Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Course Contents
1.1 Nature of Location Decision
1.2 Importance of Location
1.3 Dynamic Nature of Plant
Location
1.4 Choice of Site For Location
1.5 Urban, Suburban and Rural
Location
1.6 Plant Layout
1.7 Principles of Plant Layout
1.8 Factors Influencing Layout
1.9 Types of Layout
1.10 Plant Layout Procedure
1.11 Material Flow Patterns
1.12 Tools And Techniques For Plant
Layout
1.13 Different Plant Layouts
1.14 Computerized Package For
Layout Analysis
3. Availability of labour.
Availability of right kind of labour force in required numbers at reasonable rates is also
a deciding factor in selection of site. Unskilled labour is amply available at major
industrial centres and rural areas. However, the firms requiring skilled labour should
be situated near the urban areas.
The glass and bangle industries in Ferozabad, woollen carpets in Mirzapur, Silk sarees
at Kanziwaram etc. are mainly due to highly skilled labour for that particular industry
being available at the place.
4. Transport and communication facilities.
Transport facilities are needed for transporting raw materials, parts and finished
goods. Generally industries have a tendency to locate the industrial units near the
railway station, highway or port areas.
Railways are cheaper but involve delays. Road transport is quick, it is convenient for
door to door service, but it is costlier. So a balance should be achieved between the
two according to the need of the unit. Generally long distances are covered by Railway
transport and short distances by road transport. Communication facilities like mail,
telephone, telegraph etc. must be adequate. Regularity of service, safety, speed and
low cost are essential both for transport and for communication. Mumbai exhibited
the largest concentration of textile mills although away from cotton growing regions
and market, soley, because of existence of adequate, quick transport and
communication facilities.
5. Availability of power and fuel.
Coal, electricity, oil and natural gas are the important sources of power in the
industries. The availability of reliable and cheap power supply is an important factor
in the location of electro-chemical industries, iron and steel industries, glass, pulp and
paper industries etc. for example, Tata iron and steel industry is established near the
coal mines of Bihar.
However, because of the development of long distance transmission of electric power
this has not remained a deciding factor for plant location.
6. Climatic conditions.
Climatic conditions largely affect certain production proces ses also the efficiency of
the employees. For example, textile mills require moist climate that is why most of the
textile mills are situated at Bombay and Ahmedabad. For agro-base industries like tea
and coffee or rubber plantations, climatic conditions play a decisive role in the
selection of the site.
However, with the development of air-conditioning techniques, it is possible to
control the temperature as well as humidity in the factory according to the
requirements, though at the additional costs.
7. Availability of water.
Water is used in industries for processing as in paper in chemical industries, for
generation of power in hydroelectric power plants and is also required for drinking
sanitary purposes etc. Depending upon the nature of plant water should be available
in adequate quantity and should be proper quality (clean and pure).
8. Ancillary Industries.
The existence of ancillary industries in the nearby area may avail certain economic
advantages. Many industries such as processing and assembly industries are not
producing all the parts of their product but purchase some of the parts from ancillary
industries producing it. The products produced by ancillary industries then forms a
raw-material for such industries.
9. Financial and other aids.
For the development of backward regions central as well as Stale Government provide
certain incentives and facilities such as cash-subsidy, concessional financial assistance,
land, power and other facilities at cheaper rates, tax concessions etc.
10. Business and commercial facilities.
For day-to-day management of finance and working capital needs, banking services
are considered highly desirable. Facilities for depositing surplus cash, discounting of
bills, sending outstation cheques for collection and withdrawals, for meeting the cash
shortages nearness to banking facilities is essential.
1.5 Urban, Suburban and Rural Location
A. URBAN AREA
Advantages
1. Excellent communication network.
2. Good transportation facilities for material and people.
3. Availability of skilled and trained manpower.
4. Factory in the vicinity of the market hence high local demand.
5. Excellent sourcing (subcontracting) facilities.
6. Good educational, recreational and medical facilities.
7. Availability of service of consultants, training institutes and trainers.
Disadvantages
1. High cost of land compared to rural area.
2. Sufficient land is not available for expansion.
3. Labour cost is high due to high cost of living.
4. Industrial unrest due to trade union activities.
5. Management labour relations are much influenced by union activities.
6. Municipal and other authority restrictions on buildings etc.
7. High labour turnover.
B. RURAL AREA
Advantages
1. Cheaper and ample availability of site.
2. Cheaper labour rates.
3. Less turnover of labours because of limited mobility.
4. No municipal restrictions.
5. Good industrial relations.
6. Scope for expansion and diversification.
7. No slums and environmental pollution.
Disadvantages
1. Poor transportation network.
2. No good communication facilities.
3. Sourcing of components and materials should be from outside.
4. Far away from market.
5. High absenteeism during harvest season.
6. No educational, medical and recreational facilities.
C. SUBURBAN AREA
Advantages
1. Land available at cheaper rate compared to urban location.
2. Infrastructure facilities are developed by promotional agencies.
3. Because of nearness to city availability of skilled manpower.
4. Educational, medical facilities are available because of nearness to city.
Limitations
1. Due to concentration the suburban area will become crowdy and will become
urban in turn within short period.
2. High mobility of workers and hence higher labour turnover.
3. Government incentive and subsides to promote industry.
2) Principle of minimum distance: This principle is concerned with the minimum travel
(or movement) of man and materials. The facilities should be arranged such that, the
total distance travelled by the men and materials should be minimum and as far as
possible straight line movement should be preferred.
3) Principle of cubic space utilisation: The good layout is one that utilise both horizontal
and vertical space. It is not only enough if only the floor space is utilised optimally but
the third dimension, i.e., the height is also to be utilised effectively.
4) Principle of flow: A good layout is one that makes the materials to move in forward
direction towards the completion stage, i.e., there should not be any backtracking.
5) Principle of maximum flexibility: The good layout is one that can be altered without
much cost and time, i.e., future requirements should be taken into account while
designing the present layout.
6) Principle of safety and security and satisfaction: A good layout is one that gives due
consideration to workers safety and satisfaction and safeguards the plant and
machinery against fire, theft, etc.
7) Principle of minimum handling: A good layout is one that reduces the material
handling to the minimum.
1.8 Factors Influencing Layout
While choosing the layout for a factory, the following factors should be taken into
consideration :
1) Management Policy. Management has to decide on many matters, e.g. nature and
quality of products, size of the plant, integration of production process, plans for
expansion, amount of inventory in stock, employee facilities etc.
2) Manufacturing Process. The type of manufacturing process, e.g. synthetic/analytical,
continuous/ intermittent and repetitive/non-repetitive, will govern the type of plant
layout.
3) Nature of Product. The type of product to be manufactured affects plant layout in
several ways. Small and light products can be moved easily to the machines whereas
for heavy and bulky products the machines may have to be moved. Large and heavy
equipment requires assembly bays. One or a few standardised products can better be
produced through product layout while process layout is more useful for producing a
large variety of non-standardized products. Quality and fragility of the product also
influences the layout.
4) Volume of Production. The plant layout and material handling equipment in the large
scale organisation will be different from the same in the small scale manufacturing
industry.
5) Type of Equipment. The use of single purpose and multi-purpose machines
substantially affects the plant layout. Similarly, noisy and vibrating machines require
special attention in the plant layout decision.
6) Type of building. The plant layout in a single storey building will be different from that
in a multi¬storey building. The covered area, the number of storeys, elevators and
stairs, parking and storage area all affect the layout.
7) Availability of total floor area. The allocation of space for machines, work-benches,
sub-store, aisles, etc. is made on the basis of the available floor area. Use of overhead
space is made in case of shortage of space.
8) Arrangement of material handling equipment. The plant layout and material handling
services are closely related and the latter has a decisive effect on the arrangement of
production process and plant services. It is necessary to provide adequate aisles for
free movement of material handling equipment such as hand truck, fork truck etc.
9) Service facilities. The layout of factory must include proper service facilities required
for the comfort and welfare of workers. These include canteen, lockers, drinking
water, first aid etc.
10) Possibility of future expansion. Plant layout is made in the light of future
requirements and installations of additional facilities.
1.9 Types of Layout
Plant layout may be of four types:
1) Product or line layout
2) Process or functional layout
3) Fixed position or location layout
4) Combined or group layout
1) Product or line layout:
Under this, machines and equipment’s are arranged in one line depending upon the
sequence of operations required for the product. The materials move from one
workstation to another sequentially without any backtracking or deviation. Under this,
machines are grouped in one sequence. Therefore materials are fed into the first
machine and finished goods travel automatically from machine to machine, the output
of one machine becoming input of the next, e.g. in a paper mill, bamboos are fed into
the machine at one end and paper comes out at the other end. The raw material
moves very fast from one workstation to other stations with a minimum work in
progress storage and material handling.
The grouping of machines should be done keeping in mind the following general
principles.
a) All the machine tools or other items of equipment’s must be placed at the
point demanded by the sequence of operations
b) There should no points where one line crossed another line.
c) Materials may be fed where they are required for assembly but not necessarily
at one point.
d) All the operations including assembly, testing packing must be included in the
line.
A line layout for two products is given below:
b) Very large space is required for storage of material and equipment near the
product.
c) As several operations are often carried out simultaneously, there is possibility
of confusion and conflicts among different workgroups.
Suitability:
a) Manufacture of bulky and heavy products such as locomotives, ships, boilers,
generators, wagon building, aircraft manufacturing, etc.
b) Construction of building, flyovers, dams.
c) Hospital, the medicines, doctors and nurses are taken to the patient (product).
4) Combined layout:
Certain manufacturing units may require all three processes namely intermittent
process (job shops), the continuous process (mass production shops) and the
representative process combined process [i.e. miscellaneous shops].
In most of industries, only a product layout or process layout or fixed location layout
does not exist. Thus, in manufacturing concerns where several products are produced
in repeated numbers with no likelihood of continuous production, combined layout is
followed. Generally, a combination of the product and process layout or other
combination are found, in practice, e.g. for industries involving the fabrication of parts
and assembly, fabrication tends to employ the process layout, while the assembly
areas often employ the product layout. In soap, manufacturing plant, the machinery
manufacturing soap is arranged on the product line principle, but ancillary services
such as heating, the manufacturing of glycerin, the power house, the water treatment
plant etc. are arranged on a functional basis.
1.10 Plant Layout Procedure
1. Collect the information about the product, process, etc. and record the data
systematically.
2. Analyse the data using various techniques of analysis.
3. Select the general flow pattern for the materials.
4. Design the individual work stations.
5. Assemble the individual layout into total layout in accordance with the general
flow pattern and the building facilities.
6. Coordinate the plan with plan for handling materials.
7. Complete the plant layout.
8. Convent the plant layout into floor plans that is to be used by the plant engineer
for installation of equipment.
1.11 Material Flow Patterns
In order to achieve the production targets, the layout of plant is decided. Except, in
case of fixed plant layout, the material moves from one machine to another machine.
So, the movement of material is more in the plant in any kind of layout. Hence, it is
necessary to have effective flow of materials in the plant. Naturally, the minimum
movement of material can reduce the material handling cost as well as it reduces the
chances of damage of the material. To achieve, above objectives, the flow of material
in the plant called flow pattern is decided. Flow pattern starts from the entry of raw
material in the plant and it ends at when the raw material is converted into finished
product.
O type flow
Used for electrical system
production
Limitations
Calculate transportation cost using flow matrix, distance matrix and cost matrix.
𝑚 𝑚
Transportation cost = 𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑓𝑖𝑗 . 𝑐𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝑖𝑗
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction to PPC
2.2 What is PPC?
2.3 Need of PPC
2.4 Objectives of PPC
2.5 Factors affecting on PPC
2.6 Functions of PPC
2.7 Types of Production system
2.8 Forecasting
2.9 Applications of Forecasting
2.10 Techniques in Forecasting
2.11 Error in forecasting
2.12 Line balancing
2.13 Process Planning
2.14 MRP
2.15 Standardization
2.16 Work simplification
2.1 Introduction
Production planning and control can be viewed as nervous system of the production
operation.
This function aims at efficient utilization of material resources, people and facilities
in any undertaking through planning, coordinating and controlling the production
activities that transform the raw material into finished products or components as a
most optimal manner.
All the activities in manufacturing or production cycle must be planned, coordinated,
organized and controlling to its objectives.
Production planning and control as a department plays a vital role in manufacturing
organizations.
It is clear from name that it is something about planning. Planning is defined as
setting goals. Production planning and control provides different kinds of
information to different departments.
It provides information about available manufacturing resources to marketing
department. Marketing department receives orders according to that information.
Similarly, it coordinates with other departments and provides relevant information.
2.2 What is PPC?
Production planning and control may be defined as the direction and co-ordination
of the firm's material and physical facilities towards the attainment of pre-specified
production goals, in the most efficient and economical manner.
According to Samuel Elion: “The highest efficiency in production is obtained by
manufacturing the required quantity of the product, of the required quality, at the
required time, by the best and cheapest method.”
To attain this target, management employs production planning and control, the tool
that co-ordinates all manufacturing activities.
The four factors mentioned above—namely: quantity, quality, time and price-
encompass the production system, of which production planning and control is the
brain.
Production control will be in action when production activity begins.
It can comprise the following activities
1) Determination of the required product mix and factory load to satisfy
customer’s needs.
2) Matching the required level of production to the existing resources.
3) Scheduling (Scheduling is the process of arranging, controlling and optimizing
work and workloads in a production process or manufacturing process.
Scheduling is used to allocate plant and machinery resources, plan human
resources, plan production processes and purchase materials) and choosing
the actual work to be started in the manufacturing facility"
4) Setting up and delivering production orders to production facilities.
There exists a very close inter-relationship among the phases and functions of the
production planning and control and they are mutually supporting. For instance,
relistic planning is quite dependent upon the data which is compiled during the
function phase. Action, in turn, is dependent upon continuous planning of the work
to be performed by the activity. Follow-up is the comparison of the work that was
originally planned against the work actually done. It must be understood, that if the
plans are lacking, or not stated properly or are recorded inadequately in terms of
objectives, starting and completion dates and utilisation of resources, there will not
be a basis for a comprehensive follow up phase.
The planning and control is an integral part of the system and it is very difficult to
isolate one from the other. They are so inter-related that one is always identified
with the other. This can be better explained by control cycle as shown in Fig.
Planning concerns with the formulation of production strategies and targets for the
enterprise whereas control is vested with actual implementation and execution of
planned Objectives. Production planning determines the operations required to
manufacture the product and control regulates and supervises these operations.
Through production control information the organisation can locate shortcomings in
the planning process and the necessary modifications can be done at the time of
planning in future. Similarly, production control operations can be improved to
adjust with the planning requirements.
