Book 1 Module 2

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
PHYSICS 1
UNITS MATTER MECHANICS
MATERIALS FLUID BUOYANCY

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AUTHORITY

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CONTENTS

Page

Units of measurement 1
The SI system 1
Non-SI systems 4
Units compared 7
Prefixes and standard form 8
Matter 9
Atomic structure 10
Chemical reactions 19
The three states of matter 23
Mechanics 25
Statics 25
Scalar & vector quantities 33
Centre of gravity 38
Density 42
Strength of materials 43
Tension 44
Compression 45
Shear 45
Torsion 48
Stress 49
Strain 50
Hooke’s Law 50
Young’s modulus of elasticity 52
Fluids & gases 53
Pressure 53
Bulk modulus 54
The Bramah press 55
Pressure due to depth 56
The mercury barometer 57
Absolute pressure 58
The piezometer 58
The manometer 59
Buoyancy 60
Relative density 61
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written to the level of the category B1 licensed engineer’s syllabus (which is

the higher level between B1, B2 and B3). The B2 person should study all the
subjects but some topics to a lower level. The B3 person should study the
subjects, but to a lower level and book 4 need not be studied at all (check the
syllabus in the appendix to book 4). LBP publish separate books for those
studying for the category A licence, although these books may be used
provided the syllabus is followed.

It is comprehensive and many parts may need more that one read to fully
understand the subject. If it does ‘not go in’ straight away, this is not unusual
– it happens to most people (except for the lucky few). Read that part again
and possibly take up the subject the following day. Complete all the examples
and answer the revision questions in the last book as a test and see how you
have understood the subject.

The first chapter is on scientific units and prefixes. Take a moment to read
through these so you have a good knowledge of what is in there and also use
this chapter for reference during your studies. The section also includes, what
we call, Historical Units. They are included as the CAA occasionally ask
questions on older units. The units have been defined, as you would expect in
a physics publication, but there should be no need to remember the
definitions. You should however, have some knowledge of these units.

The Atomic Model

The structure of the atom is dealt with so as to give the student a reasonable
understanding of the basic layout at this level. It is really just an introduction
to atomic theory.

The important point to remember is that the present model (scientists have
developed others) is simplified and based on the best answers to observations
on practical experiments – to date.

Any sizes quoted for atomic particles are approximate with different reference
manuals not giving exactly the same values. There is no need to remember the
details of sizes of atoms/parts of atoms – they are included to give an idea of
size.

Details of scientists/inventers are included for interest only and need not be
committed to memory.

Books in this EASA Part 66 module 2 series = 4 (for the B1 and B2 engineer), 3
for the B3 engineer.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Before getting into physics as a subject it is important to be fluent with the

units that are used for the various parameters that physics cover. Some of
these you will probably be familiar with, some might be new to you. Either way
you should have a sound knowledge of the units and how they are used.

Units can be broadly divided into Imperial and Metric or SI. The old imperial
system can be found on older aircraft with such units as gallons (fuel
quantity), lbs per square inch (psi) (tyre pressures), lbs force (pull-off values
when doing a static friction test on a flying control system) etc.

THE SI SYSTEM

The SI - Systeme Internationale (d’Unites) - is widely used throughout Europe

and many other parts of the world, though not so widely used in America. It
provides for the measurement of various parameters and has three
fundamental units (the metre, kilogram and second) and many derived units.

Metre (m). The basic unit of length and defined as so many times (about 1½
million times) the wavelength of krypton 86 light in a vacuum. Used to be
defined as a length of a bar kept in a laboratory just outside Paris.

Kilogram (or kilogramme) (kg). The basic unit of mass and defined as the mass
of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept in the same laboratory.

Second (s). The basic unit of time and defined as so many cycles (just over a
million) of the vibration frequency of the caesium atom.

Further units may be derived from the above such as:

Length metre (m) x 1000 = 1 kilometre (km).

m ÷ 1000 = 1 millimetre (mm).
m ÷ 1000,000 = 1 micrometer (µm).

Mass kg x 1000 = 1 tonne (metric ton).

kg ÷ 1000 = 1 gram (or gramme or g).

Time Second (s) x 60 = 1 minute (min).

s x 3600 (60 x 60) = 1 hour (h).

Further units used in the SI system are given below.

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Ampere (A)* Unit of current. Defined as a force between two
parallel conductors.

* Andre Marie Ampere French physicist 1775 – 1836.

Kelvin* (K) Unit of temperature. Defined as a specified fraction of

the temperature of the triple point of water above
absolute zero.

Starts at absolute zero (0K) with 273K being equal to

0°C (freezing point of water) and 373K equal to 100°C
(boiling point of water).
When stating Kelvin units the degree is omitted.
For example: When stating the temperature of boiling
water in degrees Celsius it is written as 100°C. When
stating it in Kelvin it is written as 373K.

* William Thomson Kelvin British physicist 1824 –

1907.

Candela (cd) The standard of luminous intensity. Based on the

luminance of a black body radiator.

Area m x m (metres squared) (m2).

Volume m x m x m (metres cubed) (m3).

Density (ρ) kg/m3 (kilograms per cubic metre) (ρ = rho)

Velocity (v) m/s (metres per second)

Acceleration (a) m/s2 (metres per second squared or metres per

second per second)

Force (F) Newton* (N). 1N equals the force required to accelerate

1kg by 1m/s2. It is a small unit, when lifting a glass of
water to have a drink, for example, 2 or 3 Newtons
force are required.

* Sir Isaac Newton English physicist 1642 - 1727

Energy or Work Abbreviated to E. The unit is called the Joule* (J). 1J

equals the force of 1N moving an object by 1m.

* James Prescott Joule British physicist1818 - 1889

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 Power (P) The Watt* (W) is the rate of doing work. Equals 1J/s.
Equal to the force of 1N moving an object 1m in the
time of 1 second. In electrical terms equals 1 ampere
flowing across a potential difference of 1 volt.

* James Watt British inventor 1736 – 1819.

Pressure or The Pascal* defined as force per unit area = 1N/m2.

Stress (ρ) Stress in this context is that associated with
materials.

* Blaise Pascal French mathematician 1633 - 1662

Supplementary units include:

Radian (rad). Used as the SI unit for plane angular measurement. It is the
angle between two radii of a circle that cut off a length of the circumference of
the circle equal to the radius of the circle. It is equal to 57.3 degrees.

Fig. 1 THE RADIAN

Steradian (sr). Is the solid angle of a sphere having its vertex at the centre of
the sphere where the radii cut off an area where the sides of the area are equal
to the radius of the sphere.

Fig. 2 THE STERADIAN

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NON-SI SYSTEMS (OLDER UNITS)

The SI system of units is now widely accepted, but in some areas (such as
aircraft engineering and in some parts of the world) older systems may still be
in use, though more rarely as time goes by.

Older systems include the:

1. cgs system.
2. fps system.

The cgs (centimetre, gram*, second) system is the forerunner of the SI system
using the centimetre and gram as the base units for length and mass
respectively (* the gram or gramme is abbreviated to g).

The fps (foot, pounds, second) system is also known as the Imperial system
and is still used today particularly in the USA, but its’ use is becoming more
restricted as time goes by. In some cases it runs parallel with the SI system,
for example: vehicles designed for the UK market will show the speedometer
calibrated in miles per hour (mph) and kilometres per hour (kmph or kph).

Many of these units still bear the names of the original measuring tool (not
accurate) eg: the foot, (a person’s foot - 12 inches).

Length

In the fps system the yard is the basis of all the length measurements which
can be divided/multiplied into:

12 inches = 1 foot (ft). 12 inches may be written as 12” or 12ins.

3 feet (ft) = 1 yard* (yd). Equal to 0.9144m.
5.5yd = 1 rod**, pole** or perch**.
40 poles = 1 furlong**.
8 furlongs** = 1 mile# (m) = 1760yd = 5280ft = 1.609km.

There is also a unit known as a chain** where 10 chains = 1 furlong.

* Not used much these days, but may still be found in the UK and
some other (ex colonial) countries.

** This units are rare and almost never used. No need to commit to
memory.

# Note that the nautical mile is equal to 6080ft but the international
nautical mile used by the Admiralty and most nations is taken as
1852m. It is, in fact, the average distance on the earth’s surface
subtended by one minute of latitude.

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Mass

In the fps system the pound (lb) formed the basis of mass. Multiples and sub-
multiples include:

16 ounces (oz) = 1lb. Defined as the mass of a platinum cylinder kept at

the Board of Trade. Now redefined as 0.4536kg. The US
pound is marginally heavier.
14lb = 1 stone (st).
28lb = 1 quarter (qr).
4qr = 1 hundredweight (cwt).
20cwt = 1 ton (ton).

In both the metric, pre SI and the Imperial systems confusion arose in
distinguishing between force and mass. To show the difference the symbol ‘f’
was added to the unit when the quantity was a force. For example force in kg
was shown as kg.f and in pounds was shown as lb.f.

Force is the product of mass and acceleration and weight is the product of
mass and acceleration due to gravity. In the metric system gravitational
acceleration is taken as 9.81m/s2 and in the Imperial system it is 32.2ft/s2.

There are also four additional quantities used in the system: the poundal, the
slug, the erg and the dyne (all extremely rare so there should be no need to
commit details to memory).

The poundal (pdl) is defined as a unit of force required to accelerate 1lb mass
by 1ft per second squared (1ft/s2). 1 pdl = 0.138N approximately.

The slug is defined as a mass that is accelerated at 1ft/s2 when acted on by a

force of 1lb. The slug was the original mass unit with 1 slug approximately
equal to 32.2lb or 14.59kg. The slug is a big unit. 1lb.f = 32.2pdl
approximately.

