EMPLOYEE ABSENTEEISM: STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING AN
ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
WORKPLACE ABSENTEEISM: THE GROWING
CHALLENGE
A Critical Productivity, Cost and Quality
Issue
Employee absenteeism, an often "hidden" issue, albeit
one of growing importance to Canadian organizations,
translates into the interrelated issues of lost
productivity, poorer quality of product/service and
decreased customer satisfaction and has a potentially
negative effect on other employees.
Michael Millman, Manager, Municipal Labour
Relations, Municipal Electric Association, works with
some 180 public utility client organizations in Ontario.
He is convinced that short-term absenteeism (defined
as a high frequency of absence occurrences that are of
short duration) is a major problem in North America
with a significant cost impact on firms. Millman
contends: "Organizations are penalizing their good
performers when they 'allow' absenteeism to go
unchecked. By 'promoting wealth without work' we
compound the problem. We allow people to
successfully start to fail."
Nationally, it has been estimated that absenteeism
lowers productivity levels by 1 to 2 percentage points.
But while the negative impact of absenteeism on
productivity, quality, customer satisfaction and
competitive position is usually acknowledged, the real
cost of absenteeism to an organization is either
unrecognized or underestimated. The 1990 absence
statistics for one large Canadian organization in the
telecommunications industry help to put the costs-of-
absenteeism issue into context. In this company, the
average absence rate was 4.55 per cent (or 9.6 absent
days per employee). This represented 127,629 lost
productivity days, or 608 absent employees each day.
Direct costs for the one-year period were $15.4
million, with total costs of $38.5 million. It is obvious
that even a small reduction in overall absenteeism
could result in significant cost savings.
The acuteness of the problem is highlighted in Exhibit
1, which illustrates that a significant portion of the
nearly 400 participant companies in a recent
Conference Board of Canada compensation and human
resources outlook survey considered employee
absenteeism to be a current and growing problem.
Employee absenteeism had increased in the last three
years in close to a third of them. Nearly one-third
considered absenteeism a problem, and almost 20 per
cent said that employee absenteeism had increased and
was a problem.
Exhibit 1
Extent of Absenteeism
Employee absenteeism in my organization:
has increased in last 3 years 30%
is considered to be a problem 32%
has increased and is a problem 17%
________________________________________
Note: Number of responding organizations ranged from 343 to
392. Source: Compression Planning Outlook
1992, The Conference Borad of Canada.
A Critical Issue for Human Resource Policy
Planners
The absenteeism issue is becoming all the more critical
because of changes in the composition of the
workforce and changes in societal expectations vis-a-
vis work. The workforce of today is characterized by
an aging population, an increase in the proportion of
dual earners, a greater incidence of single parents and
the higher participation rate of women.
Results from a recent Statistics Canada survey showed
absences from work increasing steadily from 1977 to
1991 for both men and women in all occupations. One
factor responsible for the increase in absences revealed
by these statistics is the aging Canadian workforce. But
most of the increase is due to absences for personal
reasons, a trend linked directly to the growing entry of
women into the workforce and, in particular, according
to Ernest Akyeampong, Chief, Labour Force Activity
Section, Labour and Household Surveys Analysis
Division, Statistics Canada, the increased presence of
1
women with preschool children.
The implication of these developments is clear. The
very nature of absenteeism is changing, and absences
related to personal/family demands are on the rise.
Employee absence from work in the 1990s is often
linked to factors not in existence when traditional
policies were developed. In particular, the higher
incidence of dual earners and single parents is a new
phenomenon, one generally not taken into account by
CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
many now-outdated policies. For these reasons,
absenteeism has become a policy issue.
Reasons for Employees' Absence from Work
Laurence Kelly, President, IR Research Services, an
independent research and publishing firm, is a
recognized Canadian expert on this topic. Kelly
stresses the importance and interrelationship of
employee-related and job-related causes of
absenteeism. Among these, several deserve particular
attention.
An Aging Population
Specifically, older workers are generally
acknowledged to have an increased propensity for
certain types of illness or injury. For example, job-
related back injuries tend to be more prevalent among
older age categories of employees than among their
younger counterparts.
Attitude Towards Work
The "entitlement" philosophy prevailing among some
employees, coupled with the lack of understanding of
what the employer-employee work contract really
entails, may lead to abuse of sick leave provisions.
Personal/Family Responsibilities
The current situation, where the majority of parents are
employed in the workplace, creates difficulties in
balancing work and non-work responsibilities,
especially for women, to whom society still assigns the
primary family caregiving role. Difficulties that
periodically arise to interrupt attendance at work might
include the need to care for a sick child or to take an
elderly relative to a medical appointment.
Stress
For many employees, work in the 1990s is
characterized by fast-changing technology, increased
workloads and job insecurity. The impact of stress on
sickness and absenteeism is receiving increasing
attention. For instance, a survey of employers done by
the Canadian Institute of Stress and the Ontario
Ministry of Labour found that 26 per cent of
2
absenteeism is believed to be linked to stress. But
establishing cause and effect is complicated, as it is
often difficult to distinguish between job-related stress
and lifestyle stress. As it is known that lasting
improvement in attendance behaviour can come from
addressing the root causes of dysfunctional stress,
finding an appropriate corporate response becomes a
challenging—but often impossible—task for
employers.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
The Absenteeism-Health Policy Link
A fifth, overriding factor that ought not to be
overlooked when discussing employee absenteeism is
health policy. To some employees, the dollar benefits
of not working may be nearly as attractive as those
received from working. Without examining other
cause-effect variables, it seems apparent that a high
level (80 or 90 per cent) of salary received through
long-term disability (LTD) or workers' compensation
might provide a strong disincentive to return to work.
A well-known example of apparent abuse of a
generous national health insurance system is found in
Sweden. Prior to 1991, Sweden's absenteeism rate was
25 days per person per year; half of all absences lasted
no more than three days. In March 1991, state-paid
benefits for the first three days of illness were reduced
by one-quarter, with subsequent benefits (to 90 days)
cut by one-tenth. In the first month after reform, 20 per
cent fewer absences were reported. This suggests that,
nationally, health benefit reforms can have a direct
3
effect on absenteeism rates.
In recent years, sharply escalating costs have focused
the attention of both business and government on the
issue of health-related absences from work. In Canada,
workers' compensation is now a major cost issue.
Revenue received by Canada's workers' compensation
Exhibit 2
Minimizing Absence - Maximizing Attendance: A Policy Continuum
absence attendance
control management
reactive ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- proactive --------------------
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Source: The Conference Borad of Canada
Seeking Solutions: Strategies to Improve
Attendance
A Policy Framework
Efforts aimed at controlling absenteeism and
promoting an attendance oriented culture cover a wide
spectrum (shown in Exhibit 2), ranging from those that
are reactive in nature to those that are proactive or
preventative in focus.
boards in 1992 is estimated to be $6 billion, with debts
4
totaling more than double that amount.
In Quebec, officials of the Commission de la santé et
securité du travail (CSST) had proposed raising
premiums by 31 per cent to help offset the plan's large
deficit, which was blamed on rising medical and
rehabilitation costs and lengthy recovery periods for
5
workplace accidents. To illustrate the extent of the
problem, while the number of accident claims for 1992
was estimated at the time to fall by 12 per cent, the
average duration of the indemnity period was projected
to last 76.3 days, 16.5 days longer than originally
anticipated.
6
Under revisions to workers' compensation legislation
being made or planned in several provincial
jurisdictions, individual employers will assume greater
cost accountability, as premium assessment will be
directly tied to the organization's compensation claim
experience. The role and responsibility of the medical
community in combating rising health care costs also
deserve scrutiny. In commenting on the perceived main
cause of an absenteeism problem at her organization,
one Conference Board survey respondent pointed a
finger at "government benefit levels that pay close of
100 per cent of normal wages and a medical profession
that readily supports time off work, despite the
company's modified duty programs".
attendance absence
improvement prevention
Reactive responses are primarily directed towards
controlling and correcting. Corrective methods involve
approaches that range from counselling to termination.
In the 1990s, non-disciplinary interviews and warnings
are replacing traditional disciplinary methods as
appropriate ways to deal with absenteeism problems,
and there is growing evidence that employee assistance
programs (EAPs) are being used to help employees
overcome problems that lead to absenteeism.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE

Proactive approaches include those measures aimed at attendance can be pursued by increasing employees'
preventing an absenteeism problem from developing. motivation to attend work, on the one hand, while
Health promotion and wellness programs have great removing the barriers to attendance, on the other.
potential to address major underlying causes of Various methods and tools can be useful in
absenteeism, according to Laurence Kelly, who implementing a strategic action plan. The first step
expects to see increased emphasis on such initiatives involves fact gathering and problem identification.
during the next few years. Included under the broad
heading of proactive approaches are critical items such
as safety training, ergonomics, general working
conditions, hours of work, schedules, shifts and pace of
work.

Impact of Workplace Culture

It is well known that attendance behaviour is strongly
influenced by the existing workplace culture
(prevailing norms, attitudes and standards of behaviour
in a particular work environment). An example used by
Kelly (and shown in Exhibit 3) vividly illustrates the
strong impact of workplace culture on attendance
behaviour. It compares the pre- and post-probationary
period absence rates of a group of 73 new employees
in a manufacturing plant. While absences remained
predictably low during the probationary period, the rate
then rose quite dramatically until it equaled the
"normal" rate of the whole plant, at which point it
stabilized.

Exhibit 3

Absenteeism During Probationary and Post-

Probationary Periods, All New Hires
(N=73)
(Annual Rates)
Probationary Post-Probationary
Period Period
________________________________________

Occurences/
employee 1.4 5.6
Days lost/employee 3.0 11.5
Lates/employee 0.8 5.2
Early departures/
employee 1.3 6.2
________________________________________
Source: L.Kelly, IR Research Services.

From this example, it appears that attendance is

directly correlated with the attitude towards work in
the workplace. In addition, Kelly notes, broad-based
initiatives related to employee involvement and
participation have been shown to result in a more
positive general attitude to work.

Planning the Corporate Approach

According to experts such as Millman and Kelly, an
action plan for minimizing absences and maximizing

