Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Theory
UNIT –I
Transportation of Fluids
Reference Books
1. “Process Fluid Mechanics”, Den M.M., Prentice Hall,
1998.
2. “Fluid Mechanics-Fundamentals and Applications”,
Yunus A.Cengel and John M. Cimbala;, Tata McGraw
Hill, 2006
Laboratory
List of Practicals
Determination of viscosity.
• Reynolds experiment to determine laminar and turbulent flow.
• Flow through packed bed
Flow through venturimeter
Flow through orifice meter
• Flow through pipe fitting
Determination of friction factor
• Verification of Darcy’s law
Characteristics of centrifugal pump
Verification of stokes law
Calibration of rotameter
Varyfication Of Bernoulli theorem
• Computer based solutions for fluid flow problems
Lesson Plan
Lecture Unit No. Details of topics planned References
No.
1 1 Introduction
liquids,
or gases!
Fluid
10-3cm
Properties of Fluids
• Density
• Weight
• Specific volume
• Specific gravity
• Buoyancy
• Vapour pressure
Density
Cube 1 Cube 2
Weight
• Gravitational force exerted by a given
mass of fluid
• Weight is the product of mass and
acceleration due to gravity
• W = m. g (Unit: N)
ν = specific volume = 1 / ρ
Specific gravity
• Specific gravity = Ratio density (sp. wt) of
the fluid to the density (sp wt) of reference
fluid at std. conditions
(usually 20 °C and 1 atm)
Sp gravities of some of the substances
Buoyancy
Buoyancy: a force that acts upward on an
object submerged in a liquid or floating
on the liquid’s surface
Weight of fish
↓
↑
Buoyant force!!
Vapor Pressure
• Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted
by vapour. E.g. the H2O(g) in a sealed
container.
Vapor Pressure
• When the vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure (Patm), the push out
is enough to overcome Patm and boiling
occurs
• Thus, water will boil at a temperature
below 100 °C if the atmospheric pressure
is reduced
Vapor Pressure
8000
7000
• Ethanol
• Water
• Honey
• Sludge
• Slurry
• Pastes
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Velocity Gradient
= ∆U/∆Y
Velocity gradient
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Shear stress acts tangentially to the
surface (F=tangential force).
∆X
F
A
F
shear force
τ=
tangential area
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• Newton’s law of viscosity states that
“Shear stress is directly proportional to velocity
gradient”
τ α ∆U/∆Y
τ = −µ ∆U/∆Y
Unit of µ
µ = Viscosity of the fluid Kg/m.s
Poise
Pa.s
1 Poise = 1g/cm. s
Role of Viscosity
• Statics
– Fluids at rest have no relative motion between
layers of fluid and thus du/dy = 0
zero and is
– Therefore the shear stress is _____
independent of the fluid viscosity
• Flows
– Fluid viscosity is very important when the fluid
is moving
Kinematic viscosity ν
• The ratio µ / ρ appears in many equations.
• Kinematic viscosity ν (pronounced: new)
µ
ν=
ρ
Whereµo:viscosity at To and Po
(reference temperature and pressure)
∆E: activation energy for flow
R: gas constant
β:material property [m2/N]
Kinematic Viscosity of Water vs. Temp
• Newtonian fluids
The shear rate is directly proportional
to shear rate [linear relationship]
• NonNewtonian fluids
– Time Independent
– Time dependent
Rheological Classification of fluids
Newtonian Fluids: Dynamic Viscosity
Shear stress
τ
µ=
γɺ
µ = Slope of line
Shear rate
Examples:
• Water
• Milk
• Vegetable oils
• Fruit juices
• Sugar and salt solutions
Typical Viscosities (Pa.s)
Courtesy: TA Instruments
Non Newtonian fluids:
Time independent rheology
Shear stress
Non Newtonian
Fluids Shear rate
Examples
• Bingham plastic fluids
Tooth paste
Tomato paste
τ K γɺ n n −1
µa = = = Kγɺ n<1
γɺ γɺ
Apparent Viscosity
Shear Rate
Why Shear Thinning occurs
Unsheared Sheared
Aggregates
Anisotropic Particles align break up
with the Flow Streamlines
Random coil
Polymers
elongate and
break
Shear Thinning Behavior
Yield stress?
τo = 0
0<n<1
1<n
Shear rate
Yield stress?