The dyne was the unit of force in the cgs system. It is defined as the force
which produces an acceleration of 1cm/s2 to a body of mass of 1g. 1 dyn = 10-
5 N. The erg is a unit of work in the cgs system and is defined as the work done

by 1dyne acting through a distance of 1cm. 1 erg = 10-7 Joules.

Temperature and Heat

In the past the symbol °C was the abbreviation for degrees Centigrade. This
term is now obsolete and has been replaced by the Celsius scale. In terms of
magnitude the unit length of each scale division is the same, ie 1° Centigrade =
1° Celsius. The scale is based on one hundred divisions between the point at
which pure water freezes (0°C) and the point at which it boils (100°C) under
specified atmospheric conditions.

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There is also a Fahrenheit (F) scale which is a non SI unit of measurement.
This uses 32°F as the freezing point of pure water and 212°F as the boiling
point at specified atmospheric conditions with the scale marked off into 180
equal divisions.

This scale is used to define the British Thermal Unit (Btu). The Btu was
originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1lb of pure water by 1°F in 1 atmosphere of pressure. 1 Btu is equivalent to
about 252 calories or 1055 Joules (J) and 3412 Btu’s equals 1kWh (1 kilo Watt
hour).

The calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of water
by 1°C and equals 4.2J.

For information regarding converting between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees

Celsius (and Kelvin) please refer to book 3 in this EASA module 2 book series.

The British Thermal Unit (Btu) is defined as the heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by 1°F.

In many applications it was found that the calorie and the Btu were too small
so larger units were devised:

* The kilocalorie which equals 1000 calories.

* The therm which equals 100,000Btu.

Note that the kilowatt-hour is a unit that is used in the electrical power
industry. It is equal to 1000 Watt-hours or 3.6MJ or 857,000 calories.

QUESTION To convert from joules to calories you would:

(a) Divide by 4.2

(b) Multiply by 4.2
(c) Add 4.2

ANSWER (a)

Example. Convert 1500 joules of energy into calorie units.

Quantity of heat energy = number of joules

4.2

= 1500
4.2

= 357.14 calories

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UNITS COMPARED

Below is a list of various units of measurement for comparison (SI and non SI).
The SI units you should memorise the remainder are included for reference
purposes only.

Length 1km = 0.62m (miles).

1m = 1.093yd (yards) = 39.37in (inches) = 3.281ft (feet).
1in = 2.54cm.
12in = 1ft = 0.3084m.
1m = 1.609km.

Area 1ft2 = 144in2 = 0.0929m2.

1m2 = 10.000cm2 = 10.76ft2.

Volume 1m3 = 1,000,000cm3.

1lt (litre) = 1000cm3.
1gal (gallon) = 8pt (pints).
1gal = 4.546ltr (litres)

Angular 1rad = 57degrees (57°) approximately.

measurement 360° in a circle and 60min (minutes) in a degree.

Mass 1kg = 2.2lbs.

(the amount 1000kg = 1tonne (a metric ton).
of substance) 1ton (imperial ton) = 1.016tonne.
2240lbs = 1ton.
1lb = 16oz.
1slug = 14.59kg (the slug is a very old unit of measurement
used in scientific calculations).

Force 1lb(f) (the weight of 1lb mass) = 4.448N.

1N = 0.2248lb(f).

Pressure 1Pa = 0.0001psi (pounds per square inch - psi).

(force per unit 1psi = 6894Pa.
area) 1atm (atmosphere) = 29.92inHg (inches of mercury).
1atm = 760mmHg.
1bar = 14.5psi.

Energy 1J (Joule) = 0.738ft lb.

1cal = 4.186J.
1Btu (British thermal unit) = 252cal.

Power 1W = 1J/sec.
1hp (horse power) = 746W.
1Btu/h = 0.293W.

-7-
Velocity 1mph (mile per hour) = 1.47ft/sec = 1.61km/hr
1kt (knot) = 1.852km/hr = 1.151mph = 1.688ft/sec.

Acceleration m/sec2.

Acceleration 32ft/s2 (feet per second squared) = 9.81m/s2.

due to gravity

PREFIXES & STANDARD FORM

To save writing out a lot of zeros when working with large numbers many units
are given a prefix. For example: a thousand metres (m) is called a kilometre
(km).

Below is a list of the more common prefixes. These can be applied to any SI
unit – the metre, the gram, the second, the Newton etc.

MULTIPLICATION FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL AS IN:

1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G gigabites (GB)

1,000,000 = 106 mega M megabites (MB)
1,000 = 103 kilo k kilograms (kg)
0.01 = 10-2 centi c centimetres (cm)
0.001 = 10-3 milli m milliamps (mA)
0.000,001 = 10-6 micro µ micrometers (µm)

Standard Form (or Engineer’s or Scientific Form) is used in the presentation of

numbers. The value is shown as 1 decimal place with the exponent showing
how many places the decimal point has to be moved (left or right) to give the
true value. For example:

19,000,000 = 1.9 x 107 (Decimal point moved seven places

to the right to give the value
19,000,000.)

250,000 = 2.5 x 105 (Decimal point moved five places to

the right.)
100 = 1 x 102 (Moved two places to the right.)
0.01 = 1 x 10-2 (Moved two places to the left.)
0.00000474 = 4.74 x 10-6 (Moved six places to the left.)

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 MATTER

Nature of Matter

All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. A molecule is defined

as the smallest particle that any substance can be reduced to and still retain
the unique properties of the original substance from which it can still be
identified.

These molecules are packed tightly together so that substances appear as

solids, liquids or gases. Forces of attraction and repulsion exist between all
molecules and these forces which are electro-magnetic, vary with the state in
which the substance exists. Molecules of all matter are in constant motion, the
amount of motion or vibration is dependent on the temperature.

In a solid the molecules are packed closely together and vibration is about a
fixed mean position, held there by strong bonding forces. This forms a rigid
intermolecular structure. A solid, therefore, holds its shape and volume,
changing size only with temperature changes (or large external forces).

In liquids the motion of molecules is much greater and this prevents any
permanent intermolecular structure from occurring. However, temporary
bonds are formed and broken continually between molecules. These bonds
prevent the molecules from moving apart totally so that a liquid will occupy, to
the extent of it’s volume, the shape of the container into which it is poured.

In a gas, the molecules are spaced widely apart, the force of attraction is so
small that they continue to drift apart with relative ease, occupying the
complete volume of the container that the gas is in.

Between molecules, whether in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, an empty space

exists. This space allows materials to be compressed, forcing the molecules to
move closer together and occupying a smaller volume. As the volume is
gradually reduced the compressive force required has to increase providing
evidence of a repulsive force existing between the molecules.

On the other hand, to produce a gradual extension of a solid bar, for example,
an increasing tensile or stretching force would have to be applied, indicating
that a force of attraction is also present between the molecules.

The force that holds molecules of a particular substance together is called a

COHESIVE force. Where molecules of different substances are held together
the force is known as an ADHESIVE force.

-9-
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Based on the generally accepted Rutherford model (Ernest Rutherford New

Zealand physicist 1871 – 1937).

Molecules are constructed of particles called ATOMS. The size of an atom is

small and may be defined as being the smallest particle that any substance
can chemically be broken down to. The size of an atom is difficult to
comprehend - a fine grain of salt would contain about a million, million,
million (1018) atoms.

Even at this size research has lead to the discovery that the atom itself is made
up of many smaller particles. Of these, three are considered as being
fundamental in its construction. These are the electron, the proton and the
neutron.

An atom consists largely of empty space. At its centre is the nucleus, which is
formed from closely packed protons and neutrons- collectively called nucleons.
Surrounding this is a ‘cloud’ of orbiting electrons (figure 3) circulating around
it in all directions. Note that the number of electrons shown in figure 3 has
been reduced for clarity.

Fig. 3 AN ATOM

The size of the proton and the neutron are similar, being about 1.6 x 10-27kg
and 1.7 x 10-27kg respectively, whereas the electron is about 1/2000th times
smaller, it’s mass being about 9 x 10-31kg. So the protons and neutrons make
up most of the mass of the atom but the electrons take up most of the space.

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The nucleus is held together by ‘binding forces’ which are very strong but of
short range and act only within the nucleus.

Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged
particles, whilst the neutron, as it’s name implies is neither positive or
negative but neutral. As a whole, the atom is seen from outside as having no
electrical charge. The positively charged nucleus cancels out the negatively
charged orbiting electrons.

If each positively charged particle is equal (but opposite) to each negatively

charged particle then it follows that there must be as many electrons orbiting
the nucleus as there are protons within the nucleus so as to keep its overall
charge neutral.

Where the molecules of a substance consists of only one type of atom, the
substance is classified as an element. Aluminium (Al) carbon (C), gold (Au),
iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) are all examples of
elements (the symbols in brackets are the chemical abbreviations – see table
1).

There are more than one hundred elements (table 1), and the most recent ones
discovered are unstable and change spontaneously into other known elements.

TABLE 1 THE PERIODIC TABLE

Notes on Table 1

1. Originally set out by Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich (Russian chemist 1834 to 1907).
Element 101 was named after him in his honour.
2. The elements are arranged in order of atomic number (Z) (the number in each square),
which equals the number of protons. The number of protons = the number of electrons in
the atom’s neutral state.
3. They are also arranged vertically in groups eg, Group 1 Alkali metals (excluding
hydrogen which does not fit readily into any group).
4. The letter in each square is the chemical abbreviation for the element concerned.

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The abundance of materials in the world varies considerably with fewer than
ten elements making up 98% of the total.

All atoms of a particular element contain a definite number of protons and

electrons. Different elements will contain different numbers of protons and
electrons. The ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) indicates the number of protons (and
electrons) in an atom, and the total mass of all the protons, neutrons and
electrons provide a measure of the ATOMIC WEIGHT.

