WORLD PIPELINES

®
2015

leading the way in

inaccessible terrain
www.worldpipelines.com

Cable Crane systems – the pipe laying solution

for steep and demanding seCtions.

www.lcs-cablecranes.com
 12 33 66

CONTENTS
03. Guest comment
®

Steve Preston, Ceona. REMOTE LOCATIONS

05. Editor's comment 55. Keeping connected
To boldly go. Chuck Moseley, Inmarsat, UK.
61. Calculating hardship allowances
KEYNOTE ARTICLES Neil Ashman, Senior Analyst, ECA International, UK.
6. Is the OPEC era over?
Jodi Quinnell, Brian Busch, Dominick Chirichella and Robert L. Barton, OFFSHORE
Genscape, USA, cover themes that are playing into the US production
outlook and assess the situation on the OPEC front. 63. A technological evolution
Vibha Zaman, USA, and David Barnard, UK, Lloyd’s Register Energy.
12. The end of easy oil offshore
The end of easy oil is driving offshore exploration and production
into harsher environments, making the construction and operation of CONFLICT
pipelines more challenging, as Olav Fyrileiv, Pipelines & Materials, 66. Making safety an urgent priority
DNV GL, Norway, reports. Colin Griffiths, Managing Director of OPITO International based in Dubai.

ARCTIC FRONTIERS TEMPERATURE

19. The cold frontier for pipelines 71. An unfazed workforce
Aiman Al-Showaiter, Special Projects Team Lead, Wood Group Kenny,
Jeff Wilson, Chief Technology Officer, T.D. Williamson, USA.
USA.
25. Bringing structure to defiant landscapes CLIMATE CHALLENGES
Julie Burke, Duane DeGeer and Mike Paulin, INTECSEA, Americas.
76. Repairs in the jungle
DEEPWATER Jose Zapata, NRI, USA.

29. Dealing in extremes: coating performance in 83. Protecting turbines in harsh environments
Stephen Hiner, CLARCOR Industrial Air, UK.
sub-zero conditions
Geoff Addicott, Exova, UK.
TERRAIN
SUBSEA WORK 87. A significant engineering feat in Ireland
33. Assessing seabed challenges Adrian Blakemore, Murphy International Ltd, Ireland.
Zack Westgate, Consultant Engineer, Fugro GeoConsulting Inc., USA.
CYBER THREATS
COVER STORY 93. The growing threat
38. Carrying the load in tough terrain Jay Abdallah and Adrian Clarke, Schneider Electric, USA.
Christoph Ludescher, LCS Cable Cranes, Austria.
MACHINERY FOCUS
CONSTRUCTION 95. IPLOCA member contribution
45. Natural hazards Laurini, Italy
Meghan Connors, Operations Manager, PipeSak Pipeline Products,
Canada.

DESERT
49. Identifying the threat
WORLD PIPELINES

Dr. Chris Minto, OptaSense, UK.

2015

ON THE COVER Reader enquiries [www.energyglobal.com]

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ISSN 1472-7390

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For more information visit www.lcs-cablecranes.com leading the way in
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 Guest
Comment
Steve Preston
Founding Chief Executive Officer at Ceona
G
iant leaps of faith in oil and gas have made for a
dynamic and pioneering industry that continues to
explore new frontiers and drive forward its own
destiny. While the current oil price collapse will go
down in history as one of its low points, the industry’s
ingenuity at reinventing itself never ceases to inspire me.
This is particularly evident in the subsea construction
sector where the evolution into ultra-deepwater and
increasingly complex and challenging
environments has resulted in
significant advancements in THE EVOLUTION INTO
technology and innovation.
However, with the cumulative
ULTRA-DEEPWATER AND
effect of recent industry events
heightening the focus on cost and
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX
production efficiency, there’s an AND CHALLENGING
urgency to think and work even
smarter than ever. We need to develop
ENVIRONMENTS HAS
more sophisticated and innovative RESULTED IN SIGNIFICANT
engineering techniques and
technological applications that will ADVANCEMENTS IN
allow us to recover hard-to-reach
hydrocarbons economically, safely and
TECHNOLOGY AND
with no harm to the environment. INNOVATION
But these are not the only
challenges we face when breaking into new deepwater
markets. While technical expertise and know-how is crucial,
there are often cultural, political and geo-economical barriers
to overcome.
Understanding the characteristics of each market and
engaging meaningfully with all stakeholders is vital to building
robust, successful relationships that help an organisation to
gain a strong foothold in a new region. Ceona is still a relatively
new name but we have already expanded our reach as a SURF
contractor with heavy subsea construction capabilities across
the Gulf of Mexico (GoM), Brazil and West Africa.
Key to this has been forming strategic partnerships with
established companies in these regions, which has allowed us
to develop a considerable track record including repeat
business for delivering engineering, construction and project
management on complex operations.
Gaining a proper understanding of how different regions
like to do business, including respective policies and
regulations, takes considerable time, due diligence and
commitment. But it’s a long-term investment that delivers more
than financial returns in terms of credibility, experience and
connections which, in turn, create value for clients.
It’s certainly been integral to Ceona’s successful growth
strategy. Our vision to create next generation vessels that go
above and beyond the evolving subsea sector’s deepwater
demands is closer to realisation every day as we push the
boundaries with our work in areas such as Brazil and the Gulf
of Mexico.
Our newly-launched Ceona Amazon is a powerful,
purpose-built hybrid vessel that can execute complex logistical
projects in remote, harsh and deepwater territories in one trip.
Designed to deliver full flexible or
full rigid pipelay, she can change
easily and quickly between each
mode within five days and is
weather resilient.
Due to her onboard capacity
– the Amazon has a deck area of
4600 m2 and the ability to carry
9500 t of pipe on deck and in her
two holds – she can carry more
product than any other of her
counterparts while the multiple,
vertical-lay pipelay system
features a top tension of 600 t
and capable to lay rigid pipe to
3000 m (10 000 ft) water depth.
The Amazon can cover the
majority of deepwater field development needs including
100% of tie-backs while her two 400 t cranes, which have been
designed to operate in tandem to support work in water
depths of up to 3000 m (10 000 ft), enabling her to lay
manifolds and other structures.
Being involved in the Amazon’s design from concept to
seeing the vessel in her full glory has been an inspirational
and truly magnificent experience, particularly for someone
who, during the seventies in the North Sea, helped deploy
the first semi-submersible crane vessels. I have been
fortunate to experience pioneering developments that have
revolutionised the industry, such as my involvement in the
design of a mechanical lifting clamp for foundation piles.
At 84 in. dia. and about 200 t each, the foundations were
the largest ever at that time to be used in an industry that
was previously somewhat hydraulics-averse
Witnessing the results of ingenuity in engineering – and
how it has dramatically evolved over the last five decades –
has always been one of the greatest privileges of working in an
industry which continues to reinvent itself to go further and
deeper into more extreme environments, and I look forward to
seeing the Amazon achieve a new milestone for the subsea
sector.
EDITOR
Elizabeth Corner
elizabeth.corner@worldpipelines.com
MANAGING EDITOR
James Little
james.little@worldpipelines.com
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Comment
TO BOLDLY GO
P
ipeline contractors are meeting
ever more challenging scenarios
for pipeline design, construction
and operation. We’re talking
bigger pipelines, higher specs for material,
coating and welding procedures, resources
found in ever more remote places,
dangerous locations, low oil prices and
tighter margins, deeper seas, deadlines
with less wriggle room, an expectation of
pipe robustness and integrity for 20, 30,
40 years on, closer
government
regulatory scrutiny,
more press attention be stubborn
than ever before and,
ultimately, a true end about your
to what is
traditionally labelled goals; and
‘easy oil’.
Where’s the fun
in all of that?
flexible
In this special issue
of World Pipelines, we
about your
speak to the
contractors who relish
methods
a challenge in the
service of the oil and gas pipeline industry.
They were happy to share details with us
about recent projects that placed them at the
edge of what is normal in the pipeline sector.
For the purpose of this special issue,
we are defining ‘extreme’ as the act of
reaching a high degree of operation in
unusual or exceptional circumstances.
World Pipelines reports on pipeline
activity the year round, with companies
performing admirable, consistent, high-
level work all over the world. But what
we also often see are companies going
the extra distance and this deserves to be
celebrated. In this issue there are some
record breakers, some ‘firsts’ and some
unique case studies, whether you are
interested in Arctic pipeline landscapes
(p.25), remote desert locations (p.55),
construction in the heat of the jungle
(p.76), or on steep rocky slopes in Mexico.
We’ve got articles about sub-zero
working conditions, natural hazards such
as floods, landslides, shifting sands and
seismic activity, cyber threats and the
longest gas pipeline tunnel anywhere in
Europe.
The saying goes: “be stubborn about
your goals; and flexible about your
methods”: sometimes a pipeline project
will challenge everything you think you
know. Throw in some extreme weather or
a just-turned-hostile location, and you’ve
got some interesting pipeline tales.
Also included in
this special issue is a
major focus on
workforce safety: with
articles from OPITO
(p.66), T.D. Williamson
(p.71) and ECA
International (p.61)
featuring discussions
about how best to
assess staff wellbeing,
how to stay
connected, how to
cope with extreme
temperatures and
how to meet
demanding targets while staying safe.
The industry increasingly uses rugged,
advanced technology for heavy
machinery and equipment. We are seeing
automated systems taking the place of
manual ones, and an emphasis on
streamlining, benchmarking and
standardising key pipeline practises.
Some operators and utilities are using
drones, helicopters and other remote
methods to monitor pipelines and check
for things like potential third party
damage. Drones can glide over rugged
terrain and send back images showing
the condition of pipelines; but in most
cases there also needs to be a man on
the ground somewhere. This issue is
testament to the benefits of both
approaches: survey and monitor from
afar, use technology to work in your
favour, but make sure that you have
pipeline contractors who can walk the
walk, on any given terrain.
 I
t has been eleven months since the
downtrend in oil prices began, making
it one of the longest on record. Simply
put, the market finally caught up with
the phenomenal oil revolution taking place in
the US, and, to a lesser extent, in Canada and
several other non-OPEC countries. Not only
has the flat price of oil declined by close to
US$50/bbl, but many of the various spread
relationships for both crudes and refined
products have also changed.
In addition, global oil logistics are still
adjusting as various oils look for their
optimum disposition point. This process
will continue for months, or even years,
to come, as oil supply has the potential to
outstrip demand for an extended period of
time. Several months after the price decline

6
 JODI QUINNELL, BRIAN BUSCH, DOMINICK CHIRICHELLA AND
ROBERT L. BARTON, GENSCAPE, USA, COVER THEMES THAT ARE
PLAYING INTO THE US PRODUCTION OUTLOOK AND ASSESS THE
SITUATION ON THE OPEC FRONT.

7
 began, OPEC, led by Saudi Arabia, joined the fray
by embarking on the second market share war of
its tenure. The last time this occurred was back
in the 1980s, when OPEC became threatened by
the advent of North Sea and Alaska North Slope
(ANS) crude oil in particular. Once again, OPEC is
threatened by the robust growth in non-OPEC oil
supply, this time led by the US.
So far, there have been three main outcomes
from the market share war. First and second are
strong cuts in oil company capital expenditure
(CAPEX) budgets and a strong decline in oil rigs
deployed to the oil sector in both the US and
Canada. Oil production has continued to grow, but
Figure 1. 2014 vs 2015 CAPEX guidance.
Genscape expects that trend to reverse soon.
The third and most visible outcome has been
a surge in global crude oil inventories. Total crude
oil inventories in the US are now at the highest
level on record, and this holds true for other
locations around the world, such as Europe, with
inventory levels well above 75% of capacity.

CAPEX cuts
Responding to weaker commodity prices in
late 2014 and early 2015, many producers are
re-evaluating their CAPEX for 2015. Of the
95 E&P companies tracked by Genscape, 77 have
announced their CAPEX guidance for fiscal year
2015, resulting in a cumulative domestic CAPEX
reduction of 36%, from US$85.7 billion in 2014 to
US$54.7 billion in 2015.
These changes indicate that producers are
preparing for more volatility ahead with a more
resilient and flexible strategy. Before WTI dipped
below US$50/bbl, some companies, such as
Figure 2. Current 2015 CAPEX guidance vs 3Q-2014 2015 CAPEX ConocoPhillips, BP, and Continental Resources,
guidance. gave out their 2015 CAPEX guidance and then
quickly revised it to lower levels.
Figure 1 shows the current CAPEX for US and
multinational companies in 2014 and 2015. While
the global decrease in 2015 is not unexpected, the
US$17.5 billion in recent revisions is noteworthy.
Despite sometimes-drastic CAPEX cuts, US E&P
companies are expected to increase production by
7% in 2015 year-over-year, and most have started
concentrating on their core areas. For example,
in December last year, EOG announced that it
was divesting Canadian assets in Manitoba and
Alberta for US$410 million. The company plans to
use the proceeds for its high return assets in the
Lower 48. PDC Energy decreased its 2015 capital
budget by 27% when compared to 2014. However,
its 2015 capital budget is focused on core areas of
Wattenberg, which is expected to help increase
production by 30% year-over-year.
Figure 2 shows CAPEX revisions made by
Figure 3. Current 2015 production guidance vs 3Q-2014 2015 production specific companies while Figure 3 shows the
guidance. expected impact on production. Note that despite