2.3 Need of PPC
PPC is needed to achieve:
1) Effective utilization of firm’s resources.
2) To achieve the production objective with respect to quality, quantity, cost
and timeliness of delivery.
3) To obtain the uninterrupted production flow in order to meet the customer
demands with respect to quality and committed delivery schedule.
4) To help the company to supply a good quality product to the customer on the
continuous basis at company rates.
2.4 Objectives of PPC
There are three M's of production viz, Men, Materials and Machines without which
production cannot be carried out.
The production planning and control (P.P.C.) system integrates and coordinates the
use of manpower, machines and materials for the efficient production to meet the
sales requirements.
Objectives of PPC are discussed below:
1. To design a system and plan, by which production may be carried out with a view
to meet promised delivery date consistent with minimum cos t and quality
standard.
2. To ensure efficient utilization of production facilities.
3. To coordinate the production activities of different departments.
4. To maintain adequate but not excessive stock of raw materials, work in process
and of finished goods to meet production requirements and delivery schedules at
the most economical level.
5. To ensure production of right product in right quality at the right time.
6. To maintain flexibility in manufacturing operations, to accommodate rush jobs or
to meet contingencies.
7. To co-ordinate labour, machines and equipment in the most effective and
economic manner.
8. Ensuring smooth flow of materials by eliminating bottlenecks if any, in
production.
9. Establishing targets and checking it against performance.
10. To provide alternative production strategies in case of emergencies.
11. To determine the nature and magnitude of various input factors to manufacture
the desired output
12. The PPC department guides production by preparing and issuing manufacturing
orders which direct the use of facilities and material and allocate labour to the
output of the required quantity of products of the required quality.
2.5 Factors affecting on PPC
PPC is affected by the different factors, which all are discussed below:
1) Use of Computers:
Modern factories are using office automation equipment like PC, punch cards
etc. It helps accurate computation of required of men and machine.
2) Seasonal Variations:
Demand of certain products is affected by seasons, for instance umbrellas and
raincoats during the monsoons and outputs. Production planning and control
must take such changes into consideration while planning and control activities
of inputs and outputs.
3) Test Marketing:
In an aggressive marketing strategy new products are to be test marketed in
order to know the trends. This is a short- cycle operation, intermittent in nature
and often upsets regular production.
4) After Sales Service:
This has become an important parameter for success. In after sales services,
many items are returned for repair. These are unscheduled work and also
overload the production line.
These three phases as mentioned above make up the main body of functions of PPC.
There are other secondary functions which are essential contributors to the efficient
performance of production, planning and control. In addition there are other
functions which are supported by these three phases which are not generally
considered to be direct functions of production planning and control. These include
quality control- cost control and so on.
Prior Planning:
Prior planning implies that a course of action is established in advance. The
whole activity must be planned and exists on paper before the very first action
takes place
1. Fore-canting (Estimation of future work): Fore-casting is defined as the
estimation of future activities i.e. the estimation of type, quantity and quality of
future work. These estimates provide the basis for establishing the future
requirement for men, materials, machines, time and money.
2. Order writing (Preparation of work authorisation): If the work is to be controlled,
it must begin with a specified documents authorising it. So it means giving the
authority to one or more persons to do a particular job.
3. Product design (Preparation of specifications): After the work authorisation has
been prepared the next step is to collect the information necessary to describe
the work in details. This includes blue prints or drawings, a list of specification, a
bill of material and so on.
Action Planning:
In any type of work activity the following steps are necessary for planning details
of the work to be done:
1. Process planning: The determination of most economical method of performing
an activity, all factors being considered.
Routing. The arrangement of work stations is determined by the route.
2. Material control: Determination of material requirements and control of material
(inventory control).
3. Tool control: Tool control may be subdivided into two categories :
(a) Design and procurement of new tools.
(b) Control storage and maintenance of tools after procurement.
4. Loading: Determination and control of equipment and manpower requirements.
Loading may be defined as the assignment of work to the facility. The facility may
be equipment, manpower or both.
5. Scheduling: Determination when the work is to be done. Scheduling consists of
time phasing of loading (workload) i.e., setting both, starting and ending time for
the work to be done.
The common practice dictates that routing, loading and scheduling be performed
simultaneously.
Action Phase:
The work is started in the action phase. There is only one production planning
activity in action phase i.e., dispatching. Dispatching is the transition from the
planning phase to action phase.
It consists of actual release of detailed work authorisation to the work centres.
Follow up or Control Phase:
Once the work is started in an activity it is necessary to evaluate continuously the
progress in terms of plan so that deviations can be detected and corrected as quickly
as possible. The control phase accordingly consists of two parts:
Progress report:
1. Progress reporting: (Data collection). The first step in progress reporting is to
collect data for what is actually happening in the activity (Progress of work).
2. Data interpretation. After the data has been collected, then it is necessary to
interpret it by comparing the actual performance against the plan.
Corrective Action:
1. Expediting. If the data collected from the production unit indicates that there is
significant deviation from the plan and the plan cannot be changed, then some
action must be taken to get back on plan.
2. Replanning. It should be emphasised that the plan is not to be changed but to be
followed, however, if after expediting to correct deviation it is found that, it is
impossible to perform according to plan. It would be necessary to replan the
whole affair. It may also be found that there were errors made while developing
the original plan. In all such cases replanning is necessary.
2.7 Types of Production system
Broadly one can think of three types of production systems which are mentioned
here under:
2.7.1 Job production:
It involves production as per customer's specification each batch or order consists of
a small lot of identical products and is different from other batches. It also refers as
the unit production. The system requires comparatively smaller investment in
machines and equipment. It is flexible and can be adapted to changes in product
design and order size without much inconvenience. This system is most suitable
where heterogeneous products are produced against specific orders.
Characteristics:
1) Material are purchased based on order.
2) Standard tools are stocked and special tools are made or purchased from
outside.
3) Process planning activity does not exist. Based on drawing and specification
work method will be deciding.
4) The day to day scheduling and progressing is through the meeting with the
supervisor.
2.7.2 Batch production:
It refers to a form of production of the job passes through the production
department in batch or lot and each may have different routing. This system
produces a limited number of products at regular intervals.
Characteristics:
1) Material and tools control are more important and systematic stocks is
required.
2) Process sheet are prepared.
3) Loading and scheduling are to be worked out with greater details.
4) Progressing details is to be collected based on the progression of the work.
2.7.3 Continuous production:
It refers to the production of standardized products with a standard set of process
and operation sequence in anticipation of demand. It is also known as mass flow
production. This system ensures less work in process inventory and high product
quality but involves large investment in machinery and equipment. The system is
suitable in 117 plants involving large volume and small variety of output e.g. oil
refineries reform cement manufacturing etc.
Characteristics:
1) Material function is critical.
2) No process planning activity.
3) No tools control due to nature of the plant.
4) Scheduling is restricted to final quantity required.
5) Progressing is required only recording of final production quantity.
2.8 FORECASTING
The growing competition, frequent changes in customer's demand and the trend
towards automation demand that decisions in business should not be based purely
on guesses rather on a careful analysis of data concerning the future course of
events. More time and attention should be given to the future than to the past, and
the question 'what is likely to happen?' should take precedence over 'what has
happened?' though no attempt to answer the first can be made without the facts
and figures being available to answer the second.
Definition: “When estimates of future conditions are made on a systematic basis, the
process is called forecasting and the figure or statement thus obtained is defined as
forecast.”
Forecasting aims at reducing the area of uncertainty that surrounds management
decision-making with respect to costs, profit, sales, production, pricing, capital
investment.
Forecasting is a process of estimating a future event by casting forward past data.
The past data are systematically combined in a predetermined way to obtain the
Market Moving
Research Average
Panel Exponential
Consensus Smoothing
Historical Trend
Analogy Projections
Delphi
Method
5) Prepare forecast: Apply the model using the data collected and calculate the value of
the forecast.
6) Evaluate: The forecast obtained through any of the model should not be used, as it
is, blindly. It should be evaluated in terms of ‘confidence interval’ – usually all good
forecast models have methods of calculating upper value and the lower value within
which the given forecast is expected to remain with certain specified level of
probability. It can also be evaluated from logical point of view whether the value
obtained is logically feasible? It can also be evaluated against some related variable
or phenomenon. Thus, it is possible, sometimes advisable to modify the statistically
forecasted’ value based on evaluation.
2.10.1 Qualitative Techniques in Forecasting
1) Grass Roots
Grass roots forecasting builds the forecast by adding successively from the
bottom. The assumption here is that the person closest to the customer or
end use of the product knows its future needs best. Though this is not always
true, in many instances it is a valid assumption, and it is the basis for this
method.
Forecasts at this bottom level are summed and given to the next higher level.
This is usually a district warehouse, which then adds in safely stocks and any
effects of ordering quantity sizes. This amount is then fed to the next level,
which may be a regional warehouse. The procedure repeat until it becomes
an input at the top level, which, in the case of a manufacturing firm, would be
the input to the production system.
2) Market Research
Firms often hire outside companies that specialize in market research to
conduct this type of forecasting. You may have been involved in market
surveys through a marketing class. Certainly you have not escaped telephone
calls asking you about product preferences, your income, habits, and so on.
Market research is used mostly for product research in the sense of looking
for new product ideas, likes and dislikes about existing products, which
competitive products within a particular class are preferred, and so on. Ag ain,
the data collection methods are primarily surveys and interviews.
3) Panel Consensus
In a panel consensus, the idea that two heads are better than one is
extrapolated to the idea that a panel of people from a variety of positions can
develop a more reliable forecast than a narrower group. Panel forecasts are
developed through open meetings with free exchange of ideas form all levels
of management and individuals. The difficulty with this open style is that
lower employee levels are intimidated by higher levels of management. For
example, a salesperson in a particular product line may have a good estimate
of future product demand but may not speak up to refute a much different
specified intervals of time. These intervals may be minutes, hours, days, weeks,
months, etc. In the analysis of a time series the following four time-related factors
are important.
1) Trends:
These relate to the long-term persistent movements/tendencies/changes in
data like price increases, population growth, and decline in market shares. An
example of a decreasing linear trend is shown in Fig. 2.1.
2) Seasonal variations:
There could be periodic, repetitive variations in time-series which occur
because of buying or consuming patterns and social habits, during different
times of a year. The demand for products like soft drinks, woolens and
refrigerators, also exhibits seasonal variations. An illustration of seasonal
variations is provided in Fig. 2.2.
3) Cyclical variations:
These refer to the variations in time series which arise out of the
phenomenon of business cycles. The business cycle refers to the periods of
expansion followed by periods of contraction. The period of a business cycle
may vary from one year to thirty years. The duration and the level of
resulting demand variation due to business cycles are quite difficult to
predict.
4) Random or irregular variations:
These refer to the erratic fluctuations in the data which cannot be attributed
to the trend, seasonal or cyclical factors. In many cases, the root cause of
these variations can be isolated only after a detailed analysis of the data and
the accompanying explanations, if any. Such variations can be due to a wide
variety of factors like sudden weather changes, strike or a communal clash.
Since these are truly random in nature, their future occurrence and the
resulting impact on demand are difficult to predict. The effect of these events
can be eliminated by smoothing the time series data. A graphical example of
the random variations is given in Fig. 2.3.
into two equal halves, averages calculated for both, and a line drawn
connecting the two semi averages. This line is projected into the future and
the forecasts are developed.
2) Simple Moving Average Method
When demand for a product is neither growing nor declining rapidly, and if it
does not have seasonal characteristics, a moving average can be useful can
be useful in removing the random fluctuations for forecasting. Although
moving averages are frequently centered, it is more convenient to use pas t
data to predict the following period directly.
To illustrate, a centered five-month average of January, February, March,
April and May gives an average centered on March. However, all five months
of data must already exist. If our objective is to forecast for June, we must
project our moving average- by some means- from March to June. If the
average is not centered but is at forward end, we can forecast more easily,
though we may lose some accuracy. Thus, if we want to forecast June with a
five-month moving average, we can take the average of January, February,
March, April and May. When June passes, the forecast for July would be the
average of February, March, April, May and June.
Although it is important to select the best period for the moving average,
there are several conflicting effects of different period lengths. The longer
the moving average period, the more the random elements are smoothed
(which may be desirable in many cases). But if there is a trend in the data -
either increasing or decreasing-the moving average has the adverse
characteristic of lagging the trend. Therefore, while a shorter time span
produces more oscillation, there is a closer following of the trend.
Conversely, a longer time span gives a smoother response but lags the trend.
The formula for a simple moving average is
𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡−2 + 𝐴𝑡−3 +. … … … . +𝐴𝑡−𝑛
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑡−1
𝑛
where, 𝐹𝑡 = Forecast for the coming period, 𝑛 = Number of period to be
averaged and 𝐴𝑡−1 , 𝐴𝑡 −2 , 𝐴𝑡−3 and so on are the actual occurrences in the in
the past period, two periods ago, three periods ago and so on respectively.
Characteristics of moving averages
1) The different moving averages produce different forecasts.
2) The greater the number of periods in the moving average, the greater the
smoothing effect.
3) If the underlying trend of the past data is thought to be fairly constant with
substantial randomness, then a greater number of periods should be chosen.
4) Alternatively, if there is thought to be some change in the underlying state of
the data, more responsiveness is needed, therefore fewer periods should be
included in the moving average.
we soon will cover) As each new piece of data is added in these methods, the
oldest observation is dropped, and the new forecast is calculated. In many
applications (perhaps in most), the most recent occurrences are more
indicative of the future than those in the more distant past. If this premise is
valid – “that the importance of data diminishes as the past becomes more
distant” - then exponential smoothing may be the most logical and easiest
method to use.
The reason this is called exponential smoothing is that each increment in the
past is decreased by (1-α).
The simplest formula is
New forecast = Old forecast + α (Latest Observation – Old Forecast)
where α (alpha) is the smoothing constant.
Or Mathematically,
𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡 −1 + 𝛼(𝐴𝑡−1 − 𝐹𝑡 −1 )
𝐹𝑡 = 𝛼𝐴𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)𝐹𝑡 −1
Where
𝐹𝑡 = The exponentially smoothed forecast for period t
𝐹𝑡 −1 = The exponentially smoothed forecast made for the prior period
𝐴𝑡−1 = The actual demand in the prior periods
α = The desired response rate, or smoothing constant
Exponential smoothing techniques have become well accepted for six major
reasons:
1) Exponential models are surprisingly accurate
2) Formulating an exponential model is relatively easy
3) The user can understand how the model works
4) Little computation is required to use the model
5) Computer storage requirement are small because of the limited use of
historical data
6) Tests for accuracy as to how well the model is performing are easy to
compute
2.10.3 Causal Methods
Casual methods try to identify the factors which causes the variation of demand and
try to establish a relationship between the demand and these factors.