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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
The Importance of Statistics
Some critics claim that the mere act of monitoring
employees' absences is an outdated policing activity,
which does not belong in modern work environments.
So why keep statistics at all? The answer is that
absences can be indicators of workplace problems, and
as the experts remind us, you can't manage what you
can't measure. Over time, even the most carefully
crafted policies and programs will become ineffective
or redundant and need review and revamping.
Information derived from attendance data can help
identify an emerging or growing problem or the
development of patterns that require further
investigation.
Appropriate reporting procedures, record keeping and
record analysis can yield rich information from a
minimum amount of data. But many organizations are
unclear as to exactly what statistics should be kept, by
whom, and how the data should be interpreted to be of
maximum use in decision making. With respect to the
types of statistics that are most important, occurrence
and frequency data are key, according to Kelly,
although he points out that surprisingly few
organizations adequately keep this type of data.
Millman adds that many companies don't understand
that the global statistical "average" is misleading,
because in most cases the high 20 per cent of absent
workers are responsible for 50 per cent of all sick
leave. Therefore, by focusing on the high 20 per cent
of users, it is possible to manage and thus reduce the
bulk of chronic short-term lost time.
The Conference Board's Leadership
Response
Many Conference Board Associates expressed a need
to be able to compare their absenteeism rates with
those of others, using data that would be useful for
monitoring absences and identifying areas needing
special attention. Statistics Canada's absenteeism data
are provided by individuals, primarily through the
Labour Force Survey; there is no comparable source of
employer-provided data. While most organizations
record employee absences in some fashion, the
resulting information lacks consistency, creating a
hurdle for firms wanting to compare their rates with
those of other organizations. To be useful, the data
collected must provide decision makers with
meaningful information.
In response to employer needs, the Conference Board
initiated the Absenteeism and Attendance Management
Project. Project goals are twofold:
• to maintain a participant database of absence
statistics, using standardized data that allow for
comparison of rates and patterns on a quarterly
basis;
• through information-sharing forums and
qualitative research, to examine effective
strategies for improving attendance and promoting
an attendance-oriented culture.
This research report forms part of the overall project.
An advisory board, made up of representatives from
large Canadian business organizations and outside
experts in the statistics and policy research fields,
provides ongoing guidance and support. Members of
the advisory board are listed on the last page of this
report, and their philosophy and thinking are reflected
throughout the report.
The Conference Board Absenteeism Model
The Conference Board model was designed to focus on
employee absences in and across three important
dimensions: sickness, work-related injury and
personal/family responsibility. The primary focus of
the model was to emphasize short and longer term
absences that are controllable or manageable. This led
to adoption of the following general definition of
"absenteeism":
Absence (with or without pay) of an employee from
work due to his/her own illness, disability, personal or
family responsibility for a period of more than a half-
day but less than 52 consecutive weeks. Personal or
family responsibility includes: taking care of children
or other family members, taking family member to
doctor/dentist. (Not included are: maternity, adoptive
and paternity leave; other prearranged leaves of
absence; vacations and holidays; bereavement leave;
jury duty; other non-controllable absences.)
This definition formed the basis for a data-gathering
model, which was pre-tested and fine-tuned with a
select group of participating organizations.
Commencing with the fourth quarter of 1991,
statistical data on time available for work, work-time
lost and absence occurrences for each of the three
categories of absence are being collected from project
participants on an ongoing quarterly basis.
The model has incorporated some of the International
Labour Organization (ILO) standards and philosophy
on absenteeism. This means that aggregate results can
be benchmarked with ILO and Statistics Canada data
sources (with slight modification). In addition, the
model has been designed to allow comparison across
industries and geographic regions and has the
flexibility to be expanded and/or customized to
incorporate data gathering using other criteria, such as
occupational grouping.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
Inclusion of a third category of absence,
personal/family responsibility, was crucial, given the
changes in workforce composition. To a great extent,
organizations still categorize absences as either
sickness or injury. This might well mean that absence
for family reasons is hidden under the sickness
category. Indeed, many organizations are only now
beginning to recognize that trying to juggle work with
personal/family responsibilities is a fact of life for the
majority of their employees. This makes it an important
policy issue, which needs to be addressed through
development and review of suitable options.
IMPROVING ATTENDANCE
Measuring, Monitoring and Co-ordinating
7
According to survey respondents, an attendance-
tracking system, especially when linked with payroll
and a human resource information system (HRIS), can
be very useful in spotting absence patterns and trends
and identifying problem individuals. In several
surveyed organizations, a formalized tracking system
has been implemented. In one organization, individual
employee attendance is compared with that of others in
the department, while built-in report generation
provides for corporate monitoring of overall attendance
across departments. Often, built-in triggers are used to
alert managers to when and whether personal follow-
up with absent employees is needed, and easily
accessible, up-to-date data are available for costing
purposes. Automated attendance records, which are
commonly generated on a bimonthly basis, give
managers the up-to-date information needed for
making better informed decisions.
The control and monitoring of sickness absences was
singled out by a number of respondents as a key issue.
In fact, one surveyed organization reported changing
from coverage provided by an insurance carrier to self-
administered short-term coverage in order to better
control and monitor this situation. Having a strict
follow-up system for accidents and illnesses is a good
method of keeping the lost work time rate down,
according to several respondents.
One small western financial organization measures
casual sick leave on a unit, division and corporate-wide
basis. When a unit's quarterly results are found to be
above division and corporate totals, explanations are
requested. "We have found that just being aware keeps
ratios and usage in check," noted the survey
representative from this firm.
Comments offered by respondents reflected the need
for a comprehensive, co-ordinated approach. In many
cases separate units (e.g., occupational health, payroll,
benefits) focus only on their specific mandates and
responsibilities. Respondents remarked that "ideally
they would be co-ordinated by one individual",
highlighting the fact that a central co-ordinating
mechanism should exist to ensure that valuable
information is exchanged and good decisions are made.
A similar comment spoke of the need to have people
who can and will take on responsibility: "Management
turnover results in people not knowing what the
processes are and too many people handling claims
(e.g., workmen's compensation, long-term disability,
and short-term disability or STD). The net result is lack
of ownership."
Recognition, Bonuses, and Incentive Awards
Experts contend that recognition and incentives can be
a good "quick fix" to a problem by helping improve
attendance behaviour and possibly motivation and
attitudes. They do not, however, address the root
causes of poor attendance.
Among participating survey organizations, the use of
recognition awards or absenteeism reduction programs
has produced mixed results.
Many of the organizations recognize or reward good
attendance. One introduced a corporate-wide perfect
attendance award, wherein all employees meeting the
criteria receive a $50 gift certificate and a framed
certificate showing the period of perfect attendance.
Similarly, under a program introduced by a mining
organization, underground mining crews that work a