8 WORLD PIPELINES /
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 sometimes-drastic revisions, production is often close to
original 2015 estimates.
Implications of rig cuts
Corresponding with CAPEX revisions, total rigs in the Lower 48
have now dropped by 1012 rigs since their peak on 24 October,
2014. Genscape believes another 381 rigs will be cut by August,
resulting in a drop in total rig count in the Lower 48 of
approximately 65% from the peak in October. The rig count
drop is very similar to what occurred during the downturn of
2008/2009, which can be seen in Figure 4.
Genscape forecasts that US production will peak in April
at almost 9.6 million bpd before declining through the back
half of 2015 and into 2016. Production is expected to climb
slightly through the back half of 2016 as higher prices in the
forward curve incentivise producers to begin slowing adding
back rigs. Year-over-year production in 2015 is expected to
climb by 477 000 bpd and decline by 372 000 bpd year over
year in 2016.
There are two other main themes that are playing into the
US production outlook.
The first theme is how much well and rig efficiency will
improve over time due to the hard declining rig environment
and producers’ ‘high-grading’ to their best assets. In a lower
price environment, producers begin to allocate capital of only
their best assets, and average initial production rates across a
basin increase. This could result in improvements of 10 - 30%
in well productivities over the next year. Also playing into the
efficiency improvements is rig productivity. In a decreasing rig
environment, operators leave the best crews with the most
efficient rigs running, which will lead to an improvement in
drill days and ultimately a reduction in costs.
The second theme is producers delaying well
completions due to economics. Over the past month,
producers have announced 720 well completion deferrals,
meaning they still intend to drill the wells because the rigs
are locked in under contract but have decided to hold off
completing the wells until prices improve and completions
cost come down.
Cabot, Chesapeake, EOG, SM Energy and Apache alone
have announced 720 well completion deferrals in the Eagle
Figure 4. 2008/2009 vs 2014/2015 historical total rig downturn comparison.
10 WORLD PIPELINES /
Ford, Bakken and Permian. EOG stated in its 4Q call it would
intentionally delay completions, “building a significant
inventory of approximately 350 uncompleted wells. This
allows EOG to use rigs under existing commitments, and when
prices improve we will be poised to ramp up completions.”
It is evident oil companies also anticipate a further benefit
of decreased pressure pumping costs, with SM Energy stating
in its 4Q call that “this will allow us to take advantage of
completion cost deflation when we enter 2016. We’ll also be
able to accelerate quickly if we see an improvement in the
commodity prices.”
The impact of these 720 wells, if they all came online in
the same month, would be about 345 000 boe/d of liquids
and 428 million ft3/d gas. With a rough rule of thumb that the
first 12 months of a new horizontal well averages about 50% of
modelled initial production rates, the impact over 12 months
of production would be approximately 63 million boe of
liquids and 78 billion ft3 of gas.
Inventory analysis
We have seen crude oil inventories build worldwide, but
nowhere is the transparency of those builds more clearly
measured than North America. Just looking at the stocks of
crude oil reported by the EIA we have seen inventories grow
by more than 100 million bbls in the US alone during the past
six months. PADDs 2, 3 and 4 are at all-time storage highs.
But the current crude stocks do not tell the whole story. The
capacity to store crude has significantly increased over the
past five years.
Cushing, Oklahoma, the single most important group of
storage terminals in the US, is monitored twice weekly by
Genscape. Inventories have surpassed 60 million bbls for
the first time in history. However, the storage capacity at
Cushing has been expanded by more than 30 million bbls since
2009 and now exceeds 85 million bbls. Historically, Cushing
inventories have never exceeded 80% of storage capacity,
although, as of late March, they were well above 70%,
according to Genscape monitoring.
If that level can be attained, there is still another
10 million bbls of operational capacity available. Given the
rate at which inventories have been building since 1 November,
2014, those levels could be reached
in late April or early May of this
year.
The same story of record
stocks and significant capacity
growth is true for most locations.
Storage at Hardisty, AB, has
seen capacity grow by 25%,
since Genscape started tracking
inventory levels in Canada in
mid-2010, and stocks in Edmonton
are the highest they have been
since that time. Several new
terminals have been built along
the US Gulf Coast, and Genscape
is currently monitoring the
construction and development
of 40 million bbls of new crude storage capacity in PADD 3.
That is in addition to the 60 million bbls of capacity that is
currently empty along the Texas Gulf Coast between Corpus
Christi and Beaumont.
If crude production continues to outpace demand at its
current pace, there is still ample storage space available to
accommodate additional stock builds for at least another year.
Once stocks at Cushing have reached operational maximums,
the production that has been going into storage there, about
2.2 million bbls/week since last November, will work its way
back into the US Gulf Coast and East Coast markets. In addition
to putting downward pressure on WTI, especially the front of
the price curve, it will also put pressure on the differential for
other grades of crude.
The deferred production of wells discussed above is
effectively storage beyond that monitored by Genscape and
reported to the EIA. The impact of so much crude going into
storage will be to keep prices lower for a longer period of time
since the storage will have to be run off before any production
shortfall will significantly affect the market. The more stocks
build, the longer the storage hangover will last and the more
difficult it will be for marginal producers to ride out the
downturn. Given current storage and
production, this could be a long and
deep market cycle that will favour
the most efficient producers.
oil, the market was reminded at the end of March that the
surplus is fragile and could be short-lived if those geopolitical
issues continue to grow. The latest action involves Saudi
Arabia striking Iranian-backed Houthi forces in Yemen.
Yemen produces only about 100 000 bpd of oil – a
drop in the bucket in a world currently afloat in oil. The
other risk is shipping around the Gulf of Aden or through
the Bab el Mandeb waterway, although it does not appear
that the Houthis have the capability to interrupt shipping.
In addition, the Bab el Mandeb is well patrolled by
international vessels.
Certainly, there is always the concern of this type of a
conflict spreading to other areas of the region. That said,
there is currently no indication of this happening. In fact,
with just days before an Iranian/West nuclear framework
deal was expected to be concluded, there was a very low
probability that Iran would do anything to aggravate the
Yemen situation.
So, it is far from certain how the final chapter in OPEC’s
market-share battle will play out, depending as much
on geopolitical conflict as on whether US producers cut
production and global demand picks up.

Conclusion: will OPEC

prevail?
As much as the US producing
sector has taken an economic hit
from the collapse in prices, so have
OPEC countries, many of which
have been continuously lowering
their budgets and cutting social
programmes to keep their heads
above water. Although Saudi Arabia,
the orchestrator of the OPEC market
share war, continues to reaffirm Figure 5. Cushing crude oil stocks and capacity.
that it has no intention of cutting
production anytime soon, the
situation on the OPEC front could
change.
First, the OPEC countries that are
experiencing financial difficulties are
becoming more and more uneasy
with the current strategy. The
upcoming June OPEC meeting will
be interesting, as the OPEC ‘have
nots’ battle the OPEC ‘haves’ on the
strategy.
However, the growing unrest in
OPEC countries in the Middle East
and Africa could ramp prices back up,
resolving the organisation’s internal
conflict while undermining the Saudi-
led push for market share. In spite of
the growing global surplus of crude Figure 6. Crude oil storage at Cushing, Oklahoma.

WORLD PIPELINES / EX 11
 The end of easy oil

OFFSHORE
The end of easy oil is driving offshore exploration
and production into harsher environments, making
the construction and operation of pipelines more
challenging, as Olav Fyrileiv, Pipelines
& Materials, DNV GL, Norway, reports.

D
eepwater and ultra-deepwater, and remote
and more hostile environments, such as
the Arctic, pose new challenges for oil
and gas pipeline design, construction,
installation and operation.
Definitions of deep and ultra-
deep vary. The manned diving limit
of 400 m is sometimes viewed as a
boundary between shallow and deep,
though drilling contractors and
producers have tended to regard
600 m as the transition point. The
Energy Information Administration
(EIA) defines US waters as ‘deep’
between 300 m and 1500 m, and
‘ultra-deep’ beyond 1500 m.
It is worth stating that
there can be advantages to
laying and operating pipelines
in greater water depth.1 There

12
 Figure 1. For
installations in more
remote areas, pipelay
vessel availability may
be more limited.

13
 is no wave effect, currents are usually moderate, and there Many fundamentals of pipeline design, construction
are fewer challenges with on-bottom stability and free and installation are the same for deepwater and ultra-
spans. There is no trawl gear and no dragged anchors to deepwater developments as for shallow waters. That said,
damage pipes, and there is less need for protection against the deeper the water, the higher the external pressure on
third-party damages. the pipeline, and the greater the technical, logistical and
The disadvantages – actual and potential – are economic challenges.
nevertheless considerable. The high external pressure External pressure is a critical parameter because
can potentially cause pipeline collapse. Having a heavy pipelines in deepwater and ultra-deepwater fields are
chain of pipes before touch down on the seabed creates a typically installed empty before becoming operational.
challenging installation scenario. Also, the empty pipeline is subject to large bending
Steep slopes, mudslides and soft seabed are potential moments in the sag bend during laying.
geohazards. Pre-commissioning and seabed interventions Whilst the highest risk of collapse is during the
are costly, while survey and inline inspections are hard to installation phase, it may also be a consideration during
perform and repairs are difficult and expensive. the operational phase if a pipeline is expected to be
Despite these factors, the end of ‘easy oil’ is reflected subject to significant corrosion causing longitudinal
in the rising number of field developments at great grooving or channelling. If the internal pressure becomes
depths. Ultra-deep production was practically zero little low, as may be the case for some gas lines, the risk of
more than 10 years ago; but most new developments in collapse can also increase over time due to the corrosion
recent years have been in deepwater and ultra-deepwater. effects.
Flowlines of up to 16 in. dia. have been installed at around
3000 m depth, and export lines up to 30 in. dia. at 2200 m. Pipe manufacturing
The simplest solution is to increase collapse capacity by
Fundamental pipeline challenges thickening the line pipe’s wall. However, thicker walls
Current and potential future examples of deepwater and mean using more steel, thus adding cost. Also, few pipe
ultra-deepwater developments can be found, among other mills worldwide currently have presses capable of forming
locations, in the North Atlantic, Brazil, Gulf of Mexico, pipes from heavy steel wall plates to meet potential
West Africa and Asia. Even where pipelines could be demand for long trunk lines in deepwater and ultra-
made and laid using today’s technology and solutions, deepwater.
innovations developed for more extreme environments Furthermore, DNV GL calculated that for UOE pipes,
could bring cost and operational benefits. there are practical limits on the wall thickness that limit
the maximum water depth that these can be used at. For
example, the limit for 42 in.
pipes is around 2000 m while
that for 24 in. pipes is 4000 m.
Depending on the
diameter of pipe, thicker
walls may also run up against
limitations on the capacity of
different pipelaying vessels
to hold the weight of a
submerged pipe string in the
catenary. Recent additions
to the global pipelay fleet
have improved the capacity
to lay heavier pipes at greater
depths, but more such vessels
will be needed.
One response to the
limitations is simply to avoid
exposing pipeline to high
external over-pressure, so
that pipe walls need not be as
thick as would otherwise need
to be the case. For example,
by using DNV GL’s X-Stream
Figure 2. DNV-OS-F101 has built in flexibility to ensure that design criteria reflect improved pressure control system
physical aspects and capacities stemming from improvements in manufacturing.
concept in combination with a

