of forces: an axial load and a moment about the = and a moment
about the .The column section in this case is said to be subjected to
biaxial bending. The analysis and design of
columns under this combination of forces is not
simple when the principles of statics are used.
The neutral axis is at an angle with respect to
both axes, and lengthy calculations are needed
to determine the location of the neutral axis,
strains, concrete compression area, and
internal forces and their point of application.
Therefore, it was necessary to develop
practical solutions to estimate the strength of
columns under axial load and biaxial bending.
The formulas developed relate the response of
34
the column in biaxial bending to its uniaxial strength about each major axis. The biaxial bending
strength of an axially loaded column can be represented by a three-dimensional interaction
curve, as shown in figure. The surface is formed by a series of uniaxial interaction curves drawn
radially from the . The curve represents the interaction curve in uniaxial bending
about the , and the curve represents the curve in uniaxial bending about
the . The plane at constant axial load represents the contour of the bending
moment about any axis. Different shapes of columns may be used to resist axial loads and
biaxial bending. Circular, square, or rectangular column cross-sections may be used with equal
or unequal bending capacities in the and directions.
10.12 SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMNS UNDER BIAXIAL

BENDING. BRESLER RECIPROCAL METHOD.
Square or rectangular columns with unequal bending moments about their major axes
will require a different amount of reinforcement in each direction. An approximate method of
analysis of such sections was developed by Boris Bresler and is called the Bresler reciprocal
method. According to this method, the load capacity of the column under biaxial bending can
be determined by using the following expression (Bresler equation):
Where:
The uniaxial load strengths , and can be calculated according to the equations
and method given earlier in this chapter. After that, they are substituted into the above Bresler
equation to calculate . The Bresler equation is valid for all cases when is equal to or greater
than . When is less than , the axial force may be neglected and the section can be
designed as a member subjected to pure biaxial bending according to the following equations:
35
Where:
The Bresler equation is not recommended when the section is subjected to axial tension
loads.
Example:
Determine the nominal compressive strength of the short tied column, which is subjected
to biaxial bending.
36
Solution:
1- Calculate
2. For x direction (bending about y-axis):

- compute the ratio :
- Draw line of on diagram A-9b (for ) and diagram A-9c (for ).

Diagram A-9b (for ).
Diagram A-9c (for ).
Use linear interpolation to compute the value for ( ).
Note that compression-controlled section (see interaction diagrams).

37
3. For y direction (bending about x-axis):
- Draw line of on diagram A-9a (for ) and diagram A-9b (for ).

Diagram A-9a (for
Use linear interpolation to compute the value for ( ).
Note that compression-controlled section (see interaction diagrams).

38
3- Determine for the section dimensions: h=600 mm and b 400 mm and

( )
Note that can be defined directly from interaction diagrams when
From diagrams A-9 for any value of
5. Substituting in Bresler equation:

39
Example
Design a rectangular tied column subjected to:
.
Take
Solution:
1. Select trial size along x-axis,
Assume h=650 mm.
2. Compute the ratio :
Assume
3. Use interaction diagrams trying :

Use linear interpolation to compute the value for
Take column dimensions:

40
4. Use interaction diagram A-9 to determine and for the selected dimensions:
Use linear interpolation to compute the value for .
Diagram A-9a (for ).

41
5- Determine for the section dimensions: h=650 mm and b 400 mm and

( )
6-Substituting in Bresler equation:
7-Try new dimensions h=700 mm, b=450 mm and
8. Repeat the calculations using interaction diagram A-9 to determine and for the
selected dimensions: :

42
Diagram A-9a (for ).
Use linear interpolation to compute the value for \
9-Determine for the section dimensions: h=700 mm and b 450 mm and
( )
10-Substituting in Bresler equation:

43
11- Select the reinforcement:

1
SLENDER COLUMNS
INTRODUCTION
When a column bends or deflects laterally an amount , its axial load will cause
an increased column moment equal to . This moment will be superimposed
onto any moments already in the column. Should this moment be of such
magnitude as to reduce the axial load capacity of the column significantly, the
column will be referred to as a slender column. A column is said to be slender if
its cross-sectional dimensions are small compared with its length. The degree of
slenderness is generally expressed in terms of the slenderness ratio , where
is the unsupported length of the member and is the radius of gyration of its
cross section, equal to√ ⁄ . For square or circular members, the value
of is the same about either axis; for other shapes is smallest about the minor
principal axis, and it is generally this value that must be used in determining the
slenderness ratio of a freestanding column.
2
For a rectangular section of width and depth , Therefore, √ ⁄
. Similarly and, √ ⁄ . For a
circular column with diameter D,
It has long been known that a member of great slenderness will collapse under a smaller
compression load than a stocky member with the same cross-sectional dimensions. When a stocky
member, say with (e.g., a square column of length equal to about 3 times its cross-
sectional dimension h), is loaded in axial compression, it will fail at the load
, because at that load both concrete and steel are stressed to their maximum carrying capacity
and give way, respectively, by crushing and by yielding. If a member with the same cross section has
a slenderness ratio =100 (e.g., a square column hinged at both ends and of length equal to about
30 times its section dimension), it may fail under an axial load equal to one-half or less of . In this
case, collapse is caused by buckling, i.e., by sudden lateral displacement of the member between its
ends, with consequent over-stressing of steel and concrete by the bending stresses that are
superimposed on the axial compressive stresses.
Most columns in practice are subjected to bending moments as well as axial loads, as was made
clear in previous chapter. These moments produce lateral deflection of a member between its ends
and may also result in relative lateral displacement of joints. Associated with these lateral
displacements are secondary moments that add to the primary moments and that may become very
large for slender columns, leading to failure. A practical definition of a slender column is one for which
there is a significant reduction in axial load capacity because of these secondary moments. In the
development of ACI Code column provisions, for example, any reduction greater than about 5% is
considered significant, requiring consideration of slenderness effects.
3
NONSWAY AND SWAY FRAMES.
For this discussion it is necessary to distinguish between frames without sidesway and those with
sidesway. In the ACI Code these are referred to respectively as nonsway (braced) frames and sway
(unbraced) frames.
You must realize that you will rarely find a frame that is
completely braced against swaying or one that is completely
unbraced against swaying. Therefore, you are going to have
to decide which way to handle it. The question may possibly
be resolved by examining the lateral stiffness of the bracing
elements for the story in question. You may observe that a
particular column is located in a story where there is such
substantial lateral stiffness provided by bracing members,
shear walls, shear trusses, and so on that any lateral
deflections occurring will be too small to affect the strength of
the column appreciably. You should realize while examining
a particular structure that there may be some nonsway
stories and some sway stories. If we cannot tell by inspection
whether we have a nonsway frame or a sway frame, the
Code provides two ways of making a decision. First, in ACI
Section 6.7, a story in a frame is said to be a nonsway one if
the increase in column end moments due to second-order
effects is 5% or less of the first-order end moments. The
second method presented by the Code for determining
whether a particular frame is braced or unbraced is given in
the Code 6.6. If the value of the so-called stability index
which follows is , the Commentary states that the
frame may be classified as a nonsway one.
∑
4
Where:
∑ total factored vertical load for all of the columns on the story in question.
the elastically determined first-order lateral deflection due to at the top of the story in question
with respect to the bottom of that story.
the total factored horizontal shear for the story in question,
the height of a compression member in a frame measured from center to center of the frame
joints.
Despite these suggestions from the ACI, the individual designer is going to have to make decisions as
to what is adequate bracing and what is not, depending on the presence of structural walls and other
bracing items. For the average size reinforced concrete building, load eccentricities and slenderness
values will be small and frames will be considered to be braced.
BUCKLING OF AXIALLY LOADED ELASTIC COLUMNS. THE EFFECTIVE

COLUMN LENGTH.
The basic information on the behavior of straight, concentrically loaded slender columns was
developed by Euler more than 200 years ago. In generalized form, it states that such a member will
fail by buckling at the critical load
Where:
It is seen that the buckling load decreases rapidly with increasing slenderness ratio . The
slenderness of columns is based on their geometry and on their lateral bracing. As their slenderness
increases, their bending stresses increase, and thus buckling may occur.
5
Reinforced concrete columns generally have small slenderness ratios. As a result, they can usually
be designed as short columns without strength reductions due to slenderness. The length used for
calculating the slenderness ratio of a column, , is its unsupported length. This length is considered
to be equal to the clear distance between slabs, beams, or other members that provide lateral support
to the column. If haunches or capitals are present, the clear distance is measured from the bottoms of
the capitals or haunches.
To calculate the slenderness ratio of a particular column, it is necessary to estimate its effective
length. This is the distance between points of zero moment in the column (The inflection points - IP).
For this initial discussion it is assumed that no sidesway or joint translation is possible. Sidesway or
joint translation means that one or both ends of a column can move laterally with respect to each
other.
6
If there were such a thing as a perfectly pinned end column, its effective length would be its
supported length, as shown in Figure (a). The effective length factor is the number that must be
multiplied by the column's unsupported length to obtain its effective length. For a perfectly pinned
end column, Columns with different end conditions have entirely different effective lengths.
For instance, if there were such a thing as a perfectly fixed end column, its points of inflection (or
points of zero moment) would occur at its one-fourth points, and its effective length would be ⁄ ,
as shown in Figure (b). As a result, its value would equal 0.5
7
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR. Fig. R6.2.5
The preliminary procedure used for estimating effective lengths involves the use of the
alignment charts shown below. The chart of part (a) of the figure is applicable to braced frames,
whereas the one of part (b) is applicable to unbraced frames. To use the alignment charts for a
particular column, factors are computed at each end of the column. The factor at one end of the
∑ ⁄
column equals ∑ ⁄
(both in the plane of bending) where the lengths
and are measured center-to-center of the joints. Should one end of the column be pinned, is
theoretically equal to , and if fixed , Since a perfectly fixed end is practically impossible to
have, is usually taken as 1.0 instead of 0 for assumed fixed ends. When column ends are
supported by, but not rigidly connected to a footing, is theoretically infinity, but usually is taken as
about 10 for practical design. One of the two values is called and the other is called . After
these values are computed, the effective length factor is obtained by placing a straightedge
between and . The point where the straightedge crosses the middle nomograph is .
8
The values of and should be realistic for the state