minimum number of months without lost-time
accidents (or compensable injuries on the job) receive
a gift voucher. In Year 1 the value ranged between $15
and $20 a month, while in Year 2 the monthly value
was $20 to $25.
Results of some programs have been positive. In one
respondent company, the absenteeism rate was reduced
from 13 per cent to 7 per cent over the initial eight-
month period of a pilot gain-sharing project. An
attendance bonus program proved successful in an
Ontario-based chemical products company. In an
attempt to deal with an absenteeism problem among its
800-plus unionized employees, this company
negotiated a contract change that lengthened the
number of wait days for sickness pay and provided for
an attendance bonus of $100 per quarter for absence of
12 hours or less. In the first year after introduction,
absenteeism was reduced by nearly 30 per cent.
In the opinion of many experts, attendance awards are
usually looked on favorably by employees, and the
positive impact on attendance can be impressive.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
A sense of unfairness may exist among employees,
however, when eligibility for rewards is determined at
the departmental level and there is inconsistency
among departments. As well, not all bonus programs
are considered successful. In one responding company,
a program that had provided for an hourly bonus of
25¢ for each absence-free month to discourage casual
absence of hourly employees was discontinued after
two years. It was replaced by a progressive discipline
approach, which was found to be more effective in
curbing absenteeism.
The anticipated impact from implementation of a given
program may simply not materialize. A survey
respondent from a 1,700-employee company in the
finance and trust sector that had introduced a perfect
attendance program commented, "We felt such a
program would provide an incentive to employees to
make an additional effort and report to work. But our
overall impression is that it has only served to focus
management's attention on the whole issue of
unnecessary productivity losses."
Sick Leave: A Major Policy Issue
The problem of handling medical and health abusers
was a top priority for many survey respondents. With
respect to sick leave policies, two major elements have
the potential to foster misuse and abuse by employees:
1) the nature of the policy itself and 2) the manner in
which it is monitored and communicated.
The plan itself might foster attitudes conducive to
abuse if it is viewed as an entitlement. This situation
was reported by one organization: "Many people make
a point of using up their full sickness benefit of 10
days per year, even when they obviously are not sick."
However, the opposite might occur if employees view
the plan as insurance. As another respondent pointed
out, "Absenteeism declined after we replaced our sick
leave accumulation plan with an insured short term
disability plan."
Several respondents hope that recently implemented or
planned changes to their sick leave policy/practice will
reduce absences. Several examples were given. One
organization has introduced changes to provisions
governing sick leave pay, which will now be based on
usage by the entire employee group. Under the new
rules, if overall sick leave usage decreases, then the
number of absence occurrences paid at 100 per cent
increases (and vice versa). In another organization, a
newly negotiated clause in the collective agreement
with unionized office workers allows for partial
reimbursement of sick leave benefits (based on number
of years of seniority) if employment is terminated
because of personnel reduction or technological
change. This has resulted in a decline in absenteeism.
Another respondent commented that "with our
unionized employees, the fact that their sick bank is
paid to them if they don't use the days has reduced
absenteeism". But paying people for not using sick
days is not always effective. Under the provisions of
another organization's program, employees who did
not use their sick leave entitlement were eligible to
receive $250 at year-end. However, the program was
discontinued after one year due to two problems: 1) it
encouraged sick employees to come to work, with the
result that they were not productive and infected
others, and 2) some supervisors assisted absent
employees by altering time sheets so that sick leave
was not affected.
A multi-pronged approach to curtailing abuse proved
successful in one organization and resulted in a 20 per
cent decline in sick leave. Measures used consisted of:
1) increased efforts by management to control
absenteeism through monthly sick leave reports for
each department and internal attendance management
training courses; 2) increased utilization of health unit
services; 3) introduction of a flexible hours work
concept; and 4) third-party health assessments.
The Health and Safety Problem
Effective selection criteria, emphasis on preventive
programs, and modified work programs can contribute
to a reduction in sick leave or job-related injury.
Several practical examples were given by survey
respondents. One organization uses a job related
"physical demands" checklist during the interview
process to eliminate people with pre-existing
conditions that will make them unable to meet the
physical requirements of the job.
A food and beverage industry company with an
absenteeism problem due to accidents/injury instituted
a simple change in its call-in procedure. Employees
must now speak directly to supervisory staff for a brief
interview if time is to be missed. This has had positive
results.
Survey feedback also showed a growing emphasis on
prevention programs in the area of health and safety.
One respondent remarked that frequency and severity
rates of lost-time accidents were the main causes of
absenteeism problems in his organization. To reduce
these rates, the International Safety Rating Program
was implemented in 1990, and improvements are now
8
evident.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
Modified work and return-to-work programs were
frequently cited as forms of active rehabilitation to
help workers return to work, although not to their old
jobs. But according to one respondent, whose
organization had introduced a modified duty program
to provide work that would meet doctors' specifications
during a period of recovery, "this has met with muted
success, due to many doctors' reluctance to
communicate with employers".
Workplace Wellness
Wellness programs are increasingly regarded as an
effective tool for preventing absenteeism, particularly
in stressful work environments. Using the rationale that
a physically fit employee is less likely to be sick, a
number of those surveyed felt that their wellness
programs had a positive effect on attendance.
Typically, an organization's wellness program gives
employees information on achieving more healthful
lifestyles, provides financial assistance to offset part of
the costs of belonging to a fitness club, and may
include an employee assistance program. EAPs are
sometimes expanded to include family members, and
one respondent specifically mentioned using an EAP to
focus on excessive, chronic cases of absenteeism.
One responding organization, Alberta Blue Cross, can
claim some success with its program. Included under
the organization's workplace wellness umbrella are an
EAP, seminars on specific issues and an emphasis on
fitness. Lunch-hour seminar topics include "laughter
prescription", parenting, managing change, and
massage therapy. The practice of taking fit breaks
(stretch breaks) has been incorporated in some
departments. Partial reimbursement of fees for fitness-
related activities was introduced as a way to encourage
employees to take up the lifestyle improvement
challenge. As a percentage of the total administrative
budget, the wellness program budget is small, but the
benefits are large. Absence results among the 500
employees following the introduction of the program
showed a drop in average days lost from 5.5 in 1990 to
9
4.1 in 1991.
In some organizations, the primary purpose of a
wellness program is to save money in benefit costs,
which can then be spent on salaries and additional
benefits. A municipality in the southern United States
introduced such a program for its 14,000 employees
and claims it as a testimonial to the positive results that
are achievable. Absenteeism is lower, three times as
many employees have half the actual number of on-the
job accidents, and wellness participants have fewer
10
workers' compensation claims than non-participants.
Other firms are using empowerment strategies to
promote wellness. The wellness efforts of one U.S.
food manufacturer were spawned by that company's
aspiration to apply for the Malcolm Baldrige National
Quality Award. When surveys revealed that employees
placed a value on wellness, a Perfect Health Program
aimed at creating a culture in which employees want to
take care of their own health and well-being was