14 WORLD PIPELINES /
(800)328-0090
 partially pre-flooded pipe, external pressure on a pipeline
is counteracted by maintaining internal pressure above a
level required to prevent collapse and below a level where
a burst could occur.
As expressed in the DNV-OS-F101 Offshore Standard
for Submarine Pipeline Systems, the mathematical formula
for pipeline collapse due to external pressure includes
a measure of how much the pipe deviates from perfect
rotundity. The greater the deviation, the higher the risk of
collapse.
Improved manufacturing can also reduce the negative
effects on compressive yield limit that result from
cold-forming UOE pipes from steel plates. Moderate
heat treatment during manufacturing can zero out the
Bauschinger effect that lowers the compressive yield stress
up to 15% and reduces the collapse capacity of such pipes
accordingly.2
DNV-OS-F101 has built in flexibility to ensure that
design criteria reflect improved physical aspects and
capacities stemming from improvements in manufacturing.
It thus allows the industry to optimise design and save
cost. For example, making imperfect roundness explicit
rather than implicit in the design criteria means any
improvement in pipe circularity may be accounted for
in the design check. Viewed another way, the code is a
framework that encourages the development of solutions
for deepwater and ultra-deepwater pipelines.
Arctic little or no empirical data against which any guidelines
Despite the recent announcement that Shell is determined
to start Arctic drilling this summer, widescale offshore
oil and gas development in the Arctic appears to be
Figure 3. DNV GL has also launched an Arctic ‘RigSpray’ JIP of relevance to pipelaying and
other vessels requiring winterisation.
16 WORLD PIPELINES /
metaphorically ‘on ice’ for now. Efforts are continuing,
however, to scope out the challenges that running
pipelines to shore beneath some of the most biologically
productive and pristine waters in the world would bring in
its wake.
Ice gouging, strudel scour, subsea permafrost, and
sea-ice forces have been identified as issues of particular
interest here. In a 2014 paper, Professor Andrew Palmer
of the National University of Singapore analysed these
threats and explained how choosing between pipeline
construction methods depends on seasonal ice conditions,
water depth and equipment availability.3
For example, in shallower waters where subsea lines
would approach shore, they could be exposed directly or
indirectly to the gouging effect of drifting sea-ice running
aground.
Palmer and co-researchers have described previously
how such ice can cut 5 m or more into the seabed.4 The
forces generated are enough to seriously damage or
rupture a pipeline. Strengthening the pipe to withstand
the loads is impossible from a practical perspective.
Covering or burying it is considered by the industry to be
the solution, but is still not a fully formed concept with
straightforward acceptance criteria.
DNV GL led the ICE PIPE joint industry project (JIP) in
2008 to assess how guidelines might be developed for
Arctic pipelines exposed to these natural ice phenomena.
The main difficulty encountered was that the industry had
could be calibrated. This remains the case, though
experience of Arctic conditions is growing and efforts are
afoot to widen research.
A JIP involving oil and gas
industry companies operating
offshore exploration, significant
discovery or production
licences issued by the Canada-
Newfoundland and Labrador
Offshore Petroleum Board is
currently underway to develop
improved ice management for
operations in Arctic and harsh
environments.
Its scope covers sea-ice and
icebergs, and aims to add to the
database and understanding of the
processes at work and how threats
posed by ice can be managed.
Along with related JIPs in Canada –
such as on the feasibility of towing
icebergs – it is directed more
at drilling operations, but could
provide valuable insights for the
pipeline industry too.5
Pipelaying in Arctic waters can
involve laybarges and reelships, so
issues such as maintaining dynamic
positioning where sea-ice is present
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 are of interest, particularly when the installation season
is so short.
DNV GL has also launched an Arctic ‘RigSpray’ JIP
of relevance to pipelaying and other vessels requiring
winterisation. It will develop a simulation model of sea
spray icing, a major challenge.
Remote locations
Offshore oil and gas projects in more remote locations
create a range of logistical issues including availability
of onshore and offshore infrastructure, transportation,
pipelaying, accommodation, and skills of sufficient
standard and of sufficient supply.
Aside from the extreme example of the Arctic,
these considerations perhaps spring to mind more
readily in discussing offshore developments in Tanzania
or Mozambique, for example. However, even a more
established investment region such as Australia is
quite remote in that it is a long way from the greatest
concentrations of suppliers, specialist vessels and
experienced personnel.
Mobilisation and demobilisation costs are
consequently high in Australia. This represents a
significant part of installation costs where just a single
project is involved rather than being able to allocate
these across a number of developments. For pipeline
installations, the availability of vessels may be more
limited than for other oil and gas regions, which may
impact on the choice of method for example when it
comes to seabed intervention.
Difficult terrain
Where the seabed is uneven, or slopes sharply in
moving between depths, or is subject to mudslides and
earthquakes, non-traditional solutions may be needed.
In unstable seabed areas, the pipeline can be exposed to
turbidity flow or ‘slide’, which places strong lateral loads
on the pipe.
One non-traditional solution whose time may be at
hand is floating pipelines. The idea was considered for
Statoil’s Ormen Lange field offshore Norway, which is
located in a prehistoric slide area with a very uneven
seabed at nearly 900 m water depth. The proposition
was that a buoyant pipeline moored to the seabed would
eliminate any need for costly seabed intervention work.6
A traditional, seabed installation was eventually
preferred, mostly because of the threat that trawl gear
might pose to the mooring lines and the floating pipeline
itself in an area of considerable commercial fishing activity.
However, the concept has been applied successfully
in a different industry: for a water supply line made of
high density polyethylene (HDPE) passing through Lake
Oswego in Oregon, USA.
In a marine offshore location, the design and
engineering challenge would be to achieve a balance
18 WORLD PIPELINES /
between the need for anchoring with a requirement to
build in flexibility to absorb forces without too much
concentrated bending in the pipeline.
Clearly, the risk that a floating pipeline may be
ruptured and/or sink needs to be quantified and factored
into the cost-benefit analysis. However, when DNV-
OS-F101 code requirements were looked at during Ormen
Lange’s concept stage, it was apparent that neither the
code nor regulatory issues would rule out applying the
concept.
DNV GL has captured its own industry learning
points about such solutions in the company’s FloatPipe
concept, which was developed through an extraordinary
innovation project in response to a perceived emerging
need. This is an adaptable concept whose main objective
is to overcome the uneven seabed and the need for
massive seabed preparation. A secondary effect or benefit
may be achieved by anchoring it high enough in the water
column to avoid the collapse challenge and then to save
steel.
Conclusions
The end of easy oil is driving offshore exploration and
production increasingly into deep and ultra-deepwater,
and into harsher and/or more remote environments in
general.
The challenges to the construction and operation of
pipelines centre on the need for these to withstand high
external pressures and a range of metocean effects and
geohazards that demand new solutions.
In design and throughout the supply chain, the
pipeline industry is pushing against limits imposed
by physics, materials, manufacturing methods, and
capabilities of pipelaying vessels, and addressing the
dearth of empirical historic data.
Innovations such as partially pre-filled pipes with
pressure control systems, and floating pipelines,
have emerged. Research is underway to better define
challenges and cost-effective, safe solutions, but more is
needed.
The DNV-OS-F101 standard for subsea pipelines allows
design criteria to reflect improved physical aspects and
capacities stemming from improved manufacturing.
References
1. FYRILEIV, O., AAMLID O., VENAS O., AND COLLBERG, L., ‘Deepwater
pipelines – status, challenges and future trends’, Proc JMechE Part M: J
Engineering for the Maritime Environment 0(0), ImechE, 2012, pp. 1 - 15.
2. STARK, P.R., and MCKEEHAN D.S., ‘Hydrostatic collapse research
in support of the Oman India gas pipeline’, In: Conf Proc Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, USA, 1995.
3. PALMER, A., Arctic subsea pipelines, J Pipeline Eng, 2nd Quarter, 2014,
pp. 77 - 82.
4. PALMER, A. C., and NIEDORODA, A.W., ‘Ice gouging and pipelines:
unresolved questions’, Proc 18th Int Conf Port and Ocean Eng under Arctic
Conditions, 2005.
5. Petroleum Research Newfoundland & Labrador, Joint Industry Programme:
Development of improved ice management capabilities for operations in
Arctic and harsh environments, November 2014.
 Aiman Al-Showaiter, Special Projects
Team Lead, Wood Group Kenny,
USA, presents advanced modelling tools
that bridge the technology gap in Arctic
pipeline design.

The cold D
riven by the increasing demand for oil and gas and
by the great promise of the amount of undiscovered
hydrocarbons potentially located in the Arctic,

frontier
mostly offshore, a new wave of interest in the region
has started. In 2008, The United States Geological Survey
(USGS) estimated the undiscovered oil and gas resources to
be approximately 90 billion bbls of oil and 1669 trillion ft3 of
natural gas. The study only included those resources believed

for
to be recoverable using today’s existing technology.
Due to climate conditions and ice coverage, the design
of pipelines in the Arctic area requires the consideration of
certain challenges that do not apply elsewhere, such as ice
gouging, frost heave and permafrost. Advanced numerical

pipelines
analysis is apt to play an important role in addressing these
challenges and to bridge the technology gaps that still exist in
order to enable optimised developments to proceed. Wood
Group Kenny, part of international energy services company
Wood Group, has developed advanced modelling tools to
deal with these pipeline design challenges.

19
 Ice gouging
The phenomenon of ice gouging, or ice scour, occurs when
environmental forces drive ice features (icebergs or ice-ridges)
with keels that extend further than the water depth through
the seabed soil, resulting in deep cuts (gouges) in the seabed.
Ice gouging poses a significant threat to offshore
pipelines in the Arctic. Originally, it was thought that
sufficient pipeline protection would be achieved by avoiding
direct contact between the ice mass and the pipeline, i.e.
to bury the pipeline below the maximum expected gouge
Figure 1. Sea floor gouging schematic.
Figure 2. Typical CEL FE model of ice-soil-pipeline simulation.
Figure 3. Subgouge deformation and pipe movement (magnified five times in the
gouging direction).
20 WORLD PIPELINES /
depth. However, studies have shown that horizontal soil
deformations (subgouge deformations) extend two or more
gouge depths below the gouge base, as schematically shown
in Figure 1. For safe pipeline design, the soil displacement
induced at the pipeline depth, and the resulting pipe strains,
must be assessed and checked against design limits.
In some regions where seabed conditions present
challenges to pipeline burial, pipelines are exposed to the
risk of direct contact with the ice masses. In such scenarios,
the pipeline is considered sacrificial and the design
objective is to limit damage propagation to the facilities
at either ends of the pipeline. This is often achieved by
incorporating breakaway connections, ‘weak-links’ into the
pipeline system that will sever at a pre-determined load.
Wood Group Kenny utilises the coupled Eulerian
Lagrangian (CEL) finite element (FE) method, available in the
commercial finite element software ABAQUS/Explicit, to
model the ice gouge process and has carried out extensive
validation work to ensure its models behave accurately.
The major advantage realised by this modelling technique
is that it overcomes mesh distortion and convergence
issues experienced by other FE methods. In the CEL FE
formulation, the seabed soil is modelled using an Eulerian
material that is allowed to freely flow throughout a fixed
mesh. Because the mesh does not distort, very large
deformations experienced during the ice gouge process can
be realistically simulated. The model captures some of the
important aspects of the ice gouging process, such as the
subgouge deformation, the ice-soil interaction, and ice-soil-
pipe interaction. Figure 2 shows a typical CEL FE model of
ice-soil-pipeline simulation.
The use of such desk top finite element analysis (FEA)
tools can allow for investigation of the governing failure
mechanisms and optimisation of the trench depth, hence
making significant financial savings in the trenching and
burial of the pipeline. In the case of surface laid pipeline, the
tool can allow for better understanding of the ice-soil-pipe
interaction and prediction of the loads propagation to the
subsea end termination equipment.
Wood Group Kenny was involved in the DNV ICE PIPE JIP,
which aimed at evaluating and presenting design methods
and recommendations specifically related to the installation,
operation and maintenance of offshore pipelines in areas
of extreme cold and ice. As part of its
involvement, Wood Group Kenny used its ice
gouge CEL FE tool to contribute to a major
study on numerical ice-soil-pipe interaction.
The study conducted a series of ice-gouging
simulations where the impacts of ice keel
movement on the soil and on the pipeline
were studied for a range of pre-specified
governing parameters. The simulations were
preceded by a soil model calibration subtask,
and two selected reduced-scales physical
tests matching subtask, one in clay and one
in sand. Figure 3 shows an example output
of the model predictions for subgouge
deformations and pipeline movement when

Figure 4. Comparison model predictions between 1st summer and 5th summer.
Temperature profile in 1st and 5th summer (top), porosity countour in 1st and 5th
summer (middle), and displacement countour in 1st and 5th summer (bottom).
the ice keel front bottom edge is at 4 dia. away from the
pipe.
Frost heave
Frost heave describes the phenomenon whereby soil
freezing causes upwards motion due to the action of
capillary suction that absorbs water from the unfrozen
region below. Chilled pipelines buried in unfrozen,
frost heave-susceptible soil require special design
considerations. Frost heave may cause differential heave
and possibly overstress or cause upheaval buckling of the
pipeline.
There are several models available to predict the frost
heave from a theoretical, constitutive, phenomenological
and empirical point of view. Among them, the rigid ice
model, the segregation potential (SP) model and the
porosity rate function (PRF) model are the most notable.
However, due to the complex nature of frost heave
22 WORLD PIPELINES /
phenomenon, all of the aforementioned
models needed improvements to better
predict frost heave in field conditions.
Whatever model is adopted, reasonable
assumptions and simplifications have to be
made to achieve a method that is robust
and practical for engineering purposes.
Strain prediction for the design of
Arctic pipelines subject to frost heave
involves modelling of thermal, geotechnical
and mechanical behaviours of both the
pipeline and soil. Wood Group Kenny
developed a comprehensive FE model in
which an extended PRF model for frost
heave prediction is implemented. The
concept of water draining is introduced to
the PRF and thus removes the limitation of
temperature range and time derivative of
temperature in the soil-pipe system.
The formulation of this approach is
consistent with continuum mechanics,
making it possible to generalise the model
to arbitrary three-dimensional processes,
and use the standard numerical techniques
in solving frost heave problems under
cyclic temperature. The model validation is
carried out by comparisons with published
experimental data.
The model is used in calculating
frost heave under cyclic environmental
temperate and arbitrary pipe temperature.
The model predicts the soil behaviour,
as well as the behaviour of the buried
chilled pipeline. Figure 4 plots the model
predictions for a study case where the
temperature contours, porosity contours,
and ground displacements in the first and
fifth summers are compared.
Frost heave mitigation methods,
thermal insulation, deep burial, the use
of non-frost susceptible backfill material and the use
of thermosyphons, are also evaluated through FEA.
Efficiency of each mitigation method are evaluated
by comparing with the base case frost heave analysis.
Figure 5 illustrates ground temperature contours for a
case study where pair pattern thermosyphons are used.
The temperature distributions are given on two cross-
sections. In the winter, soil temperature differences with
or without thermosyphons are substantial. In the summer,
soil temperature is also lower than the case without
thermosyphons, however, the temperature differences are
not significant.
Permafrost instability
By definition, permafrost is the ground that remains at
or below 0˚C for at least two consecutive years. The
existence of permafrost presents another significant
challenge to the design, construction and operation of
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CHALLENGE CONVENTION
 pipelines in Arctic terrain. Pipelines transporting warm
hydrocarbons can transfer heat to the surrounding soil,
causing the ground to thaw over years of operation and
lose load-carrying capacity. Differential ground settlement
Figure 5. Horizontal plane at 4m depth (top left), vertical plane crossing pipe
(top right). Temperature field in winter (middle) and summer (bottom) with
thermosyphons.
Figure 6. 3D permafrost thaw-settlement-pipeline interaction
model.
24 WORLD PIPELINES /
is likely to occur, overstressing pipelines and inducing
bending strains.
Wood Group Kenny has developed a 3D FE model for
investigating the effects of permafrost on Arctic pipelines.
The model predicts unsteady-state heat
transfer, thaw settlement, and global
deformation processes of a pipeline
buried in permafrost soil. The thaw
settlement of the pipeline is assessed
based on the actual growing size of the
thaw bulb.
Wood Group Kenny’s model helps to
accurately predict pipe stresses through
using state-of-the-art FE modelling,
rather than available tools that use
rudimentary approximations to predict
the response of the thawed ground.
Besides being less accurate, available
prediction tools are generally over-
conservative as they usually predict
settlements that are likely to occur
long after the pipeline useful life had
finished. Conversely, Wood Group
Kenny’s model predicts the ground
settlement at any time during the service
life of the pipeline, which results in a
more economic design of the pipeline.
The model is versatile and can be used
in the initial design of pipelines as well
as in the assessment of existing pipelines
embedded in the permafrost.
In addition to developing advanced
simulation tools, Wood Group Kenny has
provided its Arctic expertise to a number
of projects, including a consortium
comprising Gazprom, Total and
StatoilHydro for a trunkline project that
will bring gas from the Shtokman field
in the Barents Sea to Northern Russia.
As part of phase 1 of the development,
Wood Group Kenny executed FEED
engineering for the 600 km twin 36 in.
pipeline and two fibre optic cables
running south into Teriberka, Russia.
Wood Group Kenny also collaborates
with the Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN)
in St John’s, Canada, to develop leading-edge solutions
for engineering in Arctic regions. Wood Group formed
a partnership with MUN and is donating CAN$500 000
every five years for the sponsorship of the Wood Group
Chair in Offshore Engineering for Arctic and Harsh
Environments, focused on oil and gas engineering in cold
regions.
Summary
There are a number of challenges presented by Arctic
conditions. Pipelines and oil and gas engineering face issues
not found in other regions. Many initiatives such as advanced
modelling and simulation, as well as research projects, all
work towards addressing these unique factors.
 Julie Burke, Duane DeGeer
and Mike Paulin, INTECSEA,
Americas, present an effective
spatial technique that can
be used to aid pipeline
route selection in extreme
environments.

