ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL

SYSTEM

ORGAN

TISSUE

CELL

COMPOUNDS

ELEMENTS

ATOM

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

CHEMISTRY – needed in Anatomy and Physiology

- it deals with composition of substances and reactions among these
Definition of terms:
Matter – anything that occupies space and has
mass

Mass – the amount or quantity of matter in the

object

Weight – the value of force of attraction between

the object and the earth

Gravity – the attraction between the object and the

earth

Cohesion – attraction of molecules of the same

• Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons
• protons and neutrons located in a central nucleus
• Different elements have different types of atoms
• The nucleus is surrounded by electrons
• Each atom is held together by attractions between the positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons

2 Protons
Nucleus
2 Neutrons

2 Electrons
A. Helium atom
2 Protons
Nucleus
2 Neutrons

2 Electrons
A. Helium atom
• Electrons are arranged in shells
◦ Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an
atom
◦ The outermost shell determines the chemical properties of an
atom
◦ In most atoms, a full outer
Outermost electronshell holds
shell (can holdeight electrons
8 electrons)

Electron First electron shell (can hold 2 electrons)

HYDROGEN (H) CARBON (C) NITROGEN (N) OXYGEN (O)

Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 6 Atomic number = 7 Atomic number = 8
Definition of terms (cont’d) :

Elements – chemical substances that cannot be decomposed or

broken down into simpler units by any chemical
reaction (92 known elements)

Atomic number – no. of protons written as superscript before

the chemical symbol

Atomic mass - no. of protons and neutrons in a given atom

written as superscript after the chemical symbol

Compound – composed of atoms of 2 or more elements

chemically united in fixed proportions

Molecules – the smallest complete unit of compound

Chemical bonding – the attractive interaction of electrons of 2

◦ Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge
◦ An electrical attraction between ions with opposite charges
results in an ionic bond

–
+

Na Cl Na Cl

Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

• Some atoms share outer shell electrons with other
atoms, forming covalent bonds
◦ Atoms joined together by covalent bonds form
molecules
HYDROGEN BONDS
• HOLD TOGETHER MOLECULES
THAT CONTAIN HYDROGEN.
• IMPORTANT IN WATER
MOLECULES AND MANY
MOLECULES IN LIVING
ORGANISMS.
• WEAKER THAN IONIC OR
COVALENT BONDS.
• THESE HOLD DNA TOGETHER
• A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an acid, and
one that accepts H+ ions in solution is a base
• Acidity is measured on the pH scale:
◦ 0-7 is acidic
◦ 8-14 is basic
◦ Pure water and solutions that are neither basic nor acidic
are neutral, with a pH of 7
• Form when an ionic compound is mixed with
water to form a solution.
•

• Acid – releases H+ (hydrogen) ions (like HCl =

hydrochloric acid)
• Base – releases OH- (hydroxide) ions (like
NaOH = sodium hydroxide)
• Standard measurement of the H+ ions in a solution
• Ranges from 0 – 14
• 7 is neutral
◦ Water has an equal number of H+ and OH- ions, so
there is no excess of either ion.
• Acids are less than 7
• Bases are more than 7
• The further away from 7, the stronger the acid or base
• Most chemical reactions in humans take place between
6+8
◦ However, stomach acid is 2-3
◦ Enzymes are pH specific
• Four make up over 96% of the human body: C, N, O, and H
• The most common chemical elements in living things are:
◦ S, P, O, N, C, H

Inorganic Compounds:
• usually, those chemicals that do not contain the element
carbon

Organic Compounds:
• carbon-containing compounds
• 4 groups of organic compounds
found in living things:

1) Carbohydrates
2) Lipids
3) Proteins
4) Nucleic Acids
1. Carbohydrates:
• includes sugars and starches (polymer)
• contain the elements C, H, and O,
• simplest called monosaccharides
(monomers), or simple sugars-
examples are glucose, galactose, and
fructose
• THESE MOLECULES ARE THE MOST COMMON
SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR LIVING THINGS.
• Glucose- made by green plants

• Galactose- found in milk

• Fructose- found in fruits;

• all have the same formula: C H O

6 12 6
• Sugars are used for fuel, containing a large amount of energy stored
in their chemical bonds