developed. The organization believes that individual
health and well-being are linked inextricably with the
quality of its products. To date, measurement of
success has been through monitoring of employee
11
attitudes, which have improved dramatically.
Flexible Work Arrangements
The impact of work-family issues on attendance
behaviour was identified by respondents as a key area
of concern. Commonly, initiatives being considered
involve some form of flexible time-off policy that
would permit family emergencies to be more easily
handled by employees. Several respondents gave
examples of alternative work arrangements that have
actually been put in place, noting their generally
positive impact on attendance. Typical was one
respondent's remark that the office employees'
response to the introduction of flexible work hours had
been "exceptional" and that both lateness and
absenteeism had been reduced.
In another organization, results of an employee survey
highlighted the need for review of the existing rigid
working hours policy. The needs of laboratory bound
technical employees, for instance, differed from those
of staff who traveled extensively. Similarly, clerical
employees had needs that differed from those of the
management group. The concept of flexible hours was
introduced and two options offered: an extended
workweek; or core hours on a regular daily basis, with
a flexible component. Productivity and employee
satisfaction improved as employees were given more
control over their own work time. For these
organizations, the "one-size-fits all" approach made
little sense, highlighting the need to recognize and
adapt to a range of different needs.
Teamwork and Job Satisfaction
One survey respondent commented that "our team-
oriented method of production requires full attendance
by team members" and that peer pressure on team
members had a positive effect on their attendance. In
fact, identification of solutions to absenteeism
problems in organizations with a "continuous
improvement" culture are often assigned to a task team.
For example, the mandate given to an employee task
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
group at a southern Ontario food products
manufacturer was to "identify the price of non-
conformance". The group identified four categories of
absenteeism that needed addressing and came up with
27 recommendations for improvement, many of which
were implemented.
In the opinion of one respondent, "the majority of
absenteeism is caused by employee lack of job
satisfaction". Two positive initiatives mentioned as
being successful in addressing this problem were job
redesign, with an emphasis on task variety, and a better
matching of jobs and employees.
Communicating the Value of Attendance
The need for a clear, comprehensive policy on
attendance was highlighted by many respondents. One
noted that his organization needed a clearer definition
of absence/attendance standards, as neither employees
nor managers were certain about what was considered
acceptable attendance.
A common sentiment was summed up by one
comment: "As an organization we don't place a value
on attendance." Respondents felt it important to have a
communications program that stressed the importance
of being at work when scheduled to be there. But they
cautioned that such a program would be successful
only if it had senior management interest and a
commitment to promote that message.
"We are striving to become a 'total quality
organization', and to do so each person must improve
and change attitudes towards his/her work—one of
which is attendance," states one survey comment. For
companies such as the one this respondent represents,
better communication regarding the importance of
good attendance could produce substantial benefits.
Labour-Management Relations
Communication between labour and management was
a key factor in improving attendance for a national
association. Several years ago, the challenges of
globalization and competitiveness prompted a
campaign to become more customer-driven. Such a
move involved a shift in culture and behaviour. Open
and ongoing communication between management and
the association's 500-person clerical union quickly
became recognized as a critical and important vehicle
for change. Currently, labour-management relations
continue to be excellent, and a union and management
group meets on a regular monthly basis. Within this
forum, the union can raise any issue it wishes to
discuss; the only ground rule is that discussion will not
include an individual grievance problem.
Education and Training: Role of Management
The commonly heard complaint that it is hard to get
front-line supervisors to take responsibility for dealing
with abusers highlights the importance of management
training and education. Methods frequently cited as
being essential to good attendance management include
absenteeism management courses, formal guidelines
and policies, and handbooks for supervisors and
employees. One respondent noted that his organization
had compiled a guide on problem resolution for
managers, commenting that a reduction in absenteeism
had been noticed since the introduction of the guide.
Combined Approaches
Usually, a combination of initiatives aimed at
attendance improvement is used. In a 900-employee
Quebec-based manufacturing company, a formal
computerized attendance-tracking system with built-in
report generation was introduced. At the same time,
training of supervisors and management was
accelerated, and an employee assistance program was
introduced. The organization's survey representative
reported that, as a result of these combined efforts, "the
absenteeism rate was cut in half in less than a year,
from 8 per cent to 4 per cent, and has remained at that
level for more than three years".
A composite of remarks from respondent feedback
suggests that the following are the key characteristics
of good attendance management.
Exhibit 4
Characteristics of Good Attendance
Management
1. Management commitment
2. A good measurement system
3. Education of supervisors and managers
regarding attendance
4. An attendance management guide for
managers
5. Improved documentation of situations, written
warnings
6. Absenteeism record reflected in performance
review when warranted
7. Discussion with unions
8. Enhanced follow-up administration with
workers' compensation boards and medical
professionals
9. Development of a modified and light duties job
program for "reasonable accommodation"
10. Regular rehabilitation visits with occupational
health nurses
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
11. A positive communication program that
emphasizes the importance of being at work
when scheduled, with senior management
commitment and promotion of this message
________________________________________
Source: The Conference Board of Canada.
Case Study I—Bell Canada: Focus on
Management Education and Training
Background
Bell Canada is a unionized company operating with
32,000 employees in Ontario and 22,000 employees in
Quebec. To realize its mission, which is to be a world
leader company, it is committed to achieving a culture
of competence. To this end, it has identified four
required values: customer satisfaction, financial
strengths, excellence and team spirit.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
Exhibit 5
Employee Commitment: Interaction Model
Job satisfaction
Personal motives attendance
decision
Cosequences
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Source: BellCanada
In 1989 the Attendance Improvement Program was
introduced. This is a distinct process, separate from but
integrated with all other strategies for achieving
competence. According to L.F. (Lloyd) Beckley,
formerly Associate Director, Health Department of the
Ontario Region of Bell Canada, the program ties in
with the corporation's total quality management
12
thrust. At Bell, the employee development group
provides structured training in team building; the
Attendance Improvement Program works on the
principle that the leader of the team is responsible for
building a culture of excellence and total quality
through self-motivated commitment from all team
members.
Attendance Management: Both an Art and a Science
The Attendance Improvement Program is an approach
to management education aimed at first-line
supervisors. Elements of the program include seminar
participation by managers and a comprehensive
reference handbook. A variety of vehicles are used to
communicate the "be there, we need you, you're a
valuable member of the team" message to employees.
Of particular note is a series of videos designed to
encourage managers to make attendance issues part of
regular staff meetings. Worthy of particular mention
are four "commercials" (one of which is an award-
winner) that have been produced for viewing by
employees. Each carries a different motivational
message in a highly effective manner.
Beckley's seminars are structured to look at attendance
management and improvement as both an art and a