In the method, the analyst tries to identify those forecast that best explain the level
of sales of the product. This process is called econometric forecasting.
Objective of the method: To establish a cause and effective relationship between the
changes in the sales level of the product and set of relevant explanatory variable.
Methods:
1) Regression Analysis (Least square method)
Regression can be defined as a functional relationship between two or more
correlated variables. It is used to predict one variable given the other. The
6) Less congestion
Disadvantages of assembly line (Flow line)
1) More capital investment
2) Low flexibility
3) Monotony work for operators
Methodology adopted for line balancing as follows
Removing non value added activities
1) Value Adding: Any process that changes the nature, shape or characteristics
of the product, in line with customer requirements. ex: machining, assembly.
2) Non-Value adding: Any work carried out that does not increase product value
ex. inspection, part movement, tool changing, and maintenance.
3) Waste: All other meaningless, non-essential activities that do not add value
to the product you can eliminate immediately e.g. looking for tools, waiting
time.
Cycle time
Update calculation
Can this be
improved?
lot-sizing issues which made in groups of the models to batches and the
result will be on the assembly levels.
The model of different assembly lines and levels of activities are presented
below in Fig. 2.6, Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8.
7) Find the total time to complete the job taking in to account and loading and
unloading times, handling times and other allowances.
8) Represent the details on process sheet.
2.14 Material Requirement Planning (MRP)
It was discussed in demand forecasting that in the dependent demand situation, i f
the demand for an item is known, the demand for other related items can be
deduced. For example, if the demand of an automobile is known, the demand of its
sub-assemblies and sub components can easily be deduced. For dependent demand
situations, normal reactive inventory control systems (i.e. EOQ etc.) are not suitable
because they result in high inventory costs and unreliable delivery schedules. More
recently, managers have realized that inventory planning systems (such as materials
requirements planning) are better suited for dependent demand items.
Definition: “MRP is a simple system of calculating arithmetically the requirements of
the input materials at different points of time based on actual production plan. MRP
can also be defined as a planning and scheduling system to meet time-phased
materials requirements for production operations.”
MRP always tries to meet the delivery schedule of end products as specified in the
master production schedule.
MRP Objectives:
MRP has several objectives, such as:
1) Reduction in Inventory Cost: By providing the right quantity of material at
right time to meet master production schedule, MRP tries to avoid the cost of
excessive inventory.
2) Meeting Delivery Schedule: By minimizing the delays in materials
procurement, production decision making, MRP helps avoid delays in
production thereby meeting delivery schedules more consistently.
3) Improved Performance: By stream lining the production operations and
minimizing the unplanned interruptions, MRP focuses on having all
components available at right place in right quantity at right time.
MRP System
A simple sketch of an MRP system is shown in figure 2.9. It can be seen from the
figure that an MRP system has three major input components:
3) Loss of morale
4) For small scale industry standardization may not be advantageous.
2.16 Work simplification
Performance of the steps comprising a work in a manner that is least expensive (in
terms of effort, money, and time) and consistent with the objective of the work.
Work simplification is in the HR, Teams & Training and Industries, Manufacturing &
Technology.
All aspects of the should be analyzed by applying the following four principles of
work simplification:
1) Elimination: A 100% saving can be accomplished by elimination of
unnecessary equipment, instruments, steps in procedures and movements.
2) Combination: If the functions performed by two instruments or pieces of
equipment can be combined into one instrument or a piece of equipment, or
if two steps in a procedure can be combined to accomplished in one step, a
50% saving can be realized.
3) Rearrangement: It may be possible to rearrange equipment’s and materials in
the operatory, scheduling or steps in process procedures to take better
advantage of available space and time.
4) Simplification: Every effort should be made to simplify equipment and
process procedures in order to introduce a minimum number of variables and
permit the team to function most effectively.
Advantages of simplification:
1) Financial advantages to simplification in improved efficiency, reductions in
customer and staff error, fewer complaints and fewer appeals.
2) It reduces inventory and thus better inventory control.
3) It provides fast delivery and better service after sales.
4) Less overhead and handling expenditures.
5) It helps in simplifying planning and production of parts.
6) It also helps in simplifying in inspection and control.
7) It facilities repairs, services and maintenance of the product.
Course Contents
3.1 Definitions of productivity
3.2 Reasons for increase or decrease in
productivity
3.3 Productivity improvement tools
3.4 Reaction of management and
workers work study
3.5 Objectives of method analysis
3.6 Procedure of method study
3.7 Recording techniques
3.8 Macro and micro motion Study
3.9 Normal working Area and work
place Design
3.10 Objectives of Work Measurement
3.11 Time Study
3.12 Work Sampling
3.13 Pre-determined motion and time
systems (PMTS)
3.14 Method-Time Measurement (M-T-
M)
3.15 Types of allowances
3.16 Ergonomics
SECTION – I - PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is directly linked with the performance of the organization. Productivity
is an important factor in improvement of organization's performance.
If the firm has higher productivity, the performance of the organization increases
undoubtedly. For an organization productivity can be termed as reduction in wastage
of, resources such as men, machines and material. If the wastage from the raw
material is reduced from existing conditions, the output will definitely increase
without change in any input so, the ratio of output to the input will increase. This ratio
is termed as productivity.
Productivity is analogues to the efficiency of machine from the definition, it is clear
that if the output is higher at same input, and the productivity will be increased.
Productivity is a quantitative measure of performance. It is the optimized utilization
of all available resources to generate output.
Motivation of employees.
Unbiased evaluation employees.
Job enrichment
Group technology adoption
Development of flexible manufacturing
Technology Based tools and techniques system
Adoption of new technologies like ECM,
EDM
Product standardization
Value analysis of the product
Product based tools and techniques R & D in existing products
Reliability improvement
As a tendency that workers will always have opposed to the change, so they are
required to be properly explained about its advantages. Even after that the old
workers have resistance, and then they should be left out of change.
When any worker is observed for his work by stop watch, he will be under pressure.
So, his performance will be affected. To avoid this pressure, worker must be clearly
informed that he must not be disturbed.
3.4.2 Management and Work study
On the part of management, there two main difficulties:
Same as to labour, the management will also have the same resistance to change. So,
they are also required to be taken into confidence.
When work study experts arc active in the shop floor, they are directly instructing the
workers. So, the mangers of the organization feel that their positions are being taken
by other persons. So, they are not ready to support the work study.
So, before applying work study following steps is advised to the management:
Work study man must not directly deal with workers. They should give instructions to
the workers through manager.
The work study experts must not discuss any other matters with the workers.
The work study man must also seek help from the foremen and foremen should
support.
Once the job is selected by authorities considering all criteria, the next step is to study
that job thoroughly. For studying the job, it is required to gather all the information
related to the job such as input data, different process to be performed on the job,
record of activities involved in performing the job etc.
Here, the important is to record of all activities involved in the job- for recording the
job various tools and techniques are used. These tools and techniques involves motion
of men, material and machines. Once all input information are collected than critical
examination of the activities are carried out.
3. Critical investigation of activities related to the job
The success of investigation depends on the perfection of input data and recording of
activities on tools and techniques. If the input data and information is perfect, than
investigation can give better results.
The objective of critical examination of recorded facts of an existing method is to
determine the true reasons behind each events. Critical examination involves two
types of questions: Primary questions and
Secondary questions. Primary questions are generally asked for as follows:
o Purpose of the job (Whether it is essential or not)
o Means of doing job (Are device, tools, material for doing the job is right?)
o Sequence of doing job (Is the sequence followed is right?)
o Place of doing job (Is the place of doing job is right?)
o Men doing the job (Is person doing the job is perfect?)
In secondary questions, using brainstorming activity is carried out in order to find out
the alternates of present scenario which can improve the present method of doing
the job.
4. Development of alternatives methods &i selection of most economical method
Based, on brainstorming arid examination of alternatives several alternative methods
arc selected for examination. Those selected methods arc critically evaluated by
higher authorities and based on considering various factors the most economical
method is selected for implementation as replacement of the current method of doing
job.
5. Implementation of new method
Once the alternative method is selected, the plan of implementing that new method
in It may require to do necessary modification or changes of tool place of current
changes of tools, prepare method devices, rnaterials, plant implementation plant
layout.
Once all arrangements and changes are made, few trials are carried out in order to
check that whether new method is fulfilling the objective or not. If required the
alternate may be slightly modified after trials. After adopting the new method it is
implemented in full flange by concerned persons.
6. Maintain the new method
Once the new method is implemented, it is necessary to keep watch that whether new
method is followed by the worker or not. Since workers arc adequate with old methods of
doing the job, they have tendency to slip back into previous method. Also, the results related
to change in method should be measured in order to confirm the success of method analysis.
So, continuous inspection of new method is required in initial period after the
implementation.
This chart is represented for each small products. So, when the outline process chart
is prepared for any product, different outline process chart are joined using horizontal
line, where it is assembled in real production method.
processed by more than one person. Here the activity is plotted on common time
scale.
Multiple activity charts arc prepared with the following objectives:
o To detect idle time on machines or on the part of workers.
o Based on tracking idle time, this chart helps in calculating the number of
workers required in a group to perform the job.
o Also, from calculation of idle time, it is possible to calculate number of jobs
that can be performed by a single operator.
o Finally, improved method is developed for doing the job.
Multiple activity chart is following types based on the combination of man and
machine:
1. Man Machine chart
2. Man- Multi-machine chart
3. Multi-man chart on a single job (Gang Chart)
4. Multi-man- single Machine chart
Steps for constructing the multiple activity chart as follows:
1. In multiple activity chart common time scale is prepared all man and/ or
machine.
2. In multiple activity chart, each number of man and machine is calculated as
one subject. For each subject, a single vertical column is prepared.
3. For Each subject respective activities are divided into number of small
elements. For each small element time is calculated using stop watch.
4. Here the activity is either termed as working or idle. The working activities is
shown as hatched area and for the idle tirne it is kept as blank.
5. On the column, of each subject, activities related to corresponding subject is
recorded on a common time scale.
6. A brief description of each activity is mentioned in the chart.
work station. Using thread, a complete path is plotted among the work stations. The
thread when measured give approximately the total distance travelled between work
stations.
Advantages
Since it gives a clear picture about the movement of the material or man without
complicated diagram.
String diagram is able to posturizes back tracking, bottlenecks and congestion clearly.
It helps in modifying the existing plant layout with the aim to reduce the total distance
moved.
It also gives us the most commonly used work station. So, it gives indication that
location of commonly used work station should be at centre in order to reduce the
travelling distance.
3.7.7 Cycle graph and chrono cycle graph
This is a recording technique related to motion study. This method was developed by
Gilberth. By this method, the track of the path followed by hand of workers is traced
out. Especially, when the movements of hands are very fast, this graph method is
applied. Two recording methods were introduced as discussed below:
3.7.7.1 Cyclograph
It records the path of moving part of the body of the worker when he performing the
job. Small light bulbs are fixed on the moving part of the worker and as the movement
of the moving part occurs, it is traced on photographic plate. So, continuous line of
movement is traced on the photographic plate. This diagram has some drawbacks as
follows:
3.8.1 Therbligs
Frank and Lillian Gilberth developed the concept of "Therbligs" to improve production
methods. Therbligs comprise a system for analysing the motions involved in
performing a task. The identification of individual motions, as well as moments of
delay in the process was designed to find unnecessary or inefficient motions and to
utilize or eliminate even split-seconds of wasted time.
Each Therbligs has fixed symbol, colour and explanation of each. Therbligs are used
along with SIMO chart in order to find out that which motion is taking long time along
with reason. Based on that, the ways of reducing the time taking process is applied on
the lengthy activity. Following are different types of Therbligs.
Table 3.3 – Therbligs
Based on the above discussed areas, the work place should be designed in such a
manner that maximum area should be utilized by the worker. Following are certain
care has to be taken while designing the workplace.
1. Adequate seating and positioned chair should be permitted in order to adjust the chair
with working height and the person's height. Also, proper lighting should be provided
at the work place.
2. In order to eye fatigue, proper contrasting colour should be on the walls of work place.
3. Tools and materials must have mounting positions in order to habituate the worker to
place the right tools at right places. This will also make easy for him to find the
particular tool and it avoids searching
4. Material and tools should have sequence as per the usage and motion of the material
if any.
5. Tools, materials and other operating controls must be within the maximum working
area or as possible as nearer to the worker.
6. For delivering the materials, gravity feed, bins or container should be used. Also, for
finished products, drop deliveries should be available. This leads to avoid the wastage
of time in disposing the material.
6. Determine the performance rating and normal time for each task element as given
below:
Normal time= [Average observed time] x [Performance rating factor]
Performance rating factor:
Rating is the process during which the time study observer or analyst compares the
performance of the worker observed with analyst’s own concept of normal
performance. The performance in terms of speed of the worker is rated as a
percentage with normal performance equal to 100 percent which is adjusted to the
observed time.
7. Add the normal times for each element to develop a total time for the job.
8. Compute the standard time as given below.
Also used to determine ratio delay which is the percentage of time a worker is delayed
or idle.
Work sampling involves random observations to record the activity that the worker is
performing.
Work sampling helps in determining how employees allocate their time. So, the study
can be utilized to set staffing levels, reassign duties, estimate various costs and set
delay allowances.
Easier approach and less expensive than time study.
Example: An IT manager takes 400 instantaneous observations at random intervals on a
coder over few weeks to find out that the coder was doing coding job in 270 observations
whereas the coder was idle for 130 observations due to miscellaneous reasons. So, we
can see that the coder remains idle for (130/400) x 100 = 32.5% of the time. No doubt the
accuracy of such results depends on the number of observations.
Steps of work sampling procedure
1. Take a Preliminary sample to obtain estimates of the parameter values.
2. Compute the sample size required.
3. Prepare a schedule for random observations at appropriate times.
4. Observe and record employee activities
5. Record the performance indicator like number of units produced or any other
services rendered during the study.
6. Compute the normal time and standard time per service.
Sample size for Work Sampling
1. Parameter to be estimated can be the percentage of time a worker is busy or a
worker is idle.
2. Determine the number of observations or sample size, n, considering desired
confidence level and accuracy as given below
, where
Z = Standard normal deviate for the desired confidence level (derived from normal
form)
P = Estimated value of sample proportion
h = Acceptable error level in percent
Even though the large number of observations will give more accuracy, there should
be some limit beyond which accuracy is not worthwhile economically. It incurs a good
percentage of cost in conducting the work sampling study with large number of
observations.
In work sampling it is determined that whether the employee is busy or idle during
the observation, a ratio is given to the employee, and the units produced are totalled
in order to produce an average.