Atomic weight is now often referred to as RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS. Forms of

an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different
relative atomic masses, as a result of different numbers of neutrons in the
nucleus, are called ISOTOPES.

Atomic weights are comparative. Originally the weight of the hydrogen atom
was taken as 1 and the weights of all other atoms calculated relative to it.
Atomic weights are now based on a value of 12, based on carbon 12, which
has six neutrons and six protons. On this comparative scale, hydrogen has an
atomic weight of 1.008.

MASS NUMBER (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus, each being taken as a unit of mass.

The way in which the electrons orbit the nucleus follows a fairly rigid pattern
and may be envisaged as occupying orbital layers or spherical shells. Each
shell can only contain a specific number of electrons with the maximum
theoretical number related to the formula 2n2. Where n is the first quantum
number and noting that the outer shell can only contain a maximum of 8
electrons anyway.

Figure 4 shows the theoretical maximum number of electrons in each of the

shells that surround the nucleus. In practice many atoms do not reach this
number.

The gap between each shell is not constant but reduces as the distance
increases from the nucleus with the outer electrons being called VALANCE
electrons.

Note that figure 4 shows all shells having the same gap, it makes for a clearer
drawing. Note also that each shell is given an ident code starting with the
letter K for the innermost shell to letter Q for the outermost.

blank

- 12 -
 Fig. 4 THE ELECTRON SHELLS

Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell is shown in
table 2. See also table 1.

ELEMENT SYM SHELL - number of electrons in each shell ATOMIC

(maximum possible number in brackets). NUMBER
K L M N O P Q
(2) (8) (18) (32) (50) (72) (8)
n =1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Boron B 2 3 5
Sodium Na 2 8 1 11
Aluminium Al 2 8 3 13
Silicon Si 2 8 4 14
Copper Cu 2 8 18 1 29
Germanium Ge 2 8 18 4 32
Arsenic As 2 8 18 5 33
Silver Ag 2 8 18 18 1 47
Gold Au 2 8 18 32 18 1 79
Radon Rn 2 8 18 32 18 8 86
Uranium U 2 8 18 32 21 9 2 92

TABLE 2 A SELECTION OF ELEMENTS

The electrons (or electron) making up the outermost shell are called valence
electrons, and these being furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus are
least tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active
part in electrical conduction.

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Figure 5 shows an atom of hydrogen (H) with one proton and one electron.
Figure 6 shows an atom of helium (He) with 2 protons, 2 electrons and 2
neutrons. Hydrogen and helium are very light gases. Figures 7 and 8 show
atoms of silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) respectively, two important elements
in the manufacture of transistors, both having four valance electrons.

Fig. 5 THE HYDROGEN (H) ATOM

Fig. 6 THE HELIUM (He) ATOM

Fig. 7 THE SILICON (Si) ATOM

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 Fig. 8 THE GERMANIUM (Ge) ATOM

QUESTION Have the shells in figures 7 and 8 got the correct number of
electrons? Check using figure 4 and tables 1 and 2.

QUESTION How many protons will figures 7 and 8 have?

ANSWER 14 and 32 respectively.

Normally atoms are electrically neutral as far as charge is concerned because

electrons and protons are present in equal numbers. An atom can become
positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added. When
an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more
protons than electrons), and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an
additional electron it becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative
ion.

An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron.

Metals represent a particular category of elements that are endowed with

rather special properties. One of these is that some of the electrons in the
outer shells are so loosely tied to the nucleus that they are effectively floating
free and move easily from one atom to another. This movement is normally
random, but by applying an external electrical force (such as that provided by
a battery or dc generator) they can all be made to move in the same direction.

This movement, all in the same direction, is called CURRENT. More correctly
ELECTRICAL CURRENT.

When all the electrons move in one direction the current is known as direct
current (dc), as when a battery or dc generator is used to provide the electrical
force (voltage).

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When the electrons are moved forwards then backwards (as when an
alternator/ac generator is used) then the current is called alternating current
(ac). On aircraft ac current alternates at a rate of 400 times per second
(400Hz*), though some frequency-wild systems do exist where the frequency
varies depending on generator rotational speed (rpm).

(Hz = cycles per second. One Hz = one cycle per second. Named after Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz German physicist 1857 – 1894.)

Metals which easily permit the orderly movement of electrons are called
conductors eg, copper, aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze, gold and others.

Figure 9 shows the movement of the valance electrons in copper (Cu) (notice
the single electron in shell N table 2). When no voltage exists between the ends
of the conductor the electrons do not flow and there is no current - figure 9 (a).
When a voltage is applied to one end of the copper conductor then the
electrons all move in the same direction – provided there is a complete electrical
circuit (not shown in the drawing) – figure 9 (b). Note that the negatively
charged electrons actually move towards the positive end of the circuit (called
electron flow) but conventional current shows them moving from positive to
negative. Conventional current flow is usually used in drawings etc when
working out problems.

Fig. 9 CONDUCTION

In many materials the electrons are held more firmly in their outer shells. In
these materials it is almost impossible to induce an orderly movement of
electrons and they are classified as non-conductors, or insulators, eg: glass,
rubber, plastic, air, wood and mica.

Note the feint projection lines used in figure 9 (and others) are to assist in
drawing to maintain symmetry.

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There is a family of elements that may or may not conduct electricity called
semiconductors. Sometimes they behave like conductors and sometimes they
behave like insulators depending on the conditions at the time. Typical
semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium.

These have four valence electrons, each atom shares these with adjacent
atoms (the electrons are co-valent) to form a strongly bonded structure called a
crystal lattice. The freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in their pure
state the semiconductors are insulators.

Fig. 10 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE

However, electron movement can be achieved by heating. As the temperature

rises the electrons become more agitated and leave their orbits and if a voltage
is placed across the material electron movement occurs in one general
direction.

This is known as Intrinsic Conduction. Current causes heat which causes

more conduction and if this is allowed to continue breakdown occurs. This
process is known as Thermal Runaway.

Doping

Another way to improve the conductivity is by ‘doping’. This is the addition of a

tiny amount of another element. The dope is introduced into the crystal lattice
structure which improves the conductivity.

- 17 -
Figure 11 shows the doping of silicon with arsenic. This drawing shows just
one atom but there are many, though not as many as silicon atoms
of-course. The arsenic atom has 5 valence electrons whereas silicon atoms
have 4. This means there is a ‘spare’ called a mobile or carrier atom. The
doping of silicon in this way turns it into an n-type semiconductor (n =
negative).

Fig. 11 FREE CARRIER ELECTRON IN SILICON (Si) DOPED

WITH ARSENIC (As)

By adding certain atoms with an incomplete outer shell a p-type

semiconductor can be created (p = positive).

Figure 12 shows the doping of silicon with boron. Boron has 3 electrons in its
outer shell and will readily accept an electron from a neighbouring atom. This
it does and in the process creates a ‘hole’ in the silicon lattice. This hole means
that there are not enough electrons to keep the silicon atom neutral and the
material becomes a p-type semiconductor.

For more details on semiconductors refer to Module 4 Electronic

Fundamentals in the LBP EASA study book set.

blank

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 Fig. 12 ‘HOLE’ CREATED BY DOPING WITH BORON

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

If the third shell is the outer shell of the atom it can only accommodate 8
electrons, but if covered by a fourth shell it can accommodate 18. If the
outermost shell is either completely filled or holds 8 electrons then the element
is chemically un-reactive, ie it will not combine chemically with any other
element. Thus, if we consider a substance such as Neon (Ne) (atomic number
10) then 2 electrons will occupy the inner shell and 8 electrons the outer shell.
Neon is an un-reactive gas.

Sodium (Na) on the other hand is reactive. It has an atomic number of 11, has
2 electrons occupying the inner shell, 8 in the second shell but only 1 electron
in the third (outer shell), with a deficiency of 7 electrons in this shell.

Chlorine (Cl) is also reactive with an atomic number of 17. Thus the shells
have 2, 8 and 7 electrons respectively with a deficiency of 1 electron in the
other shell.

Sodium and chlorine will readily combine to form the compound sodium
chloride (NaCl) (sea salt) with the outer shell of the chlorine readily accepting
the single electron of the sodium outer shell and in doing so completing its
outer shell.

Chemical reactions are concerned with the loss or gain of electrons in the
outer shells and as the example above has shown, elements with deficiencies
in their outer shells are chemically very reactive and form compounds easily.

A compound is defined as the chemical combination of two or more elements.

The compound can also be separated back into its original elements by
chemical means.

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The splitting of a chemical compound is called analysis. This separation of a
compound into its constituent parts or elements is used to determine their
nature or proportions (quantitative analysis).

The opposite process, ie the formation of a compound from simpler compounds

or elements is called synthesis.

A third way in which a substance can exist is as a mixture – remembering the

other two ways are as an element or a compound.

In a mixture, substances exist side-by-side without combining chemically. Air

is a good example. Air consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen (21% oxygen,
78% nitrogen and 1% other gasses approximately by mass). Note that some
reference books use ‘by volume’, these percentages are very similar to the ‘by
mass’ value.

A mixture is often recognised by the fact that a physical process may be used
to separate the mixture back to its original constituent parts. In a reaction a
chemical compound is either formed by the combination of elements or broken
up (decomposed) into its separate elements. To represent such a process a
chemical equation is used.

It is worth memorising the more common elements, and those associated with
combustion (in table 3), as these are used in the writing and balancing of
chemical equations.

ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC MASS MOLECULAR MASS

HYDROGEN H2 1 2
CARBON C 12 12
NITROGEN N2 14 28
OXYGEN O2 16 32
SULPHUR S 32 32

TABLE 3 SOME COMMON ELEMENTS

The subscript number (eg the 2 as in O2) associated with some of the elements
denotes the number of atoms contained in a single molecule of the substance.
Thus carbon (C) contains a single atom whilst a molecule of hydrogen (H2) is
formed by 2 hydrogen atoms.