science. The "art" component (soft side) offers
managers insight into how to gain employee
commitment to attendance while helping them to
understand the factors that contribute to absence (as
shown in Exhibit 5). Emphasis is placed on the fact
that even when employees are physically present, the
spillover effect from problems in other areas may lead
to a less-than desirable level of "mental attendance".
Inability
to attend
The "science" (hard side) is information-based and
focuses on the departmental support available and on
attendance management administration. Attendance is
part of the performance appraisal process at Bell, as in
many organizations, and key statistics are captured via
the Systematic Absence Reporting (SAR) system.
Bell recognizes that a culture of competence is
supported in no small measure by excellence in
employee attendance. A strength of Beckley's seminars
is the way they make a case for the double bottom line
(people and profits). The "iceberg principle", a phrase
coined by a Bell Canada physician, states that "absence
is just the tip of an iceberg", and since the program was
introduced, Beckley reports, the integration of the
attendance program with all other quality strategies has
resulted in progressive improvement in employee
attendance.
Case Study II—B.C. Telephone Company:
Focus on Health Promotion
Background
Nearly 14,000 persons are employed by B.C. Tel, most
of them unionized. As is characteristic of the industry,
massive technological change has had a dramatic
impact on the organization and its employees. New
technological knowledge and skills development,
significant retraining of employees with redundant
skills, and programs to assist older workers have been
part of a strategic thrust aimed at positioning the
organization to compete in the global marketplace.
Promoting Attendance Improvement
Don Champion, Vice-President, Human Resource
Development, believes there is a direct correlation
between the climate in which people work and their
attendance. "People either enjoy being at work or they
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
find alternatives to work, by staying home or by
staying away from the kinds of things they don't like at
work."
B.C. Tel's Attendance Management Program consists
of a statistical reporting system, supervisory training
and workshops, and an attendance recognition
program. Clear guidelines and a new report format
have helped remedy the situation that previously
existed where supervisors received data and
information they either did not understand or did not
know how to apply. Recognition of excellent
attendance is handled in a low-key manner through a
corporate award program, which provides employees
with non-monetary personal acknowledgment. A
significant improvement in attendance was noted
during a five-year trial period, and this award program
is now a permanent feature.
In Champion's opinion, an approach t hat promotes
employee health and wellness can show a positive
correlation with attendance improvement. B.C. Tel
chose to use an incremental approach, with, for
example, the initial "participation" program later
developing into a fitness program. Success was
measured by the number of participants and results of a
follow-up employee survey. Results showed that
employees felt refreshed by fitness and exercise. Their
social lives improved, decreased stress enhanced their
ability to work, and they had more fun during the
workday.
Employee Assistance Program
Problem prevention is seen at B.C. Tel as preferable to
problem correction. The search for new ideas and
solutions from this perspective led to acceleration of
the employee assistance program, because it was
believed that an employee who was stressed for any
reason, be it domestic or work-related, would not be
maximizing his/her contribution.
Operating under the philosophy that "the company
doesn't pay employees to get sick", the company's EAP
and the member assistance program (MAP) of the
Telecommunications Workers Union (TWU) provide
counselling and referral services for employees and
families on a 24-hour-a-day, 365-day-a-year basis. As
is the case at many workplaces in the early 1990s,
stress related to organizational change is a problematic
issue. According to Douglas Hockley, Manager,
Employee Assistance Program, overwork and
workaholic behaviour can create problems, and it is
important that employees be empowered to take
responsibility for their own situations. This includes
learning to cope with unreasonable demands by facing
up to and making decisions regarding the company-
employee relationship. For example, performance
appraisal time should be a mutual setting of objectives,
not a one-way assignment of tasks and responsibilities.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
Off-site EAP facilities provide immediate assistance to
the mainstream employee population. Anonymity is
ensured to all EAP clients, and confidentiality is
guaranteed for self-referrals. Only aggregate statistical
information on the nature and number of cases is
disclosed to the company and union executive. But
Hockley believes that in the case of employees with
chronic incidental absences, confidentiality
requirements should be relaxed and communication
across departments accelerated. Such an approach
would require case-conferencing with other human
resources departments, since chronic offenders often
transfer and know how to "work the system".
B.C. Tel's EAP group has a number of communication
vehicles designed to help employees by raising
awareness of specific issues, providing information,
and contributing to education. Each issue of Health
Works, a quarterly publication on health promotion
with 4,500 subscribers, has a theme and focus that
heavily reflect customer input. For instance, the
Summer 1991 issue was on coping with organizational
13
change.
Videotapes are used as an educational tool and are
particularly well-received, as they can be borrowed by
anyone in the company. Experts are brought in to make
short presentations on particular topics (substance
abuse, financial planning, family relationships), and
employees are invited to attend and ask questions.
Sessions are held in the company's auditorium and are
a highly effective, low-cost, low-time-involvement
means of educating employees on a variety of matters.
Future Focus: The Human Factor
The human factor will probably receive increasing
attention at B.C. Tel. A small department has been
created and charged with raising awareness of human
factors issues in new and existing areas. The group will
be involved in the front-end phase of systems planning
and will provide a dimension of professional
observation to various initiatives, such as off-site work
and flexible working arrangements. Don Champion
hopes that incorporating a human factors component
into the early planning/design stages, along with
ongoing joint labour-management committee
discussion regarding human factor issues, will
ultimately lead to greater benefits resulting from the
introduction of new technology.
Case Study III—Syncrude Canada: A
Multifaceted Business Approach to Corporate
Wellness
Background
Syncrude operates at two locations near Fort
McMurray, Alberta, and employs approximately 4,400
people. About half are in operations/trades jobs (which
involve outdoor work and use of heavy equipment); the
rest are in administrative, professional and technical
positions. The workforce is largely male-dominated
(84 per cent) and is non-unionized. Work is organized
on an employee-designed plan, consisting of a 28-day
cycle of 12-hour shifts with seven consecutive days off
during that period.
Corporate Mission and Strategy
Syncrude's multifaceted approach to corporate wellness
flows directly from its corporate mission, which is "to
secure Canada's energy future". For Syncrude, this
means having safe and reliable plant and equipment
and healthy, productive employees. As Dr. Ken
Nickerson, Chief Medical Officer, explains, "It is
important that all employees understand what the
organization is in business for (which is to be
productive and profitable) and the role they are to play
to make that possible. Syncrude strives to provide the
best work environment possible, with good job and
safety procedures. The employee's responsibility is to
come to work and be fit and healthy and productive."
Participative Redesign Process
Syncrude has been undergoing a major redesign
process, which will result in more effective and
efficient ways of doing business. During this
comprehensive participative exercise, the human
resources (HR) group was trained in the principles of
redesign and put through an exercise called "Starship",
which helped make the theory behind the process come
alive. The result has been a decentralization of many
traditional HR functions and identification of four HR
client groups. A core, or central, HR group will also
have a "shadow organization", which assumes
responsibility for policy development and co-
ordination within each client-based group. Over time,