This data can be used to determine the normal time and standard time as mentioned
below.
The standard time can be determined by considering allowances and the normal time
as determined in Time study.
Application of work sampling
1. Estimation of the percentage of time consumed by various job activities on the part
of, supervisor, engineer, inspector, office personnel etc.
2. Estimation of percentage utilization of machine tools, crane3, in the heavy machine
shop, fork lift tuck in a warehouse which will be helpful in the economic analysis of
equipment’s needed.
3. To compare the efficiency of two departments.
4. To provide more equitable distribution of work in a group.
5. To aid in job evaluation.
6. For appraisal of safety performance.
7. For appraisal of organisational efficiency
8. To determine the nature and extent of 'cycles' and 'peak load' variations in observable
activity.
Advantages of Work Sampling
1. The activities which are impractical or costly to measure by time-study can be
measured readily by work sampling.
2. A single observer can make work sampling study of several operators or machines.
3. The cost and time involved in work sampling study is quite less as compared to that
required for continuous time study.
4. A work sampling study may be interrupted at any time without affecting the results.
5. There is less chance of obtaining misleading results as the operators are not under
close observations.
6. Work sampling studies are less tedious and cause less fatigue to the observer.
7. It is not necessary to use trained time study observer.
8. Stop watch or other timing devices are not required for work sampling studies.
Disadvantages of work sampling
1. Work sampling does not permit finer breakdown of activities and delays. It can't
provide much detailed information.
2. It is economical and practicable only when a large number of operators are observed,
or for studying operators or machines located over wide areas.
3. In certain kinds of work sampling studies, the record of method used by the operators
is not made.
4. Therefore, whenever a method change occurs in any element an entirely new study
must be made.
5. Management and workers may not understand statistical work sampling as readily as
they do time study.
5o/o of normal time is added at personnel allowance. Where working conditions are
tardier, more allowance is added.
2. Fatigue allowances: As the day passes, weariness of person is increases in both ways,
mentally and physically. It adversely affects the pace of doing work. Hence, as the day
progresses, the time required for doing the same job compared morning is increasing.
This may be due to unhealthy working conditions, physical exertion etc. So, fatigue
allowances are added considering the nature of work, working conditions and
worker's general ability of doing work.
3. Delay allowances/ Contingency allowances: Delays can be of two types: Intentional
delays and unintentional delays. Intentional delays is due to the attitude of the worker
of doing the work or not. Unintentional delays are beyond the control of the operator.
Since intentional delays are causing loss of production to the organization, it is not
calculated in the allowances.
4. Special Allowances: These allowances are given under certain special circumstances.
Some of these allowances and the conditions under which they are given are:
Policy Allowance: Some companies, as a policy, give an allowance to provide a
satisfactory level of earnings for a specified level of performance under exceptional
circumstance. This may be allowed to new employees, handicap employees, workers
on night shift, etc. The value of the allowance is typically decided by management.
Small Lot Allowance: This allowance is given when the actual production period is too
short to allow the worker to come out of the initial learning period. When an operator
completes several small-lot jobs on different setups during the day, an allowance as
high as 15 percent may be given to allow the operator to make normal earnings.
Training Allowance: This allowance is provided when work is done by trainee to allow
him to make reasonable earnings. It may be a sliding allowance, which progressively
decreases to zero over certain length of time. If the effect of learning on the job is
known, the rate of decrease of the training allowance can be set accordingly.
Rework Allowance: This allowance is provided on certain operation when it is known
that some percent of parts made are spoiled due to factors beyond the operator's
control. The time in which these spoiled parts may be reworked is converted into
allowance.
Performance Rating can be defined as the procedure in which the time study engineer
compares the performance of operator(s) under observation to the Normal
Performance and determines a factor called Rating Factor.
3.16 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science which deals with human and his working environment.
Ergonomics considers the effect of working environment on the performance of doing
that job. Ergonomics is also termed as industrial psychology. It combines knowledge
of psychologist, physiologist, engineer, anthropologist and bio-metrician. In general
sense, ergonomics studies the effect of health and safety on worker. Obviously, bad
working conditions will lead to poor performance of the worker and hence
productivity of the worker is reduced. On the other hand, if the working conditions
are pleasant then it will automatically create interest of person in doing the job and
hence the productivity increases.
Objectives of ergonomics
1. To optimize the integration of man and machine in order to improve productivity and
accuracy.
2. To develop work place which fits with the needs of worker.
3. Arrangement of tools and equipment's such that it minimizes mental and physical
strain on the worker by increasing the efficiency.
4. To reduce the fatigue of human while doing the job.
5. To attempt the minimization of risk of injury, illness and accidents without losing
productivity.
If organization wants to develop better working conditions and wants to improve
productivity of the worker, the application of ergonomics is necessary. Following are
the advantages that can be achieved through ergonomics:
a. Higher productivity
b. Increased safety of workers
c. Letter integration of man-machine system
d. Reduced employee turnover
e. Less fatigue to operator
f. Reduce unnecessary movements of operators
g. Higher employee satisfaction
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept and terminologies of job
evaluation
4.3 Objectives and principles
4.4 The Job Evaluation Factor
4.5 Job Evaluation Process
4.6 Job evaluation methods
4.7 Advantages and limitations of job
evaluation
4.8 Concept of Performance Appraisal
4.9 Objectives of performance appraisal
4.10 Performance Appraisal Process
4.11 Traditional Methods
4.12 Benefits of Performance Appraisals
4.13 Wage/salary differentials
4.14 Methods of wage payment
4.15 Incentives
4.16 Time-based Individual Incentive
Plans
4.17 Output-based individual incentive
plans
4.18 Group incentive plans
SECTION - I
JOB EVALUATION
4.1 Introduction
Once a right candidate is placed on a right job, the person needs to be duly
compensated for the job he/she performs. In the pursuit of equal payment, there
should be established a consistent and systematic relationship among base
compensation rates for all the jobs within the organizations. The process of such
establishment is termed „job evaluation‟.
Different jobs in an organization need to be valued to ascertain their relative worth so
that jobs are compensated accordingly and an equitable wage and salary structure is
designed in the organization. This is necessary for sustaining cordial relations within
and between employees and employer. Hence, there is a need for appreciation of
intricacies of the job evaluation in the modern organizations.
3. Determine the rate of pay for each job which is fair and equitable with relation to
other jobs in the plant, community or industry;
4. Eliminate wage inequalities;
5. Use as a basis for fixing incentives and different bonus plans;
6. Promote a fair and accurate consideration of all employees for advancement and
transfer;
7. Provide information for work organization, employees‟ selection, placement, training
and other similar purposes;
8. Provide a benchmark for making career planning for the employees in the organization
and;
9. Ensure that like wages are paid to all qualified employees for like work.
Principles of job evaluation
The job evaluation has certain principles. These principles are supposed to be kept in
the mind of the job evaluators. These principles are not only directives of proper job
evaluation but also provide clarity in the process of evaluation. According to Kress,
these principles are:
1. Rate the job and the jobber. Each element should be rated on the basis of what the
job itself requires
2. The elements selected for rating purposes should be easily explainable in terms and a
few in numbers as will cover the necessary requisites for every job without any
overlapping;
3. The elements should be clearly defined and properly selected;
4. Any job rating plan must be sold to foremen and employees. The success in selling it
will depend on a clear-cut explanation and illustration of the plan;
5. Foreman should participate in the rating of jobs in their own departments;
6. Maxim mum co-operation can be obtained from employees when they themselves
have an opportunity to discuss job ratings and;
7. Too many occupational wages should not be established. It would be unwise to adopt
an occupational wage for each total of point values.
Demerits – The ranking method has the following demerits in terms of validity and
reliability.
1. The main demerit of the ranking method is that there are no definite standards of
judgement and also there is no way of measuring the differences between jobs.
2. It suffers from its sheer unmanageability when there are a large number of jobs.
Job Classification or Grading Method
This is a simple, widely used method. This method of job evaluation was made popular
by the U.S. Civil Service Commission. In the ranking system there is no re-determined
yardstick of values.
In the job grading approach there is one such yardstick constituting of job classes or
grades. Jobs are measured as whole jobs. Under this method job grades or classes are
established by an authorised body or committee appointed for this purpose.
A job grade is defined as a group of different jobs of similar difficulty or requiring
similar skills to perform them. Job grades are determined on the basis of information
derived from job analysis.
The example of job grades may include, depending on the type of jobs the organization
offers, skilled, unskilled, account clerk, clerk-cum typist, steno-typist, office
superintendent, and laboratory assistant and so on.
There are several ways to categorize jobs. One is to draw up „class description‟ and
place jobs into classes based on their correspondence to these descriptions.
Another is to draw up a set of classifying rules for each class and then categorise the
jobs according to these rules.
The usual procedure is to choose compensable factors and then develop class or grade
descriptions that describe each class in terms of amount or level of compensable
factor(s) in jobs. Such factors are:
1. Difficultly and variety of work,
2. Supervision received and exercised,
3. Judgement exercised,
4. Originality required,
5. Nature and purpose of interpersonal work relationships,
6. Responsibility,
7. Experience and,
8. Knowledge required
The following five steps are generally involved in the process of job classification.
1. Prepare job description for basic information about the job
2. Prepare job grading description for identification of different levels of jobs. Each
grade level must be distinct from the grade level adjacent to it. After establishing
the grade level, each job is assigned to an appropriate grade level on the basis of
the complexity of duties, non-supervisory responsibilities and supervisory
responsibilities
3. Select grades and key jobs about 10 to 20 jobs, which include all the major
departments and functions and cover all the grades
4. Grade the key jobs. Key jobs are assigned to an appropriate grade level and their
relationship to each other studied.
5. Classify all the jobs on the basis of grade definitions. All the jobs in the same grade
receive the same wage or range of rate. For instance, menials may be put into one
class; clerks in another; junior officers in a higher class; and the top executives in
the top class.
Merits - The job classification method has several advantages. The major merits of the
method are:
1. This method is easy to understand and simple to operate.
2. It is economical and therefore, suitable for small organizations.
3. The grouping of jobs into classifications makes pay determination problems easy
to administer.
Demerits - The job classification method also has some disadvantages. The major demerits
of the method are:
1. The method suffers from personal bias of the committee members.
2. It cannot deal with complex jobs which will not fit neatly into one grade.
3. This method is rarely used in industries.
4. It is difficult to know how much of a job’s rank is influenced by the man on the job.
5. The system is rather rigid and unsuitable for a large organizations or for very varied
work.
4.6.2 Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods divide jobs into component parts and require absolute or
relative value judgements about how much of a component part a particular job
requires. The two most popular types of quantitative systems are the point rating and
factor comparison methods.
Merits - The points rating has several advantages. The major merits of the method are:
1. It is the most comprehensive and accurate method of job evaluation
2. Prejudice and human judgement are minimised. The method cannot be
manipulated.
3. Being the systematic method, workers of the organization favour this method.
4. The scales developed in this method can be used for long time.
5. Jobs can be easily placed in distinct categories
Demerits - The points rating method also has some disadvantages. The major demerits of
the method are:
SECTION - II
MARIT RATING/ PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
4.8 Concept of Performance Appraisal
In the context of an industrial organization, performance appraisal is a systematic
evaluation of personnel by supervisors or those familiar with their performance. In
other words, performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging the
relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his/her task.
Many authors described and some of them were tried to define the concept of
performance appraisal in their own way. According to Gary Dessler, performance
appraisal is an evaluation of employee’s current or past performance relative to
his/her performance standards. Further he mentioned that the appraisal process
involves three steps;
1. Setting work standards,
2. Assessing the employee’s actual performance relative to these standards, and
3. Providing feedback to the employee with the aim of motivating that person to
eliminate performance deficiencies or to continue to perform above par.
Performance appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction between a
subordinate and supervisor, that usually takes the form of a periodic interview (annual
or semi-annual), in which the work performance of the subordinate is examined and
discussed, with a view to identifying weaknesses and strengths as well as
opportunities for improvement and skills development.
Appraising the performance is method of evaluating the behaviour of employees in
the work spot, normally including both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of job
performance. Performance refers to the degree of accomplishment of the tasks that
make up an individual’s job.
It includes how well an individual is fulfilling the job demands. In order to find out
whether an employee is worthy of continued employment or not, and if so, whether
he should receive a bounds, a pay rise or promotion, performance needs to be
evaluated form time to time.
It is by and large useful for not only for the different payments purpose but also to
make aware of once strengths and weaknesses. So that employees can able to
understand that in which area they are supposed to improve their performance.
Under this exercise evaluation is not only the performance of worker on the job but
also employee potential for development for future expecting job roles. Moreover
performance appraisals should focus on wok planning and continuous review for
development. They should also focus on quality to survive in the current environment.
impact may be positive or negative depending upon how the appraisal is presented
and discussed with the employees
6. Initiate Corrective Action - The final step in the appraisal process is the initiation of
corrective action when it is necessary. The areas needing improvement are identified
and then, the measurers to correct or improve the performance are identified and
initiated.
The greatest limitation of this method is that in practice it is very difficult to compare
a single individual with human beings having varying behaviour traits. The method
only tells us how a man stands in relation to the others in the group but does not
indicate how much better or worse he is than another.
4.11.2 Paired Comparison method
In this method, each employee is compared with other employees on one – on – one
basis, usually based on one trait only. The rater is provided with a bunch of slips each
containing a pair of names; the rater puts a tick mark against the employee whom he
considers the better of the two. The number of times this employee is compared as
better with others determines his or her final ranking.
The rater is provided with a bunch of slips each containing a pair of names, the rater
puts a tick mark against the employee whom he considers the better of the two.
The number of times this employee is compared as better with others determines his
or her final ranking. The number of possible pairs for a given number of employees is
ascertained by the following formula:
N (N-1) / 2
When N = the total number of employees to be evaluated. Let this be exemplified with
an imaginary example.
4.11.3 Grading Method
In this method, certain categories of worth are established in advance and carefully
defined. There can be three categories established from employees: outstanding,
satisfactory, and unsatisfactory. There can be more than three grades. Employee
performance is compared with grade definitions. The employee is, then, allocated to
the grade that best describes his or her performance.
SECTION - II
WAGE AND WAGE INCENTIVE PLANS
social needs and a measure of insurance against the more important misfortunes including
old age. "
Living wage is more than the concept of minimum wage. Such a wage is determined
keeping in view the national income and paying capacity of industrial sector. The
Committee also observed that since the national income did not support the payment
of living wage. It should be implemented in three phases. In the initial stage the wages
to be paid to the entire working class were to be established and stabilised. In the
second phase fair wages were to be established in the community and industry. In the
final phase the working class was to be paid the living wage.