Note. Where no subscript is shown as in C (carbon) and S (sulphur) it is

assumed there is a subscript 1 (eg as in C1). This is rarely used.

The molecular mass is the total atomic mass of all the atoms that form the
molecule. Thus a molecule of oxygen, which consists of 2 atoms in its natural
state, has a molecular mass of 32 (ie 2 x 16). In a compound the molecular
mass is determined from the addition of the atomic masses of the individual
atomic masses concerned.

- 20 -
Note that chemical reactions are written as equations which could be written
as:

H2 + O = H2O

but the equals sign (=) is replaced by the sign → which means ‘yields’. So the
equation is written as:

H2 + O → H2O

which is spoken as ‘h two plus o yields h two o’.

Note also that some books call these ‘equations’ and some call them ‘formulae’.

Example 1. Consider a molecule of water chemical symbol H2O. This is a

compound, a single molecule of which is made up of 3 atoms, one of oxygen
and two of hydrogen. Its molecular mass is thus 18 or [(2 x 1) + 16].

However, as a chemical equation, it is not possible to show this as:

H2 + O → H2O

since oxygen on its own can only exist naturally in its molecular form with 2
atoms, ie O2, and writing the formula as H2 + O2 → H2O is also incorrect as the
equation does not balance.

The equation must balance, as during the reaction there are no atoms lost or
gained, so the equation must contain the same number of hydrogen atoms on
the left side as on the right and the same number of oxygen atoms on the left
side as on the right.

Thus the equation has to be written as:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O in order to balance.

In other words 2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 2 molecules

of Water.

In terms of the atomic masses the equation may be written as:

2(2 x 1) + 1(16 x 2) = 2[(2 x 1) + 16]

4 + 32 = 36

ie, both sides of the equation are the same and the equation balances.

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In terms of atoms there must be an equal number of atoms on the right-hand
side as on the left-hand side. The law of conservation of mass dictates this –
there is the same number of atoms after the reaction as there was before.

In this equation there are 4 atoms of hydrogen and 2 of oxygen on the left-
hand side (6 in all) and 4 of hydrogen and 2 of oxygen on the right-hand side
(6 in all). (The prefix ‘2’ before the H on the right-hand side also applies to the
O – could be written as 2(H2O).

Example 2. In this example C + O2 → CO2, 1 molecule of carbon is chemically

combined with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 1 molecule of carbon dioxide.

In this form the chemical equation balances as shown below, where the
comparison of the atomic masses is made.

12 + (16 x 2) = [12 + (16 x 2)]

12 + 32 = 44

Example 3. Take the formation of copper oxide where copper will combine with
oxygen to form copper oxide – where copper will tarnish and loose its shine.

Copper + oxygen → copper oxide

Cu + O2 → CuO

We have 3 atoms on the left (one Cu and two Os) and 2 on the right (one Cu
and one O), so the equation does not balance. By using 2 copper atoms in the
reaction we get 2 copper oxides and the equation balances:

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO

Examples 4 & 5. The final examples show, respectively, the chemical equations
involved in the production of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.

(a) 2C + O2 → 2CO

(b) S + O2 → SO2

Check yourself that these two equations balance by considering the number of
atoms and the atomic masses.

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In all the preceding equations, remember that:

1. There must be the same number of atoms on both sides of the

equation.

2. The atomic mass is the same on each side of the equation.

3. It is not necessary for the same number of molecules to occur on

each side of the equation.

4. The ‘yields’ sign in the equation indicates ‘chemically combining

with’ and is not a mathematical function as such.

Note. The process of division or decomposition of a substance into its

constituent parts to determine the type of constituents present is called
analysis. Synthesis is the opposite process, ie the process of producing a
compound by a chemical reaction from commonly available materials.

THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

Matter, as previously mentioned, can exist as a solid, liquid or a gas. You will
remember that in a solid the molecules are held in fixed positions about which
they vibrate.

By raising the temperature of the solid the effect will be to increase this
vibration, (that is to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules). If the
temperature continues to be increased the bonds acting between the molecules
become less effective and the molecules move away from their fixed positions
and the substance becomes a liquid.

Increasing the temperature still further gives the molecules even more energy
so that a second point is reached where the bonds of attraction no longer have
the strength to restrain the molecules, and they leave the liquid to form a gas.

The above can be remembered better by taking ice as a simple model. When
ice is heated to a liquid, water is formed and when heated further to a gas,
steam is formed.

Changes of state whether from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas, take place
at constant temperature. This is because the energy absorbed during this
phase is used-up in breaking down the bonds of attraction.

The heat required to change the state of solid to liquid is known as ‘the latent
heat of fusion’, and that from liquid to gas is called ‘the latent heat of
vaporisation’. Where energy absorbed produces a change in temperature, this
is referred to as ‘Sensible Heat’.

- 23 -
The graph (figure 13) shows the changes that occur as ice (below 0°C) is
converted into steam. The temperature rises when the ice is heating up then
remains constant as the ice turns to water. The water temperature increases
as its temperature rises from 0°C to 100°C, then as it changes to steam its
temperature remains constant at 100°C.

Sensible heat and Latent heat may be referred to as Enthalpy and Specific
Enthalpy of change of phase, respectively.

Note. Most solids, when heated, expand and when changed into their liquid
state expand still further. This volume increase occurs while the mass remains
constant. The reverse happens on cooling, but with water it is different. When
water gets cooler so it contracts initially but when cooling through 4°C to 0°C
(freezing point) expansion occurs (the reason water pipes burst when being
frozen).

Fig. 13 ENTHALPY CHANGES DURING CHANGES OF STATE

(ICE TO STEAM)

- 24 -
 MECHANICS

This is the study of equilibrium of bodies or motion of bodies and is divided

into statics, dynamics and kinetics.

STATICS

Force

If we want to bend, stretch, compress, twist or break a solid body (eg a piece of
metal), then we must apply a force. The application of a force is also necessary
to produce movement of a static body and to produce acceleration, slow down
(decelerate) or change the direction of a moving body. Whenever we consider a
force we see it in terms of its effect on the body to which it is applied. In this
way a force is defined as ‘that which changes or attempts to change the state
of rest of a body or of its state of uniform motion in a straight line.’

In all its forms, the unit of force is the Newton (N). The Newton is small, for
example: If a small apple is placed on the hand it will exert a force of about 1
Newton towards the earth. Not very scientific but it gives an idea as to how
small the Newton is.

In more scientific terms a Newton is defined as the force required to impart an

acceleration of 1 metre per second squared on a mass of 1 kilogram.

When a force is represented on a drawing by an arrowed line the length of

which is proportional to the amount of force and it is pointing in the correct
direction then the quantity is known as a Vector Quantity.

Moment of a Force

A force can also be used to produce rotation, as occurs when opening a door or
tightening a nut with a spanner. Such motion does require the door (or lever)
to be pivoted at some fixed position and the force to be applied at some
distance from the pivot.

This turning effect of the force is known as ‘the moment of the force’, and its
magnitude is determined by the product of the force and the distance from the
hinge or pivot (force times distance). However, the distance must be the
perpendicular distance from the pivot (ie the distance measured at right angles
to the force) to the line of action of the force. Referring to figure 14:

Moment (of the = Magnitude of the force x Perpendicular distance

force) Nm (in Newtons - N) between pivot and line of
action of the force (in
metres - m)

- 25 -
 Fig. 14 MOMENT OF A FORCE

Moment = F x D in figure 14.

Applying the force in such a way that its line of action passes through the
pivot will not produce a turning effect (the arrows in figure 15a and b). Both
force and distance are necessary to produce a moment and the perpendicular
distance in this case is zero.

If the force is inclined, as shown in figure 16 then the turning effect is reduced
because the perpendicular distance is reduced.

Both figures 14 and 16 show that if motion had taken place, the lever would
have moved in a clockwise direction hence both these moments are referred to
as ‘clockwise moments’.

Fig. 15 FORCE APPLIED THROUGH THE PIVOT LINE

- 26 -
 Fig. 16 FORCE INCLINED AT AN ANGLE

If the force is applied in such a way as to produce a counter clockwise rotation

then, the moment produced would be called an ‘anti-clockwise moment’.

Movement is not necessary for a moment to be present in a system, and the

tendency of the force to produce a turning effect is often used in calculations
such as when working out how much power is produced by an internal
combustion engine and when working out the centre of gravity of an aircraft.

The power of an internal combustion engine can be defined by the amount of

torque it produces. This torque (T) is measured in the same units (force x
distance) T = F x d (Nm) where:

T = Torque (Nm)
F = Force (N)
d = Distance (m)

Note that torque is a twisting force and is not the same as rotation. Torque can
be present in a shaft whether it is actual turning or not.

Equilibrium

QUESTION Can you define equilibrium? (2 mins)

ANSWER Equilibrium is where all the forces and all the moments acting on
a body cancel each other and the net effect on the body is zero. In
other words it will not move if it is in a state of rest, and if is in
motion it will not slow-down or accelerate or change direction.

The state of equilibrium is very important in engineering situations. It provides

stability in practice and a means of solving problems in theory.

- 27 -
Consider the beam, shown below in figure 17. It is supported at a single point,
which also acts as a pivot. Two forces P1 and P2 are situated each side of the
pivot at distances from the pivot of S1 and S2 respectively.

Fig. 17 EQUILIBRIUM OF ROTATION

The product P2 x S2 produces a clockwise moment about the pivot and the
product P1 x S1 produces an anti-clockwise moment about the pivot. For
equilibrium of rotation (ie, no rotation) these two moments must be equal,
ie P1 x S1 = P2 x S2 (P1S1 = P2S2).