Bringing structure
to defiant
LANDSCAPES
P
ipeline routings for Arctic and sub-Arctic offshore projects
are subject to a myriad of issues including geohazards,
environmentally sensitive areas, challenging seabed terrain
and economics. Many project teams face a dilemma
in deciding how to accurately prioritise these challenges to
determine the optimal pipeline route.
INTECSEA has successfully used a spatial analytical hierarchy
process (AHP) to explore and assess pipeline routing projects in
extreme areas. AHP allows team members’ perspectives to be
ranked on the importance of each of the routing assessment
criteria, thereby building a workable model and bringing greater
clarification of the project’s objectives. AHP, a multi-criteria
decision making technique, prioritises the specific concerns

25
 relating to the criteria identified in the AHP
Table 1. Pair-wise comparison creates a global weighting for the criteria
assessment, were symbolised in unique ways
Criteria Weighting Influencing factors Global weighting
using colour, line weight, graphic symbols and
Ice scours 14.4% fills for polygons, so that the users were able
Geohazards 31.3%
Slope 10% to distinguish and compare a wide range of
Existing 6.9% attributes purely by visual representation.
infrastructure The criteria rankings are compared with a
Surficial sediments/ 6.7% GIS evaluation. The attributes are represented in
Technical aspects 14.7% geology individual ‘layers’ of information on a GIS map
Bathymetry 8% that are superimposed to the study area. What
Procurement costs 8.6% makes GIS data even more useful is the fact
Economics 8.6%
(material) that every feature within a layer has a unique
Protected zones 11.4% set of attributes – thus creating the basis of the
HSE 45.4% No go zones 26% AHP analysis. Items such as ice gouge depth,
Fishing zones 8%
seabed slope, soil type, pipe diameter or cable
type also can be indicated. Even elevation gain
or loss for flow assurance or the ice gouging density for a
given area may be present in the GIS data.
By analysing the spatial intersection of the proposed
route and assigning a score to each point along the route
line according to the associated AHP score, the optimum
pipeline route can be determined. Linking the AHP
weightings with the GIS technologies and the knowledge
and experience of pipelining professionals brings about
the spatial AHP for pipeline route selection.

Benefits of the spatial AHP method

The spatial AHP method brings several benefits to the
pipeline assessment team:
)) Once the base data and segment-wise scoring or model
has been set up, the model can produce solutions in a
Figure 1. Optimal pipeline route from the Orphan Basin to short period of time.
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland.
)) Engineering data, including new data, new start/
along the pipeline route to provide a rational method for destination points or different parameters, can be
identifying a robust route selection. implemented easily.

)) Subjectivity can be balanced as all data is treated

The AHP technique
AHP is completed in three steps:
)) Structure the decision by identifying the ultimate
goal (i.e. a robust pipeline route) and the criteria and
attributes that affect the goal.
)) Once the attributes are identified, pair-wise
comparisons of criteria and sub-criteria are made
using verbal judgments, such as equal, more important,
much more important or extremely more important,
correlated to values ranging from 1 - 9.
equally. The attributes can be compiled into a single
factor once the weightings are complete. The factor is
applied to the GIS map to determine the most optimal
pipeline route as it crosses the seabed.
)) Multidisciplinary efforts and input from diverse areas
such as environmental, geological, historical, social,
economic and engineering, can be facilitated.
)) Different political and social requirements pertinent to
the project area also can be included.

)) Using the numbers from the verbal judgment
assessment, matrix algebra is then used to determine
weightings of the criteria and ranking of the options
from highest priority to lowest priority.
Elements of a GIS database
For INTECSEA’s pipeline routing selection studies, a
geographical information system (GIS) database was
constructed to provide multi-criteria analysis through
data visualisation. Different layers of information,
Putting spatial AHP into action
While Arctic and sub-Arctic areas share certain
characteristics such as a harsh physical environment, low
temperatures and the presence of ice features, region-
specific attributes play a role in determining the design and
operation of offshore pipeline systems. A pipeline route
from the Orphan Basin to Placentia Bay, Newfoundland,
was considered. An initial parameter was established that
the pipeline would not cross overland and would remain
offshore.

26 WORLD PIPELINES /
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 Prime considerations for the INTECSEA team included:
)) What size pipeline is required for the proposed route
based on flow assurance studies?
)) What is the ice gouge regime and how deep does a
pipeline need to be buried for protection?
)) Can the pipeline be trenched and backfilled (where
required) using existing technology?
)) What is the bathymetry/seabed morphology and how
does that affect routing and installation?
)) What are the sediment types into which the pipeline
must be trenched and backfilled?
)) Are there environmentally sensitive areas that must be
avoided?
)) Where are areas of existing infrastructure?
)) What is the cost and schedule associated with the
selected route?
One of the prime considerations that emerged from the
exercise was protection from ice gouging inherent in the
area. Icebergs present offshore Newfoundland frequently
exhibit drafts in excess of 100 m (328 ft) and masses
greater than 100 000 t, thereby presenting unique design
challenges.
The integrity and operability of the pipeline can be
affected by direct contact between the ice keel and the
pipeline, or from loading imposed on the pipeline through
soil deformation caused by ice gouging. Pipeline burial often
is used to protect against the risk of damage caused by ice
gouging.
The four main criteria for pipeline routing offshore
Newfoundland were established:
)) Geohazards.
)) Technical aspects.
)) Economics.
)) Health, safety and environment (HSE).
A pair-wise comparison was completed and it was
determined that HSE was most important, followed by
geohazards, technical aspects and finally cost. The criteria
were further broken down into influencing factors, or
attributes, highlighted in Table 1, and a pair-wise comparison
was completed on the influencing factors to establish a
global priority weighting.
Economics were deemed to be directly proportional
to pipeline length. Longer pipelines increase the cost of
materials, installation and maintenance. ‘No go’ zones are
prohibited environmental areas.
Flow assurance also is an important consideration in
pipeline design with operability at turndown paramount to
project success. As a ‘rule of thumb’, the INTECSEA team
used a pipeline profile indicator (PI) to predict operational
issues relating to liquids handling in a multi-phase pipeline.
28 WORLD PIPELINES /
Terrain-induced slugging due to pipeline bathymetry as
well as ‘climb’ – the summation of all the upward sloping
sections of a pipeline – also bring similar flow assurance
issues. The PI number and climb can be easily derived from
the bathymetric data extracted by the GIS, and used to rank
routing options.
Cost maps applied to route optimisation
Based on engineering requirements and other limiting
factors, a heat map raster was constructed from existing and
custom digitised vector datasets with each area assigned a
cost value.
The process was then repeated for all the influencing
factors. For the INTECSEA study, these included distance
and defined values for aspects of HSE, geohazards,
technical aspects and economic aspects. Each factor
produced one or more sub-layers of spatial data that was
overlaid upon the other layers to visualise the cost of
moving through a particular area. Combining the layers
into a single heat map represented the overall cost of
moving across any cell and allowed estimation of proposed
pipeline routes based on holistic estimations, rather than
focusing on individual aspects one at a time. Initially
digitised in a vector format as a series of straight lines,
the pipeline route was then assigned to a raster map,
which has only binary values that indicate whether the
pipeline crosses a particular cell or not. The amount of line
crossing any particular cell was weighted against those in
neighbouring cells, the necessity of continuing the line to
another selected cell and the cost estimate for the cell
itself.
With rasters generated for the pipeline map and the
cost-weighted heat map, the INTECSEA team was able to
calculate a cost. A penalty (‘cost’) scoring was assigned to
the pipeline as it crossed each pixel of the seabed map. After
comparing the heat raster to the pipeline map, the least cost
or optimal pipeline route is determined and highlighted.
Conclusion
Harsh Arctic and sub-Arctic environments create
additional challenges compared to typical developments.
Spatial AHP is an effective tool that can be used in
extreme environments to aid in the complex pipeline
route selection process. Pipeline route selection
requires consideration of issues from several different
areas such as engineering, environment, society and
economics. Priority weighting of design issues in a pair-
wise comparison allows for a visual approach to scoring
algorithms and associated GIS layers. Using offshore
Newfoundland as an example, spatial AHP was used to
validate a pair-wise comparison of several important
routing issues and highlight the optimal pipeline route.
The route avoided key environmental ‘no go’ areas as well
as areas with historically high ice gouge frequencies and
deep events in this extreme environment. Although this
case study was simplified to demonstrate the spatial AHP
principles, this application can be applied to real, highly
complex pipeline route selection challenges.
 Dealing in
E
E X T RE
EXTREMESM
EXTREMES:E S::
coating performance in sub-zero conditions

Geoff Addicott, Exova, UK, explains
how a unique testing methodology
tackled the issue of pipeline coating
performance at sub-zero temperatures.
W
e take protective coatings, and how they perform
and protect things in our everyday lives, for granted
– for example, the paint on our car, the paint on
our garage door, etc. But how would these coatings
cope within extreme environments? With ever more challenging
environments being explored and developed, it has never been
more important for the oil and gas sector to understand how
materials and processes will perform in extreme conditions.
Across the globe, different temperatures and conditions prevail
and, for many of these, laboratory tests including impact testing in
accordance with ISO 21809-1 Annex E, and in conjunction with high
voltage holiday testing in accordance with ISO 21809-1 Annex B,
give accurate data on anticipated coating performance. In a recent
customer project, Exova deployed a high voltage holiday detector
that finds pin holes or flaws in the continuity of a surface coating.
For this to work, the substrate, which the equipment is connected
to, must be conductive in order to complete the circuit and in this
case the test specimens were steel pipes. As Figure 4 shows, results
can be seen in action as the spark jumps from the brush to the pipe
through a crack in the coating to make the connection with the
conductive substrate.
However, for new gas lines being installed to cross the Black
Sea at a depth of 2.2 km, and then crossing Eastern Europe and

29
 into Austria, the specific conditions of depth and distance bring
their own issues. Exova’s customer needed a better understanding
of the coatings’ performance to address concerns relating to the
properties of polypropylene coated pipes, which can become
brittle at low temperatures. This can cause cracks to appear in the
coating and can lead to complete failure in some circumstances,
with the coating shattering and becoming detached all around
the pipe. Therefore, Exova specifically needed to have an insight
into how these coatings perform during handling and installation
processes. For example, should these pipes accidentally collide
with each other, would the coating withstand the impact and
Figure 1. Impacting the coating at -10˚C to 40˚C.
Figure 2. The Arctic ‘A team’ prior to entry at -40˚C.
30 WORLD PIPELINES /
protect the pipeline before, during and after installation? Clearly a
bespoke solution was required and the company worked in close
partnership with the customer team to create the answer.
Pushing the limits of testing
Such specific testing had never been conducted before, putting
Exova at the forefront of this technically demanding test. A
specialist climate chamber located on the outskirts of Paris, with
the ability to go to temperatures as low as -80˚C, provided the
ideal base for the team to work from. This allowed testing at
temperatures between -10 to -40˚C, providing information and
precise data on how coatings would perform in such extreme
conditions.
A purpose-designed impact tester (2 m in length) was
fabricated at Exova’s laboratory and workshop in Salford,
Manchester. The tester was calibrated, ensuring it was traceable
to national standards and compliant with the required standards
under correct operation, to guarantee the delivery of accurate
data.
Individual samples were supplied by two different pipe mills.
In order to meet the specification for extreme sub-zero test
conditions, the pipe samples were fitted with thermocouples at
various points and depths in the pipe substrate, and also at the
surface of the coating to enable precise temperature measurement,
before, during and after the test.
The following information was recorded for each pipe tested:
)) Pipe mill supplier.
)) Heat number.
)) Pipe number.
)) Coating applicator.
)) Coating material.
A grid, drafted to the customer’s specification, was drawn
on each pipe in order to record concise information and enable
consistency of reporting. The coating thickness was recorded at
each impact point prior to testing and photographed, then again
after testing had taken place at each individual location.
Each impact point was allocated its
own unique identification mark. The pipes
had to be closely inspected visually for any
obvious defects to the external coating, such
as cuts or gouges that would potentially be
detrimental to the impending impact testing
taking place. This was checked and confirmed
by the high voltage holiday test to ensure the
integrity of the coating. Anything observed
was recorded prior to testing and marked on
the coating, enabling the team to factor in a
distance allowance to ensure the test was not
compromised or recorded as a failure. Each
impact point was photographed before and
after impact for visual comparison as well as
technical reporting.
At each test temperature, the pipes had
a specific minimum soak period, at which
the data collected from the chamber, pipe