of loading immediately prior to failure of the columns.
Generally, at this stage of loading, the beams are
extensively cracked and the columns are uncracked or
slightly cracked. Ideally, the values of should reflect the
degree of cracking and the actual reinforcement present.
This is not practical, however, because this information is
not known at this stage of design. ACI Commentary Section
R6.6.4.4.3 states that the calculation of shall be based on a
based on the and values given in ACI Code Section
6.6.3.1.1. In most cases the values given in ACI Code
table 6.6.3.1.1(a and b) are used for the evaluation of . The
stiffness of a structural member is equal to . The values
of and for reinforced concrete members can be
estimated as follows:
9
For normalweight concrete, shall be permitted to be taken as √
Where
For reinforced concrete members, the moment of inertia varies along the member,
depending on the degree of cracking and the percentage of reinforcement in the section considered.
To evaluate the factor , must be calculated for beams and columns. For this purpose, can be
estimated as follows Table 6.6.3.1.1(a):
Compression members:
Columns
Walls – Uncracked
– Cracked
Flexural members:
Beams
Flat plates and flat slabs
Alternatively, the moments of inertia of compression and flexural members shall be permitted to be
computed as follows Table 6.6.3.1.1(b):
Compression members:
( )( )
Where and shall be determined from the particular load combination under consideration, or
the combination of and determined in the smallest value of . need not be taken less
than .
10
Flexural members:
( )
Where the moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis, neglecting
reinforcement.
Ratio of in cross section.
-The moment of inertia of T-beams should be based on the effective flange width defined in Section
R6.6.3.1.1. It is generally sufficiently accurate to take of a T-beam as two times the of the web,
( )
-If the factored moments and shears from an analysis based on the moment of inertia of a wall,
taken equal to , indicate that the wall will crack in flexure, based on the modulus of rupture, the
analysis should be repeated with in those stories where cracking is predicted using
factored loads.
-For continuous flexural members, shall be permitted to be taken as the average of values
obtained from the above equation for the critical positive and negative moment sections. need not
be taken less than .
-The cross-sectional dimensions and reinforcement ratio used in the above formulas shall be within
10% of the dimensions and reinforcement ratio shown on the design drawings or the stiffness
evaluation shall be repeated.
-When sustained lateral loads are present, for compression members shall be divided by (
). The term shall be taken as the ratio of maximum factored sustained shear within a story to the
maximum factored shear in that story associated with the same load combination, but shall not be
taken greater than 1.0.
11
LIMITATION OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO----( )
1-Nonsway (braced) frames:
The ACI Code, Section 6.2.5 recommends the following limitations between short and long
columns in braced (nonsway) frames:
1. The effect of slenderness may be neglected and the column may be designed as a
short column when ( )
Where and are the factored end moments of the column and > .
2. The ratio is considered positive if the member is bent in single curvature and negative
for double curvature (see next figure).
12
3-The term * ( )+shall not be taken greater than 40.
4-If the factored column moments are zero or ⁄ the value of M

should be calculated using the minimum eccentricity given by ACI code section 6.6.4.5.4:
The moment shall be considered about each axis of the column separately. The
value of may be assumed to be equal to 1.0 for a braced frame unless it is calculated on
the basis of analysis.
5-It shall be permitted to consider compression members braced against sidesway when
bracing elements have a total stiffness, resisting lateral movement of that story, of at least
12 times the gross stiffness of the columns within the story.
2-Sway (unbraced) frames:
In compression members not braced against sidesway the effect of the slenderness ratio
may be neglected when:
13
MOMENT-MAGNIFIER DESIGN METHOD
The first step in determining the design moments in a long column is to determine
whether the frame is braced or unbraced against sidesway. If lateral bracing elements, such as
shear walls and shear trusses, are provided or the columns have substantial lateral stiffness, then
the lateral deflections produced are relatively small and their effect on the column strength is
substantially low. It can be assumed that a story within a structure is nonsway if the stability index
∑
In general, compression
members may be subjected to lateral
deflections that cause secondary moments.
If the secondary moment, ,is added to the
applied moment on the column, , the final
moment is . An approximate
method for estimating the final moment is
to multiply the applied moment by a
factor called the magnifying moment
factor , which must be equal to or greater
than 1.0, or
The moment is obtained from the elastic

structural analysis using factored loads, and
it is the maximum moment that acts on the
column at either end or within the column if
transverse loadings are present. If the
effect is taken into consideration, it becomes necessary to use a second-order analysis to
account for the nonlinear relationship between the load, lateral displacement, and the moment. This
is normally performed using computer programs. The ACI Code permits the use of first-order
analysis of columns. The ACI Code moment-magnifier design method is a simplified approach for
calculating the moment-magnifier factor in both braced and unbraced frames.
14
1-Magnified Moments in Nonsway Frames
The effect of slenderness ratio ( ) in a compression member of a braced frame may be ignored if
( ), as given in Section before. If ( ) is greater than ( ), then
slenderness effect must be considered. The procedure for determining the magnification factor
in nonsway frames can be summarized as follows (ACI Code, Section 6.6.4.5):
1. Determine if the frame is braced against sidesway and find the unsupported length, , and
the effective length factor, (ACI Commentary Section R6.2.5 states that the effective
length factor, , can be taken conservatively as 1.0 for columns in nonsway frames).
2. Calculate the member stiffness , using the reasonably approximate equation
( )
Or the more simplified approximate equation

( )
Gross moment of inertia of the section about the axis considered, neglecting .
Moment of inertia of the reinforcing steel.
The term shall be taken as the ratio of maximum factored axial sustained load to maximum
factored axial load associated with the same load combination, but shall not be taken greater than
1.0 .
Alternatively, shall be permitted to be computed using the value of from equation for
compression members divided by ( ).
( )( )
Need not be taken less than .