Although rotation is prevented by the two moments cancelling each other out,
the beam can still move up or down, ie translate vertically, hence for
equilibrium of translation, the sum of the downward forces must be balanced
by the sum of the upward forces (reaction force). In this case there is just one
reaction force, supplied at the pivot, as shown in figure 18
(P1 + P2 down = P1 + P2 up).

Once these two conditions of rotation and translation have been satisfied then
the beam can be said to be in a state of equilibrium.

Fig. 18 EQUILIBRIUM OF TRANSLATION

If more than two forces are involved for equilibrium of rotation, the sum of all
the clockwise moments must equal the sum of all the anti-clockwise moments.

- 28 -
Lets now consider some examples.

Example 1. In this case the requirement is to balance the beam in figure 19 by

determining the unknown force (P).

Fig. 19 BEAM BALANCE – ONE UNKNOWN FORCE (P)

Taking moments about the pivot. For equilibrium of rotation:

Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments

(P x 6m) + (1N x 2m) = (2N x 2m) + (5N x 4m)
6+2 = 4 + 20
6P = 4 + 20 – 2
6P = 22
22 2
P = = 3 N (3.667N)
6 3

Example 2. A uniform bar AB (figure 20), 7m long has downward forces of:
25N at a point 0.5m from A
12N at a point 3.0m from A
and 12N at a point 1.0m from B, applied to it.

Find the position of the pivot which will allow the beam to balance, ie be in a
state of equilibrium (ignore the mass of the beam).

- 29 -
 Fig. 20 BEAM BALANCE – PIVOT LOCATION

Let the pivot be positioned on the beam at a distance x from end A. From
equilibrium of translation, we know that the reaction force at the pivot must
equal the sum of all the downward forces (25N + 12N + 12N = 49N).

Taking moments about A for equilibrium of rotation:

Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments

(25N x 0.5m) + (12N x 3.0m) + (12N x 6m) = 49N x x

12.5Nm + 36Nm + 72Nm = 49x

120.5Nm = 49x
120.5 Nm
x = = 2.46m
49 N

The solution is shown below.

Fig. 21 BEAM BALANCE – SOLUTION

- 30 -
As the last example shows, the point chosen about which the moments are
taken, can be any point on the beam, provided that the beam is in
equilibrium.

In the next example, the weight of the beam is taken into consideration. Of
course, each part of the beam has its own mass and weight, but there is a
point where all the mass or weight appears to act. This point, the half-way
point on a uniform beam, is known as it’s ‘centre of gravity’ (C of G). It is the
point, at which, if supported by a single support, the beam on its own would
balance.

Example 3. A uniform beam AB, 4m long and 200N weight, has forces of 120N
and 20N applied respectively to its ends A and B (figure 22). Find
the point about which the beam will balance.

Fig. 22 BEAM BALANCE – MASS & FORCES PIVOT LOCATION

The weight of the beam alone would act at a point 2m from either A or B ie, the
mid-position of the beam and its centre of gravity. Let the balance point be at a
distance x from end A. Taking moments about point A for equilibrium of
rotation:

Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anti-clockwise moments

(200N x 2m) + (20N x 4m) = (340N x x) (340N being the upward
reaction)
400 + 80 = 340x

480
x =
340

= 1.41m

So the beam will balance about a point 1.41m from point A. In other words
This is the centre of gravity (C of G) of the beam with all the forces acting on it
as shown.

- 31 -
The examples above provide the basics of C of G location on aircraft and
the calculations for actual aircraft weight and balance are very similar.

For example, the aircraft is weighed to find its total weight and its centre of
gravity (after manufacture, major overhaul, major modification, complete re-
spray). It is put on weighing platforms one under each main landing gear and
one under the nose/tail wheel. Their total reactions provide the total weight of
the aircraft and taking moments about a specified point on the longitudinal
datum line the centre of gravity can be established – at least along the fore and
aft (longitudinal) datum line of the aircraft. Laterally the C of G can be
established by reference to the reactions on the two main (or four main)
landing gear weighing platforms.

Aircraft weighing and C of G location is covered in detail in LBP EASA module

7 and C of G location is also covered later in this book.

A Couple

In some situations, for example the winding up of a clockwork mechanism, the

forces that are applied to the winding key are equal in magnitude, but opposite
in sense (figure 23).

Fig. 23 A COUPLE PRODUCING A TORQUE

In this case the resultant force on the pivot is zero and there is only pure
rotation present with no tendency for the pivot to move sideways. The value of
the resultant moment 2(F x ½d) produces rotation.

Such an arrangement of forces is called a ‘COUPLE’ and the resultant moment

of a couple is called a TORQUE.

- 32 -
 SCALAR & VECTOR QUANTITIES

All quantities may be described as being either ‘scalar’ or ‘vector’.

A scalar quantity has magnitude only and nothing else is required in defining
it. As such, it may be represented by the length of a straight line drawn to
some scale.

Examples of scalar quantities include, time, mass, temperature and speed.

They all have magnitude but no direction.

Thus a time interval of 20 seconds may be represented as a straight line with

marked equal divisions, eg using a scale of 1cm = 2 seconds as in figure 24.

Fig. 24 SCALAR QUANTITY – TIME IN SECONDS

Figure 25 shows a temperature scale of 20°C using a scale of 3.33 degrees per
division. It is more usual to have scale divisions of 1, 2, 5, 10, 100, 1000 but
any scale division may be used.

Fig. 25 SCALAR QUANTITY TEMPERATURE - 1 DIVISION = 3.33°° C

A vector quantity on the other hand, not only possesses magnitude but also
has direction and sense.

Examples of vector quantities include, force, velocity and acceleration.

A force of 5N applied to a body as shown in figure 26 is a vector quantity. It is

a straight line, the length of which represents magnitude, drawn at an angle,
representing direction and including an arrow showing the direction it is
applied, ie it’s sense, up or down.

On the same drawing an example vector line is drawn showing a scale of

1cm = 1N.

Vector quantities have the advantage over scalar quantities in that they can be
added graphically, resulting in solutions to various problems just using
(accurate) drawings.

- 33 -
 Fig. 26 SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING A VECTOR QUANTITY

Consider now a situation in which two forces, one vertically upwards and one
horizontally to the right, are applied to a body which is free to move in any
direction (figure 27). The question is: In which direction does the body move
and with what force?

The solution is to accurately draw a vector diagram, drawing each force to

scale and in the correct direction (the drawing may be completed using a
pencil, paper, rule, set square etc. or using a computer using the appropriate
program).

Fig. 27 VECTOR QUANTITIES – SPACE DIAGRAM

It is unimportant as to which force is drawn first in the vector diagram, but

which-ever one is chosen, the next vector must be added to it in turn, ie the
second vector starts where the first ends.

You can choose any scale for the drawing. In this example we are going to use
1cm = 2N. Starting with the 20N force, draw this in the correct direction
(horizontally) 10cm long.

Draw the next vector (representing the 12N force) vertically from the end of the
first 6cm long (figure 28).

- 34 -
 Fig. 28 VECTOR DIAGRAM

A line joining the start of the first vector to the end point of the second vector
represents the result of the combined forces acting on the body. It’s magnitude,
using the drawing scale, is found from its length and its direction found by
using a protractor and measuring the angle it makes with the horizontal.

The RESULTANT is the name given to this vector and it represents the single
force that replaces the original force system and yet has the same effect on the
body.

Thus a single force of 23.3N at an angle of 31° pulling to the right could
replace the two original forces with the same result (figure 29).

Note the length of the resultant could be found by using mathematics

(Pythagoras) and its angle could be found by using trigonometry. Here we will
concentrate on using the drawing method solution.

Fig. 29 SINGLE FORCE RESULTANT

A single force that can hold the original system of forces in equilibrium so the
body does not move is known as the EQUILIBRANT. It is equal in magnitude to
the resultant but it is opposite in sense (figure 30). Thus to hold the original
force arrangement in equilibrium, the equilibrant required is as shown in
figure 31.

- 35 -
 Fig. 30 VECTOR DIAGRAM WITH EQUILIBRANT

It is worth noting that, as shown above, for a system under the action of three
co-planar forces to be in a state of equilibrium, then those forces must pass
through a common point (ie, the forces must be concurrent), and when
represented as vectors and drawn in order, they must form a closed triangle.
This is known as the ‘triangle of forces’ (co-planar means on the same plane).

Fig. 31 EQUILIBRANT

Using vector addition systems with more than three forces can be solved in a
similar way. Consider the forces acting on the body as shown in the space
diagram in figure 32. The forces all act from the centre and are 2, 5, 3, 2, and
10N respectively. Which way is the body likely to move? In other words what is
the resultant?

- 36 -
 Fig. 32 RESOLUTION OF THE FORCES ACTING ON A BODY
USING VECTORS

To solve the problem graphically the forces are drawn accurately in order on a
vector diagram.

Start with any force. In the vector diagram above the vertical 2N force is used
as the start. It is drawn accurately to scale vertically, then the next force (5N)
is drawn horizontally from the end of the 2N line, then the 3N force is drawn to
scale at the correct angle from the end of the 5N line, then the 2N force is
drawn and finally the 10N force is drawn.

From the beginning of the vector diagram to where the 10N force finishes is the
resultant. This represents the direction and the magnitude of a single force
that could replace all the others with the same result.

Note that a vector component at 90° to its original is sometimes referred to as

the quadrature component.

- 37 -
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity (C of G) is defined as the point where all the mass of a
body appears to be concentrated. In a gravitational field (anywhere on the
earth) this is also the point where all the weight appears to act, no matter
what attitude the body is in. The word ‘appears’ is important since with some
hollow shapes the centre of gravity occurs in space (with a horse-shoe for
example the C of G is in the space between the two sides of the shoe).