Figure 3. Frost layer on a test pipe at -40˚C.
Figure 4. A bright spark highlights a fail in the impact.
substrate and surface coating temperatures was recorded
and graphs produced to prove the temperatures and relative
humidities over the soak and test periods. This also enabled further
monitoring of the pipes and chamber throughout their return to
ambient temperature.
On completion of the allotted soak period, the data collected
from the chamber and pipes was scrutinised, ensuring that
conditions met the required client specification. Impact testing
could then be carried out at the designated points along the
pipes and conducted in accordance with ISO 21809-1 Annex E at
temperatures: -10, -15, -20, -25, -30, -35 and -40°C. Variable impacts
were used to replicate the effect on the exterior coating during
pipe handling. Therefore, a fixed impact force was used for the first
five impacts, with the impact energy being increased incrementally
thereafter.
Each impact point was visually inspected for any obvious
evidence of cracking. If cracking was evident, the next impact was
done a set minimum distance from the coating failure. This was
repeated for each of the pipes under test, at each of the above
temperatures.
Following completion of each individual temperature test,
the chamber had to be brought back to ambient temperature so
32 WORLD PIPELINES /
that each test pipe could be prepared for high voltage holiday
detection. It was essential that the pipe samples were moisture-
free prior to next stage testing to avoid the voltage tracking along
the moisture.
The holiday detection was performed in accordance
ISO 21809-1 Annex B, and any failures recorded and reported.
Using a high voltage holiday detector (25 kV), the spark that shows
a failure in the coating is clearly visible as it jumps across to the
pipe substrate. Each impact point was meticulously scrutinised
for failure. The determination point for the coating to have failed
enough to be of concern was set at three consecutive fails along
the pipe at the test temperature. Tests were repeated by rotating
the pipe to the next line on the circumference of the grid, and then
the chamber conditions were programmed and set ready for the
next test.
How did the pipes perform under these extreme sub-zero
conditions? They performed well. As for the final part of the
testing not mentioned above, Exova moved on to impact testing
both pipes on the seam weld at -20˚C. This is the thinnest part of
the coating, where you could potentially get a failure. There was a
small number of fails, but nothing that met the three consecutive
fails criteria in the customer’s specification. This would have meant
a fail of that coating at that temperature, signalling the end of
testing on the ‘one under test’.
By using specialist chambers to replicate some of the harshest
environments on Earth, Exova was able to perform tests that
provided the customer with valuable data and insight into tackling
challenging conditions. The thorough testing methodology proved
to be invaluable in terms of outweighing the potential costs of
failure in the field during transportation and installation, as well as
the longevity of the coating of the system used on the pipeline.
Challenging conditions
Even in controlled environmental conditions, there are risks of
hypothermia setting in if people are subjected to low temperatures
for too long. So extreme were the temperatures required for the
pipeline testing that specific procedures had to be followed.
Temperatures down to -15˚C did not create too much of a
problem, but anything below this required advanced protective
clothing to be worn, and the resulting margin of safety from the
extreme coldness of the chamber was rated for temperatures as
low as -50°C.
Additional, tried and tested, procedures also had to be
implemented. One person remained outside the chamber at all
times while testing was carried out. Specialist personnel from
the chamber company’s team monitored reactions of personnel
working in the low temperatures. As soon as temperatures went
below -20°C, time allowed inside the chamber was restricted to
a 15 min. window, before personnel were withdrawn and given a
minimum rest period of 45 min. to recover from any effects of
being subjected to extreme cold.
Everyone present was also schooled in emergency procedures,
such as escalating the need to exit the test chamber, or how to
evacuate anyone suffering ill effects or showing signs of distress
due to the low temperatures involved.
Health and safety is paramount when working in extreme
sub-zero temperatures, and procedures were reviewed and agreed
by all parties who were involved prior to commencement of live
testing, as well as the team responsible for safety onsite.
 Zack Westgate, Consultant Engineer, Fugro

Assessing
GeoConsulting Inc., USA, presents subsea pipeline
design solutions that address seabed challenges in
extreme environments.

seabed challenges

T
he global demand for oil and gas production
has continued to push the offshore industry
into increasingly difficult environments, from
carbonate regions with highly mobile seabeds, to
deepwater regions with ultra-soft seabeds and to Arctic
regions where buried pipelines dodge iceberg keels, all
of which complicate subsea pipeline design. Exacerbating
such challenging geotechnical conditions is the increased
prevalence of deeper reservoirs characterised by high
temperatures and high pressures (HTHP), which can
cause pipelines to expand axially and buckle laterally
across the seabed. Infrastructure in these regions must
accommodate increasingly larger expansions due to
extreme thermodynamic conditions, while at the same
time remaining stable in areas of extreme hydrodynamic
conditions. While joint industry projects like SAFEBUCK
and STABLEpipe are helping to improve pipeline
engineering in frontier regions, uncertainties remain. To
help eliminate these uncertainties, Fugro is applying unique
solutions that address specific engineering requirements
for clients working in extreme environments throughout
the world.

33

Figure 1. Probabilistic pipeline routing analysis. All images
courtesy of Fugro.
Figure 2. Pipeline ‘superspan’ over scarp.
Carbonate shelves and sinking pipelines
Carbonate sediments pose longstanding design challenges
to offshore infrastructure due to their high compressibility
and brittle particle structure. Often located in shallow
water environments exposed to severe metocean
conditions such as cyclones, these silty and sandy
sediments lack particle-to-particle cohesion, making
them inherently mobile. The two main pipeline related
geotechnical challenges associated with carbonate
sediments are difficulty defining their strength and drainage
characteristics, and capturing the complex mechanisms of
34 WORLD PIPELINES /
seabed scour, sediment mobility and pipeline sagging and
burial as part of the overall pipeline design.
The strength and drainage characteristics of carbonate
sediments can span several orders of magnitude, from
soft ‘fine-grained’ sediments with very low strength and
permeability to stiff ‘coarse-grained’ sediments with very
high strength and permeability. The distribution of these
sediments can vary widely over short lengths of pipeline
routes, and they can become cemented together over
time due to their calcium content leaching throughout
the particle-water-void matrix. Such highly variable
seabed conditions make it difficult for pipeline engineers
to produce a solution that satisfies all required design
criteria, since there is no single conservative approach
to follow. Fugro, through links with the Centre for
Offshore Foundation Systems at the University of Western
Australia, is closely involved with research related to
improved characterisation of carbonate sediments. This
collaboration includes the recent kick-off of the Remote
Intelligent Geotechnical Seabed Surveys (RIGSS) joint
industry project, focused on developing new tools to
quantify soil properties remotely using highly specialised
tools capable of being deployed from novel investigation
platforms including remotely operated vehicles.
In these shallow water, carbonate regions, the
initial pipeline seafloor geometry resulting from the
pipelay process can quickly change due to seabed scour
and sediment mobility. The pipeline itself acts as a
scour initiator, increasing the fluid shear stress on the
surrounding seabed and producing a scour pit below the
pipeline. The process eventually propagates along the
route, causing the pipeline to sink into the scour pit and
become buried by mobile sediments. The patterns of
burial and exposure can also be intermittent, varying with
seasonal cyclonic conditions and direction of flow. Well-
established analytical tools for quantifying these changes
in pipeline seabed geometry are now being re-examined
against data from observed pipelines in the field, allowing
validation of existing tools and development of new
predictive models. This capability is particularly important
for HTHP pipeline design where the variation in seabed
resistance along a pipeline strongly influences pipeline
integrity throughout its operational lifetime.
Navigating the slippery slope
As subsea pipelines traverse mobile continental
shelves and onto continental slopes, a key challenge is
determining the optimal pipeline route to avoid areas of
seabed instability. Using seismic imaging and bathymetric
measurements, local histories of slope movements can be
evaluated to assess the potential risk of future landslides
and debris flows. Mobilised seafloor relics termed ‘mass
transport deposits’ can often be found at the base of
these slopes, indicating past submarine landslide events.
These deposits can be dated using laboratory testing and
back-analysed using slope run-out simulations to help
determine the likelihood of imminent future events. This
 type of data collection and analysis is then fed into a
probabilistic geohazard assessment to determine optimal
pipeline routes that minimise the overall geohazard risk
(Figure 1).
In some cases, high risk areas cannot be avoided, and
the potential impact loading due to a mass transport
event must be quantified. New techniques for assessing
this load on the pipeline and related infrastructure are
available using numerical analyses that capture the effects
of changes in soil strength and weight on impact forces as
the seafloor mass runs down the slope. A gentle transition
between the shelf and slope environments is not always
an option, and in some cases purposely implementing
a spanning pipeline is the only solution. This situation
poses additional design challenges due to the increased
susceptibility of the pipeline to vortex-induced vibrations,
which cause fatigue damage and reduce the life of the
pipeline. In particularly challenging locations at the
boundary of the continental slope, it can be necessary
to design a long ‘superspan’ over the edge of the scarp,
capable of accommodating the additional fatigue loading
Figure 3. Images of iceberg keel scours.
Figure 4. Sage Profile 3D upheaval buckling analysis.
36 WORLD PIPELINES /
created by the length of the span and loading from
external currents and internal flows (Figure 2).
Walking pipelines and sliding foundations
In deep and ultradeep water regions where it is common
to have very soft clay seabeds, the resistance to axial
pipeline expansion from temperature and pressure is often
very low as a result of positive excess pore water pressure
generated during axial sliding at the pipe-soil interface.
However, recent observations from laboratory and in-situ
tests demonstrate that repeated cycles of axial pipeline
movement, mimicking the operational sequence of a real
pipeline, can produce significant increases in axial pipe-soil
resistance as the soil consolidates and ‘hardens’ with time.
The axial pipe-soil resistance can double or even triple
in magnitude during this process. The rate of increase is
influenced by a variety of factors such as the number and
duration of start-up and shutdown events during the initial
few years of operation, as well as the soil properties.
Proper assessment of these conditions can reduce the
extent of cumulative axial expansion, or ‘walking’, and
associated expensive mitigation requirements such as
hold-back anchors, as implemented on a recent project in
the Caspian Sea.
Due to the high temperatures and pressures associated
with deeper reservoirs, the magnitude of individual cycles
of axial pipeline expansion can be very large, exceeding a
metre or more. The infrastructure connected to a pipeline
such as an end termination structure must accommodate
this expansion. Traditionally, mudmats are installed on
the seabed at the structure locations prior to pipelay.
The structure is then lowered onto the mudmat, and the
axial expansion is accommodated through slider rails
on the structure, allowing it to move back and forth
with each movement. However, soft seabeds and large
installation tolerances can require very large mudmats,
which are increasingly difficult to accommodate within
complex field architecture, resulting in additional costly
offshore operations. An alternative approach, currently
being used for a project offshore Australia, is to design
the base of the structure to slide directly on the seabed,
removing altogether the need for the mudmat and rails.
Extensive testing and analysis is required to design these
structures, but this level of design effort can demonstrate
that movements should remain within allowable vertical
and rotational tolerances. A key step in the design process
for these types of structures is to perform an integrated
‘system’ analysis, modelling the interaction between the
pipeline, the sliding structure and seabed, as well as any
spools or jumpers facilitating connections to the manifold.
Dodging icebergs and upheaval buckling
One of the main challenges with Arctic developments is
mitigating iceberg keel scour and its impact on pipeline
integrity. Most of the Arctic developments that have
 been considered to date lie in shallow water close to
the shore, and therefore shipping and fishing zoning
regulations often require some level of trenching and
burial below the seafloor. However, additional burial
depth may be needed to avoid impact loading from
the iceberg keel. Unlike shipping and fishing zone
burial depths, the additional depth requirement for
iceberg scour is highly uncertain. Given the high cost of
trenching and burial, especially in such remote regions,
this uncertainty needs to be reduced and quantified to
allow cost-effective solutions for development in these
areas. Surveys of iceberg scours can be highly effective
at helping to predict the required burial depths, and
Fugro’s database is extensive in this respect (Figure 3).
With use of probabilistic tools, optimal burial depth
requirements can be determined to minimise pipeline
route construction costs.
Once the pipeline is trenched and buried, axial
forces can cause the pipeline to buckle in an upward
direction out of the trench. The latest solutions for
predicting upheaval resistance have recently been
implemented within Fugro’s Sage Profile 3D software
(Figure 4). The three dimensional aspect of this finite
element software allows for complex modelling of the
interaction between varying trench depths, backfill
conditions, and thermodynamic properties along the
pipeline. Fugro’s expertise in pipe-soil interaction helps
pipeline designers utilise this software effectively,
selecting the most appropriate geotechnical models for
specific seabed conditions.
Next steps
As the offshore industry pushes into more complex and
technically challenging extreme environments, unique
solutions are required to ensure safe, reliable and
cost-effective development and production to satisfy
demand for oil and gas. Fortunately for operators, the
need for a unified approach to safe pipeline design has
arisen, and the key bodies that provide guidance for
operators are in agreement. Technical advisor to the
global oil and gas industry, DNV GL, has announced
that their design code for HTHP pipelines (RP-F110)
will incorporate the latest recommendations from the
SAFEBUCK III Guideline, revised in January of this year.
The next step for industry is to validate the recently
developed solutions through close monitoring of
pipeline and infrastructure performance, especially
in the initial stages of operation. This will provide
confidence in these techniques, pioneered by Fugro and
now being used on pipeline projects around the world,
and allow for further refinement of geotechnical models
to improve pipeline design.

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 ing the load in
Carry
TOUGH
TERRAIN
Christoph Ludescher,
LCS Cable Cranes, Austria,
covers successful pipelaying
projects conducted in steep
and inaccessible terrain.

Figure 1. Construction of a section of the Tamazunchale gas Figure 2. Transportation of construction equipment along a
pipeline on a rock-face in Mexico with the help of a cable crane horizontal bend in an 70˚ steep slope.
system.
 W
hen pipelines are constructed in rough terrain, it is essential to
work with innovative solutions and equipment that enable safe,
efficient and environmentally friendly construction. LCS Cable
Cranes is a specialist for situations where traditional methods
meet their limits due to nature’s challenging characteristics, such as steep
mountain ranges.
During the last 25 years, LCS Cable Cranes has been providing reliable
transportation and pipelaying solutions for numerous construction projects. The
company has worked in some of the most challenging environments, such as
steep terrain, on rocky surface in inaccessible areas, in the rainforest and hilly

Figure 3. Sandbags transported in a transport bucket into Figure 4. Transportation of a 36 in. pipe with a cable crane
inaccessible terrain. disposing of two lifting devices.

