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Types of Rock Rock Classification Core Samples Geologic Time Scale Stratigraphic Columns
Facies Petroleum Formation and Accumulation Geological Structures Interpretation
Types of Rock
There are three major classes of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. The majority of the world's oil supply occurs in sedimentary rocks, for the most part occurring in sedimentary
basins. Sedimentary basins generally consist of layers of different kinds of sedimentary rocks that have been deposited on top of each other. When sediments have been deposited rather
smoothly on top of each other, the geology may be referred to as 'layer cake' geology. Local structures that occur within the sedimentary basins form the basis for hydrocarbon traps- and the
rock that the oil is trapped in is referred to as a reservoir rock. (Many reservoirs occur in layers that were not deposited in a layer cake fashion, but this is a good model to begin with).
Igneous
Igneous rocks develop from liquid rock magma. Sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks may all be melted from the heat of the earth to become igneous rocks. When a volcano erupts, it
extrudes liquid magma, that, when solidified, is an igneous rock. Igneous rocks are typically called 'fire formed' rocks. Igneous rocks may also be 'intruded' into other rocks. For example,
granite magma may force its way through overlying rock layers, where it cools to form a granite dome. The size of the crystals in an igneous rock depends on the rate the magma cooled. When
a magma has cooled slowly, large crystals may be formed, and rapid cooling leads to small crystals. Lava, basalt, and granite are all igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are generally not of interest to
the petroleum geologist, as they do not make good places for oil to accumulate, and are not sources of the hydrocarbons.
http://www2.austin.apc.slb.com/QA/repository/Training/Industry-aware/Pet-Geology.html 11/12/2004
Formation of Magma
Granite
©Carlo Giovanella
Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been transformed by heat, pressure, or both heat and pressure into a different type of rock. Igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks may be the
source of metamorphic rocks. Generally, the metamorphosis process makes the rock more compact, and harder. For example, shale may metamorphosed into slate, limestone to marble, and
sandstone to quartzite. Metamorphic rocks are not generally of interest to the petroleum geologist, for the same reasons that igneous rocks are not.
©C.A. Giovanella
Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks are the class of rocks that are of the most interest to the petroleum industry. Sedimentary rocks are the rocks that hydrocarbons form in, travel through, and are trapped in.
Sedimentary rocks may be deposited in flat layers called strata, that may be created by rocks weathering (breaking down by rain, ice, etc.), or may consist of minerals precipitating out of
water. Igneous, metamorphic, or other sedimentary rocks may be weathered and deposited to form sedimentary rocks. Very thick layers of sedimentary rocks may be produced over tens of
thousands of years, and as more sediments are deposited on top, they become buried, as well as compacted (squeezed together). Minerals from the water that fills in the space between
individual grains of rock deposit additional minerals, which cement together the rocks. The sedimentary rocks of most importance to the petroleum geologist are limestones, sandstones, shales,
and dolomites. Limestones, sandstones, and dolomites are good reservoir rocks (reservoirs are places where a significant amount of hydrocarbons accumulates). Shales are good source rocks
for hydrocarbons, as well as a good seal.
A Sedimentary
Outcrop of Rocks
©K.A. Grimm
An Example of Rock Classification:

Igneous
Phaneritic (coarse-grained crystals 1-5 mm)
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro
Peridotite
Alkali Granite
Quartz Monzonite
Granodiorite
Aphanitic (fine grained or microscopic)
Rhyolite
Andesite
Dacite
Basalt
Porphyritic
Glassy Rocks
Obsidian
Metamorphic
Foliated
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
Unfoliated
Marble
Skarn
Quartzite
Hornfels
Sedimentary
Chemical
Inorganic
Inorganic Limestone
Evaporites
Dolostone
Inorganic Chert
Organic
Organic Limestone
Organic Chert
Coal
Detrital
Shales
Sandstones
Arkoses
Graywackes
Conglomerates and Breccias
Cores
A core is a rock sample, typically of cylindrical shape, that is acquired by drilling with a hollow drill bit and core barrel. A core may typically be about 5 inches in diameter, and one to 30 feet
(or more) in length. Cores may be analyzed in a lab, and from them the type of lithology may be determined, porosity of a formation, permeability, type of cement in the pore spaces, etc.
Samples that are taken from the core are called core plugs.
Sidewall cores are small cores taken from the wall of the wellbore, in a zone that has already been drilled. Typically, wireline logs are first examined to determine good locations for sidewall
cores. A special sidewall core tool is lowered downhole on a wireline, and a hollow 'bullet' is fired into the formation that is capable of grabbing a sample of the rock. The bullets are attached
to steel cable, which are then raised uphole. Cores are useful for determining lithology, porosity, and permeability.
Geological Time Scale