Fig. 33 LOCATION OF C OF G FOR SOME COMMON SHAPES

The centre of gravity should not be confused with the centre of area which is
known as a CENTROID. For a body to possess a centre of gravity it must have
a volume ie, it must be three dimensional. An area is only two-dimensional
and as such cannot possess mass. Figure 33 shows some examples of the
location of the centre of gravity of some common shapes (the black dot).

For comparison, figure 34 shows the location of the centroid of some common
shapes.

- 38 -
 Fig. 34 CENTROIDS OF SOME COMMON SHAPES

The location of the C of G of an aircraft is of particular importance, and is

obtained by using moments.

The C of G lies at a point normally somewhere in the middle of the fuselage

(figure 35), about halfway between the wing tips laterally, part way up the
height of the fuselage vertically and longitudinally about 1/3rd of the total
length from the front. If fact, it is at the intersection of the longitudinal, lateral
and vertical axes (the three imaginary axes are each drawn through the centre
of gravity. The C of G is nearly opposite the centre of lift of the wings for a fixed
wing aircraft (more of this in module 8), and opposite the centre of the main
rotor disc of a single rotor helicopter.

The actual location of the C or G is determined by the manufacturer and can

vary in service depending on the fuel state and loading of the aircraft
(including passengers).

In practice the vertical location is not normally the concern of the maintenance
engineer and the lateral location varies little and rarely needs to be calculated
for – though it has to be in its correct position of course. The main concern of
the engineer is the longitudinal location and when weighing the aircraft this
has to be calculated.

- 39 -
In very general terms the aircraft is placed on weighing platforms (the aircraft
is wheeled up onto the (very low) platforms – one per landing leg) and the mass
at each platform noted (called reactions). By adding the reactions (one nose
and two mains for example) the total mass is obtained, and by calculation the
longitudinal C of G can be obtained.

Fig. 35 AIRCRAFT C of G LOCATION

For example. An aircraft has a total downward action of 70kN (mass of

7135.6kg). Its nose wheel is positioned 3m longitudinally in front of the main
wheels. Determine the position of its C of G from the nose wheel if the load on
both main wheels is 60kN (and that on the nose wheel is 70kN – 60kN =
10kN).

Figure 36 shows a simplified side view of the aircraft with only one main wheel
showing as the other is immediately behind it in the drawing.

Let the C of G be x metres from the nose wheel centre-line along the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis. As the centre of gravity is the balancing point we can
consider the aircraft as a simple beam supported at this position. An upward
reaction equal to its total mass would be necessary to provide equilibrium of
translation at the C of G position.

- 40 -
 Fig. 36 AIRCRAFT C of G ON THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS

Thus for equilibrium of rotation, taking moments about the nose wheel:

Sum of Clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments

60kN x 3m = 70kN x x

180
x = = 2.57m
70

So the C of G is 2.57m aft of the nose gear centre-line. In reality it is usual to

have a master station on an aircraft and all measurements would be take from
this.

In this example the centre of gravity was found along the longitudinal axis.
However, its location within the body of the aircraft would require additional
moments to be taken along its lateral axis as well as its vertical axis. In other
words the actual centre of gravity requires three planes to be considered, the
longitudinal, lateral and vertical.

In reality the longitudinal is the one that is calculated when weighing an

aircraft with a tolerance allowed for the lateral position (taken as a difference
between the weight recordings of the port (left) and starboard (right) weighing*
devices). It is rare for the vertical position to be considered.

* Weighing devices are placed at the nose/tail of the aircraft and at each main
wheel positions. The aircraft may be towed onto each unit with the wheels
resting on low level flat steel weighing platforms. Alternatively the aircraft may
be jacked clear of the ground with a weighing unit fitted to the top of each
jack. The total mass of the aircraft is found by adding the value of the 3
weighing units.

Note that the AMM is always consulted and each aircraft type would have a
specific weighing procedure.

- 41 -
QUESTION Define the terms longitudinal, lateral and vertical axes (5 mins).

ANSWER: These are all straight imaginary lines running through the
aircraft’s C of G all at right angles to each other. The longitudinal
one runs from nose to tail, the lateral one runs from wing tip to
wing tip (or parallel to a line running from wing tip to wing tip),
and the vertical line runs vertically through the other two.

DENSITY

Density is defined as ‘mass per unit volume’ and is the amount of matter that
can be ‘packed’ into a specified volume. The more matter than can be ‘packed
in’, the greater the density. Density is given the symbol ‘ρ’ (rho).

mass kg
and density ρ =
volume m 3

Some typical values are given in table 4. There is no need to commit the values
to memory except for those of water and air. Note that aluminium alloy is
about 1/3rd the mass of steel (size for size).

MATERIAL DENSITY

Aluminium 2700kg/m3

Steel 7870kg/m3

Tungsten 19300kg/m3

Mercury 13600kg/m3

Water 1000kg/m3

Air 1.225kg/m3 at 15°C

and pressure
101.3kN/m2 at sea
level.

TABLE 4 MATERIAL DENSITIES

- 42 -
The density of a given body is not a fixed quantity and will change with any
change in volume of the body resulting from a temperature change. The
density of gases are particularly susceptible to change either as a result of
pressure changes and/or temperature changes, this is why these values are
quoted when-ever the density of a gas is given.

In general weight (mass) is the enemy of all aircraft engineers. Aircraft have to
be made as light as possible to help them to fly through the air. This means
that the less dense the structure material is made from the better – so long as
it is strong enough.

So in general we are looking for low density material provided it has good
strength (has a good strength/weight ratio – in other words is strong for its
weight) and has other desired properties.

Aluminium and its alloys are good examples of this. The main properties are
that they are light and strong.

Low density materials are used for cores of composite sandwich construction
and these include micro-balloons, aluminium or composite honey comb etc
(density under 100kg/m3).

In some cases we are looking for high density materials - for such things as
mass balance weights in flying control surfaces for example. Depleted uranium
(density 19,000 kg/m3) was used for this purpose until safety* fears made it
unacceptable, but steel, tungsten, lead and titanium are still used.

* Uranium is radio active and even depleted uranium is slightly radio active
and it was withdrawn because of the health problems associated with
radiation.

Where strength is the main concern then the density has to be a secondary
consideration. Steel is very strong, particularly alloy steel, but it is also dense.
But when strength is required, such as main structural components – engine
bearers, main spars etc - then steel is used.

This leads us onto the mechanical properties of materials.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Whenever a force is applied to a solid, deformation takes place. Sometimes this

deformation is permanent as in the case when bending locking wire for
example. Sometimes the deformation is temporary and on removal of the force
the solid returns to its original shape eg, when the deflection force is removed
from a spring. When the deformation of the material is temporary the material
is said to be elastic and the response of the material is said to be an elastic
response.

- 43 -
The response of a material to the application of a force depends on the size and
direction of the force and the period of time during which it acts, the type of
material and the area on which the force acts.

The material attempts to neutralise the applied force by exerting an opposing

force or reaction. If the applied force exceeds the reaction, the material breaks
or deforms.

With most materials if the applied force is small, then when it is removed the
material behaves elastically and returns to its original shape. If the force is
greater than a certain amount then the material will change shape
permanently.

When a material changes shape either elastically or permanently it is said to

STRAIN (more of this later).

A force applied to a material can cause TENSION, COMPRESSION, SHEAR or

TORSION depending on how and in which direction it is applied.

TENSION

If a force tends to stretch the material the force is called a tensile force and the
material is said to be in tension eg, an elastic band, the cords of a parachute, a
spring balance, lifting cable, a towing arm, flying control cables – these all
experience tension. Structures that are designed to take tensile loads only are
called TIES and are usually of small cross-sectional area.

A good example of a structure designed for tension only is a rope, cable or

chain. They cannot take any other load but are good in tension. Figure 37
shows a rope under tension with its internal forces trying to resist the pulling
force the men/women are putting into the rope.

Fig. 37 TUG-O-WAR

In general the aircraft designer likes tension loads as metals and design
techniques can cope with this type of load very well. The designer is not so
keen on compressive loads as structures to cope with these are heavy.

- 44 -
COMPRESSION

If a force tends to compress or squeeze a material the force is called a

compressive force, eg the legs of a chair or table, aircraft landing gear legs
when the aircraft is on the ground, walls holding a house up etc. Structures
that are designed to withstand compression are called STRUTS and are
usually of larger cross-section – to prevent buckling. This larger cross-section
makes them heavier – and this is what the aircraft designer does not like.

Fig. 38 COLUMNS UNDER COMPRESSION

Figure 38 shows the columns of a classical building supporting the roof

structure. They are designed to withstand (mainly) compressive forces and the
drawing shows the internal forces doing just that. Each column has to have a
reasonable diameter to prevent it buckling. The columns have to resist a small
amount of bending and shear loads as well, so the stresses in them can
become complex.

SHEAR

A material is said to be in shear if the forces applied to it tend to slide one face
of the material over an adjacent face, eg paper failing in shear when cut by
scissors, a rivet holding an assembly together (figure 39). A perpendicular force
on a beam will create a shear force at the point of application (figure 40).

Fig. 39 SHEAR STRESS IN A RIVET

- 45 -
 Fig. 40 BEAM

Figure 40 shows a simple beam resting on two supports at either end. Not too
unlike a slab footbridge over a stream. At the point of contact with the
supports the loads are shear loads. The beam will tend to bend in the middle
and this will give rise to complex stresses in these areas.

In an aircraft structure (as in all structures) it is rare for any one part to have
a pure compressive or a pure tensile load. So most load bearing members are
subjected to a combination of tensile, compressive and shear forces. When
subjected to all these forces the structure is called a BEAM. A good example of
a beam is the main spar of the wing of an aircraft (figure 41).