Where:
Total area of longitudinal reinforcement ( ).
Nominal axial strenght at zero eccentricity ( ).
Factored axial force (+ve for compression) ( ).
Factored moment at section ( ).
Thickness of member perpendicular to the axis of bending ( ).
15
3. Determine the Euler buckling load, :
Use the values of and as calculated from steps 1 and 2. However, the values
given in ACI Code Sections 6.6.3.1.1should not be used to compute for use in Euler
equation because those values are assumed to be average values for an entire story in a
frame and are intended for use in first- or second-order frame analyses.
4. Calculate the value of the factor to be used in the equation of the moment magnifier
factor. For braced members without transverse loads,
Where is negative if the column is bent in single curvature, and positive if the
member is bent in double curvature. For members with transverse loads between
supports, shall be taken as 1.0. (6.6.4.5.3b)
16
5. Calculate the moment magnifier factor :
Where is the applied factored load and and are as calculated previously. If
exceeds , will be negative, and the column would be unstable. Hence, if
exceeds the column cross section must be enlarged. Further, if exceeds 2.0,
strong consideration should be given to enlarging the column cross section, because
calculations for such columns are very sensitive to the assumptions being made.
6. Design the compression member using the axial factored load , from the conventional
frame analysis and a magnified moment, , computed as follows:
Where is the larger factored end moment due to loads that result in no sidesway and shall
not be taken less than
about each axis separately, where 15 and are in mm. For members in which
exceeds, the value of shall either be taken equal to 1.0, or shall be based on
the ratio of the computed end moments, ⁄ .
2-Magnified Moments in Sway Frames

The effect of slenderness may be ignored in sway (unbraced) frames when .
The procedure for determining the magnification factor, in sway (unbraced) frames may be
summarized as follows (ACI Code, Section 6.6.4.6):
1. Determine if the frame is unbraced against sidesway and find the unsupported
length and, which can be obtained from the alignment charts (page 7).
2. 2 to 4 Calculate , and as given in section before. Note that here will
be used instead of (to calculate ) which is the ratio of maximum
factored sustained shear within a story to the total factored shear in that story.
5. Calculate the moment-magnifier factor, using one of the following methods:

17
a.Direct analysis:
As part of the moment magnification method for sway frames, ACI Code Section
6.6.4.6.1permits the use of a direct calculation of moments using in the form
If calculated here exceeds 1.5, shall be calculated using second-order elastic analysis or
using method (b).
b. Moment Magnifier method:

ACI Code Section 6.6.4.6.1also allows the use of the traditional sway-frame moment
magnifier for computing the magnified sway moments
∑
∑
Where ∑ is the summation for all the factored vertical loads in a story and ∑ is the
summation for all sway-resisting columns in a story.
In most sway frames, the story shear is due to wind or seismic loads and hence is not
sustained, resulting in . The use of the summation terms in the previous equation for
accounts for the fact that sway instability involves all the columns and bracing members in the
∑
story. If ( ∑
) is negative, the load on the frame, ∑ , exceeds the buckling load for
the story, ∑ , indicating that the frame is unstable. A stiffer frame is required.
6. Calculate the magnified end moments and at the ends of an individual compression
member, as follows:
Where and are the moments obtained from the no-sway condition,
whereas and are the moments obtained from the sway condition. If is greater
than from structural analysis, then the design magnified moment is
18
A separate stability check for sway frames, which was required in prior editions of the ACI
Code, is now covered by ACI Code Section 6.2.6: Total moment including second-order
effects in compression members, restraining beams, or other structural members shall not
exceed 1.4 times the moment due to first-order effects. Analytical studies have shown that the
probability of a stability failure increases when the stability index,Q , exceeds 0.2. This is
similar to the limit of 0.25 set by ASCE/SEI 7-10. Using a value of 0.25 results in a secondary-
to-primary moment ratio of 1.33, which is the basis for the ACI Code limit of 1.4 for that ratio. If
that limit is satisfied, a separate stability check is not required.
The Commentary Section R6.2.6 gives the structural designer indications where to
consider stiffening the building sides for winds blowing, and thus, reduce the story drift below
1/500 when needed.
Maximum Moment between the Ends of the Column.
In most columns in sway frames, the maximum moment will occur at one end of the
column and will have the value given by and . Occasionally, for very slender, highly
loaded columns, the deflections of the column can cause the maximum column moment to
exceed the moment at one or both ends of the column. The ACI Code Section 6.6.4.6.4 calls
attention to this potential problem but does not offer guidance. The ACI Commentary Section
R6.6.4.6.4 does suggest that this can be accounted for in structural analysis by adding nodes
along the length of the column. This is a rare occurrence and prior editions of the ACI Code
used the following equation to identify columns that may have moments between the ends of
the column that exceed the moments at the ends.
If exceeds the value given by , there is a chance that the maximum moment on the
√
column will exceed the larger end moment, . This would occur if was larger than the
end moments and . If . , the maximum design moment is at the end of the
column and is equal to . If , the maximum design moment occurs between the
ends of the column and is equal to .
19
Example
DEVELOPMENT, ANCHORAGE, AND SPLICING OF REINFORCEMENT.
Concept of Bond Stress

Bond stresses are existent whenever the tensile stress or force in a reinforcing bar changes
from point to point along the length of the bar in order to maintain equilibrium. Without bond
stresses, the reinforcement will pull out of the
concrete.
In a reinforced concrete beam, the flexural
compressive forces are resisted by concrete, while
the flexural tensile forces are provided by
reinforcement, as shown in the figure (a) right. For
this process to exist there must be a force transfer,
or bond, between the two materials. The forces
acting on the bar are shown in the figure (b). For
the bar to be in equilibrium, bond stresses must
exist. If these disappear, the bar will pull out of the
concrete and the tensile force; will drop
to zero, causing the beam to fail.
Bond stresses must be present whenever
the stress or force in a reinforcing bar
changes from point to point along the
length of the bar. This is illustrated by the
free-body diagram in the figures. If is
greater than bond stresses , must
act on the surface of the bar to maintain
equilibrium.
Summing forces parallel to the bar, one
finds that the average bond stress,
is
( ) ( )
And taking
( )
In a beam, the force in the steel at a crack can be
expressed as
Where is the internal lever arm and is the