Few discussions in geology can occur without reference to geologic time. Geologic time is often discussed in two forms:
z Relative time ("chronostratic") -- subdivisions of the Earth's geology in a specific order based upon relative age relationships (most commonly, vertical/stratigraphic position). These
subdivisions are given names, most of which can be recognized globally, usually on the basis of fossils.
z Absolute time ("chronometric") -- numerical ages in "millions of years" or some other measurement. These are most commonly obtained via radiometric dating methods performed on
appropriate rock types.
Think of relative time as physical subdivisions of the rock found in the Earth's stratigraphy, and absolute time as the measurements taken upon those to determine the actual time which has
expired. Absolute time measurements can be used to calibrate the relative time scale, producing an integrated geologic or "geochronologic" time scale.
It is important to realize that with new information about subdivision or correlation of relative time, or new measurements of absolute time, the dates applied to the time scale can and do
change. Revisions to the relative time scale have occurred since the late 1700s. The numerically calibrated geologic time scale has been continuously refined since approximately the 1930s
(e.g., Holmes, 1937), although the amount of change with each revision has become smaller over the decades (see fig. 1.5 and 1.6 of Harland et al.) and a few numerical estimates were
available previously (but often for the duration of the entire scale rather than its individual subdivisions).
In addition, like any good scientific measurement, every dated boundary has an uncertainty associated with it, expressed as "+- X millions of years". These can not be included in the diagram
for practical reasons, but can be found in Harland et al., 1990, along with a detailed description of the history of earlier-proposed time scales and the terminology, methodology and data
involved in constructing this geological time scale.
Because of continual refinement, none of the values depicted in this diagram should be considered definitive, even though some have not changed significantly in a long time and are very well
constrained (e.g., the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary has been at 65+-1 Ma for decades, and has been tested innumerable times, with almost all dates somewhere between 64 and 66 million
years). The overall duration and relative length of these large geologic intervals is unlikely to change much, but the precise numbers may "wiggle" a bit as a result of new data.
This geological time scale is based upon Harland et al., 1990, but with the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary modified according to the most recently-published radiometric dates on that
interval, revising the boundary from 570+-15 million years to 543+-1 million years ago (Grotzinger et al., 1995). Other changes have been proposed since 1990 (e.g., revision of the
Cretaceous by Obradovich, 1993), but are not incorporated because they are relatively small.
The time scale is depicted in its traditional form with oldest at the bottom and youngest at the top -- the present day is at the zero mark. Geologic time is finely subdivided through most of the
Phanerozoic (see Harland et al., 1990 for details), but most of the finer subdivisions (e.g., epochs) are commonly referred to by non-specialists only in the Tertiary. Because of the vast
difference in scale, the younger intervals have been successively expanded to the right to show some of these finer subdivisions.
Stratigraphic Columns
Geologists may display their data by drawing a column showing the type of rock, or lithology. Rock layers are further classified by units, and typically these units are displayed with the
lithology, formation names, and geological ages. The rocks may be subdivided into Group, Formation, Member, then Bed, going from largest division to smallest.
A Group is a lithostratigraphic unit that contains two or more contiguous or associated formations that have significant lithologic features in common.
A Formation is a body of rock or strata, and is the only formal unit for subdividing the stratigraphic column all over the world into named units on the basis of lithology. Most formations have
a prevailingly tabular shape, and are mappable over some distance.
A Member is some specially developed part of a formation. It may not be mappable. A member name combines a geographic name followed by the word 'member'.
A Bed is distinguishable from layers that are above and below it. Only the distinctive Marker Beds are named and considered to be formal units.
Facies- Carbonates
Dott and Bourgeois remarked that "By the early '80s, facies models had multiplied like rabbits so that every real-world example now seems to require a new model." Which of
course defeats the whole purpose of a model by encouraging excessive pigeon-holing, which obsures rather than reveals whatever unity may exist among the variants.
Apparently many people have tried to create a standard sedimentilogical facies model over the years, and found great difficulity providing a simple abbreviated model that
could apply to all situations. I cannot find his definition, but other books, such as 'the Geology of Fluvial Deposits' has a very long section on facies, and 'Basin Analysis'
suggests classifying facies based on log curve responses, which was commonly done- bell shaped curve means a fluvial channel-overbank facies, for example.