Fig. 41 BENDING FORCE ON A MAIN SPAR

Figure 41 shows the front view of an aircraft mainplane. Its main structural
member is the front spar (main spar) – which is usual for most aircraft. It is a
CANTILEVER BEAM as it is attached at one end only. Most aircraft wings are
attached at the fuselage end only, but some wings on some small aircraft do
have an additional support strut from the fuselage to the wing which means
they are not cantilever.

With the aircraft in the air the lift force will bend the wing upwards (for large
aircraft the bending moment can be high and the wing tip can move up several
feet) putting a compressive force on the top surface, a tensile force on the
bottom surface and a shear force in the middle – hence the middle part of a
beam is called a shear web.

- 46 -
When on the ground, with the main landing gear near to or in the fuselage, the
wing will droop due to its own weight (and the weight of the engines if they are
attached to the wing) and the compressive and tensile forces will be reversed
(compressive on the bottom of the spare and tensile on the top), but the shear
web will still be in shear.

Figure 42 shows the details of a typical beam. It is a cantilever beam (fixed at

one end) with flanges designed to withstand compressive/tensile forces while
the web is designed to withstand shear forces. Note also that most of the mass
of the beam material is designed to be in the top and bottom flanges – this is
where the tensile and compressive stresses are highest.

Fig. 42 BEAM DETAILS

Figure 43 shows a graph of the compressive and tensile stresses in the beam
subject to a bending force as shown in figure 42. With the force pushing down
as shown the compressive stress gets higher towards the bottom flange and
the tensile stress gets higher towards the top flange.

Fig. 43 GRAPH OF STRESS IN A CANTILEVER BEAM

- 47 -
TORSION

This is a form of shear stress within a structure. It is mainly experienced by

round shafts used for driving components in a circular motion. These include
propeller shafts, helicopter main and tail rotor drive shafts, torque tubes in
flying control systems and other applications. For torsion to exist the shaft
must experience a twisting moment at one end (torque) and that twisting must
be resisted at the other. The shaft can be rotating or stationary but the
tendency to twist must exist.

A good example of torsion is when wringing out a wet towel (or similar).
Grasping both ends in the hands, wring one hand one way and the other hand
the opposite way (figure 44) and the towel will experience torsion.

Fig. 44 TORSION

Figure 45 shows a propeller shaft. In service the engine rotates the propeller
shaft to rotate the propeller (in the drawing shaft and propeller rotate
clockwise when viewed from the front). The propeller resists this rotation
because it has to work against the air (aerodynamic drag) to produce thrust.
This will produce torsion or torque in the shaft.

As the propeller is pulling the aircraft forward so the shaft is experiencing

tension as well as torsional loads. If the propeller blades can be put into
negative angle of attack for reverse thrust on landing (as on some aircraft) then
the tensile load is replaced by a compressive load – with the torsion load
remaining.

Shafts are designed primarily to withstand torsion.

- 48 -
 Fig. 45 TORSION

STRESS

Stress is defined as force per unit area – in the imperial system lbs force per
square inch (psi), in the SI system it is the Pascal (Pa). A Pascal is defined is 1
Newton per square meter (N/m2). So 1Pa = 1N/m2. The Pa is a small unit and
often quoted as kPa or MPa.

STRESS = N Pa
m2

Note that the unit of stress is the same as the unit of pressure.

When a force is applied to a material the material is said to be in a state of

stress. The intensity of this stress will depend on the magnitude and direction
of the applied force and the cross-sectional area of the material withstanding
the force.

For direct tensile or compressive stresses this area is measured at right angles
to the direction of the force.

For sheer stress the area will be the adjacent faces which the shear force is
tending to slide one over the other.

applied force (or load)

Thus: stress =
cross sectional area of material

units = N/m2 = Pascals

- 49 -
STRAIN

When a body is under stress, distortion of its shape occurs and this distortion
is called Strain. The amount of strain can be very small and has to be
measured using a DTI (dial test indicator), strain gauge or similar instrument.
For a material under tensile or compressive stress the strain is measured by
the ratio:

change in length
Strain = (this is a dimensionless quantity)
original length

In the case of shear strain it is not only a change in length that is considered.
When considering shear strain it is best to imagine the material as made up of
a series of thin plates and the shear stress as trying to slide one plate over
another (figure 46). This produces a deformation in the material which can be
measured using accurate transducers.

x
The shear strain is measured by the ratio where x is the relative movement
L
between the top and bottom the material in question and L is the
perpendicular distance between these surfaces.

Fig. 46 SHEAR STRAIN

HOOKE’S LAW

During loading many materials initially behave as if they are elastic, but
become plastic (acquire a permanent deformation) as the load increases. The
connection between load and extension was first made by Robert Hooke
(English physicist 1635 – 1703). His law states that “The extension produced
in an elastic material is directly proportional to the force (or load) which
produces it.”

- 50 -
This relationship, if represented graphically (figure 47), produces a straight
line graph up to a certain point, known as ‘the Limit of Proportionality’, after
this the change in shape is no longer proportional to the load and the graph
starts to curve.

Most materials can be deformed up to this limit many times and in each case
the material will return to its original shape after the deforming load is
released.

Fig. 47 GRAPH FOR PLAIN CARBON STEEL

OF LOAD AGAINST EXTENSION (LOAD EXTENSION GRAPH)

The point at which the material ceases to be elastic is known as the ‘Elastic
Limit’. Its position varies with the material under test. With some materials it
coincides with the ‘Limit of Proportionality’, but with others it occurs on the
curved and non-proportional part of the graph.

Wherever the elastic limit occurs, if it is exceeded then the material will never
return to its original length, it will have acquired a permanent set (a
permanent change in shape).

Springs have a very high elastic limit but if stressed beyond this the spring will
take on a permanent set and the spring is no longer fit for purpose.

To establish the elastic limit a metal test piece is placed in a special testing
machine and a tensile force is applied to stretch the test piece. As the force is
increased its value is noted as is the extension of the test piece. These values
are plotted on a graph at regular intervals as the load is increased. This
process continues until the test piece fails. The values of load (or stress)
against extension (or strain) is plotted on the graph and all the dots joined up.
A graph similar to that shown in figure 47 will result (at least for ferrous
metals).

It is called a load-extension graph or stress-strain graph.

- 51 -
Up to the limit of proportionality stress ∝ strain (∝ means is proportional to)

stress
Thus = a constant (E)
strain

The graph shown in figure 47 is typical for plain carbon steels but many
metals will not show a distinct limit of proportionality and the straight line will
often start to move into a curve with no obvious point showing up as the
elastic limit. With these sorts of graphs various techniques are used to
establish the elastic limit.

YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The constant ‘E’ is known as ‘Young’s* Modulus of Elasticity’, and has the
same units as stress ie, Pascals (N/m2) and is equal to stress/strain. It is a
constant for a particular material. Table 5 below shows some typical values
(there is no need to commit any to memory).

E = stress
strain

* Thomas Young British physicist 1773 – 1892.

MATERIAL E (GN/m2)

Aluminium 70

Mild Steel 200

Cast Iron 120

Tungsten 410

TABLE 5 YOUNG’S MODULUS FOR SOME MATERIALS

QUESTION A tie rod of rectangular cross-section, 60mm x 10mm carries a

tensile load of 30kN. Calculate the tensile stress in N/mm2.
(10 mins)

Load 30 x 10 3 N
ANSWER σ= = ( σ = tensile stress)
Area 60 x 10mm 2

= 50 N/mm2

- 52 -
QUESTION What diameter of circular bar is required to carry a load (f) of 38.5
kN if the stress is 40N/mm2?

Load f
ANSWER: σ= =
Area Πd 2
4

4 x 38.5 x 10 3
40 =
Π x d2

4 x 38.5 x 10 3
or d=
40 x 10 6 x π

d = 35mm

FLUIDS & GASES

PRESSURE

Pressure in engineering and scientific terms is defined as force per unit area,
and as a formula:

Force
Pressure = = N/m2
Area

In imperial units it is lbs per square inch (psi), common on aircraft. In the SI
system it is N/m2 - the Pascal (Pa).

It is interesting to note that there is 6894Pa to 1psi. A typical tyre pressure for
a car would be 30psi gauge. In SI units it would be 206,820Pa (about 207kPa).
So the Pa is not very big is it?

Pressure has the same units as those for stress - the Pascal (or psi). However,
it is likely that you will also come across another unit of pressure, the bar.

The following conversions are useful as most calculations, in science anyway,

are carried out in Pa.

1 Pascal = 1 N/m2

and 1 bar = 105 N/m2

When considering pressure, both liquids and gases behave in a similar way
remembering that fluid has the ability to flow and occupy any shape but not
necessarily the volume of a vessel into which it is put. Gases will have the
same properties except that a gas will occupy the whole volume of a vessel into
which it is put.

- 53 -
Whether a liquid or gas, certain properties are attributed to fluids and these
are:

(i) The pressure exerted at a point within a fluid is the same in all
directions.
(ii) The pressure exerted by a fluid is at right angles to the surface in
which it is in contact (figure 48).
(iii) For all practical purposes the pressure is felt throughout the fluid
without loss. Not strictly true as there is some pressure loss
particularly when long pipe runs are concerned.
(vi) The force ‘F’ exerted by a fluid is calculated as the pressure ‘P’
times the area ‘A’ (F = P x A).

Items (i) to (iii) above are sometimes referred to as Pascal’s Laws.

Fig. 48 FLUID PRESSURE

Remember that gases are compressible and liquids are considered

incompressible. Again not 100% true as liquids will compress a very small
amount which depends on their Bulk Modulus.

Bulk Modulus

All materials (solids, liquids and gasses) have a Bulk Modulus (K). When
pressure is applied to a substance it will decrease in volume by a certain
amount and K is a value related to the pressure increase required to decrease
the volume by a certain factor.