Figure 5. Lowering of a pipe in a steep section.
Figure 6. Fitting of the pipe in its welding position.
Figure 7. No heavy machinery needs to enter the steep slope
for the dispersal of padding material on the laid pipe.
40 WORLD PIPELINES /
countryside. “Our systems are unaffected by climatic
conditions”, states David Domig, Project Manager at
LCS Cable Cranes, mentioning exemplary projects that
were realised in challenging situations such as rain, high
altitude, humidity and snow.
LCS provides proven methods and systems that
enable the laying of pipelines in totally inaccessible
terrain. Among others, LCS offers earth work services
with special equipment for steep slopes and cable
crane systems that are able to transport and position
pipes with the highest possible precision. The payloads
reach over 20 t and loads can be transported along
more than 3000 m with only one cable crane system.
In the last year, LCS has worked on sections of the
Tamazunchale gas pipeline project in Mexico and the
Zawtika gas-pipeline in Myanmar.
A gas pipeline over a rockface – the
Tamazunchale gas pipeline
This project was part of the 230 km extension of
TransCanada’s Mexican Tamazunchale gas pipeline,
built by the contractor GDI-SICIM, which had to
overcome several critical sections. With the help
of a solution provided by LCS Cable Cranes, it was
possible to construct the pipeline on a direct route in
a rough, rocky area with a slope that exceeded 70˚ of
inclination. On this section of approximately 800 m,
LCS installed a cable crane system with a payload of
8 t to lay the pipeline.
Setting up a cable crane system in rough
terrain
After an in depth analysis and detailed planning phase,
LCS installed the cable crane system directly above
the planned track of the pipeline. The LCS cable crane
system is similar to a material ropeway that is able
to load and unload the transported goods along the
whole track. The system applied in Mexico included
four towers. One of the towers was placed in the
steepest part of the track, where the system needed
to make a bend of 16˚ to exactly follow the pipeline
route. All towers could be erected without the use of
a helicopter by using single elements of 2 m that were
mounted one after the other until a height of 25 m
was reached. The cable crane system was driven by
the diesel-hydraulic winch GW500D with 550 PS and a
line pull of 170 kN, constructed by GANTNER, a sister
company of LCS. The winch was positioned at the top
station and pulled or lowered the crane unit, the heart
of each cable crane system.
A crane unit, a carriage GC80, produced by
GANTNER, was used. The carriage has its own diesel-
hydraulic engine and is able to lift 8 t.
Transportation of all necessary material
The cable crane was used to transport all necessary
material to the slope – pipes, clamps, sand bags,
 RE TO CARE!
DA

Liquid Pipeline Coating Technology


Figure 8. Modular cable crane systems can be applied at
different sections, thanks to their flexibility.
Figure 9. Trenching in steep terrain on a ROW without road
access.
Figure 10. Narrow ROWs contribute significantly to an
environmentally friendly construction.
42 WORLD PIPELINES /
padding material or coating and sandblasting equipment.
Even machinery such as small excavators was transported
to the slope. Materials were lifted by the crane unit at the
bottom station and moved upwards by the winch to the
slope, where they could be unloaded at the desired position
with the crane unit.
Safe pipelaying on the steepest rock slopes
The use of the highly technological crane unit was not
limited to the simple transportation of the material. Thanks
to its double lifting system it was possible to lower and
incline loads.
For example, with the help of a transport bucket,
sandbags were transported above the slope and unloaded by
inclining the transport bucket – a simple way to unload the
bags in difficult areas. “With the cable crane system, we are
able to accompany the whole construction process of the
pipeline in steep terrain”, confirms David Domig.
Due to the steepness and the rocky surface of the slope,
it was necessary to construct numerous sandbag barriers to
lay the pipes on.
Once the pre-padding was done, the pipes could be
transported to their position and lowered with the crane
unit, which was controlled via remote control. The crane unit
was able to lower and place the pipe precisely in its welding
position by inclining them. Afterwards, it could be welded
in a traditional way. On one day, up to four 36 in. pipes were
welded in steepest terrain, where it seemed impossible to
construct a pipeline.
Finally, sandbags to cover the pipes or padding material
were transported with the cable crane and unloaded with
the help of the transport bucket.
The crane system was crucial in all construction phases
of the pipeline on that section, as it was the only way to
handle the material and equipment in such critical areas and
no heavy machinery had to access dangerous areas.
Pipeline laying on mountainous forest – the
Zawtika gas pipeline
The Zawtika onshore pipeline project, owned by MOGE
(Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise) and PTTEPI (Petroleum
Authority of Thailand Exploration and Production
International) and operated by PTTEPI, is running through
Myanmar to Thailand. Thereby, it crosses mountainous forest
areas. The LCS involvement in this project was multiple. First,
LCS provided several cable crane system installations to the
contractor for construction work on a 5 km long section.
Towards the end of the project, LCS was contracted by
PTTEPI and MOGE to fulfil the complete construction of the
pipeline on two sections in critical terrain with a total length
of 6 km.
Flexible solutions – quickly available
LCS cable crane systems are highly flexible and can be
used in diverse situations and different critical sections of
a pipeline route. The systems are modular – LCS can adapt
them to the different sections and therby use on system for
several critical sections of one project.
KEEPING COVERED
in Arctic Conditions
JSC Transneft, Moscow, owner of more than 50.000 km
of oil pipelines, invited DENSO GmbH Germany and
other leading heat shrink sleeves manufactureres, to
take part in an extreme application tests at the Zapo-
lyare-Purpe 40” (DN 1.000) Pipeline in Western Siberia
in March 2013.
Due to a very short preparation time, the DENSO Engi-
neers decided to use the standard DEKOTEC®-HTS70
shink sleeve, which has been successfully used in
different climate zones from -15°C (5°F) to +50°C (122°F).
But would the standard formulation still perform under
arctic conditions?
The weather forecast predicted -25°C (-13°F), but
suddenly the temperatures dropped down to -38°C
(-37°F) with strong arctic winds.
Even under these severe application conditions in an
unheated tent and strong winds, the entire application
process took not more than 37 minutes.
After 24h all applied sleeves for the participating
companies were tested by the third party inspection
Transneftstroy, Tjumen.
DENSO GmbH was the only manufacturer who perfor-
med its standard heat shrink sleeve, all other manufac-
tureres tailorised systems for arctic conditions.
DEKOTEC®-HTS70 passed all test criteria, even under
this arctic cold. This impressed JSC Transneft Moscow
as DENSO GmbH Germany was the first company
which could pass the tests as a newcomer! Fit for all
temperatures!
DEKOTEC®-HTS70
■ For operating temperatures up to +70 °C (158 °F).
■ Lower installation temperature required than
comparable competitive products.
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 In Myanmar the cable crane systems had a length of
approximately 1000 m and were assembled five times,
always in close co-operation with the contractor who
used the system to realise the pipelaying. Although each
application of a cable crane system requires a detailed
analysis and planning of the line as well as time for the
installation and dismantling, it took only three months to
construct the 5 km section, including the entire logistics and
pipe laying activities.
For the second part of the project, where LCS performed
the complete construction work, two cable crane systems
were used. Each system was installed twice. Including the
sections where the pipelaying was possible without a crane
system, it took again only three months to realise the
construction of the 28 in. gas pipeline along 6 km in hilly and
mountainous terrain.
Earth works in exposed locations
Additionally to the cable crane service (providing
transportation and pipelaying solutions), LCS disposes of a
special division to do earth works in critical terrain, where
only particular machinery and equipment is able to do
grading, trenching or drilling. This was the case in Myanmar.
LCS prepared the ROW and trench in order to lay the pipes
without any problems. By using spider excavators, LCS
entered steep slopes to perform earth works.
After the pipe was laid, LCS took care
of the re-instatement works, adjusting
the surface properly to avoid landslips –
especially caused by rain in highly inclined
terrain.
LCS has provided this service on
numerous pipeline construction sites
around the world. LCS prepared the
surface for the pipeline laying by
trenching, blasting and rock-drilling in
complicated slopes as well as doing
re-instatement works. In very inclined
tracks, the company took care of the
stabilisation of the slope by setting
anchors and nettings.
Efficient environmentally
sensitive construction
By using a cable crane system, the
construction of numerous access roads
to the slope can be avoided as the whole
section can be accessed using the ropeway.
The environmental impact was kept as low
as possible. Additionally, the cable crane
system just needed a narrow ROW of only
8 m – a width that can even be reduced,
if necessary, as LCS already did in other
projects. Furthermore, this contributed to
a reduction of costs due to fewer expenses
in road construction and re-instatement
costs.
Complete construction service
LCS is able to provide several services for
pipeline project owners and contractors,
always focused on demanding terrain, as
provided in the two mentioned projects.
Its new subsidiary company, LCS Pipelines
GmbH, provides complete construction
services – but again especially for special
sections in rough and critical slopes,
where traditional methods come to their
limits.
 Figure 1. PipeSak GPW
being installed on
floating pipe.

Natural
Meghan
Connors,
Operations
Manager, PipeSak
Pipeline Products,
Canada, reviews
buoyancy control systems
for onshore pipelines.

B
uried pipelines are not typically
considered susceptible to
damage from natural hazards.
However, floods, seismic
activity, landslides and other types of
soil movement have been known to
jeopardise pipeline integrity. When
designing a buoyancy control system for
buried pipelines, soil and pipe movement
potential should be a consideration.
Buoyancy control of buried pipelines
is standard practice in areas where
pipeline sections may be subject to
buoyant forces during different stages
of construction and operation. Virtually
all onshore transmission pipelines
cross buoyant environments at some
point along their route. According
to Archimedes’ principal, the upward
buoyant force is equal to the weight

45
 of the water displaced, making large diameter pipelines
particularly susceptible to floatation. The most direct solution
to counteract buoyant forces would be to increase the wall
thickness of the steel pipe, making the pipe heavier than the
water it displaces. However, this is generally not practical,
so the industry has developed cheaper yet effective external
buoyancy control systems including concrete set on weights,
concrete coated pipe, and geotextile pipeline weights. While
all these methods can achieve sufficient negative buoyancy,
care has to be taken in areas subject to soil movement, either
by natural disaster, flooding or simple erosion.
Early buoyancy systems
The earliest buoyancy control system was bolt on cast iron
weights, which consisted of two cast iron half shells that were
bolted together around the pipe to increase its weight. This
was quickly replaced by less costly pre-formed concrete bolt
on weight and then saddle-type concrete set-on weights.
Concrete set on weights offer the contractor the flexibility to
set on the weights after the pipe is laid in the trench. These
weights, which are placed on the pipe at pre-determined
intervals, are top heavy and typically only used in semi-
Figure 2. Coating damaged caused by concrete set-on weight.
Figure 3. Floating pipe weighted by concrete set-on weights.
46 WORLD PIPELINES /
aquatic areas due to their instability. Trench conditions
must be relatively firm and dry to ensure the top heavy
concrete weights do not tip off of the pipe during installation,
decreasing the buoyancy control and potentially damaging the
pipe coating in the process.
The risks associated with unstable concrete set-on weights
do not stop after the pipeline is buried. If the area is subject
to any sort of natural hazard such as floods, seismic activity,
landslides, or other types of soil movement, the integrity of
the pipeline can easily be compromised if even a single weight
shifts, damaging the pipe coating and setting the stage for
corrosion to set in (Figure 2). When concrete set-on weights
shift due to soil or pipe movement, they often become
unbalanced. It is not uncommon to see ‘a domino effect’ occur
– as the centre of gravity of one weight shifts the pipeline
moves and the buoyant force of entire sections of weighting
is lost, allowing the pipeline to float to the surface (Figure 3).
The problem is further complicated when the concrete
set-on weights have to be removed. The steel lifting loop,
as well as the steel rebar used throughout the weight, has
often corroded and weakened making the safe removal of the
weight difficult – particularly with a ‘live’ pipeline.
Concrete coatings
Concrete coating the entire length of pipe seems the logical
solution to the inherent limitations of concrete set-on
weights in semi-aquatic onshore applications. Concrete
coatings are often used for mechanical protection in areas
where the pipe must be dragged into place. Concrete coatings
used for buoyancy control applications have the added
benefit of offering pipeline protection and an anti-corrosion
coating during the entire pipeline construction process.
However, the financial trade-off for these added benefits
is considerable. In order to achieve the desired weight to
counteract buoyant forces, the concrete coating must be
much thicker than that used for mechanical protection
alone. The plant-applied coated pipe is often 4 - 5 times
heavier, dramatically increasing transportation, handling
Figure 4. Kink in concrete coated pipe caused by rushing flood
waters.
and stringing cost. Concrete coating applied in the field can
reduce transportation related costs, but it is a much lengthier
processes that can potentially delay pipeline construction.
Concrete coatings are generally not bendable, reducing the
ability of the pipeline constructor to accurately follow the
terrain.
Concrete coatings are a rigid method of negative
buoyancy. While it was once thought that it was ideal for
all onshore applications, we now know that it is not only
extremely expensive but not suitable in areas at risk of
ground movement, particularly by erosion and flooding. The
reasoning behind this is two-fold: 1) the increased weight of
the pipe makes it susceptible to lengthening and bending if
the soil around the pipe erodes away and 2) the inability of
the pipe to flex under pressure can cause kinks and breaks if Figure 5. Left: 30 in. OD pipe weighting with GPW remains in
it is subject to the sustained force of flood water. A classic design position. Right: 20 in. OD pipe sinks due to the weight
example of this occurred during the 2013 Colorado floods of the concrete coating.
that washed out several pipelines, including a 20 in. OD
concrete coated pipeline. During the floods large sections of
the pipeline were exposed and subject to sustained pressure Geotextile pipeline weights
from the fast moving flood waters. Figure 4 clearly depicts a Buoyancy control systems in areas subject to natural hazards
section of pipe that kinked under the pressure of the wet soil such as flooding and ground movement should allow the
and water. Without immediate corrective action, this natural pipeline the ability to flex and move with the shifting soils
disaster could have quickly escalated to a full out pipeline while maintaining negative buoyancy. Geotextile pipeline
rupture. weights (GPW) offer a solution that both unstable concrete
set on weights and the heavy and rigid concrete coated
pipe do not – by offering a soft, stable method of buoyancy
control. The original geotextile pipeline weight was developed
by PipeSak® Pipeline Products and has been in use since the
early 1990s. PipeSak geotextile pipeline weights (GPW) have
been proven to provide safe, effective, economical and
long-term buoyancy control for all onshore applications,
including areas of flooding and soil movement. Figure 5
depicts two pipelines that were exposed during the 2013
Colorado flooding – on the left a 30 in. OD pipeline that used
PipeSak GPW for buoyancy control and on the right a 20 in.
OD pipeline that was concrete coated. The 30 in. pipeline
managed to stay in its design position while the 20 in. pipeline
has settled under the weight of the concrete coating, causing
considerable stress to the pipe. Without corrective action,
the stress on the 20 in. pipeline could build and eventually
rupture.
The pipeline weighted using GPWs was able to maintain
its design position throughout the flood and resulting soil
erosion for a number of reasons. While most other methods
of buoyancy control provide weighting from the top down,
the weight of the PipeSak multi-compartment GPW is situated
along the sides of the pipe. This creates a lower centre of
gravity, making the GPW substantially more stable than
concrete set on weights. So stable
in fact, that the GPW can even be
installed on a floating pipe (Figure 1).
In addition, the negative buoyancy
of the GPW is only activated
during a buoyant situation – when
groundwater levels are high. Once
settled on the trench bottom, the
GPW’s wide base creates sufficient
bearing surface to maintain the GPW
mass and not drag the pipe down
further – which helps to prevent the
pipe from sinking if the surrounding
earth becomes unstable. PipeSak
GPWs are also designed to allow
water to flow through the weight.
This is achieved by utilising high
strength woven geotextiles that are
filled with natural aggregates that
allow an easy path for ground water.
This design reduces any shielding of
the cathodic protection system, and
also has the benefit of allowing flood
waters to move through and around
the weights without building up
pressure against the pipe.
Conclusion
The safest way to provide negative
buoyancy in areas subject to natural
hazards such as floods, seismic
activity, landslides, and other types
of soil movement is the use of
geotextile fabric weights. They offer
a soft, stable method of buoyancy
control that limits the risk of pipeline
damage caused by shifting concrete
weights and rigid, heavy concrete
coating. The low centre of gravity,
permeability, and flexibility of the
GPW makes it ideal for all nearly
types of onshore applications.
Identifying the
Threat
Dr. Chris Minto, OptaSense, UK,
examines how distributed acoustic
sensing can be used to protect LNG
pipelines in challenging desert
environments.