The 'Glossary of Geology' defines facies has multiple definitions, and here are the most commonly used ones:
1. The aspect, appearance, and characteristics of a rock unit, usually reflecting the conditions of its origin, esp. as differentiating the unit from adjacent or associated units;
stratigraphic facies, lithofacies, igneous facies.
2. A mappable, areally restricted part of a lithostratigraphic body, differing in lithology or fossil content from other beds deposited at the same time and in lithologic continuity;
sedimentary facies
3. A distinctive rock type, broadly corresponding to a certain environment or mode of origin, eg. 'red-bed facies', 'black-shale facies', 'eolian facies', etc.
The following chart is an idealized sequence of standard facies belts, from J.L. Wilson, that was reproduced in "Carbonate Facies in Geologic History." It is very nice
because it ties in everything. This is mostly applicable to carbonates.
Facies
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number
Restricted platforms
Foreslope
Organic (ecologic) reef
Sands on edge of Open platform (normal z Bioclastic Platform evaporites
Basin (euxinic or z Bedded fine platform marine, limited fauna) wackestone,
Open shelf (undaform) z Boundstone lagoons and
evaporitic) grain
Open Marine neritic z Nodular
sediments mass bays.
Toe of slope z Shoal lime z Lime sand bodies. anhydrite and
Facies with slumps. z Crust on z Litho-bioclastic dolomite on
z Fine clastics carbonates
accumulation of sands. z Wackestone- sands in tidal
z Carbonates z Foreset salt flats.
z Carbonates organic debris z Islands mudstone areas, channels.
z Shale debris and z Laminated
z Evaporites and lime mud; with dune bioherms.
lime sands. z Lime mud-tide evaporite in
bindstone. sands. z Areas of clastics.
z Lime mud flats. ponds.
z Bafflestone.
masses z Fine clastic
units.
Dark shale or silt, thin Very fossiliferous Fine grain Variable, depending on
Calcarenitic-oolitic Irregularly laminated
limestones (starved limestone interbedded limestone; water energy upslope; Massive limestone- Variable carbonates and Generally dolomite and
Lithology lime sand or dolomite and anhydrite,
basin); evaporite fill with with marls; well cherty in some sedimentary breccias dolomite. clastics dolomitic limestone
dolomite may grade to red beds
salt. segregated beds. cases and lime sands.
Color Dark brown, black, red Gray, green, red, brown Dark to light Dark to light Light Light Dark to light Light Red, yellow, brown
Clotted, pelleted mudstone
Grain Type Mostly lime Lime silt and bioclastic
Bioclastic and whole and grainstone; laminated
and Lime mudstones; fine mudstone with wackestone- Boundstones and pockets Grainstones well Great variety of textures;
fossil wackestones; mudstone; coarse litho-
depositional calcisiltites some packestone; lithoclasts of grainstone; packstone sorted; rounded grainstone to mudstone
some calcisiltites clastic wackestone in
texture calcisiltites of varying sizes
channels
Lamination may
be minor; often Anhydrite after gypsum;
Slump in soft Birdseye, stromatolites,
Very even mm Thoroughly burrowed; massive beds; Massive organic structure nodular, rosettes,
Bedding and sediments; foreset Medium to large mm lamination, graded
lamination; rhythmic thin to medium; wavy to lenses of graded or open framework with Burrowing traces very chickenwire, and
sedimentary bedding; slope scale crossbedding; bedding, dolomite crusts
bedding; ripple cross nodular beds; bedding sidiment; roofed cavities; Lamination prominent blades; irregular
structures bioherms; exotic festoons common on flats. Cross-bedded
lamination surfaces show diastems lithoclasts and contrary to gravity lamination; carbonate
blocks sand in channels
exotic blocks. caliche
Rhythmic beds.
Terrigenous
Quartz silt and shale; Quartz silt, siltstone and Some shales, Windblown, land derived
clastics Some shales, silt, and Only some quartz Clastics and carbonates in Clastics and carbonates in
fine grain siltstone; shale; well segregated silt, and fine None admixtures; clastics may
admixed or fine grained siltstone sand admixed well segregated beds well segregated beds
cherty beds grained siltstone be important units
interbedded
Open marine fauna lacking
Major frame building Worn and abraided
Exclusively nektonic- Bioclastic (eg. echinoderms, Very limited fauna, mainly
Very diverse shelly Colonies of whole colonies with ramose coquinas of forms Almost no indigenous
pelagic fauna presered detritus derived cephalopods, brachiopods); gastropods, algae, certain
Biota fauna preserving both fossil organisms and forms in pockets; in situ living at or on slope; fauna, except for
in local abundance on principally from mollusca, sponges, forams, foraminifera (eg. miliolids)
infauna and epifauna bioclastic debris communities dwelling in few indigenous stromatolitic algae
bedding planes upslope algae abundant; patch reefs and ostracods
certain niches organisms
present
Facies- Sedimentary
In subsurface analysis, facies must be identified based on well logs, and less commonly on cores or cuttings. Walther's law states that only those facies that can be found
forming side by side in nature can occur in contact with one another in vertical succession, unless the succession contains internal erosion surfaces. The vertical profiles are
cyclic. The vertical sequence model can have many weaknesses- including the lack of very many studies conducted over large areas in 3D. Facies contacts are considered to
be of critical importance.
Definition from Friedman/Sanders:

Deposits made in specific depositional environments, such as on intertidal flats, in desert lakes, or in salt marshes, are considered to be sedimentary facies. The term facies
refers to the lithologic and biologic characteristics of a sedimentary deposit, imparted by the depositional environments. eg. fluvial facies, eolian facies, tidal facies, various
marine facies.
The Major Depositional Facies of the Buntsandstein, central Spain (Ramos et al. 1986)
Facies Bedding and Sedimentary Structures Texture and Fabric Thickness
Clast sizes; 5-30 cm
Sheets of Massive Conglomerates Massive Imbricated Clasts Rounded-subrounded clasts 0.5-1.5 meters
Low sandy matrix proportion
Crude Flat-bedding Imbricated Clasts
Convex upward tops imbricated clasts
Units of Tabular Cross-stratified conglomerates Tabular Cross-stratified Rounded-subrounded clasts 0.8-1.0 meters
Low sandy matrix proportion
Units of Lateral accretion conglomerates Lateral accretion units with sandstone drapes imbricated clasts Moderately Sorted 0.6-1.8 meters
Sandy Matrix
Lateral and vertical accretionary surfaces
Clast sizes 3-20 cm
Rounded-subrounded clasts
Channel-Fill Conglomerates Massive 1.0-1.8 meters
moderately sorted
high sandy matrix proporation
Complex- fill stratified