Kwater = 2.2 x 109Pa

Kair = 1.42 x 105Pa (adiabatic compression)

- 54 -
Note from the above:

1. Kwater is higher than Kair. This shows that water will change little in
volume when pressure is applied and air will change volume
readily.
2. The term ‘adiabatic compression’ means that the air is compressed
quickly and the temperature rises. Gasses can be compressed very
slowly to keep the temperature constant – this is called ‘isothermal
compression’.

The Bramah Press

Practical arrangements that use the transmission of fluid pressure for their
operation include hydraulic systems in aircraft to retract the landing gear and
operate the flaps, power steering etc. Joseph Bramah, English inventor,
invented the Bramah press in 1796. It involves a linked arrangement of
cylinders as shown in figure 49. Its construction shows some important
principles relating to hydraulic systems.

It consists of two cylinders connected together by a pipe. Each cylinder has a

close fitting piston (in 1796 it was difficult to manufacture – no modern lathes,
drilling machines etc) that provides a leak-proof piston and cylinder
arrangement.

The system is filled with a liquid (considered as incompressible). In actual fact

it is not, but for practical purposes it is considered to be incompressible, it is
only at very high pressures that liquids compress and behave like a gas.

Fig. 49 BRAMAH’S PRESS

- 55 -
As the small piston (x) is moved in, the fluid is pressurised to pressure ‘P’. (P =
f/a, where P = pressure, f = force and a = area of small piston). This pressure
is felt throughout the fluid and also in large cylinder ‘y’.

However, since the area (A) of the piston in cylinder ‘y’ is larger than that of the
piston in cylinder ‘x’, the force F exerted by piston ‘y’ is larger than the applied
force ‘f’ at cylinder ‘x’ (F = P x A, where F = force of large piston, P = pressure
and A = area of large piston).

This means that a comparatively small force on the small piston can be used
to produce a much larger force at the large piston and it is this principle that
is used with hydraulic lifting jacks. However the movement of piston ‘y’ will be
small compared to the movement of piston ‘x’.

As the liquid is effectively incompressible, then the volume displaced from

cylinder ‘x’ is the same volume moved to cylinder ‘y’. So volume l x a = volume
L times A, where ‘l’ = amount of movement of small piston and ‘a’ is the area,
and ‘L’ = the amount of movement of the large piston and ‘A’ is the area. The
result is a smaller movement of piston y as compared to piston movement x (A
being large so L must be small).

The important thing to remember is that the pressure is the same throughout
the system and the volume displaced from one cylinder is the same put into
the other.

Aircraft make extensive use of hydraulic systems to power flight controls,

landing gear retraction mechanisms, flaps, slats etc where the principles
discussed above are put to use.

Pressure Due to Depth

Pressure is also related to the depth of the fluid. On aircraft we take little
account of this because it is very small compared to the very high pressures
used in the systems. We consider the hydraulic fluid pressure (in any
particular line without valves) to be the same whether at the bottom of the
aircraft (wheel brakes) or at the top (PFCUs at the top of the fin for example).
However there is a difference – even if it is very small.

When considering the atmosphere however, the depth (or height) of the
atmosphere plays a considerable part in its values of pressure and density.
The column of air reaching up to the limit of the atmosphere creates a
downwards pressure of approximately 101.3 kN/m2 (1013.2 mb, or 14.7 psi)
at sea level. With an increase in altitude from sea level there is less of the
column of air above and so pressure and density will decrease.

In liquids the pressure created due to depth, is more dramatic. When a diver
descends in the water so the pressure builds up quickly the deeper he/she
gets.

- 56 -
This is a problem for submarines as they have to withstand considerable
pressures and all have a limit on how far they can descend, otherwise the
pressure of the water could crush them.

The Mercury Barometer

Many pressure measuring instruments make use of the fact that the air exerts
pressure due to the height of the column air above it. The mercury (Hg) in
glass barometer is a good example. This instrument consists, basically, of a
glass tube 1m long, and sealed at one end.

By immersing the tube laying down on its side in a bath of mercury, it will
completely fill with mercury. When moved to the upright position, but keeping
the open end in the mercury bath, the mercury will fall a little from the sealed
top-end leaving a ‘vacuum’ above the mercury. The column left in the tube is
supported by the air pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the bath
(figure 50).

Fig. 50 MERCURY BAROMETER

So the height (h) of the mercury is dependent on the atmospheric pressure and
it will rise and fall as the air pressure changes. Its height provides a direct
relationship with atmospheric pressure and allows accurate readings to be
taken of atmospheric pressure. This can be used in weather forecasting and in
the calibration of Pitot static instruments. Low atmospheric pressure usually
indicates wet or stormy weather and high pressure indicates fine weather (cold
in the winter and warm in the summer) – in the UK anyway.

The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 29.9in Hg.

- 57 -
The formula for calculating pressure (P) (in any liquid) due to depth is ρgh
(N/m2 or more correctly Pascals) where:

ρ = (rho) density of the fluid (kg/m3)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
and h = height or depth of liquid (m)

Example. Given that the density of mercury is 13600kg/m3 calculate the

height of a mercury column supported in the barometer when the ambient air
pressure is 101.3 kN/m2 (1.013 bars).

Pressure = ρgh

Pressure
h =
ρg
101.3 x 10 3 N / m 2
=
13600 x 9.81

= 0.759m

= 75.9cm

Absolute Pressure

The pressure measured from an absolute vacuum is known as ‘ABSOLUTE

PRESSURE’ whereas all other pressures are called ‘GAUGE PRESSURES’.

For example: Checking a tyre pressure reading with a pressure gauge gives a
reading of (say) 30psi (gauge pressure). But the tyre is in an atmospheric
pressure of 14.7psi, so its pressure is actually (in relation to a vacuum)
30 + 14.7 = 44.7psi absolute.

A reading of gauge pressure may be converted to absolute pressure by simply

adding atmospheric pressure.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = GAUGE PRESSURE + ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The Piezometer

This instrument uses height of a liquid to determine pressure (figure 51). It

consists of a tube (piezometer tube) inserted vertically into a container/pipe
carrying a liquid under pressure (low pressure). Liquid will rise up the tube
until the pressure due to its height equals the pressure in the pipe so the
height of the liquid column is an indication of the pressure in the vessel. Such
an instrument has limitations in that it can only be used for liquids, and for
liquids with a low density the height of the tube can be very long.

- 58 -
 Fig. 51 PIEZOMETER TUBE

Example: To what height would water rise in a piezometer tube if the gauge
pressure in the pipe is 19.62kN/m2? (Density of water = 1000kg/m3)

P(gauge) = ρgh
P
h =
ρg
19.62 x10 3
=
1000 x9.81

= 2m

The Manometer

The use of a U-tube can overcome some of the problems associated with the
simple piezometer. Figure 52 shows a U-tube attached to a pipe carrying fluid
under (low) pressure.

The U-tube contains a liquid which will not react or combine with the gas or
liquid in the pipe. The pressure of the fluid in the pipe forces the liquid around
the U-tube, until the height ‘h’ produces a pressure which equals the pressure
in the pipe, ie the pressure at ‘x’ is the same in both branches of the U-tube.

For a gas, the pressure at ‘x’ is considered to be the pressure used to measure
the pressure of the liquid column in the pipe. For most applications this works
well, but for very small pressures a correction must be made for the pressure
of the liquid column occupying the left hand branch, that is from ‘x’
downwards to the pipe centre of the bend (distance ‘y’).

Used extensively in wind tunnel testing (aerofoils, airframes etc).

- 59 -
 Fig. 52 MANOMETER

BUOYANCY

If a body is placed in water it will either sink or float, but whatever it does, it
will experience an up-thrust from the water equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces. This is known as Archimedes’s Principle (Archimedes - Greek
mathematician 287- 212bc).

With a sinking body the weight of the body is greater than the up-thrust
exerted on it, but with a floating body the up-thrust is greater than its weight.
And once the body has stabilised floating on the surface of the water the
resultant force on the body will be zero.

Fig. 53 FLUID DISPLACEMENT

This is the ‘principle of floatation’, which states that a floating body displaces
its own weight of fluid.

- 60 -
This statement is true, not only to bodies in liquids, but also to bodies in air. A
balloon, for example, in flight displaces its own volume of air and experiences
an up-thrust equal to the weight of the air displaced. If it can reduce its own
mass, by reducing the density of the air inside the balloon and hence reducing
its mass, then the balloon will rise.

The ‘gas’ in the balloon can be less dense due to:

* Using a gas that is naturally less dense than air (eg helium). Used
on weather balloons.
* Heating the air inside the balloon to make it expand and become
less dense. Hot air balloons use burners that can be turned on or
off to control the rate of ascent or descent of the balloon.

RELATIVE DENSITY

A value known as Relative Density or Specific Gravity is often used when

making comparisons between the density of a substance and the density of
pure water (density = 1000kg/m3). As a formula:

density of substance
Relative Density =
density of water

An instrument, which makes use of the Archimedes principle, is used to

provide a direct reading of relative density of liquids. It is called a hydrometer
(figure 54). It consists of a weighted sealed glass tube calibrated such as to
give a direct reading as it sits in the liquid.

Fig. 54 THE HYDROMETER

- 61 -
When the hydrometer is put in the liquid it floats upright with the immersed
volume representing the volume of liquid having an equal mass to that of the
hydrometer. It will float vertically and a reading can be taken on the scale at
the graduation where the liquid level settles.

The greater the density of the liquid, the smaller is the volume displaced, and
the hydrometer will ride high. With low density liquid a larger volume has to be
displaced and the hydrometer will sit lower in the liquid.

Well that’s the end of the first book in this module. How did you do? Well I
hope.

””””””

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