people with occupational health expertise will form an
integral part of all business development groups.
The principles of redesign are being fine-tuned. This
means that Syncrude is looking at whole jobs, whole
tasks, employee participation and self-managed teams.
A socio-technical approach is being used in the utilities
section, with some of the same principles applied.
Corporate Health and Wellness Program
The impetus for Syncrude's current approach was a
major review that took place in 1989-1990.
Information was gathered, collated and analyzed,
resulting in a complete overview of "non-working
employees" at Syncrude. Under the broad title of
"performance and workforce management", such
employees were divided into three categories: 1) those
who, because of absenteeism, were less productive; 2)
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
normal medical cases; and 3) the rehabilitation group
(most were medically disabled, but a few were
"playing games"). According to Phil Lachambre,
formerly Vice-President, Human Resources, and now
Vice-President, Business and Corporate Affairs, when
these three categories were examined together, the
sheer magnitude of their combined size surprised
Syncrude management. It was estimated that if even 10
per cent of those employees could be more productive
or brought back into the workforce full time, major
gains in productivity would be achieved.
Focus on Prevention
The focus of attendance monitoring at Syncrude has
been moved into the area of prevention by identifying
and assessing potential health problems at an early
stage before they become chronic and result in
excessive absenteeism. Absence tracking is therefore
based primarily on illness occasions, rather than total
days missed from work. While absence rates are still
used for corporate statistics, occurrences give data on
individual patterns. A predetermined number of
occurrences triggers discussion with the supervisor. In
addition to regular attendance management reports,
Syncrude's program has two main components: a
quarterly stewardship report and a health and wellness
steering committee.
Tracking and Stewardship
As Lachambre points out, a way to steward and track
more than just the traditional absence statistics was
needed. Attendance management information alone did
not give department heads a complete picture, and
Syncrude has moved away from rankings and forced
distributions (which traditionally meant that 5 per cent
of employees would automatically be considered poor
performers).
Syncrude's stewardship document tracks some
statistics, such as attendance, performance
management issues (the number and nature of work-
performance cases being worked with), disability and
rehabilitation cases (subset of attendance numbers) and
the number of employees on STD, on LTD, ready for
return to the workforce, in place, or who have left the
company. The quarterly document is a valuable tool for
helping managers to track trends and focus on where
they might be developing. The rationale is that much
valuable information can be gleaned from statistics on
people in corrective action programs. For instance,
monitoring the extremes (too many or none) could
reveal potential problems.
The HR client group staff constructs a "snapshot" by
going to managers and talking to them about their
employees. According to Os Huebner, General
Manager, Human Resources, "It is a challenging role
for HR representatives, because their main job is to
help employees, and this is the flip side of the coin."
They are trying to help managers address their
employees' performance before problems arise.
Health and Wellness Committee
The health and wellness committee, with wide
representation from all areas, was formed in response
to the need for a more consistent, co-ordinated
approach, a clearer focus and greater community
involvement.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE
Because Syncrude has a wide variety of jobs and
degrees of risk in those jobs, all areas have safe
operating committees. Safety and reliability come first,
and Syncrude's continuing safety improvement efforts
have resulted in a drop in the injury frequency rate
from 5.1 in 1983 to 0.77 in 1991 (with a corresponding
decrease in Workers' Compensation Board
assessments). Five years ago, nurses were empowered
to start conducting health hazard assessments, with the
result that a health hazard history now forms part of
every employee's medical record.
Syncrude's loss management program reflects the
organization's philosophy that off-job health and
wellness cannot be separated from on-the job activities
and is geared to promoting a disciplined approach to
health and wellness off the job (lifestyle, injury, etc.).
In an attempt to gather additional key information in
this area, employees will be asked to self-report
anonymously on their return to work.
Information Systems
Payroll and human resources use a single system for
common data elements, including anything related to
attendance. It is linked with the organization's human
resource information system, and Syncrude is now in
the final stages of putting user-friendly applications
onto local area network (LAN) systems throughout the
company. Eventually there will be one common
database for everyone.
Prevention, Treatment and Rehabilitation: Major
Medical Issues
With respect to illness, Syncrude's philosophy is to
recognize that once or twice a year a person will
become ill but that any person with an absence in
excess of five days needs to see a doctor. Triggers have
been inserted into the computerized payroll system to
flag employee absences of 20 days. As Ruth
Anstruther, Advisor, Occupational Health, points out,
this is to ensure that rehabilitation coordinators make
the appropriate contact and follow-up before short-
term disability benefits cease, in order to assist in an
early return to work. Syncrude has a comprehensive
approach to rehabilitation, from the first sign of
absenteeism through to retraining, outplacement,
termination or LTD.
Part of Syncrude's organizational effectiveness
approach to corporate health and wellness includes
trying to make the workplace a better place for the
people who work there. Employees with work-
performance problems other than attendance (not
meeting objectives, difficulties interfacing with people,
etc.) are put into a corrective action program to
improve behaviour. This program is handled by the
employee relations staff. Syncrude has found that
stress-related employee problems resulting from work
overload or a demanding supervisor can often be
handled by the organization.
Impact of Gain-sharing
In early 1991, Syncrude introduced a corporate gain-
sharing program with an attendance component. All
employees are eligible; however, an employee with
four or more absence occurrences in a quarter is not
entitled to participate or receive an award. Its effect on
attendance has been impressive. In the second quarter
of 1990 (prior to introduction of the program), there
were approximately 600 absence occurrences. At the
end of 1992, this number had dropped to 125. The
significant drop in number of occurrences was
accompanied by a 27 per cent decrease in frequency of
absences over the same period.
As Os Huebner cautions, it should be emphasized that
the gain-sharing program is but one plank in a platform
designed to encourage employee involvement,
participation and productivity, and its positive effect on
attendance should not be viewed in isolation.
A Holistic Approach
Syncrude wants to change both the workplace and
employees' health in order to be as productive as
possible. To do this, a philosophy of corporate health
and wellness is being pursued as a strategic approach
that will have long-term payoffs.
According to Dr. Nickerson, health and wellness must
be approached holistically, not be confined to the
workplace, and should involve outreach programs with
the community. In Syncrude's case, for example, one
survey showed that 85 per cent of employee illness
absences were caused by off-the job problems. Hence,
off-job safety is now being monitored under
Syncrude's loss management program.
In addition to a participative culture and an emphasis
on health promotion and illness/accident prevention,
this philosophy is reflected through the daily behaviour
of Syncrude's senior management team, who feel it is
important to set a good example. For instance, in
contrast to what is often thought of as normal executive
lunch practice, Syncrude executives often incorporate a
small but nutritious meal and exercise period into their
day. Although simple in nature, this type of visible
activity is important. It not only shows that the
executive team "walks the talk", but sends strong
signals to employees as to what kind of behaviour is
expected and encouraged on a corporate-wide basis.
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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION need to better communicate to physicians that