Transverse fill cross-stratification
Multi-storey fill through cross-stratification
Units of coarse-medium sandstone Flat or low angle cross-stratification, rare trough cross-stratification Coarse-Medium grain size 0, 5 meters
Sedimentary Facies:
z Algal
z Bathyal
z Becken
z Delta abandonment
z Deserts
z Epeiric Pelagic
z Euxinic
z Fluvial
z Flysch
z Fore-reef
z Foreshore
z Geosynclinal
z Glacial
z Heterolithic
z intertidal
z Lacustrine
z Lagoonal
z Leptogeosynclinal
z Lithofacies
z Molasse
z Mud
z Pelagic
z Pre-flysch
z Pre-orogenic
z Rare
z Sandstone
z Schwellen
z Shore face
z Storm-dominated
z Turbidite
z Wave-Dominated
Facies Associations:
z Beach and Barrier Island

z Carbonate-sulphate-evaporite
z Carbonate-sulphate-red bed
z Chloralgal
z Chlorozoan
z Delta
z Delta Front
z Delta plain
z Estuarine
z Foramol
z Glacial
z Limestone-quartz arenite
z Shallow Marine
z Tidal Flats
Formation and Occurrence of Petroleum

Hydrocarbons are chains of carbon atoms that have hydrogen atoms attached. Different types of hydrocarbons may be formed, and oil and natural gas are mixtures of different types of
hydrocarbons. The organic theory of hydrocarbon formation suggests that oil and gas formed from the breakdown of organisms that were probably very small to microscopic in size. Through
high heat, pressure, bacteria, chemical reactions, and other forces worked on the organic remains and transformed them into oil and gas.
In order for hydrocarbons to be produced, there must be source rocks that are capable of generating and expelling petroleum, a migration path must exist into the reservoir, and the reservoir
must be porous and permeable. In addition, a topseal or caprock is needed to keep hydrocarbons from migrating any further, and a trap must exist to concentrate the hydrocarbons. Next, data
must be acquired in order to locate the trap, and expensive exploratory wells must be drilled in order to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons. Lastly, the hydrocarbons, if present, must be in
sufficient quantities to be commercially producable.
Properties of Hydrocarbon Bearing Rocks