• Dehydration Synthesis-
• joins 2 simple sugars by losing 1 water;
• conversion of simpler units to complex unit with the removal of water
molecule

• monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide + water

• Hydrolysis:
• reverse of dehydration synthesis, used to break polysaccharides into
monosaccharides
• water is added back to the molecules
• Sucrose (table sugar) made from
glucose + fructose

• Maltose (malt sugar) made from

glucose + glucose

• Lactose (milk sugar) made from

glucose + galactose

• All 3 disaccharides are: C12H22O11

• These molecules store energy for later use
• Polysaccharides:
• large molecules, formed by many monosaccharide units
together
• used to store excess sugar in the form of
starch (plants) or
glycogen (animal starch)

• Cellulose (wood)- gives plants strength and rigidity.

• STARCH – MADE UP OF MANY GLUCOSE UNITS
COMBINED.
◦ PLANT LONG-TERM FOOD STORAGE

• GLYCOGEN – MADE OF MANY GLUCOSE UNITS

COMBINED
◦ ANIMAL STORAGE IN LIVER AND MUSCLES

• CELLULOSE – MADE OF MANY GLUCOSE UNITS

COMBINED.
◦ PLANT CELL WALLS; FIBER

• CHITIN – PROTECTIVE COVERINGS IN INSECTS AND

OTHER ARTHROPODS; ALSO IN FUNGUS
CELL WALLS
2. Lipids:

• also called fats & waxes (solids), and oils (liquids at

room temp.)
• fatty acids and glycerol
• Insoluble in water
• Soluble in organic solvents: ether , acetone and
chloroform
• Good sources of energy
• Act also as insulators during heat loss
• Used for longer-term storage of energy
• Fats – in animals
• Oils – in plants
• Waxes – water repellent (In your ears, beeswax,
coat plant leaves), waterproof bird feathers.
• Steroids – in animal cell membranes and some
hormones.
• Phospholipids – make up parts of cell
membranes
• Saturated fats

• have no C=C bonds within the fatty acids

◦ These are considered unhealthy – they clog up
the coronary (heart) arteries.
◦ These are solid at room temperature.
◦ From animals.
• common in meats and dairy products
• usually solids- found in bacon, sausage, butter,
milk, steak
• Unsaturated fats

• have at least one C=C bond in one of its fatty acids

◦ These are considered healthier.
◦ Plant oils are usually unsaturated.
◦ Liquid at room temperature.

• Having several double bonds is called polyunsaturated

• tend to be liquids- used in cooking, such as sesame,
peanut, corn oil
• Important for movement, structure, regulation,
transport, nutrition, and defense.
• Composed of building blocks called amino acids
• Humans cannot make these from scratch – we
must eat foods with proteins, then use the amino
acids to make our own proteins.
3. Proteins
• contain C, H, O, and also Nitrogen
• formed by the monomer: amino acids
• Important for movement, structure, regulation, transport, nutrition,
and defense.
• Uses:
1. Help carry out chemical reactions
2. Pump molecules in or out of cell
3. Responsible for cell movement
4. Structural components

• Humans cannot make these from scratch – we must eat foods

with proteins, then use the amino acids to make our own proteins.
• Enzymes

• Biological catalysts
• usually a type of protein
• speed up a reaction by binding to the
reactants (called substrates) at the region
known as the active site
• Very specific, like a lock and key
• Molecules of heredity.
• DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
◦ makes up chromosomes (GENES)
◦ Contains the genetic code
! Determines the organism’s traits
! Contains the code for making proteins
Which control the cell’s activities
• RNA – ribonucleic acid
◦ Helps DNA make proteins
4. Nucleic acids
• large, complex molecules composed of C, O, H, N, and Phosphorus
• the monomer forming them is called a nucleotide
• Molecules of heredity.

• DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

◦ makes up chromosomes (GENES)
◦ Contains the genetic code
! Determines the organism’s traits
! Contains the code for making proteins
Which control the cell’s activities

• RNA – ribonucleic acid Helps DNA make proteins

• Nucleotides are made of:
1. A special 5-carbon sugar
2. A phosphate group
3. A nitrogenous base