moment acting at the section.
MECHANISM OF BOND TRANSFER
A smooth bar embedded in concrete develops bond by adhesion between the

concrete and the bar and by a small amount of friction. Both of these effects are
quickly lost when the bar is loaded in tension, particularly because the diameter of the
bar decreases slightly, due to Poisson’s ratio. For this reason, smooth bars are
generally not used as reinforcement. In cases where smooth bars must be embedded
in concrete (anchor bolts, stirrups made of small diameter bars, etc.), mechanical
anchorage in the form of hooks, nuts, and washers on the embedded end (or similar
devices) are used.
Although adhesion and friction are present when a deformed bar is loaded for the first
time, these bond-transfer mechanisms are quickly lost, leaving the bond to be
transferred by bearing on the deformations of the bar as shown in figure (a). Equal
and opposite bearing stresses act on the concrete, as shown in figure (b). The forces
on the concrete have both a longitudinal and a radial component (figures c and d). The
latter causes circumferential tensile stresses in the concrete around the bar.
Eventually, the concrete will split parallel to the bar, and the resulting crack will
propagate out to the surface of the beam. The splitting cracks follow the reinforcing
bars along the bottom or side surfaces of the beam, as shown in figure below. Once
these cracks develop, the bond transfer drops rapidly unless reinforcement is provided
to restrain the opening of the splitting crack.
The load at which splitting failure develops is a function of:
1. The minimum distance from the bar to the surface of the concrete or to the
next bar — the smaller this distance, the smaller is the splitting load.
2. The tensile strength of the concrete.
3. The average bond stress — as this increase, the wedging forces increase,
leading to a splitting failure.
Typical splitting failure surfaces are shown in the above figure. The splitting cracks
tend to develop along the shortest distance between a bar and the surface or
between two bars. The circles touch the edges of the beam where the distances are
shortest.
If the cover and bar spacing are large compared to the bar diameter, a pull-out failure
can occur, where the bar and the annulus of concrete between successive
deformations pull out along a cylindrical failure surface joining the tips of the
deformations.
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a
zone of tension, the ACI Code uses the concept of development length rather than
bond stress. The development length, is the shortest length of bar in which the
bar stress can increase from zero to the yield strength, . If the distance from a
point where the bar stress equals, to the end of the bar is less than the
development length, the bar will pull out of the concrete. The development lengths
are different in tension and compression because a bar loaded in tension is subject
to in-and-out bond stresses and hence requires a considerably longer development
length. Also, for a bar in compression, bearing stresses at the end of the bar will
transfer part of the compression force into the concrete.
The development length can be expressed in terms of the ultimate value of the
average bond stress by setting in equation for equal to :
, ( )
Here, is the value of at bond failure in a beam test.
The bars found to be needed at a section from design calculations have to be
embedded a certain distance into the concrete. This distance has to be equal or
larger than the development length
The development length is that length of embedment necessary to develop the full
tensile strength of the bar (on both sides of sections where stress is required),
controlled by either pullout or splitting.
Development Length of Deformed Bars in Tension

The development length for deformed bars in tension is given by ACI-318-14:
25.4.2.1 Development length ℓd for deformed bars and deformed wires in tension
shall be the greater of (a) and (b):
(a) Length calculated in accordance with 25.4.2.2 or 25.4.2.3 using the applicable
modification factors of 25.4.2.4.
(b) 300 mm.
[ ]
√
In which the confinement term shall not exceed 2.5, and
Where n is the number of bars or wires being developed or lap spliced along the
plane of splitting. It shall be permitted to use Ktr = 0 as a design simplification even if
transverse reinforcement is present.
25.4.2.2 This will not be used in this class.

Where the confinement term ( ) is limited to 2.5 or smaller, to prevent pull-out
bond failures, and the length is not taken less than.
is the development length,
is the bar diameter, .
is a bar-location factor given in ACI Code Table 25.4.2.4.
is an epoxy-coating factor given in ACI Code Table 25.4.2.4.
is a bar-size factor given in ACI Code Section Table 25.4.2.4.
is the lightweight concrete factor defined in ACI Code Table 25.4.2.4.
is the smaller of:
(a) The smallest distance measured from the surface of the concrete to the
center of a bar being developed.
(b) One-half of the center-to-center spacing of the bars or wires being
developed.
is a transverse reinforcement factor given in ACI Code .
Values for these factors will be presented later.
25.4.2.4 For the calculation of ℓd, modification factors shall be in accordance with
Table 25.4.2.4.
is a transverse reinforcement index that represents the contribution of confining
reinforcement.
Where:
= total cross sectional area of all transverse reinforcement within the spacing s,
which crosses the potential plane of splitting along the reinforcement being
developed within the development length
= maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement within
development length
= number of LONGITUDINAL bars being developed along the plane of splitting.
Bar-Spacing Factor,
The factor is the smaller of two quantities:

1. In the first definition, is the smallest distance from the surface of the concrete to
the center of the bar being developed. (See figure (a)).
ACI Code Table 20.6.1.3.1 gives the minimum cover to principal reinforcement as .
For a beam stem not exposed to weather, with bars enclosed in stirrups or
ties,
( )
2. In the second definition, is equal to one-half of the center-to-center spacing of the

bars.
ACI Code Section 25.2.1gives the minimum clear spacing of parallel bars in a layer
as , but not less than . For bars, the diameter is , giving the
center-to-center spacing of the bars as
The smaller of the two values discussed here is
Bar location factor

Horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than of fresh concrete
is cast in the member below the development length or
splice............................................................................................................ 1.3
Other reinforcement…................................................................................. 1.0
Coating factor
Epoxy-coated bars or wires with cover less than or clear spacing less
than ..................................................................................................... 1.5
All other epoxy-coated bars or wires........................................................... 1.2
Uncoated and galvanized reinforcement .................................................... 1.0
The product of ( ) need not be taken greater than 1.7.
Bar-size factor
and smaller bars and deformed wires .............................................. 0.8
and larger bars.................................................................................. 1.0
lightweight-aggregate-concrete factor
When any lightweight-aggregate concrete is used .................................. 0.75
However, when the splitting tensile strength is specified, shall be
permitted to be taken as ⁄ √ but not more than........................ 1.0
When normal-weight concrete is used ........................................................1.0
Example
Determine the development length in tension required for the uncoated bottom bars as
shown in the figure. If
(a) Ktr is calculated.
(b) Ktr is assumed = 0.0
(c) Check if space is available for bar development in the beam shown. Use fc’ = 25 MPa
normal weight concrete and fy = 420 MPa.
Solution:
a)Ktr is calculated
.
λ=1.0 for normal weight concrete
C the smallest of
40+10+(20/2)=60 mm
{[400-2(40)-2(10)-2(20/2)]/(3)}/(2)=46.7 mm
i.e., C is taken as 46.7 mm
( )
( )( )
[ ] ( )( )
√ √
b) Assuming
( )( )
√
(c) Check if space is available for bar development
Available length for bar development = 2000+ 150– 40 =2110mm
Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression ACI-318M-14(25.4.9)
Shorter development lengths are required for compression than for tension since flexural
tension cracks are not present for bars in compression. In addition, there is some bearing
of the ends of the bars on concrete.
.
The basic development length for deformed bars in compression is given as:
√
25.4.9.3 For the calculation of , modification factors shall be in accordance with Table
25.4.9.3, except shall be permitted to be taken as 1.0.
Applicable Modification Factors

1. Excessive reinforcement factor = required / provided
2. Spirals or Ties: the modification factor for reinforcement, enclosed with spiral
reinforcement ≥ 6mm in diameter and ≤ 10 cm pitch or within Φ12mm ties spaced at
≤ 10 cm on center is given as 0.75
Development Lengths for Bundled Bars
Development length of individual bars within a bundle, in tension or compression, is
taken as that for individual bar, increased 20% for three-bar bundle, and 33% for four
bar bundle.
For determining the appropriate modification factors, a unit of bundled bars is treated
as a single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area of bars.
25.4.10 Reduction of development length for excess reinforcement.
25.4.10.1 Reduction of development lengths defined in 25.4.2.1(a), 25.4.3.1(a),

25.4.6.1(a), 25.4.7.1(a), and 25.4.9.1(a) shall be permitted by use of the ratio
( ,required)/( ,provided), except where prohibited by 25.4.10.2. The modified
development lengths shall not be less than the respective minimums specified in
25.4.2.1(b), 25.4.3.1(b), 25.4.3.1(c), 25.4.6.1(b), 25.4.7.1(b), and 25.4.9.1(b).
25.4.10.2 A reduction of development length in accordance with 25.4.10.1 is not
permitted for (a) through (e).
(a) At non-continuous supports.
(b) At locations where anchorage or development for is required.
(c) Where bars are required to be continuous.
(d) For headed and mechanically anchored deformed reinforcement.
(e) In seismic-force-resisting systems in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Categories D, E, or F.
HOOKED ANCHORAGES
Behavior of Hooked Anchorages.
Hooks are used to provide additional anchorage when there is insufficient straight
length available to develop a bar. Unless otherwise specified, the so-called standard
hooks described in ACI Code Section 25.4.3 are used. Details of and
standard hooks and standard stirrup and tie hooks are given in the next figure.
It is important to note that a standard hook on a large bar takes up a lot of room, and
the actual size of the hook is frequently quite critical in detailing a structure.
Development length for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook
is .
The basic development length for hooked bars is given as:
√
(a)
Standard
hooks
(b) Stirrup and tie hooks

25.4.3.2 For the calculation of , modification factors shall be in accordance with
Table 25.4.3.2. Factors and shall be permitted to be taken as 1.0. At
discontinuous ends of members, 25.4.3.3 shall apply.
25.4.3.3 For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of

members with both side cover and top (or bottom) cover to hook less than 65 mm,
(a) through (c) shall be satisfied:
(a) The hook shall be enclosed along within ties or stirrups perpendicular to
at s ≤ 3
(b) The first tie or stirrup shall enclose the bent portion of the hook within 2 of the
outside of the bend
(c) Shall be taken as 1.0 in calculating in accordance with 25.4.3.1(a)
where is the nominal diameter of the hooked bar.
Applicable Modification Factors
1. Concrete cover: for ≤ Φ36mm, side cover (normal to plane of hook) ≥ 65
mm, and for 90 degree hook, cover on bar extension beyond hook ≥ 50 mm,
the modification factor is taken as 0.7.
2. Excessive reinforcement factor = required / provided