I
n late 2012, OptaSense was invited to demonstrate the
potential of distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) to prevent
third party intrusion on a 320 km natural gas pipeline
supplying LNG processing facility in Balhaf, Republic of
Yemen.
Following a successful demonstration in the challenging
desert environment, OptaSense made a full installation in 2013,
which since then has contributed to a significant improvement
in pipeline availability and the regularity of LNG shipments.
This article will examine the steps in the deployment of the
system in Yemen and consider the success factors involved in
the resulting project.

Yemen case study

After a number of incidents that disrupted product supply,
a security review by OptaSense’s client in Yemen identified
a critical need for early identification of potential threats,
whilst at the same time minimising the deployment of in-field
equipment to avoid further exposure of threats to personnel.
Studies concluded that the use of DAS techniques with the
existing fibre optic cable that followed the route of the
pipeline (providing the communications for the SCADA system)
had reached sufficient maturity to potentially act as an early
warning of attempts on the integrity of the pipeline.

49
 The following challenges were faced:
)) Coping with extreme temperatures (50°C) in a desert
environment with no air conditioning.
)) Low power budget and minimal space available at block
valve locations.
)) Needing to detect digging attempts above the pipeline in up
to 3 m of soft shifting desert sand.
)) Providing sufficient early warning and correct detection of
activity with a low nuisance alarm rate.
)) Be effectively operated by the local security force.
OptaSense has a strong track record of facing tough
challenges, having transformed pipeline security for many
clients, including BP’s Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline and the
Western Route Export Pipeline (WREP) in Turkey and Georgia
respectively, and providing essential security to thousands
of kilometres of pipeline in Kazakhstan, contributing to over
15 000 km of protected and secure assets worldwide.1
OptaSense uses the Rayleigh backscatter phenomenon that
occurs when an optical interrogation pulse interacts with the
frozen molecules in a glass fibre. A small percentage of light is
scattered back to the source, which can be captured with the
transmission source replaced by a detector. This concept of a
short interrogation pulse with a long received tail of scattered
Figure 1. The dramatic and challenging deployment
environment of the pipeline.
50 WORLD PIPELINES /
light is similar to the operation of an active radar or sonar
system, but on a one dimensional medium: the glass fibre.
This OptaSense interrogator unit manages output of
4000 channels of audio data, which is then automatically
analysed in real time to look for potential acoustic detections
and signatures of the monitored threat activity. The nature of
the activity may vary depending on the circumstances – for
example, listening to footsteps in a border defence scenario,
manual digging in an improvised explosive device (IED)
emplacement scenario, or mechanical digging when attempting
to prevent accidental damage.
This detection process works 24 hr/day and acts as the
brains behind the ears. In effect, it is a personal security guard
listening to a microphone placed every 10 m along the asset,
such as a pipeline or fence.
In the Yemen example, the fibre was placed close to the
pipeline during the first implementation and possessed spare
cores that could be utilised, terminating in block valve stations
approximately every 30 km along the pipeline.
Feasibility test
Prior to the full deployment along the pipeline, a feasibility test
was conducted to verify the following:
)) The ability of the system to detect threat signatures in the
range of environments presented (hard packed desert, scrub,
loose shifting sands).
)) The ultimate operating range of the system (tested beyond
deployment ranges expected in a real deployment).
)) Reliability of the equipment in the local environment.
)) Practicality of deployment with the aforementioned
constraints, particularly the security and safety of any infield
engineering.
)) The ability of an OptaSense team to deploy to this
challenging location and to execute the project.
The tests were conducted at the end of 2012 and comprised
a three-man team from OptaSense, together with hand carried
Figure 2. Remote equipment hosted at block valve locations
has to cope with extreme temperature swings.
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 equipment deployed at the Balhaf terminal, covering a distance
(50 km) through to the second block valve, greater than the
stated performance limits.
OptaSense uses the following comprehensive deployment
strategy to deal with all manner of circumstances:
)) Get the entire system up and running, and iron out any
networking issues (if a client backbone has been provided).
)) Carry out a land based calibration to provide a mapping of
optical distance to latitude/longitude (or pipeline kilometre
point). The system at its core is one dimensional, so this
process provides the system with knowledge of where each
channel on the fibre sits in real space.
Figure 3. OptaSense has developed a standard project delivery
workflow that recognises the bespoke nature of each client’s
requirements and places them in a standard deployment
framework.
Figure 4. OptaSense’s automated detection and classification
of the manual digging in the tough conditions.
Figure 5. Overnight acoustic trace illustrating a suprising level
of activity.
52 WORLD PIPELINES /
)) In parallel carry out an acoustic calibration. This provides a
relative sensitivity plot of the fibre (sensor) vs the asset. By
referencing to the asset, variances in fibre deployment and
burial conditions are taken into consideration automatically.
)) Production of a set of detectors from the calibration data,
taking into consideration the client’s threat profile. This is a
crucial document and analysis in which the client sets out
what the system should alert against and how that may vary
along the asset. This is normally a ‘living’ document, as the
client may revisit this through the life of the programme as
they gain more knowledge, and it becomes apparent what
level of background activity is present.
)) Testing of the detectors and initial tuning to maintain a
probability of detection (PoD), while minimising nuisance
alarm rate (NAR). This is the first step in a longer process that
will continue beyond the initial acceptance period.
)) Carry out a client acceptance test.
)) OptaSense would then proceed to an operational transition
programme, where the initial accepted performance at site
acceptance is then improved upon, as client knowledge
grows and statistically valid data patterns build up.
For the feasibility trial, this process was followed successfully
with calibration points taking into account the different terrain
types mentioned, and a detector suite produced, which allowed
a constant level of performance along the route.
This was then followed by the client producing a number of
representative tests of the types of threat considered, including
digging down towards the pipe (for a threatening period),
mechanical digging on the pipe and vehicle transits.
Results
The performance surpassed expectations, delivering detections
even in loose shifting sand piled high above the pipeline
in a berm, and also at ranges well beyond the desired
implementation distance. This, together with a rapid time
to alert and accurate positional reporting, confirmed that a
practical solution to the needs of pipeline protection was
available.
Early in 2014, the client contracted to protect the entire
pipeline and by the end of March, equipment was shipped and
teams en route for a full deployment.
Prior to deploying the equipment, a full survey of the
fibre optic infrastructure was conducted to ready the cable
for deployment. This included ensuring that fibre losses and
reflective events were minimised in accordance with the
OptaSense optical loss budget.* This, together with minimal
reorientation of the existing equipment cabinets, paved the way
for the eventual system deployment.
Given the security considerations, a partnership approach
was successfully employed where the deployment effort
was shared between OptaSense and the client. After
a short period of installation and calibration training
for the telecommunications technicians and field staff,
the equipment deployment commenced. After a rapid
deployment, the aforementioned process was followed
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Figure 6. OptaSense acoustic trace with OptaSense detections
overlayed on top.
Figure 7. Project workflow 2015.
and system acceptance achieved. System operations then
commenced in May 2014.
Client feedback in the first stages of operation is essential.
As such, OptaSense has developed its initial and final operating
capability (IOD-FOC) programme. The company found that in
early deployments that completed at the system acceptance test
(SAT), the client was often surprised at the answers developed
by the system, even if correctly installed. It is impossible to visit
every metre of pipeline, so there are always some issues that
need addressing. OptaSense developed the IOC-FOC transition
programme to ensure the following:
)) There is a programmed return to site to address any client
concerns, operational issues, repurposing or training deficit.
)) The system continues to be monitored remotely (or through
exported data) from the UK, during the transition period.
)) The programme includes a mandatory revisit to the threat
profile to ensure that the correct question is asked of the
system.
Although a desert situation, the deployment to Balhaf was
no different in this respect from most OptaSense projects.
Programmed revisits to the site were able to address the following:
)) Particular training needs.
)) Requested additional capability by the operator (e.g. a simple
‘right click’ to suppress alerts).
54 WORLD PIPELINES /
)) Areas where underground water caused some nuisance alarms.
)) Improvements to detector suppression (to avoid multiple
output from a single event).
)) Improvements to the system logic.
An improvement to the system logic
The system includes a powerful vehicle detector, and an initial
fair assumption for alerts was to alert on vehicles travelling along
the right of way during night time hours. This resulted in the
generation of a significant number of alerts.
Analysis by engineering staff revealed a number of issues to
address, which could only practically be experienced through
usage:
)) Breakup of a vehicle transit into multiple detections (i.e. not
linked).
)) Some areas of spurious detection.
)) A significant degree of vehicle transit during the night.
This led to a number of improvements including:
)) A need for OptaSense to tighten the vehicle detection
characteristics to avoid nuisance detection.
)) An improvement to detection linking to minimise the number
of alerts.
)) A reassessment of the threat profile to focus on abnormal
vehicle behaviour (many of the alerts being driven by the
security forces themselves).
The transition programme was a success, giving the clients an
enhanced ability to manage their own platform and fully transition
ownership into their hands. This, coupled with local administrator
training and an analytical approach to sparing based on probability
of failure and repair turn around times, ensured that the system
could be effectively operated in country, with the maximum
availability.
Conclusion
Since this deployment, OptaSense’s capabilities have been
extended to include protection around the plant and perimeter,
bringing into service a disused asset, and providing high levels of
reliable performance.
The system has also provided benefits in addition to alerting
to potential negative action. Above ground activity has also
been monitored by the system, including aerial vehicle and
armaments, as well as expected background events such as
weather patterns.
The key aim of the system was to provide enhanced security
for the pipeline in order to bring stability to the plant’s ability to
export LNG.
References
1. ALSANCAK, Hasan, BP & BTC Turkey Country Security Manager, “Security Threats
to the Oil & Gas Pipelines”, Oil & Gas Energy Security Summit, 11 May 2012.
Note
* A specification on the minimum amount of light that must be returned to the
interrogator before a loss in performance is experienced.
 Keeping
Operators are faced with
numerous challenges when
implementing a remote
communications strategy.
Chuck Moseley, Inmarsat, UK,
presents a way of securing reliable
connectivity.

A
ctive oil and gas pipelines cover a total length of over one million miles across
the globe, or over four times the distance from earth to the moon. It is inevitable
that these pipelines traverse some of the most remote and challenging locations
on the planet. These locations are costly for pipeline operators to regularly
inspect, proactively maintain, and identify and respond quickly to issues that may severely
impact productivity. Remote monitoring of key performance metrics and remote control for
optimal pipeline operations is essential to drive efficiencies and promote health and safety
compliance. Satellite communications provide the reliable connectivity pipeline operators
must have to ensure safe, efficient, secure access to their telemetry data.
Without the connectivity to establish remote monitoring and control functionality,
the only way pipeline operators can gather crucial data on the health and operational
status of the line is to send a team out to check it manually. This approach is fraught with
potential risks, especially when sending teams out to survey
pipelines located in the most remote parts of the world.
The time it can take to receive the report data could

Figure 1. Tank level

management is made more
affordable by satellite
enabled monitoring.