4.13.3 Fair Wage
The concept of fair wage is linked with the capacity of the industry to pay. The
Committee has defined fair wage as follows:
"Fair wage is the wage which is above the minimum wage but below the living wage. The
lower limit of the fair wage is obviously the minimum wage: the upper limit is to be set by
the capacity of the industry to pay. "
Thus, fair wage depends on different variables affecting wage determination. Such
factors are labour productivity prevailing wage rates, the level of national income and
its distribution and the capacity of industry to pay. At present, the concept of fair
wages is followed by the most business organisations.
1. There are certain jobs in which output within a specified period is not easily
measurable. For example, the job of a peon. In such a case wage payment is linked to
time.
2. It is quite easy to understand and calculate the amount of wages to be paid. Thus,
even an illiterate worker can understand it.
3. Both employers and workers know well in advance the amount of wages payable and
they can adjust their budgets accordingly.
4. It ensures the payment of regular and specific wages which is beneficial from social
point of view.
5. Product/service quality tends to be high as workers are not in hurry to produce more
without regard to quality.
Demerits of Time Wage:
1. Though adopted more commonly time wage system suffers from a number of
drawbacks and if the workers are not adequately motivated for higher performance.
This system can generate inefficiency in the following ways:
2. Since there is no direct linkage between performance and wages. Employees tend to
take easy approach.
3. This system does not differentiate between efficient and inefficient workers:
gradually, inefficiency percolates to efficient workers too.
4. It demotivates efficient workers for more output as they are put at par with inefficient
ones.
5. Labour cost of production becomes difficult to determine in advance because wages
are not linked to output.
6. Since productivity is not a criterion for fixing wages. There is a possibility that wrong
employees are placed on the job.
This system is more suitable in the following situations:
1. Where units of output are not measurable precisely like office work.
2. Where individual employees do not have direct control on their outputs like assembly
work.
3. Where quality of work is more pronounced and requires creative imagination like
artistic work.
4. Where machinery and raw materials are quite sophisticated which require handling
with utmost care like processing of precious metals.
5. Where work is of highly varied nature and standards of outputs cannot be ascertained
like research work.
6. Where workers' unions oppose the introduction of piece rate system.
7. Where supervision is good and the supervisors can estimate a fair day’s work.
his time wage, he is given credit for additional output which is compensated in another
period in which production quantity falls below the time wage.
This method provides a sense of security to a worker so far as his wage earning is
concerned. At the same time, he is also motivated to produce more because of
inclusion of piece wage system. This method has its relevance in a workplace where
the work flow is irregular like docks.
4.15 Incentives
Incentive may be defined as any reward of benefit given to the employee over and
above his wage or salary with a view to motivating him to excel in his work. Incentives
include both monetary as well as non-monetary rewards. A scheme of incentive is a
plan to motivate individual or group performance.
It refers to all the plans that provide extra pay for extra performance in addition to
regular wages for a job
4.15.1 Classification of incentives
All forms of incentives can be broadly classified into two kinds namely, (i) Financial
Incentives, and (ii) Non-financial Incentives. These incentives can be further sub-
divided into various kinds. These kinds can be explained with the help of the figure
below:
Financial Incentives
Financial incentives or pecuniary incentives are the most original of all the incentives.
It is given in the form of money.
The financial incentives still form the most important influencing and motivating
factor up to a certain limit. Because it is only by virtue of the monetary compensation
that the workers can satisfy their fundamental needs such as food, clothing, shelter
etc.
The financial incentives may be either direct or indirect. Direct incentives include
wages, bonus and other incentives directly given to the workers in the form of cash.
Indirect financial incentives include subsistence allowance expenses, medical
expenses etc.
Non-financial Incentives
Non-financial or non-pecuniary incentives include all other influences planned or
unplanned, which stimulate exertion. Mere monetary incentive cannot help the
management in solving all the problems of industrial unrest.
Further additional cash wage may also tempt the workers to misuse the money in vices
like gambling, drinking etc. Under such circumstances, the non-financial incentives
have a significant role to play. Such incentives create a healthy atmosphere and
change the mental outlook of the workers. They make the working class more
stabilized and economically sound.
Thus, in short, the workers by virtue of the non-financial incentives are enabled to
enjoy a richer and fuller life. Experiences of foreign countries particularly countries
like Britain, America and Japan have shown that there is a high degree of positive
correlation between non-financial benefit schemes and labour productivity.
Merits of Incentives
1. Higher output
2. Greater profits
3. No problem of idle time
4. Supervision does not pose any problem
5. Efficient workers are able to earn more
6. Possible to identify inefficient and dull workers
7. Rate of labour turnover is bound to be low
8. Reduction in complaints and grievances
Problems arising out of incentives
1. Quality of work may suffer
2. Inter-personnel relationships may suffer
3. Wear and tear of machines may be more
5. Increase in accidents
6. Increase in paper work
4.15.2 Categories of Incentive Plans
Incentive plans fall under two categories:
1. Individual incentive plans and
2. Group incentive plans
In the case of individual incentive plans, an individual worker is rewarded for achieving
a certain level of performance. Such plans may be further divided into:
1. Time-based incentive plans and
2. Output-based incentive plans
In the case of time-based plans, a standard time is determined for the job and the
worker gets his incentive only when he completes the work in less than the standard
time. Under the output-based plans, standard output is determined and the worker
gets his incentive only when he produces more than the standard output.
Under the group incentive plans, incentive is determined based on the collective
output of a group of workers whose work is inter-dependent. Such an amount is
apportioned among the group members on an agreed basis.
Under Rowan's plan, the manner of calculating bonus is slightly different from that
under the Halsey's plan. Bonus, under Rowan's plan is calculated as follows:
hours, his bonus will only be Rs.16. He earns the same bonus of Rs.16 by completing
the task in 4 hours, saving just one hour.
Demerits
1. It is not as easy as Halsey's plan is.
2. The earnings of the worker become less as he saves more time. This discourages
efficient workers.
4.16.3 Emerson's Efficiency Plan
Under Emerson's plan too minimum wage is guaranteed to all workers. Payment of
bonus, however, is related to the efficiency of the workers. Efficiency is determined
by the ratio of time taken to standard time. Usually, a worker is given bonus only
when his level of efficiency, in terms of percentage, is above 66.67%.
Merits
1. Minimum wage is guaranteed.
2. It pays bonus to workers based on their level of efficiency.
3. The 66.67% or two-third efficiency criterion is within the reach of many workers.
Demerits
1. It is not a straight-forward approach to determining bonus.
2. If the standard time allowed itself is low, it may not be possible for many workers to
fulfil the efficiency criterion laid down under the plan.
4.16.4 Bedeaux's Plan
Under this plan, the standard time and time taken for each job is reduced to
minutes, and each minute is referred to as "B", i.e., one hour is the same as 60 B's.
The bonus and total earnings of the worker, under the plan, are calculated as
follows:
Bonus = 75% (Standard Time - Time Taken) x Time Rate
Total Earnings = Time Wage + Bonus
Merits
1. It guarantees minimum wages to the workers.
2. It enables efficient workers to earn more.
3. The benefit of three-fourth of the time saved is given to the worker.
Demerits
1. The unit name of 'B' in place of the 'minute' does not make the plan altogether
different.
2. The entire benefit of time saved by the worker is not passed on to him.
Demerits
1. It is a complicated plan.
2. Even a worker achieving 83% target is branded as a poor performer.
4.17.3 Gantt's Task Plan
This plan guarantees minimum daily wage. Its special feature is that it combines time
rate, piece rate and bonus. A worker who is unable to produce the standard output
receives only the time wage. He becomes eligible for bonus only when he attains or
exceeds the standard output within the standard time. The rate of bonus varies
between 20% to 50% of his wages.
Merits
1. It has, as mentioned above, time wage, piece rate and bonus. It is, therefore, a three-
in-one scheme.
2. It guarantees daily minimum wage.
3. It provides enough opportunities for efficient workers to earn more.
Demerits
1. It is not easy to understand.
2. The fluctuations in the output levels, of different workers not attaining the standard,
are ignored and they all receive the same daily minimum wage. In the illustration given
above, if two workers produce 6 units and 8 units respectively (against standard
output of 10), each is assured a daily wage of Rs.50.
Course Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Necessity of Industrial Acts
5.3 Principles of Industrial
Legislation
5.4 The Indian Factories Act, 1948
5.5 The Industrial Dispute Act, 1947
5.6 The Indian Trade Unions Act,
1926
5.7 Industrial Employment (Standing
Orders) Act,1946
5.8 Payment of Wage Act, 1936
5.9 Workmen Compensation Act,
1923
5.10 Payment of Bonus Act, 1965
5.11 Employees Provident Fund
Scheme, 1952
5.1. Introduction
Industrial legislations (Acts) are the laws enacted by the Government to provide
economic and social justice to the workers in industries. These laws provide guidelines
to the industrialists in dealing with the matters of wages, incentives, facilities and
other working conditions of the workers. Mr. V.V. Giri explained industrial legislation
as, “A provision for equitable distribution of profits and benefits occurring from
industry, between industrialists and workers and affording protection to the workers
against harmful effects of their health safety and morality.”
Industrial legislation may be classified into two categories :
(a) General legislation and (b) Specific legislation.
General legislation looks after the general labour problems like social welfare,
insurance and industrial disputes, while specific legislation looks after the work of
specific industries, transport mines, electricity, waste disposal, boilers etc.
5.2. Necessity of Industrial Acts
1. Provide job security to workers.
2. Minimizes unfair treatments to workers.
3. Reduces conflicts with management.
4. Create healthy working environment for work.
5. Fix the standard wages for the different kind of work.
6. Specify the working hours and rest hours etc.
7. Protect the worker’s interest.
8. To provide fair compensation to the worker in case of accident.
9. Helps to protect the largest interest of society.
10. Improves industrial relations and minimizes industrial disputes.
11. Provide fair compensation to the workers who suffered from industrial accidents.
5.3. Principles of Industrial Legislation
Industrial/labour legislation is based upon the following principles :
1. Social justice.
2. Social equality.
3. National economy.
4. International uniformity and solidarity.
1. Social Justice: Industrial laws provide social justice to the employees by ensuring
suitable distribution of profits and benefits between the employer and employees. It
also ensures better working conditions in industry. Industrial acts based on social
justice are :
Factories Act
Minimum Wage Act
Workmen’s Compensation Act, etc.
2. Social Equality: Another objective of industrial legislation is to ensure social equality
or social welfare of workers. These laws make the employers to improve social status
i.e. material and morale conditions of the workers by ensuring adequate wages,
working hours, health and safety of the workers.
3. National Economy: It ensures normal growth of industry for the development of
nation. It satisfies the workers' need and increases their efficiency. Efficient industry
finally contributes a lot to improve national economy and makes the country self-
sufficient.
4. International Uniformity: international Labour Organisation (ILO) has been set up to
safeguard the interest of labour. The main objective of ILO is to secure minimum
standards on uniform basis in respect of all labour matters. Uniformity of standards
can be maintained only by enforcing various industrial laws.
5.4. The Indian Factories Act, 1948
The Factories Act was passed by the Governor General of India on 23rd Sept. 1948 and
it came into force on 1st April 1949. The Act was further amended in 1950, 1951, 1954
and 1976 which came into force on 26th November 1976. This act is applicable to any
factory in India that employees 10 or more than 10 workers.
Aims and objectives:
The major objectives of the factories act are :
The main object of the act is to provide protection to the workers employed in
factories against industrial hazards and to ensure sale and better working conditions,
It regulates and properly maintains various safety health and welfare activities m the
factories,
It also regulates and properly maintains working hours and rest hours of workers,
employment of children and adolescents, employment of women, annual leave with
wages etc.
Some Important Definitions
1. Factory. A working place under one management wherein 10 or more than 10 persons
are normally working with power aid or 20 or more persons working without power
aid.
2. Manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is a process for:
Making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packing, oiling, washing, cleaning,
breaking up, demolishing, or otherwise treating or adopting any article or substance
with a view to its use, sale, transport, delivery, disposal etc.
Pumping oil, water or sewage or any other substance, or
Generating, transforming or transmitting power, or
Composing types of printing, printing by letter press, lithography, photography or
other similar process or bookbinding, or
Constructing, reconstructing, repairing, refitting, finishing or breaking up ships or
vessels or
Preserving or storing any article in cold storage.
3. Adult. A person who has completed 18th year of age is called adult.
Certifying Surgeons
The act also permits the State Govt. to appoint qualified medical practioners as
qualifying surgeons for
(a) The examination and certification of young workers and
(b) The examination of workers engaged in dangerous occupation or processes.
The factories act makes detailed provisions in respect of the following:
1. Health
2. Safety
3. Welfare
4. Working hours of adults
5. Employment of young persons
6. Employment of women
7. Leave with wages
8. Special provisions
(a) Dangerous Operations
(b) Accidents and Diseases
(c) Penalties and Procedure.
Health Provisions
The factories act makes the following provisions for maintaining the health of workers
and for reducing the possibilities of injuries:
(1) Cleanliness:
All dirt and refuse from floors, benches, etc. should be removed daily.
The floors of the work-room should be washed at least every week, using
disinfectant
All inside walls, partitions, ceiling, sides and tops of' passages and staircases should
be whitewashed or varnished at least once in every 14 months. If they are painted,
they should he repainted at least once in 5 years.
Effective means of drainage should he provided to avoid collection of water etc.
on the work, floor.
(2) Disposal of Wastes and Effluents:
Effective and suitable arrangements should be made for the disposal of wastes
and effluents due to manufacturing process.
(3) Ventilation and Temperature:
Effective and suitable provisions should be made for securing and maintaining in
every workroom:
(a) Adequate ventilation by fresh air circulation.
(b) Suitable temperature to provide conditions of comfort and prevent injury to
the health of workers.
(a) Examination of any part of the machinery in motion should be carried out only
by a specially trained adult male worker, wearing tight fitting clothes.
(b) No woman or young worker should be permitted to clean, lubricate or adjust
any part of moving machinery which may involve a risk of injury.
(3) Employment of Young Persons on Dangerous Machines. No young person should
be allowed to work on a dangerous machine unless he is properly trained and
carefully supervised.
(4) Hoists and Lifts:
(a) Every hoist and lift should be of good mechanical construction, adequate
strength and must be protected by enclosures and fitted with gates.
(b) Every hoist and lift should be adequately maintained and periodically (at least
once in six months) examined.
(5) Lifting Machine, Chains Ropes and Lifting Tackles. Lifting machines such as cranes,
crab, winch, pulley block etc. should be of good construction, adequate strength.
They should be properly maintained and thoroughly examined at least once in a
year by a competent person.