Two of the most important features of rocks that contain oil and gas are porosity and permeability. Despite the fact that rocks appear to be very solid, when examined under a microscope, it is
seen that they contain tiny empty spaces called pores. In fact, you may think of a rock as a 'hard sponge', which can fill up with water or other liquids. Any oil or gas that exists in rocks will be
in these pore spaces.
The amount of pore spaces in a rock is called the porosity of the rock. The more porosity there is in a rock, the better the chances of a significant amount of hydrocarbons collecting. (At times,
very large pore spaces may be encountered when drilling a well, which generally leads to a quick loss of drilling mud and other problems, but this is not a common occurrence). The porosity
of a rock will not be useful for producing hydrocarbons unless the pore spaces are connected in a manner that will allow fluids to flow through them.
Porosity is represented by the black spaces between the rock grains.
A rock is permeable when the pore spaces are connected, and the greater the connection, the higher the permeability. Rocks with low permeability have difficulty moving fluids through the
rock. Permeability is measured by a unit called a darcy, and most reservoirs have permeability measured in thousandths of a darcy (millidarcys).
A rock with high permeability. Because the open spaces in the rock are connected, fluids can travel through the rock.
Hydrocarbon Accumulation
Hydrocarbons likely originated in shales where, under great pressure, they were squeezed out of the rock into more permeable formations, such as sandstone. Since hydrocarbons have less
density than water, they constantly try to make their way upward, and, unless stopped by something (trapped), will eventually find their way to the earth's surface. Since hydrocarbons always
'seek' the highest point they can get to, it explains why geologist first found oil in the top of underground structures shaped like hills, called anticlines.
Hydrocarbon Traps
When hydrocarbons reach a barrier in their upward migration, they are trapped. The rocks that the hydrocarbons are trapped in are called the reservoir. A trap may consist of an impermeable
layer, such as a shale, which acts as a seal, and is generally above a permeable hydrocarbon bearing layer such as a sandstone or limestone. There are many different types of traps, and they
may be small to very large in size. Traps may be formed by rocks folding over when they are deformed by plate movements. Often, when rocks are subjected to severe stresses, they break.
Such a break is known as a fault. A fault makes an excellent trap, if the fault has moved the porous hydrocarbon layer of rock next to an impermeable layer of rock, which traps the
hydrocarbons. Often, rock layers are deformed, then exposed to weathering and erosion. Additional layers of rock are then deposited on top of the erosional surface, which is known as an
unconformity. If the rock layer above the unconformity is impermeable, an excellent trap for hydrocarbons may result. Domes of salt that have forced their way through the surrounding
sediments are another good trapping mechanism for hydrocarbons, as are reefs. Hydrocarbon traps are grouped into two basic types: structural and stratigraphic.
Structural Traps
In general, a structural trap represents a trap that has resulted from the deformation of the rock, such as by folding or faulting. A reservoir that has been formed by rocks folding, generally have
the shape of an anticline, or dome. Rock layers may be deposited in a horizontal manner, then folded into an arch or dome. When hydrocarbons are present, they are generally found at the top
of the structure. The impermeable rock on top of the reservoir that trapped the hydrocarbons is referred to as the caprock. Additional structural traps include salt domes and faults.
Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are those that are formed when the porosity or permeability has changed in the rock. For example, a very permeable sandstone may become impermeable as it dips upwards.
Examples include unconformities, channel sands, pinch-outs, and point bars.
Folding
Rock layers are constantly undergoing stress, from the rocks above, from geothermal heat buildup, and from the motion of the earth's plates. As a result of these factors, they develop structural
features such as folds. Folds occur on all scales- from very small, to mountain size. Folding of the sedimentary section also results in faults, where the stresses are so great that the rock
breaks. Each side of a fold is bounded by an inflection line, where the surface changes in sense of curvature. The hinge line is the point where the curvature is the greatest.
©Kevin Pogue, Whitman College
Faulting
A fault is a surface or zone along which one side of a rock body has moved relative to the other. It may be thought of as a plane of movement. Generally, the term fault is used for a zone of
movement that extends over distances of several meters or more. Smaller zones are called shear fractures or microfaults. When a fault extends across a body of rock, it divides it into fault
blocks. When seen on a well log, a fault is sometimes referred to as a fault cut. The hanging wall is the bottom surface of the upper fault block and the footwall is the top surface of the lower
foot block. If you were standing in a fault, the block above you would be the hanging wall, the block below you would be the footwall block. If a fault is completely vertical, these terms do not
apply.
©David Bice, Carleton
If a fault occurs at an angle of more than 45 degrees, it is a high-angle fault; if less than 45 degrees, a low-angle fault. The amount of movement of the fault is referred to as the displacement.
The displacement is the net distance and direction that the hanging wall block has moved with respect to the footwall block. The vertical component of a fault may be referred to as the throw,
and the horizontal component as the heave.
Dip-slip faults have the slip zone in the fault approximately parallel to the dip of the fault surface. Normal and Thrust Faults are dip-slip faults.
Faults may be divided according to the direction of relative movement along them. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall. A well drilled through a normal
fault may result in section(s) of rock that are missing. Since normal faults are the predominate type of faulting in sedimentary basins, this is the most frequently encountered type of fault in the
petroleum industry.
Normal Fault
Normal Fault
©C.A. Giovanella College
A special type of fault that can occur in sedimentary environments is a growth fault. For a growth fault, sediment continues to be deposited while the faulting is taking place. This causes the
formations on the downthrown side of the fault to be much thicker than the sediments on the upthrown side. For example, a sandstone may be 50 feet thick on the upthrown side of the fault,
but downthrown it may be 300 feet thick. Due to the large amount of expansion that may take place, there are often anethetic faults that occur in the opposite direction to the growth fault,
which die out into the main fault plane. The anethetic faults tend to have much smaller displacement than the main fault, and are formed in order to relieve the stress of the main fault.
For a thrust fault, the hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall. This may result in a layer of rock moving over the same layer in the hanging wall, so if a well were drilled through a
thrust fault, it is possible to have the same formation occuring twice in the well. This is known as a repeat section. A thrust fault is sometimes referred to as a reverse fault.
Reverse Fault
A strike-slip fault has the slip of the fault zone nearly horizontal, parallel to the strike of the fault surface. An example is the San Andres fault, where one block (or actually plate boundary) is
sliding sideways past the other. This type of fault tends to be a less effective trap for hydrocarbons, due to the lack of sealing qualities of this type of fault. There are right-lateral and left-
lateral strike-slip faults.
Transform Fault - a major regional strike-slip fault that is generally comprised of zones of many associated faults. Transform faults form segments of lithospheric plate boundaries.