3. Spirals or Ties: for ≤ Φ36mm, hooks enclosed vertically or horizontally
within ties or stirrups spaced along the full development length not
greater than 3 , where is the diameter of the hooked bar, and the first tie
or stirrup shall enclose the bent portion of the hook, within 2 of the outside
of the bend, the modification factor is taken as 0.8.
Development length is measured
from the critical section of the bar to the
out-side end or edge of the hooks. Either a
90 or a 180-degree hook, shown in the
figure, may be used.
Hooks are not considered effective in

compression and may not be used as
anchorage
Confinement of hooks
For bars being developed by a standard
hook at discontinuous ends of members
with both side cover and top (or bottom)
cover over hook less than 65 mm, the
hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or
stirrups perpendicular to the bar being
developed, spaced not greater than 3
along . The first tie or stirrup shall
enclose the bent portion of the hook, within 2 of the outside of the bend, where is
the diameter of the hooked bar.
25.4.1.4 The values of used to calculate development length shall not
exceed .
Example
Determine the development length or anchorage required for the epoxy-coated top bars of
the beam shown in the figure. The beam frames into an exterior 80cm x 30cm column (the
bars extend parallel to the 80 cm side). Show the details if:
(a) If a 180-degree hook is used
(b) If a 90-degree hook is used
Use fc’ = 28 MPa and fy = 420 MPa.
Solution:
( )
.
The smallest of
40+12+(32/2)=68 mm
{[400-2(40)-2(12)-2(32/2)]/(3)}/(2)=44 mm
i.e., C is taken as 44 mm
( )
( )( )
[ ] ( )( )
√ √
Available length for bar development = 800 – 40 = 760 mm< = 2127 cm

Thus, a standard hook is required at column side
(use a factor 1.2 for epoxy-coated hooks. Modification factors are inapplicable).
√ √
( )
Splicing ACI-318M-14 25.5
Splicing of reinforcement bars is necessary, either because the available bars are not long
enough, or to ease construction, in order to guarantee continuity of the reinforcement
according to design requirements.
Types of Splices:
(a) Welding (b) Mechanical connectors
(c) Lap splices (simplest and most economical method).
In a lapped splice, the force in one bar is transferred to the concrete, which transfers it to
the adjacent bar.
Splice length is the distance over which the two bars overlap.
Important note:
Lap splices have a number of disadvantages, including congestion of reinforcement at the
lap splice and development of transverse cracks due to stress concentrations. It is
recommended to locate splices at sections where stresses are low.
Types of Lap Splices:

1. Direct Contact Splice
2. Non-Contact Splice (spaced) the distance between two bars cannot be greater
than 1/5 of the splice length nor 150 mm. 25.5.1.3
1
ACI code 25.5.2 divides tension lap splices into two classes, A and B. The class of
splice used is dependent on the level of stress in the reinforcing and on the
percentage of steel that is spliced at particular location.
25.5.2.1 Tension lap splice length 𝒍𝒅 for deformed bars and deformed wires in
tension shall be in accordance with Table 25.5.2.1, where 𝒍𝒅 shall be in accordance
with 25.4.2.1(a)
.
Class A:
A splice must satisfy the following two conditions to be in this class:
(a) The area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis over
the entire length of the splice; and
(b) One-half or less of the total reinforcement is spliced within the required lap
length.
Class B:
If conditions above are not satisfied→classify as Class B.
The splice lengths for each class of splice are as follows:
Class A splice: 1.0 𝑙𝑑 ≥ 300 mm
Class B splice: 1.3 𝑙𝑑 ≥ 300 mm
2
Example
To facilitate construction of a cantilever retaining wall, the vertical reinforcement
shown in the figure, is to be spliced with dowels extending from the foundation.
Determine the required splice length when all reinforcement bars are spliced at the
same location.
Use 𝑓𝑐’ = 30 MPa and 𝑓𝑦 = 420 MPa
Solution:
Class B splice is required where 𝒍𝒔 = 1.3 𝒍𝒅
𝛙𝒕 = 1.0 for bars over concrete < 30 cm thick.
𝛙𝒆 = 1.0 for uncoated bars.
𝛙𝒕 × 𝛙𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟎 < 1.7 𝑜𝑘.
𝛙𝒔 = 0.8 for Φ16mm.
𝐶𝑏 the smallest of
75+8)=83 mm
250/2=125 mm
i.e., 𝐶𝑏 is taken as 83 mm.
𝐾𝑡𝑟 =0.0, since no stirrups are used.
𝐶 + 𝐾𝑡𝑟 83 + 0.0 𝐶 + 𝐾𝑡𝑟
= = 5.19 > 2.5 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 2.5
𝑑𝑏 16 𝑑𝑏
𝑓𝑦 𝛹𝑡 𝛹𝑒 𝛹𝑠 420 1.0 × 1.0 × 0.8
𝑙𝑑 = [ ] 𝑑 𝑏 = ( ) ( ) 16 = 357𝑚𝑚
1.1𝜆√𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝑐𝑏 + 𝐾𝑡𝑟 1.1√30 2.5
𝑑𝑏
Required splice length 𝑙𝑠𝑡 = 357 × 1.3 = 464 𝑚𝑚 > 300𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝐾
3
Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression 𝒍𝒔𝒄 25.5.5
Bond behavior of compression bars is not complicated by the problem of transverse
tension cracking and thus compression splices do not require provisions as strict as those
specified for tension.
Compression lap splice length shall be: 25.5.5.1

0.071 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 300 mm for 𝑓𝑦 ≤ 420 MPa
(0.13 𝑓𝑦 – 24) 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 300 mm for 𝑓𝑦 > 420 MPa
The computed splice length should be increased by 33% if 𝑓′𝑐 <21 MPa
When bars of different size are lap-spliced in compression, splice length shall be the larger
of either development length of the larger bar, or splice length of the smaller bar. 25.5.5.4
Example
Design a compression lap splice for a tied column whose cross section is shown in the
figure when:
(a) Φ16 mm bars are used on both sides of the splice.
(b) Φ 16 mm bars are lap spliced with Φ 18 mm bars.
Use 𝑓𝑐’ = 30 MPa and 𝑓𝑦 = 420 MPa
Solution:
(a) For bars of same Φ16 mm diameter
Splice length in compression and for 𝑓𝑦 =420 MPa
= 0.071 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑏
= 0.071 (420)(16) = 477 mm >300 mm
taken as 480 mm
(b) For bars of different diameters