(6) Pressure Plants. It should be ensured that the working pressure of pressure vessels
such as boilers does not exceed the safe limit.
(7) Floors, Stairs and Means of Access to different Places. All floors, steps, stairs,
passages and gangways should be of sound construction and free from
obstructions.
(8) Pits, Sumps, Opening in Floors etc. Every pits, sumps, opening in floors, fixed
vessels, tanks etc. should be securely covered or fenced.
(9) Excessive Weights. No person should be asked to lift, carry or move any load so
heavy that is likely to cause him injury.
(10) Protection of Eyes. To protect the eyes of workers from the flying particles (such
as in grinding, fitting, rivet cutting, chipping, etc.) or from exposure to welding
rays, each worker should be provided with effective screens or suitable goggles.
(11) Precautions against Dangerous Fumes:
(a) Adequate protection should be provided against dangerous fumes. No person
should be allowed to enter confined space, chamber, tank pit, etc. in which
dangerous fumes are likely to be present.
(b) If a manufacturing process is producing dust, gas, fumes or vapour which can
explode on ignition, the plant should be effectively enclosed; and such dust, gas,
fumes, etc. should not be allowed to accumulate.
(12) Precautions in case of Fire:
(a) Effective fire warning signal.
(b) Unlocked doors and opening towards outside the workroom as a means of
escape in case of fire.
(c) A free passageway and easily open able windows.
Welfare Provisions
(1) Washing Facilities. In every factory separate and adequate washing facilities must
be provided and maintained for male and female workers.
(2) Facilities for Sitting. Suitable sitting facilities should be provided for all workers
obliged to work in standing position so that they may take rest if an opportunity
occurs in the course of their work, without affecting the work.
(3) First Aid Appliances. First aid/boxes equipped with prescribed contents and not
less than one in number for every 150 workers at any one time must be provided
and maintained at accessible places.*
(4) Canteen. A canteen should be provided and maintained in every factory employing
more than 250 workers.
(5) Shelters, Rest-rooms and Lunch-Rooms. Every factory in which more than 150
workers are ordinarily employed, adequate, suitable, clean, sufficiently lighted and
ventilated rest and lunch rooms should be provided.
(6) Creches. In factory wherein more than 50 women workers are employed, suitable
rooms (creches) must be provided for the use of the children under the age of 6
years of such women.
Welfare Officers. Every factory employing 500 or more workers should employ
prescribed number of welfare officers.
The State Govt. may prescribe the duties, qualifications and conditions of service of
welfare officers employed.
Working Hours
Hours of Work for Adults. No adult worker should be required or allowed to work in a
factory for more than 48 hours in any week; or 9 hours in any day. Moreover, no
worker should work for more than 5 hours before he had an interval of half-an hour.
Holidays. No adult worker should be required or allowed to work in a factory on the
first day (i.e. Sunday) of the week, unless the factory manager substitutes Sunday by
a holiday one or three days immediately before or after Sunday. If he is required to
work on Sunday, he shall be entitled to the compensatory holiday t or the same.
Extra Wages for Overtime. Where a worker is required to work for more than 9 hours
in any day or for more than 48 hours in any week, he shall be entitled for an overtime
at the rate of twice his ordinary rate of wastes as specified in the act. The manager of
every factory should maintain a register of adult workers to be available to the
inspector at all times during the working hours.
Restriction on Double Employment. No adult worker should be allowed to work in a
second factory on any day on which he has already been working in one factory.
Employment of Women. No women should be allowed to clean, lubricate or adjust
any part of the machinery while that is in motion. Every factory must provide for the
creches wherein more than 30 women workers are ordinarily employed. No woman
should be permitted to work in any factory except between the hours of 6 a.m. and 7
p.m.
Employment of Young Persons. A young person means a person who is either a child
or an adolescent. A “Child" means a person who has not completed his 15th year of
age. An “adolescent" means a person who has not completed his 18th year.
No child who has not completed 14th year should be required or allowed to work in a
factory. But a child who has completed his 14th year or an adolescent may be allowed
to work in a factory if:
(1) A certificate of fitness for such work granted by certifying surgeon is obtained by
the manager of the factory.
(2) Such a child or adolescent carries a token giving a reference to such certificate
while he is at work.
Working Hours of the Children:
(1) No child should be employed or permitted to work in any factory for more than 45
hours in any week and during the night hours.
(2) The period of work for all children employed in a factory should be limited to two
shifts which should not overlap or spread over more than 5 hours each. The manager
of every factory in which children are employed should maintain a register of child
workers showing the details such as name ; nature of work the group in which he is
situated, the number of fitness certificate etc. of the child worker.
Annual Leave with Wages
Every worker who has worked for a period of 240 days or more in a factory during
calendar year should be given leave with wages for a number of days calculated at the
rate of;
(а) One day for every 20 days of work performed during the previous calendar year by
an adult worker.
(b) One day for every 15 days of work performed by a child worker.
(c) if a worker does not in any one calendar year take the whole of the leave allowed
to him, any leave not taken by him shall be accumulated and allowed to him in the
succeeding calendar year subject to a maximum of 30 days in case of adult or 40 days
in case of the child.
(d) A worker interested to take leave should apply 15 days in advance (30 days in case
public utilities).
Dangerous Operations
If any operation carried out in the factory is likely to cause bodily injury, poisoning or
disease to the worker, the State Govt., may declare such operations as dangerous and
make the following rules:
(1) Stopping the employment of women and children in such operations.
(2) Provision of proper safeguards of all concerned with that operation.
(3) Periodical medical check-up of all concerned with such operation etc.
Works Committee. Any industry in which 100 or more workers are employed or have
been employed on any day in the preceding 12 months, shall constitute a works
committee. The works committee shall consist of the representatives of the employer
and workmen employed in the unit. The number of the representatives of the
workmen shall not be less than those of the employer. The representatives of the
workmen shall be chosen from among them in consultation with the trade union, if
any.
The duties of the works committee are:
i. To secure and preserve the unity and good relations between employer and the
workmen.
ii. To comment upon the matters affecting the interest of all the workmen.
iii. endeavour and to compromise any material difference of opinion in respect of
such matters.
Conciliation. Conciliation officers are appointed by the appropriate Govt. for any
specified area or for one or more specific industries, either permanently or for a
limited period. The duty of the conciliation officer is to mediate in and to promote the
settlement of the industrial disputes.
If he fails in this he shall report to Govt. The appropriate Govt. in case of need, will
refer the dispute to Board of conciliation. Labour Court, Industrial Tribunal or National
Tribunal.
Board of Conciliation. A Board of conciliation is constituted by the appropriate Govt.
by notification in the Official Gazette. The Board consists of a chairman and two or
four other members; chairman is an independent person and other members are
representatives from employer and employees, in equal numbers.
Powers of the Board:
(i) A member of a board can enter the premises of the establishment for the purpose
of inquiry into any industrial dispute after any reasonable notice.
(ii) Every board inquiry is treated to be judicial proceeding within the meaning of
section 193 and 228 of the Indian Penal Code.
(iii) The Board will try to settle the industrial dispute. If it fails in this then, it will send
its report within two months from the date of reference to the appropriate Govt.
regarding the steps taken by it and the reasons why the settlement could not be
sought.
Court of Enquiry. Court of Enquiry may also be appointed by the appropriate Govt. by
notification in the Official Gazette. Such a court may consist of one or more
independent persons appointed by the Govt. The duty of the court is to enquire into
the matter referred to it and report thereon to the Govt. within 6 months from the
commencement of enquiry.
Labour Court. The appropriate Govt. may constitute Labour court for adjudication of
the disputes relating act. It consists of only one person who possesses a high judicial
standing as specified in the act. The mailers within the jurisdiction of labour court as
per second schedule are:
i. The propriety or legality of an order passed by employer under the standing
orders.
ii. The application and interpretation of standing orders.
iii. Illegality or otherwise of a strike or lock-out.
iv. Dismissal of workers including reinstatement of or grant of relief to workers
wrongly dismissed.
v. Withdrawal of any customary concession or privilege.
vi. All matters other than those specified in the third schedule.
Presiding officer of one man labour court shall have the following qualification:
(a) A judge of a high court; or
(b) A district judge who has worked for more than 3 years.
Industrial Tribunals. Appropriate Govt. may also constitute one person Industrial
Tribunals for the adjudication of Industrial disputes reterating to matters specified in:
(i) Schedule II (as mentioned in jurisdiction of labour court)
(ii) Schedule III. The schedule III includes matters such as;
1. Wages including the period and mode of payment.
2. Compensatory and other allowances.
3. Hours of work and rest pauses.
4. Holidays and leave with wages.
5. Bonus, provident fund and gratuity.
6. Rules of discipline.
7. Classification by grades.
8. Rationalisation.
9. Retrenchment of workmen and closure of establishment.
10. Shift working otherwise than in accordance with standing orders.
Presiding officer of the tribunal shall have the same qualification as that of Labour
court.
National Tribunals. The Central Govt. may constitute one or more National Tribunals
for the adjudication of the industrial disputes which may involve questions of national
importance. It can also take up industrial disputes which are of such a nature that
industrial establishments situated in more than one state are likely to be interested in
or affected by such disputes.
The presiding officer of the National Tribunal shall be:
i. an independent person
ii. less than 65 years of age ; and
iii. an existing or retired judge of a high court.
(b) The worker has been paid, at the time of retrenchment, compensation which
shall be equivalent to 15 days’ average pay for every completed year of
continuous service or any part thereof in excess of 6 months.
(c) The workman who is employed last in a particular category will be retrenched
first.
The following persons are not entitled for any benefit from the employer:
i. Who does not present himself at the appointed time during the laid off period
at least once a day.
ii. Who refuses to accept an alternative job on the same wages and of the same
nature within a radius of 8 kilometers.
iii. The enterprise is seasonal or employees less than 50 workers.
Notice for change of service conditions. According to the provisions of Industrial
Disputes Act, an employer cannot introduce any change in service conditions of a
worker until and unless the worker is served with a notice of 20 days in advance for
effecting such change. The conditions under which notice for change in service can be
given are : Wages, contribution towards provident fund, compensatory or other
allowances, leave with wages, hours of work and rest intervals, gratuity, holidays,
modernisation of plant and equipment etc.
Closing down the undertaking. An employer who intends to close down an enterprise
shall serve, at least 60 days before the date on which he intends closure to become
effective, a notice to Appropriate Govt. stating clearly the reasons for closing the
undertaking. Compensation by reference to section 25- FFF of the act is provided to
workers who are in continuous service for not less than a year with the undertaking.
The Industrial Disputes Act was amended in 1976.
This amendment deals with the special provisions relating to following:
(a) Prohibition of Lay-off and conditions precedent to retrenchment of workers in
certain undertakings with 300 or more than 300 workers.
(b) Restarting of establishments closed before the commencement of the
Amendment Act, 1976.
(c) Penalty for lay-off and retrenchment without prior permission.
(d) Penalty for closure.
The Industrial Disputes Amendment Act (1976) has provided for reasonable
restrictions put on employer’s right to layoff, retrenchment and closure.
The act also provides for restarting the undertakings which have already been closed
down on account of unavoidable circumstances.
Penalty for illegal lay-off or retrenchment is one month’s imprisonment or fine up to
Rs. 1000 or both (Section. 25).
In case of illegal closure of an establishment the workers shall be entitled to all the
benefits from the date of closure under any law in force as if no notice has been given
[Section 25-0 (3)]
No suit or other legal proceeding shall be maintainable in any Civil Court a gainst any
registered Trade Union in respect of any act done in contemplation or furtherance of
a trade dispute.
The account books of a registered Trade Union and the list of members thereof shall
be open to inspect of the Trade Union at such times as may be provided for in the
rules of the Trade Union.
Any registered Trade Union may, with the consent of not less than two-thirds of the
total number of its members (and subject to the provisions of section 25) change its
name.
Amalgamation of Trade Unions: Any two or more registered Trade Unions may
become amalgamated together as one Trade Union with or without dissolution or
division of the funds of such Trade Unions or either or any of them, provided that the
votes of at least one-halt of the members of each or every such trade Union entitled
to vote are recorded, and that at least sixty per cent of the votes recorded are in favor
of the proposal.
Return shall be sent annually to the Registrar, on or before such date as may be
prescribed, a general statement, audited in the prescribed manner, of all receipts and
expenditure of every registered Trade Union during the year ending on the 31st day
of December next preceding such prescribed date, and of the assets and liabilities of
the Trade Union existing on such 31st day of December. The statement shall be
prepared in such form and shall comprise such particulars as may be prescribed.
Traded union may make regulations for the purpose of carrying into effect the
provisions of this Act without prejudice.
Penalties
It describes to the trade union on violating several conditions.
Failure to submit the returns responsible person is punishable with the fine of Rs. 5,
and it continues further additional fine which may be extend to five rupees for each
week after the first default.
Any person who, with intent to deceive, gives to any member of a registered Trade
Union or to any person with the like intent, gives a copy of any rules of an unregistered
Trade Union to any person on the pretense that such rules are the rules of a registered
Trade Union, shall be punishable with fine which may extend to two hundred rupees.
An employer who does any act in contravention of the standing orders finally certified
under this Act for his industrial establishment shall be punishable with fine which may
extend to one hundred rupees, and in the case of a continuing offence with a further
fine which may extend to twenty five rupees for every day after the first during which
the offence continues.
Payment of subsistence allowance:
Where any workman is suspended by the employer pending investigation or inquiry
into complaints or charges of misconduct against him, the employer shall pay to such
workman subsistence allowance:
(a) at the rate of fifty per cent of the wages which workman was entitled to
immediately preceding the date of such suspension, for the first ninety days of
suspension; and
(b) At the rate of seventy-five per cent of such wages for the remaining period of
suspension if the delay in the completion of disciplinary proceedings against such
workman is not directly attributable to the conduct of such workman.
If any dispute arises regarding the subsistence allowance payable to a workman, the
workman or the employer concerned may refer the dispute to the Labor Court,
constituted under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 within the local limits of whose
jurisdiction the industrial establishment wherein such workman is employed is situate
and the Labor Court to which the dispute is so referred shall, after giving the parties
an opportunity of being heard, decide the dispute and such decision shall be final and
binding on the parties.
5.8. Payment of wage act, 1936
This act regulates the payment of wages to certain classes of employed persons in the
industry. This Act has 26 sections which regulates the wages.
Following are the silent features of this act:
o Wages means all remuneration payable to an employee in his respect of employment.