prognosis, not control is the purpose behind an
Changes in the business environment will continue to organization's request that they sign papers authorizing
exert economic pressure on Canadian firms. The employees to be absent from
globalization of the world economy will in all
likelihood accelerate, bringing with it increasing
competition, volatility and instability. Increased
productivity will be a key strategic imperative for
success and survival in this environment. A recent
large-scale 12-country study examining perceptions of
the business environment for human resource
management to the year 2000 identified
productivity/quality as the highest-ranking priority.
Productivity increase is all the more critical in Canada,
because Canada ranked poorly among the 24 OECD
countries for productivity growth between 1961 and
14
1990. Employee absenteeism is directly linked to
productivity, so the importance of promoting improved
attendance is self-evident.

Reduction in overall absenteeism will require a

concerted effort among management, labour,
governments and the medical profession. However,
management still holds the key to effective attendance
management, which will require commitment and
action in the following four areas:
• support from senior management;
• a clear policy describing attendance management
in a positive, constructive and non-disciplinary
manner, based on input from all stakeholders;
• an information system that provides timely and
meaningful statistics; and
• confidence and skill training and development of
all management and supervisory staff.

Such a four-pronged effort can often produce

immediate results, without large dollar expenditures or
massive changes to structure or process. The collection
of relevant absenteeism data is critical for effective
attendance management initiatives. Latest
developments in software are eliminating the
limitations inherent in the traditional manual recording
systems. The availability of state-of-the-art technology
should allow organizations to generate data that will
allow them to take the necessary measures to reduce
absenteeism. Calendar/spreadsheet software can be
used for monitoring, reporting and costing absences.

According to many experts and survey participants

who contributed to this research, effective
communication with employees and the medical
community should be undertaken by the top hierarchy
of organizations. Information shared with employees
on a regular basis regarding the impact of absenteeism
on productivity, competitiveness and the survival of
the firm will be a strong factor in encouraging
attendance. Michael Millman contends that there is a

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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE

ATTENDANCE MANAGEMENT TEAM

work. Enhanced communication between management Advisory Board Members
and the medical community should allow both
stakeholders to achieve a common goal: to return Dr. Gilles Mathieu
employees to better health and increased productivity. Regional Medical Director
Bell Canada
A reassessment of traditional work schedules by
management may also improve attendance. The Robert Hughes
changing composition of the workforce, coupled with Manager, Attendance Management
changing societal expectations vis-a-vis work, is Canada Post Corporation
compelling many organizations to introduce various
degrees of flexibility in working hours. Firms' Sandy Shand
sensitivity to employee needs concerning their work Consultant, Employee Relations Policy
and family responsibilities may also lead to improved Human Resources Division
overall attendance. Insertion of an attendance Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
improvement thrust within the broader issue of
corporate health and wellness programs of Yvon Lachapelle
organizations is also recommended by participants. Manager, Personnel Development and Staffing
Canadian Pacific Forest Products Limited
Finally, management can help build a working
environment in which employees can maximize their Martin Gregoire
potential through increased responsibility, challenging Manager, Compensation
work assignments, feedback and opportunities for Export Development Corporation
growth. This will require a major shift in management
style. Many organizations are undertaking Laurence Kelly
development initiatives, often in conjunction with President
quality improvement strategies, to help traditional IR Research Services
managers become coaches and mentors. This in itself
will generate a work climate where employees feel
valued, which in turn is likely to lead to improved
attendance.

Without question, the benefits derived from creating an

attendance-oriented corporate culture are many: cost
savings, increased productivity, improved employee
morale and, in the longer term, a healthier workplace.

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CREATING AN ATTENDANCE-ORIENTED CORPORATE CULTURE

Senior Research Associate

David Hindley Database Co-ordinator

Manager, Industrial Relations David Shepherdson
Molson Breweries Senior Research Associate

Ernest Akyeampong Information Specialist

Chief, Labour Force Activity Section Laurie McCarthy
Labour & Household Surveys Analysis Division Acting Manager
Statistics Canada Information Services

Conference Board Staff Adviser

Prem Benimadhu
Project Leader Director
Patricia Booth Compensation Research Centre

1 Ernest B. Akyeampong, "Absenteeism at Work", in Canadian Social Trends, No. 25, Summer 1992.
2
The Globe and Mail, January 3, 1992, p. A3.
3
Reported in IBIS Review, October 1991.
4
Canadian Business, February 1993, p. 19.
5
In fact, the average employer contribution rate for 1993 was increased by 10 percent.
6
HR Repoter, June 18, 1992.
7
An optional section in the compensation planning survey referred to earlier asked respondents to describe and
comment on "initiatives that had been (or were in the process of being) introduced to improve absenteeism".
Feedback and comments from survey respondents appear throughout this section.
8
A program for reducing accident frequency, compensation costs and property damage, the International Safety
Rating System is a comprehensive audit based on the safety program standards of organizational leaders and
including 20 common program elements. Ten levels of "star ratings" recognize achievements.
9
Average days lost rose to 5.26 in 1992. According to a company spokesperson, the increase might be linked to
policy changes, which included extending eligibility for "earned days off" to all employees and introducing
three "family care days" per year.
10
Case study reported in Personnel Journal, February 1992.
11
Ibid.
12
Mr. Beckley retired from Bell Canada in early 1993.
13
Thoughtful commentaries written by Hockley, the Health Works publisher, on "Workplace Absenteeism" and
"Workplace Equilibrium" at B.C. Tel appear in the June 1992 issue.
14
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1991/1992 OECD Economic Surveys: Canada.

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