Transcurrent Fault - strike-slip faults that are regional in scale and occur in the continental crust. They are not parts of plate margins.
Oblique-slip faults have a combination of properties of dip-slip and strike-slip faults. That is, they may move up or down relative to an inclined surface, but they may also move sideways past
each other. There are sinistral-normal and sinistral-reverse faults.
Rotational faults have the slip changing rapidly with horizontal distance along the fault.
Salt
Salt is an evaporite; that is, it is deposited in flat layers, where brine has undergone evaporation, leaving the salt behind. After more sediments are deposited on top, the salt has a tendancy to
rise, due to the fact that it has a much lower density than the sediments above it. The rising salt may deform the overlying sediment, piercing through it, causing faulting to occur as well. The
salt intrusion may be referred to as a diapir, and several shapes may result. The diapers may form salt pillows, a salt wall, or domes, depending on the extend of the intrusion. As the salt
diaper rises, it may detach from the salt below, to form a detached diaper. Salt structures are of particular interest, since they make very good hydrocarbon traps.
Point Bars
Rivers provide an excellent means of transporting and depositing sediments, which can later form hydrocarbon reservoirs. Examples of this are point bars, channel fills, sheet sands, and other
bars. These features tend to be smaller and more isolated than other hydrocarbon traps, but can be very prolific nonetheless.
When a river is young, it has a great deal of energy. At that time, it may erode a great deal of sediments, forming canyons. A young river has a steep gradient, and can carry a large load of
sediments. When a change in the energy occurs, however, the sediment load is dumped. This results in sand deposits. As a river ages, it is able to carry less sediment load. When a river reaches
a sharp bend, sand is typically deposited at the bend. At times of flooding, a river carries a much larger sediment load, and it greatly extends its usual boundaries. However, when the rate of
flow of the river decreases, sediments may be deposited.
Yellow indicates point bar deposits
Deltas
Deltas typically form where rivers meet the ocean. At this junction, the river dumps its sediment load, and merges with the ocean waters. Deltas are named by their typically triangular shape.
Large river systems typically change course frequently during the course of their life, and many ancient deltas may exist for a given river system.
River channel with deltaic sand deposits surrounding.
Reefs
A Living Reef
A reef is composed of marine organisms that are invertebrates that attach to each other to form colonies. The reefs tend to be rigid, wave-resistant bioherms. In general, corals tend to form in
shallow, clear, warm water. There are many different types of reefs, and subsurface occurances of reefs are excellent reservoir rocks for hydrocarbons.
A nonreef bioherm is a buildup of organisms that do not have the potential to build rigid wave-resistant structures.
Examples of different Corals
An ancient reef, in outcrop
Often, reefs in the subsurface may be referred to as carbonate buildups, especially when it is not clear from the seismic data whether the feature is a reef or a nonreef bioherm.
Elongated reefs include fringing reefs, reefs that are contiguous to a landmass or island, and barrier reefs, reefs that are parallel to but separated from shore by a lagoon.
Isolated reefs generally are circular. Pinnacle reefs are circular reefs that tend to tower several meters high. In the U.S. state of Michigan, there are numerous wells producing oil from pinnacle
reefs. The pinnacle reef trend in East Texas is an example of a new trend in an area where shallow production has been in place for some time. One independent company has had a great deal
of success with this play, by suspending drilling several feet above the expected reef, then obtaining a VSP and making any last minute changes to the well path that may be needed, in order to
ensure that the reef is not missed.
Patch reefs are small, isolated reefs that are only a few meters in diameter.
Unconformities
As long as a sedimentary environment continues to accumulate strata, the layers of sediments that accumulate are said to be conformable. An unconformity usually represents a surface where
sediments have been eroded. They can also represent a surface where sediments have not been deposited for a geologically long period of time. As an example, an area that has had many
layers of sediments deposited may be uplifted. Once the rocks are uplifted and exposed to the environment, weathering by rain, sun, ice, etc. may erode, or remove, some of the sediments.
Afterwards, the area may subside (lower) and begin accumulating sediments again.
Types of Unconformities:
Disconformity
Angular Unconformity
Nonconformity
Folded Angular Unconformity
A disconformity may represent a period of missing time (rock) in a sequence of parallel layers.
An angular unconformity is an erosional surface that cuts across rocks that are at an angle compared to the sediments deposited on top. This type of unconformity makes a good trapping
mechanism for hydrocarbons.
Angular Unconformity
©Carlo Giovanella
A nonconformity is a contact between igneous or metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.
A folded angular unconformity is an unconformity surface where folded strata have been eroded, then additional sediments deposited on top.
Pinch-Outs
A pinch-out is simply the point where a rock formation dies out. For example, two wells may be drilled 500 feet apart. One of the wells may have a 100 foot sand present, that is also present in
a nearby well. If the cause of the sand's absence is not faulting, it is likely due to the sand dying out, somewhere between the two wells. The point where the sand ends is called the pinch-out.
Geologic Interpretation
In the early days of oil exploration, geologist relied on mapping surface structures, and on finding places where oil seeped to the surface. The surface structure often reflected the deeper
subsurface structure, so many shallow oil and gas fields were discovered in this manner. Likewise, where oil seeped to the surface, the geologist could find the subsurface structure containing
the oil reservoir.
The discovery of wire line logging was the greatest advancement to the petroleum geologist. By interpreting wire line logs, geologist could have a rough ideas of what formation existed at a
particular depth. He was able to find the boundaries of the formation, and could correlated these logs with samples coming up from the drilling cuttings. When other wells were drilled in an
area, the formations could be correlated from one well to the next, since each formation tends to have a unique characteristic on electric logs. The geologist referred to these formations as 'tops'
and the process of correlating formations from one log to another the process of making top picks. Of course, the bottom of the formation, thickness, and other information could be determined
as well. In addition, often when oil and/or gas was present, it could be determined by examining the logs. The logs also provided a useful means of selecting where additional samples could be
taken in the form of sidewall cores. When a geologist places well logs beside each other and draws connections from one log to another to represent a surface, he has constructed a cross-
section.
Once the geologist had enough tops 'picked', he could place the area wells on a map, and contour the values for the depths to the formation of interest, thereby constructing a 'contour map'. The
contour map shows the subsurface structure, much as a topological map shows the structure on the surface. Well logs and contour maps, with a few cross-sections thrown in for good measure,
are the primary tools of the petroleum geologist.
Cross Sections
A cross section is one of the primary tools of the geologist. A cross section is a diagram that shows features transected by a given plane. Generally, well logs are used in the construction of
cross sections, and markers are interpreted from one well to another in order to gain an understanding of the structure and stratigraphy between wells. There are two major types of cross
sections: a structural cross section and a stratigraphic cross section. A fence diagram is a 3D cross section.
Structural Cross Section