Any over-time remuneration, gratuity, bonus, pension, provident fund, leaves with
salary etc. are considered as part of wages.
o Payment of wages should be done to all employees in fix wage period on exceeding
one month. In industry, where there are less than 1000 employees, wages should be
paid within 7 days from the end of fixed wage period, whereas, when there are more
than 1000 employees, wages should be paid within 10 days from the end of fixed wage
period in current currency.
o From the wages, employer is authorized to carry out deduction such as, professional
tax, provident fund, fines, LWPs, TDS, ESI deductions, recovery of advance loan taken
by employee from the employer etc.
o If any fine (imposed after proper enquiry) is to be deducted, from the wages of
employees, the deduction should not exceed 3% of total wages payable to the
employee of that wage period.
o Every employer is required to maintain the registers and records for employees
employed by him, regarding particular work done by employee and wages paid to him,
deduction from wages along with the receipt of wages. This record is to be kept up to
3 years.
o If employee has any dispute related to unauthorized deductions, the state
government appoints an inspector, in order to examine the dispute. After hearing, the
authority may direct the employer to refund the deduction along with compensatory
reward. If the application employee is found malicious, he may be punished up to Rs.
50, to the employer.
Penalties and offences:
If person who is responsible for maintaining the record or register to furnish any
information related to wages, is punishable if he:
o fails to maintain the such register or record,
o Willfully refuse or neglect to furnish the information,
o Willfully furnishes an information which he knows false,
o Willfully obstructs an inspector from his duty,
o Willfully refuses to produce record on demand of an inspector,
o Prevents the employee from appearing before the inspector.
Payment of undisbursed wages in cases of death of employed person.
In cases of death of employed person, all amounts payable to an employed person as
wages shall, if such amounts could not or cannot be paid on account of his death
before payment is to be paid to the person nominated by him in this behalf. Where
no such nomination has been made or where for any reasons such amounts cannot
be paid to the person so nominated, be deposited with the prescribed authority who
shall deal with the amounts so deposited in such manner as may be prescribed.
5.9. Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923 came into force on 1 July, 1924. The act was
amended in 1926 and 1929 to introduce certain changes and to rectify the
International Labour Convention on occupation disease. In 1933 a consolidating and
amending act was passed to incorporate the recommendations of the Royal
Commission on Labour. The Workmen’s Compensation (amendment) act, 1976 is the
latest amendment which became effective from 1st October 1976. Main provisions of
the act amended in 1976 are as follows:
Workmen’s Compensation Act provides compensation to certain categories of
workers for the loss of working capacity due to accidents. This act prevents the
exploitation of workers in case of payment of compensation. It safeguards the workers
and their families in case of death or disablements of workers arising from accidents.
The object of awarding compensation is to replace the actual loss suffered by the
worker.
Notice of Accident
A worker injured in an accident-should first of all give in writing a notice of the accident
to the employer.
Every such notice should include:
o Name and Address of the injured worker.
o Cause of accident.
o Date of accident.
Medical Examination
An injured worker who has submitted a notice, must present himself for the medical
examination, if the employer wants. The employer must offer the medical
examination free of charge and with 3 days from the time at which service of notice
has been affected.
If the worker does not present himself for the medical examination then he will not
have the right for compensation.
Distribution of Compensation
Payment of compensation in respect of death of workman or under legal disability
shall be deposited by the employer with the commissioner. Employer should not make
payment of compensation directly.
However, in case of deceased workman an employer can give an advance up to Rs.
100 to dependents of the deceased worker for meeting the immediate expenses. The
commissioner, after deducting this advance, may allot the entire amount of
compensation to the dependent of the deceased workman.
Occupational Diseases
If a worker suffers from any of the specified occupational disease (the list of which is
given in schedule III of the act) and he worked in the factory for at least six months,
then the employer has to pay compensation. Some of the occupational diseases are
compressed air illness, poisoning by lead, phosphorous, mercury, arsenic, radium and
other radioactive substances, x-rays etc.
Appointment of Commissioner
The State Govt. may by notification in the Official Gazette appoint any person to be
commissioner for workmen’s compensation for the areas specified in this
modification. Every commissioner is deemed to be a public servant within the meaning
of the Indian Penal Code.
But it cannot be more than 100 percent loss and therefore, the compensation payable
would be Rs. 42000/-.
5.10. Payment of bonus act 1965
Bonus means something extra than salary and wages. For the workers, the extra
amount paid by the employer apart from salary, generally on annual basis, is
considered as bonus. Bonus is given by an employer to the employees because due to
their effort, the employer has earned and as token of appreciation extra amount is
paid to the workers.
In industry to solve the dispute related to bonus, this act was constituted in 1965.
Following are the silent features of the act:
Bonus is calculated on the annual basis of accounting year. In major cases, Accounting
year is either the date of book closure or 1st April of year to 31st March of next year.
For calculation of bonus distribution, all departments, undertakings and branches re
also to be considered.
The workers who has worked in the previous accounting year, are entitled for the
bonus.
An employee shall be disqualified from receiving bonus under this Act, if he is
dismissed from service for -
(a) fraud; or
(b) riotous or violent behavior while on the premises of the establishment; or
(c) Theft, misappropriation or sabotage of any property of the establishment.
Minimum and Maximum bonus:
Every employer shall be bound to pay a minimum bonus which shall be 8.33% of the
salary or wage earned by the employee during the accounting year or one hundred
rupees, whichever is higher, whether or not the employer has any allocable surplus in
the accounting year. If an employee has not completed 15thyear of age at the
beginning of the accounting year, the provisions of this section shall have effect in
relation to such employee, 8.33% of the salary or wage earned by the employee during
the accounting year or sixty rupees.
The employer shall, in lieu of above mentioned minimum bonus, be bound to pay to
every employee in proportion to the salary or wages earned by the employee subject
to maximum 20% of such salary or wages.
If the salary of an employee is above Rs. 2500 per men sum, the bonus payable to such
employee, shall be calculated if his salary or wage were Rs. 2500 men sum
Table 5. 3
% of employer’s Contribution
Tenure of service
receivable by the employee
After 15 years 100%
Less than 3 years 75%
Between 3 to 5 years 50%
Between 5 to 10 years 25%
Between 10 to 15 years 15%
The employee’s own contribution shall be payable to him in full with interest in any
case of above.
Benefit to nominee of employee:
If an employee dies during employment, his nominee or family member gets an
amount full amount in Provident account of the deceased person.
Course Contents
6.1 Inspection
6.2 Quality
6.3 Control
6.4 Quality Control
6.5 Cost of Quality
6.6 Statistical Quality Control
6.7 Total quality management
6.8 Quality Assurance and Quality audit
6.9 Six Sigma
6.10 Quality Circle
6.11 Distinction between variable and
attribute data
6.12 Acceptance sampling
6.13 The Operating characteristics curve
6.14 Sampling Plans
6.15 Control charts
6.16 Definition of Control Chart
6.17 Control Charts for Variables
6.18 Control charts for attributes
6.1 Inspection
o Inspection is the most common method of attaining standardization, uniformity and
quality of workmanship. It is the cost art of controlling the product quality after
comparison with the established standards and specifications.
o It is the function of quality control. If the said item does not fall within the zone of
acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure will be applied to see that the
items in future conform to specified standards.
o Inspection is an indispensable tool of modern manufacturing process. It helps to
control quality, reduces manufacturing costs, eliminate scrap losses and assignable
causes of defective work.
6.1.1 Objectives of Inspection
1. To collect information regarding the performance of the product with established
standards for the use of engineering production, purchasing and quality control etc.
2. To sort out poor quality of manufactured product and thus to maintain standards.
3. To establish and increase the reputation by protecting customers from receiving poor
quality products.
4. Detect source of weakness and failure in the finished products and thus check the
work of designer.
6.1.2 Purpose of Inspection
1. To distinguish good lots from bad lots
2. To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
3. To determine if the process is changing.
4. To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
5. To rate quality of product.
6. To rate accuracy of inspectors.
7. To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
8. To secure products – design information.
9. To measure process capability.
production points. This had the advantage of preventing wastage of time and money
on defective units and preventing delays in assembly.
3. Inspection of finished goods:
o This is the last stage when finished goods are inspected and carried out before
marketing to see that poor quality product may be either rejected or sold at reduced
price.
o Thus we conclude that the product should have certain abilities to perform
satisfactorily in a stated application. These abilities may be categorised into ten factors
as under:
1. Suitability. For specific application.
2. Reliability. It should give efficient and consistent performance.
3. Durability. It should have desired life.
4. Safe and fool proof workability.
5. Affordability. It should be economical.
6. Maintainability. It should be easy to maintain.
7. Aesthetic look. It should look attractive.
8. Satisfaction to customers. It should satisfy the customers’ requirements.
9. Economical. It should have reasonable price.
10. Versatility. It should serve number of purposes.
A product can be said to possess good quality if all the above requirements are properly
balanced while designing and manufacturing it.
a) Quality of Design
o The quality of design of a product is concerned with the tightness of the specifications
for manufacture of the product. For example, a part which has a drawing tolerance of
±0.001 mm. would be considered to have a better quality of design than another with
a tolerance of ±0.01 mm.
o A good quality of design must ensure consistent performance over its stipulated life
span stated in terms of rated output, efficiency, and overload capacity, continued or
intermittent operation for specified application or service.
o It should consider possible modes of failure due to stress, wear, distortion, corrosion,
shocks, vibrations, high or low temperature, altitude or pressure, environmental
conditions etc.
o However, product design and development is a continuous process which results into
evaluation of a product, based on assessed user needs, their feedback after use and
development in technology at a given point of time, in a given environment.
b) Quality of Conformance
o The quality of conformance is concerned with how well the manufactured product
conforms to the quality of design.
o When a design has been established, it is the task of all responsible for production
planning and manufacture to obtain a high level of quality of conformity; the measure
of truthfulness with which the product conforms to the design specifications.
c) Quality of Performance
o The quality of performance is concerned with how well the manufactured product
gives its performance. It depends upon
a) Quality of Design.
b) Quality of Conformance.
o It can be a best design possible, but poor conformance control can cause poor
performance, conversely the best conformance control cannot make the product
function correctly, if the design itself is not right
6.3 Control
o Control can be defined as a process by means of which we observe the actual
performance and compare it with some standard. If there is a deviation between the
observed performance and die standard performance then it is necessary to take
corrective action.
o The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as follows:
1. Choose the control subject.
2. Choose a unit of measure.
3. Set a standard value i.e., specify the quality characteristics
4. Choose a sensing device which can measure.
5. Measure actual performance.
6. Interpret the difference between actual and standard.
7. Taking action, if any, on the difference.
6.4 Quality Control
The term quality control has variety of meanings:
1. Quality control is the process through which we measure the actual quality
performance, compare it with the standards and take corrective action if there is a
deviation.
2. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality of the product It
depends on: Material, Tools, Machines, type of labour, working conditions, measuring
instruments, etc.
3. Quality control can be defined as the entire collection of activities which ensures that
the operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost
4. It can also be defined as the tools, devices or skills through which quality activities are
carried out.
5. It is the name of the department which devotes itself full time to quality functions.
6. The procedure for meeting the quality goals is termed as quality control.
7. It is a system, plan or method of approach to the solution of quality problems.
Steps in quality control programme:
1. Formulate quality policy.
2. Work out details of product requirements, set the standards (specifications) on the
basis of customer’s preference, cost and profit.
3. Select inspection plan and set up procedure for checking.
4. Detect deviations from set standards or specifications.
5. Take corrective action through proper authority and make necessary changes to
achieve standards.
6. Decide on salvage method i.e. to decide how the defective parts are disposed of,
entire scrap or rework.
1. Design stage: To ensure that the quality of design is as per the requirement of
customer need.
2. Manufacturing stage: To confirm that the quality of the product is as per the
design specification.
3. Field observation/ performance stage: observing the performance of product
in actual field, study and analysis of performance, maintenance, life etc. for
improvement of quality of product.
o Total quality of assurance = (1) Quality of design + (2) quality of manufacturing
conforming to design + (3) Quality of performance
o The activities assigned to the assurance function usually include:
1. Processing of the field complaints.
2. Quality rating of outgoing product.
3. Quality survey or audit
4. Preparation of executive report on quality.
5. Setting up quality levels.
6. Inspection planning.
7. Disposition of non-conforming products.
o Advantages from Quality Assurance Engineering
a) Fewer defects.
b) Less scrap.
c) Fewer complaints.
d) Less inspection rejects.
e) Better quality.
f) Higher efficiency.
g) Higher productivity.
h) Good customer relations.
6.8.1 Quality Audit
o The quality auditor survey is an appraisal of the quality system of an entire plant The
quality survey is analogous to an accounting audit The audit checks the books, the
book keeper, and accounting system.
o The quality audit evaluates the product the inspector and the system for achieving
product quality. It inquires about the adequacy of all the entire system of handling
quality function.
o Quality audit is one of the key management tools for achieving the objectives set out
in the organisation’s policy.
o According to ISO 8402, Quality Audit is defined as “A systematic and independent
examination to determine whether quality activities and related results comply with
planned arrangements and whether these arrangements are implemented effectively
and are suitable to achieve objectives.” Quality audit provides an independent
unbiased assessment of the actual state of company with reference to the laid down
standards and practices.
Motorola had been conducting simultaneously. It showed that total quality companies
were turning out products that had not been reworked at all.
o To minimise and, ideally, eliminate defects from the manufacturing process, Mikel J.
Hary, introduced the concept of Six Sigma to Motorola. The idea was to set a steep
quantitative target for all processes— and then, break each process into smaller and
smaller sequences, each of which could be examined for their potential for errors and
changed/modified to eliminate that potential. Thus, breaking down and studying
processes is a key element of result-oriented quality programmes. This helps in
tracking down the root cause of defects.
o Until 1994, Six Sigma remained a closely guarded secret at Motorola. The outside
world knew about, but not how to use it. Pioneers like Motorola reported saving of up
to $2 billion over 10 years of implementation while a recent convert like General
Electric reported $ 750 million saving in the costs in 1998.
6.9.1 The Mathematics [Concept] of Six Sigma
o Sigma i.e. standard deviation is used to designate the distribution or spread of any
process about the mean (average). The Sigma value indicates how well that process is
performing. The higher the Sigma value (2σ, 3σ, 4σ etc.), the better the process. Sigma
measures the capability of the process to perform defect free work.
o A defect is anything that results in customer’s dis-satisfaction. With six sigma, the
common measurement index is ‘defects-per-unit’, where unit can be virtually
anything—a component, a piece of material, a line of code, an administrative form, a
time frame, a distance etc.
o The sigma value indicates how of defects are likely to occur. As sigma value increases,
cost goes down, cycle time goes down, and customer satisfaction goes up.
o Six sigma quality approach relies upon the normal distribution. Most of the output of
the process will meet the specifications (call it X). Bui some will deviate, to varying
extent, measured by the standard deviation (σ). So, some units will have a
specification of X ± lσ, some, X ± 2σ and some X ± 3σ.
o The Six Sigma methodology tackles this problem in two ways as shown in Figure 6.1.