Thixotropic Rheopectic
Apparent Viscosity
Apparent Viscosity
Time
Time
Visco elastic fluids
• Viscous + Elastic
Elasticity deals with mechanical properties of elastic solids (Hooke’s Law)
δL
Steady Flow
Unsteady Flow
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
– Flow parameters through the flow field
– Change in both magnitude and direction
Uniform
Nonuniform
• Steady and Uniform Flow
• Steady and nonuniform Flow
• Unsteady and Uniform Flow
• Unsteady and nonuniform Flow
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow
– Fluid particles follow well defined path
– Same relative position at successive C/S
– Role of viscosity
– Formation of eddies, fluctuations in
velocity, mixing etc
– Transition flow ????
Velocity ?????????
Streamtube
A streamtube consists of a bundle
of streamlines
• Easy to generate in
experiments: dye in
a water flow, or
smoke in an airflow.
Comparisons
• For steady flow, streamlines, pathlines, and
streaklines are identical.
• For unsteady flow, they can be very different.
– Streamlines are an instantaneous picture of the
flow field
– Pathlines and Streaklines are flow patterns that
have a time history associated with them.
– Streakline: instantaneous snapshot of a time-
integrated flow pattern.
– Pathline: time-exposed flow path of an individual
particle.
Equipotential line
• The line having same potential for flow of
fluid
• Potential????
• The flow takes place from high potential
point to low potential point
• Stream lines and equipotential line are
normal to each other
• Flow takes place along with stream lines
and is perpendicular to equipotential lines
Fluid Statics
M. P Deosarkar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune-37
Fluid statics
• Fluid statics deals with non-flow situations--fluids
at rest.
• A static fluid is one which does not move –its
velocity and acceleration are everywhere zero
• The fluid particle is subjected to two quite
different types of forces per unit area depend on
– Relative position of molecules near the surface (Pressure)
– Relative average motion of the particle (stress)
force N
P= = 2 = Pa
area m
Direction of fluid pressure on
boundaries
Heat exchanger
Dam
Pressure
• Units of pressure is N/m2, which is called a
Pascal (Pa).
• Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa
= 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106
Pa) are commonly used.
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
Pressure
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
• 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325
bars
• 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 × 104 N/m2
= 9.807 × 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
• 1 atm = 14.696 psi.
• 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
• Actual pressure at a given point is called
the absolute pressure.
• Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage = Pabs - Patm.
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
Bourdon Gauge
Fluid Statics
• Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid at rest are at the same
pressure.
• The pressure varies from height to
height
Fundamental Equation
• Consider stagnant mass of
static fluid in a column of
c/s area S
• Atmospheric pressure
Patm can be neglected
when it acts on both
sides of the surface.
Examples
• What are the gauge pressure and absolute
pressure at a point 3 m below the free
surface of the liquid having specific gravity
1.53 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent
to 750 mm of mercury? The specific gravity
of mercury is 13.6 and density of water is
1000 kg/m3
Answer
• Density of mercury = 13.6* 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
• Atmospheric pressure head = 750 mm Hg = 0.75 m Hg
• Patmospheric = 0.75 *13600*9.81 = 100062 N/m2
• Pressure due to 3 m height of liquid = 3*1530*9.8
• = 45028 N/m2
• Pressure at point 2
PB
P2 =PB + h2ρ2g
• PA = h2 ρ2 g - h1 ρ1 g - ∆h ρ1 g PA
∆h = h2 a/A
• PA = h2 ρ2 g - h1 ρ1 g
Differential Manometers
U Tube Differential Manometer
Apply the basic equation of static
fluids to both legs of manometer,
realizing that P2=P3.
P2 = Pa + ρ b g ( Z m + Rm )
P3 = Pb + ρ b g ( Z m ) + ρ a gRm
Pa − Pb = gRm ( ρ a − ρ b )
Inclined tube manometer
Pa − Pb = gR1 ( ρ a − ρ b ) sin α
Inverted U-Tube Manometer
• Pressure at Point 1
PA – h1ρ1g – h2ρ1g
ρ
2 • Pressure at Point 1
1 2 PB – h1ρ1g – h2ρ2g
• Pressure difference
ρ PA – PB
1
= h2 (ρ1 - ρ2 )g
PA PB
Examples
A simple U-tube manometer is installed across
an orifice plate. The manometer is filled with
mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) and the
liquid above the mercury is water. If the
pressure difference across the orifice is 2
atm, what is the height difference (reading)
on the manometer in m of mercury ?
Answer: 1.639 m