A structural cross section has the datum for the wells set to the same subsurface elevation. For example, the datum may be -1000 meters. The structure of the geological formations should be
apparent from this type of cross section.
Stratigraphic Cross Section

A stratigraphic cross section has a datum equal to a marker. For example, the datum may be the Top Cretaceous. It is a good representation of the geology at the time of deposition of the
datum, eg. at the Top Cretaceous. This type of cross section will give the geologist an idea of the stratigraphy and the formation thicknesses between wells.
Relative and Fixed Spaced Cross Sections

In addition, the wells may be spaced where they maintain their relative positions to each other. This is called a Relative Spaced plot, or cross section. Often, Fixed space plots are produced,
where the wells are placed the same distance away from each other, no matter how far apart they may be in reality.
Direct any comments or suggestions for this page to: Linda Colvin

Schlumberger Petroleum Geology

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Petroleum Geology Page 1 of 25

Geology Geophysics Engineering Logging Making Maps Home

An Example of Rock Classification:

Geological Time Scale

Definition from Friedman/Sanders:

Complex- fill stratified

z Beach and Barrier Island

Formation and Occurrence of Petroleum

Properties of Hydrocarbon Bearing Rocks

Porosity is represented by the black spaces between the rock grains.

©Kevin Pogue, Whitman College

©David Bice, Carleton

and the horizontal component as the heave.

©C.A. Giovanella College

Yellow indicates point bar deposits

River channel with deltaic sand deposits surrounding.

Examples of different Corals

An ancient reef, in outcrop

A nonconformity is a contact between igneous or metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.

are the primary tools of the petroleum geologist.

Structural Cross Section

Stratigraphic Cross Section

Relative and Fixed Spaced Cross Sections

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