First, it widens the design width, stretching the upper and lower specification limits so
that, even if the product ranges between X - 3σ and X + 3σ it will function properly.
o The second step consists of analysing and re-engineering the process so that the value
of sigma drops, thus if the upper and lower specification limits originally stood at ±3σ,
they will automatically shifted to ±6σ as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).
o Thus the manufacturing process may be at 2σ or 3σ, etc., we now start our journey
towards 6σ. In other words, we have to shrink the variability of our process to such an
extent that the value of sigma of the process reduces to a new low value, which can
be fitted between ±6σ times even with the same specification limits. This is quality
improvement such an improved process hardly produces any defect.
Six sigma is an overall strategy to accelerate improvement in its processes, products and
services. It is also a measurement of total quality to let the company know how effective it is
in eliminating defects and variations from its processes. It encompasses tools from all
improvement initiatives, including those in operational, technical and customer excellence. It
just applies to every function in the company, not just the factory floor.
6.9.2 Why Six Sigma?
o The goal of a six sigma quality programme is to improve customer satisfaction through
reducing and eliminating defects and to continuously improve processes thereby
improving quality and productivity.
1. Six sigma quality level is the closest to zero defect. Less than 6a does not yield
acceptable level of quality and more than 6a does not yield substantial benefits.
2. Total customer satisfaction can be achieved with reliable product/services.
3. Reduction of cost is possible as shown in table.
4. It gives higher yield as indicated in the table.
5. Improved reliability.
6.9.3 Basic Steps Involved in the Application of Six Sigma
o The methodology of six sigma consists of five steps namely, Define (D), Measure (M),
Analyse (A), Improve (I) and Control (C). Brief explanations of the same are as follows:
1. Define/Identify
o Identify the key process/product characteristics for which 6a quality levlels are
to be achieved.
2. Measure
a) Select CTQ characteristics
b) Define performance standards
c) Validate measurement systems
3. Analyse
a) Establish product capability
b) Define performance objectives
c) Identify variation sources
4. Improve
a) Screen potential causes
b) Discover variable relationship
c) Establish operating tolerances
d) Improve continuously
5. Control
a) Validate measurement system
b) Determine process capability
c) Implement process controls
6.10 Quality Circle
o Dewar, President of the International Association of QCs. defines QCs as “a way of
capturing toe creative and innovative power that lies within the work force.
o A quality circle is a small group of volunteers (usually 3 to 12 employees) doing similar
work. They meet regularly under the leadership of their immediate supervisor, or
someone chosen among the circle to identify problems, set priorities, discover causes
and propose solutions. These may concern quality, productivity, safety, job structure,
process flow, control mechanism, aesthetics of the work area etc.
o The Quality Circle concept has three major attributes ; these are :
1. QC is a form of participative management.
2. QC is a human resource development technique.
3. QC is a problem solving technique.
6.10.1 The Characteristics of Quality Circles
The characteristics of quality circles as management tool for improving productivity and
quality may be listed as below:
1. Circles are small primary groups of employees/workers whose lower limit is three
and upper limit twelve.
2. The memberships of quality circles are most voluntary. The workers/employees
interested in some area of work improvement may come together toform a circle.
3. Each circle is led by the area supervisor. Also they are normally coordinated
centrally in organisation by a person who has been trained as a Facilitator
4. The members meet regularly every week or according to an agreed schedule.
5. The circle members are specially trained in techniques of analysis and problem
solving in order to play their role effectively.
6. The basic role of circles is to identify and solve work related problems for
improving quality and productivity.
7. Quality Circles enable their members to exercise their hidden talents, creative
skills and competence for tackling challenging tasks and thus contribute to their
self-development
8. It also promotes the mutual development of their members through cooperative
participation.
9. The circle work is characterised by the attributes of high skill variety, task identity,
task significance, autonomy, goal setting and feedback. These attributes
contribute to job enrichment of the members.
10. It also contributes to job satisfaction of their members by creating feelings of
accomplishment from identifying and solving challenging problems. (It provides
them opportunity to satisfy their higher order needs).
11. It provides their members with opportunities for receiving public recognition from
the company’s management in the form of company-wide presentation of their
work.
12. The members also receive recognition in the form of mementos, certificates and
privileges. In some cases they also share in productivity gains that might be the
result of their work.
13. It also contributes to their self-esteem and self-confidence through acceptance of
their recommendation by the management.
6.10.2 Objectives of Quality Circles
o Objectives which contribute to the improvement and development of the enterprise
and indirectly the interest of the employees are:
1. To improve the quality and productivity and thus contribute to the improvements
and development of the enterprise.
2. To reduce the cost of products or services by waste reduction, safety, effective
utilisation of resources, avoiding unnecessary errors and defects.
3. To identify and solve work related problems that interfere with production.
4. To tap the creative intelligence of the persons working in the organisation and to
make full use of its human resources.
5. To permit employees to develop and use greater amount of knowledge and skill
and motivate them to apply to a wide range of challenging tasks.
6. To improve communication within the organisation.
7. To increase employees1 loyalty and commitment to the organisation and its goals.
8. To respect humanity and build a happy bright work place environment which is
meaningful to work in.
9. To enrich human capability, confidence, moral, attitude and relationship.
10. To satisfy the human needs of recognition, achievement and self-development.
6.10.3 Limitation of quality circles
1. The overall productivity may decrease initially (at the beginning of quality circles),
as the members turn from their daily work to the task of organising themselves
and undergoing training.
2. A large investment of time and money is required for a concept that is essentially
new and unproven in the organisation’s context.
3. The chances of errors increases initially. Mistakes are inevitable as employees
adjust to a new way of doing things.
4. Over-expectation of some employees who are too excited initially may turn to
disappointment and drop out.
5. Quality circles may threaten traditional authority structure. Threatened
authorities are likely to resist and non-cooperate with the circle activities.
6. Employees who are habituated to depend on their supervisors for direction and
who have lost their initiative feel uncomfortable with Quality circles.
7. After circle implementation, a period of confusion may arise. This is because
people experiment with new ideas, new skills and new roles.
8. Changes in system and control may become necessary.
6.11 Distinction between variable and attribute data
o Statistical data can be characterised as either variable data or attribute data. When a
record is made of an actual measured quality characteristics, such as dimension
measured in mm, the quality is said to be measured in variables (Continuous data).
o The variability may be due to assignable causes of variation likely to occur because of
men, machines and materials or it can be due to unassignable causes of variations.
The object of quality control system is to minimize the unassignable causes of variation
and eliminate assignable causes of variation.
o Examples of Variables [Continuous data]
a) A dimension of a part measured.
b) Hardness in Rockwell units.
c) Temperature in degrees centigrade.
d) Tensile strength in kg/cm2.
e) Weight in kg etc.
o When a record shows only the number of articles conforming and the number of
articles failing to conform to any specified requirements, it is said to be recorded by
attributes. A part fits a gauge or it does not this method simply notes the presence or
absence of a quality characteristic in the parts examined. The characteristic is the thing
being checked in the inspection, observation, or test. It may be given dimension,
weight, volume, hardness, viscosity, or the life.
o Defective refers to those parts which do not possess the characteristic of conformity.
So, attribute or discrete data is a data on characteristic that can assume certain
distinct values (e.g., integer values). For example, a sample of 25 castings taken from
a lot contain 0, 1 or 2 defectives; there cannot be fraction defectives such as 2.5
defectives.
o Examples of Attribute [Discrete data]
a) The number of defective pieces found in a sample.
b) Surface finish of furniture.
7. The most important advantage of sampling inspection is that, it exerts more effective
pressure on quality improvement. Since the rejection of entire lot on the basis of
sampling brings much stronger pressure on quality improvement than the rejection of
individual articles.
6.12.2 Limitations.
1. Risk of making wrong decisions:
o However, in sampling inspection, since only a part is inspected, it is inevitable that
the sample may not always represent the exact picture obtaining in the lot and
hence, there will be likelihood or risk of making wrong decisions about the lot. This
wrong decision can be made in two ways. Firstly, a really good lot (that is,
containing less proportion of defectives than specified) may be rejected because
the sample drawn may be bad. Secondly, a really bad lot (that is a lot containing
greater proportion of defectives than specified) may be accepted because the
sample drawn may be good. In the former case, the producer has to suffer a risk
of his good lots being rejected and hence the associated risk (chance) is called as
the producer’s risk. In the latter case, the consumer runs the risk of accepting bad
lots and hence the associated risk is called as consumer’s risk.
2. The sample usually provides less information about the product than 100 per cent
inspection.
3. Some extra planning and documentation is necessary.
o However, in scientific sampling plans, these risks are quantified and the sampling
criteria are adjusted to balance these risks, in the light of the economic factors
involved.
o The success of a sampling scheme depends upon the following factors:
i. Randomness of samples
ii. Sample size
iii. Quality characteristic to be tested
iv. Acceptance criteria
v. Lot size
6.12.3 Sampling methods
o The sampling methods can be classified as:
1. Simple Random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Systematic sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Two stage sampling
Simple Random Sampling
o Selecting a sample in such a way that each item in a lot has an equal chance of being
selected, is called random sampling. Since, a judgement about the lot is to be made
on the basis of only a sample it is very important that the sample truly represents the
universe from which it is drawn. This requires that the sample size be large enough
and the sampling procedure such as to avoid bias. Parts resting on the bottom or in
the middle of a group must be selected as well as those lying conveniently on top.
o According to this method, the sample of the requisite size n is drawn from a lot of size
N, in such a manner; that while selecting an item, the chance for any item of the lot
being included in the sample is the same. An item once drawn is not placed back in
the lot.
Stratified Sampling
o In large lots, the difficulties of random selection may be so great that it may be
advisable to adopt stratified (proportional) sampling. For stratified sampling the
following rules should be followed.
1. Draw proportional samples. Whenever possible, be divided into sub-lots on
the basis of homogeneity (into certain number of homogeneous groups or
strata).
2. Draw sample items from all parts of such sub-lots of the inspection lot.
3. Draw sample items blind (without any bias).
o From each sub-lot into which the inspection lot is divided a sub-sample should be
selected. The size of the sub-sample should be proportional to the size of the sub-lot.
o This method of sampling may be generally more efficient than the simple random
sampling, as the simple random sampling may not always result in the selection of the
items from such stratum of the lot, thereby affecting the representativeness of the
sample drawn.
o It would be advisable to ensure that a minimum of two items are selected from each
sub-lot.
Systematic Sampling
o When the items in a lot are presented in an orderly manner, (such as piles of mild steel
sheets or stacks of cement bags) it is possible to considerably simplify the selection of
a random sample of the required size.
o In systematic sampling an item is chosen at random from the lot and thereafter, the
items are selected regularly at predetermined intervals. It has been established that
this method of systematic sampling is quite good approximation to the simple random
sampling provided there is no deliberate attempt to manipulate the sequence of the
items in the lot in any desired manner while the lot is presented for inspection.
Cluster Sampling
o When the lot submitted for inspection consists of certain groups of clusters of items,
it may be advantageous and economical to select a few clusters of items and then
examine all the items in the selected clusters.
o For example, when the lot consists of items packed in cartons and it is either
impracticable or costly to repack the cartons opened for selecting sample items, then
only few cartons are selected at random without replacement in the first instance and
all the items in the selected cartons are inspected.
o The following example illustrates the use of a double sampling plan. Let,
N = 500, n1 = 35
c1= 1, n2 = 50 and c2 = 4
o This may be interpreted as follows:
1. Take a first sample of 35 items from a lot of 500 and inspect. •
2. Accept the lot on the basis of first sample, if it contains 0 or 1 defective
3. Reject the lot on the basis of first sample if it contains more than 4 defectives.
4. Take a second sample of 50 items if the first sample contains 2, 3 or 4 defectives.
5. Accept the lot on the basis of first and second sample combined, if the combined
sample of 85 items contains 4 or less defectives.
6. Reject the lot on the basis of combined sample if the combined sample contains
more than 4 defectives.
o The lot thus may be accepted in the following ways :
a) 0 or 1 defective in the first sample (without taking second sample).
b) 2 defectives in the first sample followed by 0,1 or 2 defectives in the second
sample.
c) 3 defectives in the first sample followed by 0 or 1 defective in the second sample.
d) 4 defectives in the first sample followed by 0 defective in the second sample.
o The probability of accepting the lot is the sum of the probabilities of these different
ways in which it may be accepted.
Multiple Sampling Plan
o The phrase multiple sampling is generally used when three or more samples of stated
size are permitted and when the decision on acceptance or rejection must be reached
after a stated number of samples.
o The phrase sequential sampling is generally used when a decision is possible after each
item has been inspected and when there is no specified limit on the total number of
units to be inspected: However, some writers use the two phrases interchangeably.
o A multiple sampling procedure can be represented on a table such as the following:
Table 6.2 – multiple sampling plan
Combined samples
Sample Samples size Acceptance Rejection
Size
number number
1 n1 n1 c1 r1
2 n2 n1 + n2 c2 r2
3 n3 n1 + n2 + n3 c3 r3
4 n4 n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 c4 r4
5 n5 n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5 c5 r5
o A first sample of n\ is drawn, the lot is accepted if there are no more than c1 defectives,
and the lot is rejected if there are more than r1 defectives. Otherwise a second sample
of n2 is drawn the lot is accepted if there are no more than c2 defectives in the
combined sample of n1 + n2 , The lot is rejected if there are more than r2 defectives in
the combined sample of n1 + n2. The procedure is continue in accordance with the
above table. If by the end of the fourth sample, the lot is neither accepted nor
rejected, a sample n5 is drawn. The lot is accepted if the number of defectives in the
combined sample of n1 + n2 + n3 +n4 + n5 does not exceed c5. Otherwise the lot is
rejected. Note that c1 < c2 < ... < c5 and ci, < ri, for all i.
o A multiple sampling plan will generally involve less total inspection, than the
corresponding single or double sampling plan guaranteeing the same protection. But
they usually require higher administrative costs, and higher calibre inspection
personnel may be necessary to guarantee proper use of the plans.
Table 6.3 – Comparison of different sampling plan
Single Double sampling Multiple sampling
sampling plan plan plan
In between single
Average number of
Largest plan and multiple Lowest
pieces inspected per lot.
plan
In between single
Cost of administration Lowest plan and multiple Largest
plan
Information available In between single
regarding prevailing Largest plan and multiple Less
quality level. plan
Decision is
Acceptability to
Less Most acceptable continued for a
producers.
long term