The development length of the larger bar
0.24𝑓𝑦 𝛹𝑟 𝑑𝑏 0.24 × 420 × 1 × 18
𝑙𝑑𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 = = 313𝑚𝑚
𝜆 √𝑓 ′ 𝑐 1 × √30
0.043𝑓𝑦 𝛹𝑟 𝑑𝑏 = 0.043 × 420 × 1 × 18 = 333𝑚𝑚 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
Splice length of smaller diameter bar was calculated in part (a) as 477 mm. Thus, the
splice length is taken as 480 mm.
4
Bar cutoff
It is economical to cut unnecessary bars as shown in the scenario below.
Example
When the beam has only four bars:
When the beam has only two bars:
𝑥
𝑀 = 84𝑥 − (5.6𝑥)
2
Using moment diagrams drawn to scale:
Using moment envelopes drawn to scale:

Bending moment envelope for typical span (moment coefficient: -1/11, +1/16, -1/11)
Ben ding moment envelope for typical spa n (moment coefficient: -1/16, +1/14, -1/10)
Bending moment envelope for typical span (moment coefficient: -1/24, +1/14, -1/10)
Bending moment envelope for typical span (moment coefficient: 0, +1/11, -1/10)
Development length requirements
Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to

resist flexure for a distance equal to d or 12db, whichever is greater, except at
supports of simple spans and at free end of cantilevers.
Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than ld beyond
the point where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to
resist flexu
The ACI Code does not permit flexural reinforcement to be cutoff in a tension zone
unless at least one of the special conditions, shown below, is satisfied:
a. Factored shear force at the cutoff point does not exceed two-thirds of the design
shear strength, 𝑉𝑛 .
b. Stirrup area exceeding that required for shear and torsion is provided along each
cutoff bar over a distance from the termination point equal to three-fourths of the
effective depth of the member. Excess stirrup area Av is not to be less than
0.41𝑏𝑤 𝑆/𝑓𝑦 .
Spacing 𝑆 is not to exceed 𝑑/8𝛽𝑏 where 𝛽𝑏 is the ratio of area of reinforcement
cutoff to total area of tension reinforcement at the section.
c. For φ 36 mm bars and smaller, continuing reinforcement provides double the area
required for flexure at the cutoff point and factored shear does not exceed three-
fourths of the design shear strength, 𝛷𝑉𝑛 .
Positive moment:.
Negative moment:
Negative moment reinforcement in a continuous, restrained cantilever member, or in

any member of rigid frame, is to be anchored in or through the supporting member
by development length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
At least one-third the total tension reinforcement provided for negative moment at a
support shall have an embedment length beyond the point of inflection not less than
𝑑, 12𝑑𝑏, 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑛/16, whichever is greater

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CHAPTER 1

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

1.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS

MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

2.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The strength of concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement, coarse and

Lower-strength concrete has greater

 In usual reinforced concrete design

2.3 TENSILE STRENGTH

It is accepted (ACI 9.5.2.3) that an average value for may be taken as

2.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE

2.6 STEEL REINFORCEMENT

 Bars (deformed bars, as in picture

The ―Grade‖ of steel is the minimum

 MPa for SI reinforcing bar Grades 300,

3-1 Load paths

3-2 Loads on structural members

3-2-1 Loads on (one-way) beams

3-2-2 Loads on (two-way) beams

For edge beams:

For interior beams:

3-2-3 Loads on columns

3-3-1 Classification by direction

3-3-2Classification by source and activity

Wind load (W.L)

BEAM DESIGN METHODS AND REQUIREMENTS

4.1 ACI BUILDING CODE

4.2 Design and Analysis Philosophies

4.4 Design Methods (Philosophies)

4.4.2 The Ultimate – Strength Design Method

4.6 Analysis of beams in bending at service loads

4.8 Stages of flexural behavior

4.8.3 Beam Failure—Ultimate-Strength Stage

 To determine the location of the neutral axis,

 The height of the concrete compression block is x.

The section is cracked.

Moment of compression area= Moment of tension area

5.2 SAFETY PROVISIONS

Where are "nominal" strengths in axial compression, bending moment, and

beam may be expected to behave in the following manner:

Stage I: when the applied load is low, the stress

Stage III: at nominal (so,-called ultimate)

5.6 THE EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR COMPRESSIVE STRESS DISTRIBUTION

5.7 TYPES OF FAILURE AND STRAIN LIMITS

3. Concrete may fail before the

For transition region may be determined by

5.9THE BALANCED CONDITION

And From equation of equilibrium ∑

Where as defined in ACI 10.2.7.3 equal:

5.10 UPPER AND LOWER (MINIMUM) STEEL PERCENTAGES.

5.11 SPACING LIMITS AND CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT.

The minimum limits were originally

Given: section dimensions ; reinforcement ; material strength .

Required: Nominal moment strength.

If : tension controlled = 0.9

If : reject the section.

The section is adequate.

The section is adequate.

Given: factored moment ( ); material strength ( ).

Required: section dimensions ; reinforcement .

The main two objectives of design are to satisfy the:

The serviceability requirement ensures adequate performance at service load without

5.14 Concrete Cover