55
 mean identifying the source of any leaks could take days
or weeks, having significant impact on productivity and
revenue, as well as the environmental damage caused by
a breach. This is in addition to the expense of dispatching
and supplying an inspection team, and the potential
hazards to their health and safety.
With crude oil prices falling 50% in 2014, oil companies
are under significant pressure to improve efficiency in
order to maintain profitability. Simply put, operators must
manage these vast areas with less people. Automation
configured reliably through satellite-based M2M
communications affords significant resource, time and
money savings for pipeline operators.
Areas of concern
When pipeline operators are implementing a remote
communications strategy, there are four key areas of
concern: reliability, availability, security and ease of use.
Reliability
Having often thousands of kilometres of pipeline to
manage, operators need to ensure that any implemented
solution can operate successfully without constant
oversight or maintenance. Any hardware needs to be
Figure 2. Reliable communications for your entire pipeline
network.
Figure 3. Pipelines demand reliability, and satellite delivers.
56 WORLD PIPELINES /
robust enough to withstand the impact of weather and
other environmental factors, and data connectivity needs
to be absolute – stable and always available.
Availability
Cellular and terrestrial networks suffer when compared
to satellite networks in this instance, relying as they do
on ground-based infrastructure, which is vulnerable to
disruption through environmental disasters and other
disruptions. Cellular coverage is linked directly to ‘cells’
or areas where towers provide connectivity. Network
operators are much more focused on providing service to
densely populated areas and remote areas are left as lower
priority.
Terrestrial networks again suffer from their
dependence on infrastructure, in this case through fixed
copper wires or fibre optic cables. These services are
primarily found in urban areas and are not often available
throughout the breadth of territory pipeline operators
need to cover. Radio networks were a popular choice for
older automation implementations, however they have
become increasingly susceptible to interference issues and
the construction, maintenance and liability issues posed
by erecting the necessary towers have caused operators to
look elsewhere for remote automation connectivity.
With the search for operational efficiency paramount,
pipeline operators are looking for standardised solutions
to widespread challenges. Cellular, terrestrial and radio
options will work, but different technologies are necessary
for different areas depending on network availability.
This creates more inventory necessary for companies to
purchase and train their operations crews to effectively
manage.
Security
Satellite connectivity is much less vulnerable to
disruption, thanks to its ubiquitous network presence and
employment of end-to-end 3GPP encryption. This security
of connection means pipeline operators in remote or
hostile environments can rely on the data they receive
through their remote monitoring and automated control
services, and also have the peace of mind that they will
be alerted in a timely fashion to any pipeline breaches or
hostile activities that could affect their pipeline.
Ease of use
Traditionally, satellite connectivity has been seen
as difficult to install and operate, requiring trained
technicians and dedicated technical resource. Pipeline
operators must do more with less without sacrificing
efficiency and certainly safety, so some have shied away
from considering satellite connectivity for their remote
automation needs. Whilst there are satellite services that
do require this level of technical expertise, Inmarsat’s M2M
satellite services are designed specifically for this purpose
– to be easily installed in remote areas where conditions
are harsh, power is sometime scarce and low maintenance
is an absolute.
 Figure 4. Uptime is the number one goal of production and
communications.
The Inmarsat advantage
Inmarsat’s BGAN M2M and IsatData Pro services are
designed for long-term unmanned use in remote and
inhospitable locations. Powered by Inmarsat’s global
satellite network that affords 99.9% availability, pipeline
operators can implement one solution to cover their
entire network, no matter how broad.
Inmarsat’s customers are able to access a global,
two-way data services designed for long-term machine-
to-machine management of fixed assets through BGAN
M2M and mobile or fixed assets through IsatData Pro. This
allows pipeline operators to use monitoring and control
applications in remote, unmanned locations, giving them
full visibility and management their assets in real time
across an entire operational pipeline area. In turn, greater
levels of remote monitoring and control help to reduce
worker risk by minimising the need for physical inspection
in potentially hazardous environments.
In the past, a significant hindrance in the adoption
of satellite connectivity was the assumption that it was
expensive and complex, and terminals needed to access
connectivity were both bulky and sensitive to operating
in extreme conditions. With Inmarsat, this is no longer the
case.
58 WORLD PIPELINES /
Figure 5. Even robust fittings need monitoring and inspection.
BGAN M2M terminals are small, reliable and easy
to install. They can operate on very low power and can
provide speeds up to 400 kbps. IsatData Pro terminals
too are small enough to fit in the palm of your hand, and
are easy to install and require very little power. They are
used commonly in alarm management, cathodic protection
and many other pipeline and oil and gas production
applications. And because both services operate via
Inmarsat’s L-band network, both services can continue to
operate in the most challenging of weather conditions,
unlike other, more easily disrupted satellite networks.
Inmarsat’s M2M services are designed to operate in
the most hostile environments. With terminal options
featuring IP 66 and IP 67 ratings as well as -40˚C to
+85˚C temperature ratings, the Inmarsat network
utilises geosynchronous satellites that are fixed over
geographic areas. Combined with L-band technology,
this satellite based M2M system provides unmatched
uptime and performance in adverse conditions and the
added resiliency of a network not affected by weather
or even the natural disasters that can disable terrestrial
communications.
The terminals are small and nondescript, so as not to
attract unwanted attention and are easily installed by
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Patented Pigging
Bypass System

Leak-Tight Seals

Taper Lock Grips

Tecno Plug™ | Emergency Pipeline Repair Isolation System

STATS partner with major operators in the development and support of Emergency Pipeline Repair Isolation
Systems to minimise the downtime of damaged pipelines. Investment in an Emergency Pipeline Repair
System will reduce environmental and commercial impact and enable early resumption of production in the
event of an emergency repair.

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 non-satellite savvy technicians. Finally, technicians can GEOS International Emergency Response Co-ordination
use the same terminal choices, regardless of which part Centre (IERCC), who will then contact the user to
of the world in which they operate. This translates to establish the nature of the emergency and then liaise with
much simpler inventory management; much less training appropriate local emergency services to effect rescue or
and support issues and a more effective communications provide aid.
solution to be managed by a smaller group of personnel. This type of partnership underlines Inmarsat’s
commitment to ensuring the safety of those people who
Safety and security for pipeline personnel rely on its products when operating in remote, isolated
While the use of satellite technology can significantly and potentially hazardous environments. With 99.9%
reduce the requirement for physical inspection of availability and advanced tracking functionality across
pipelines, pipeline maintenance requirements mean that their global network of satellites, the incorporation of
people will still need to operate in these potentially GEOS services into Inmarsat’s IsatPhone 2 evidences
hazardous environments. The reliability, availability and the important role that satellite technology can have in
security of Inmarsat’s global satellite network has been keeping the people who operate and maintain pipelines
further harnessed through IsatPhone 2, a satellite phone safe, beyond M2M operations.
service for voice communications, to provide global
security and potentially life-saving emergency services A complete suite of flexible solutions
to those people operating in extreme and remote empowering oil and gas pipeline operators
environments. In this time of increasing uncertainty and depressed crude
In addition to its durability and unrivalled battery life, oil prices, Inmarsat is empowering pipeline operators
which make it a natural choice for people operating in to increase their efficiency through a unique offering
extreme environments, the IsatPhone 2 handset features of unrivalled network reliability and a flexible range of
a one-press assistance button on the top of the device services for the facilitation of M2M automation and
that can access GEOS’ Worldwide Emergency Response monitoring that can be tailored to individual needs and
Co-ordination service. Pressing the assistance button sends budgets.
a message containing the user’s GPS co-ordinates to the Furthermore, when operating in extreme or isolated
environments, where the safety
of those working is of paramount
importance, Inmarsat is able to
provide reliable connectivity for
voice calls and tracking for its
customers through its market
leading satellite phones. This
ensures that emergency response
is contactable when required, and
provides piece of mind for those
people operating in hazardous
environments.
As demonstrated by its
extensive array of products and
services, Inmarsat understands
the challenges facing the oil and
gas industry, and is the perfect
communications partner for
improving efficiency and safety at
pipelines in extreme environments.
With a network used by thousands
of users who rely on the very
best communications option for
remote site operations, wherever
your pipeline network currently
extends, or wherever you plan on
extending, you can rest assured
that Inmarsat’s reliable global
Figure 6. Satellite communications can keep your people safe and secure during inspections. network is already there.

60 WORLD PIPELINES /
 CALCULATING HARDSHIP

ALLOWANCES
F
or the oil and gas industry,
the need to send staff into
remote and extreme locations is
Neil Ashman, Senior Analyst,
inevitable. Does your company have a ECA International, UK, presents a new
systematic, defensible approach to compensating
calculation system used to assist oil
employees for having to live and work in such
environments – one that recognises that some locations are and gas companies in assessing the
harder than others? hardship of staff working in
While the technical challenges of operating in the hard-to-access locations
and/or harsh environments are considerable, there is the additional ongoing challenge remote and exceptionally
of attracting appropriately skilled, experienced employees to operate and manage sites challenging locations.
in extreme locations. Salary packages need to be competitive but with global economic
pressures and low oil prices, costs are coming under greater scrutiny. Although companies
know they need to both incentivise staff to take jobs in such locations and compensate
them for the hardships they will have to endure, not all have a defined process for
establishing the figures nor distinguishing between the particular circumstances of
one plant, rig or facility, and another.
In a typical long-term assignment scenario, calculating pay packages for
mobile workforces means taking into account a large number of factors –
protecting the employee’s spending power, equity with home or local peers,
market rates, tax and social security and labour law jurisdiction, to name
but a few. In addition, a location or ‘hardship’ allowance is likely to be
provided to recognise the difference in living conditions the employee
and their family, if applicable, may encounter when on assignment.

61
 Although rotator or offshore assignment types so commonly
seen within the industry often require a revised structure – for
example cost of living or per diem allowances become less
relevant for locations where the assignee is fully catered for or in
which there is little to purchase – having a systematic approach
to calculating allowances for the additional hardship of living and
working in extreme places is usually warranted, even if this element
is not quoted separately in the pay package. Providing a structure
enables compensation and benefits teams to take the guesswork
out of the equation while also providing companies with a means of
streamlining and justifying expenditure when necessary.
Assessing the difficulty factor
Assessing locations in order to establish the level of difficulty an
expatriate will experience adapting to a new location will usually
involve evaluating a number of factors. The factors ECA looks
at, for example, include climate; availability of health services;
housing and utilities; isolation; access to a social network and
leisure facilities; infrastructure; personal safety; political tensions
and air quality. Each factor has a different maximum score in
order to reflect its impact on everyday life and to weight its
influence. The higher the score, the greater the level of hardship
and adaptability required, and therefore the greater the location
allowance recommended. ECA’s system is unique in that it also
takes into consideration the home as well as the host location
of the employees, recognising that where they are going from
and to can affect the level of adaptation required by them for
some of these factors. So while some scores are absolute, some
are relative. For example, while air pollution, health facilities or
personal security will have the same impact on all people living in a
particular location, the impact of factors such as language, climate,
culture, distance from home and education will vary depending on
the employee’s home location.
However, standard location allowance calculations are not
designed to reflect the exceptional circumstances people working
in remote locations experience. In order to calculate appropriate,
consistent and fair location allowances for staff relocating to
projects in remote environments, additional considerations really
need to be taken into account.
Working together with its clients employing staff in remote
locations, ECA International was able to identify the common
factors cited that turn a location into a ‘remote’ location for the
purpose of paying additional allowances.
Extra considerations for remote locations
In the context of mobility, remote is a lot more than simple
distance from home. Instead, it is often used for places where
facilities are limited – for example where accommodation is in
tents or dormitories, flights out are infrequent, leisure facilities are
non-existent and medical care is basic. Alternatively, or additionally,
it will refer to challenging environments such as the desert, jungle
or offshore, or are expeditions – the very places and scenarios in
which many oil and gas companies regularly operate. The following
factors were identified as being the ones most commonly having an
additional impact on staff in such locations:
)) Climate – weather conditions at a remote location are often
more extreme than in other nearby ‘standard’ locations, for
example an oil rig regularly battered by storms, the extreme
cold of the Arctic or a mine in the middle of a desert.
62 WORLD PIPELINES /
)) Access to location – ease of access and availability of
international flights may be restricted at a remote location. Poor
accessibility not only poses practical issues but can also increase
the sense of loneliness and isolation felt by expatriates in these
settings.
)) Type of accommodation – often, the kind of accommodation
provided in remote locations in no way resembles the town
house or apartment a standard assignment would involve; it is
more likely to be a tent, a portakabin or a dormitory. Privacy, as
well as comfort, is a major consideration in many remote sites.
)) Recreation facilities – boredom is one of the key issues
identified by our clients as a hardship in remote locations.
Employees without access to a reasonable range of facilities will
need higher compensation.
)) Medical provision – most sites require a minimum standard of
healthcare and companies are likely to have an evacuation plan
in place, but for expeditionary assignments (for example), where
there really is very little or no medical support, an allowance
beyond that already provided by the location allowance may be
warranted.
)) Family status – assignments to remote locations are largely
unaccompanied and many companies consider this part of
the job so the base salary will reflect this. Nevertheless, some
companies will want to evaluate whether separation from the
family should be considered as part of the remote location
allowance calculation or not.
Using this information, and continuing to liaise closely with
clients, a calculation system was created enabling companies with
employees in remote locations to determine whether they want to
assess these additional elements and the particular facilities on their
sites or missions, or not.
Calculating remote allowances
Essentially, ECA’s remote allowance calculator works by determining
the recommended location allowance for a standard move between
a home and host location, and asks the user to provide more detail
on the particular circumstances and characteristics of the remote
host site(s) in which their company is operating.
Because the remote location is likely to be unique to the user,
the calculator asks them to identify a nearby standard location as
an ‘anchor’ spot for the host. This provides a starting point for the
calculation. If the assignment is to an oil platform in the Niger Delta,
for example, Port Harcourt might be chosen as the anchor host.
Doing this will return the standard suggested location allowance
for Port Harcourt, which covers the typical considerations for
establishing location allowances including security, distance from
home, climate, language etc as outlined above.
Building on this standard calculation, the user can then factor
in the other characteristics identified that may add to the hardship
experienced by the assignee, additional to those already accounted
for – and once these extra details have been taken into account
a recommended addition to the standard location allowance is
calculated.
Creating consistent and fair allowances for workers in extreme
locations can be challenging, but using a systematic approach will
facilitate the process enabling companies to apply a coherent,
defensible and ultimately cost-effective policy.
A TECHNOLOGICAL

E VO
L U T
I ON
Innovative new technologies continue to be developed
as easily accessible fields are depleted. Those new
technologies bring improvements, but many also bring
new limitations, as Vibha Zaman, USA, and David
Barnard, UK, Lloyd’s Register Energy, explain.

W
ith many of the easily accessible stores of hydrocarbon energy having
been recovered, the world’s offshore exploration activities are migrating
into exceedingly hostile environments and pushing the boundaries of
technology and materials.
Reserves are being explored in ever-deeper waters and remote locations where
development requires the oil and gas industry to push the boundaries of existing
technologies.
The drive to push the boundaries of capabilities within the offshore oil and gas
industry come with challenges on two fronts, those of internal origin and those derived
from external sources.
Internally, more and more pipelines are being required to operate at temperatures
that reach or exceed the limits of traditional materials of construction. Depending on the
service, pipelines must be able to withstand increasingly high operating temperatures, or
the extreme cold conditions associated with arctic exploration.
Pressure limits are also being pushed, just as demand rises to transport increasingly
‘sour’ fluids.
Externally, the push is on to operate pipelines in ever deeper waters and in
increasingly hostile environments with bigger waves and stronger, more complex

63
 currents. These activities are often taking place in more isolated
locations with dwindling amounts of supporting infrastructure,
while facing the possibility of significant environmental hazards,
such as icebergs or unsurvivable storm conditions.
Challenges and design considerations
Deepwater pipelines are exposed to high external pressures that
require thicker pipe to withstand the subsea pressures and stresses
they are subjected to during installation.
However, the added weight of the thicker diameter pipe
together with the length of the catenary when the pipe is laid in
deepwater environments has led to challenges associated with the
tension capacity of pipelaying vessels and their ability to withstand
the bending stresses, which may result in collapse or buckling.
The tension capacity of current vessels significantly limits how
deep pipelines can be laid; as such, water depths are currently
capped at around 3000 m for traditional steel pipelines.
To go beyond 3000 m, new installation techniques, increased
tension capacities from laybarges or alternative materials will be
required.
Once installed, deepwater and cold climate pipeline operators
face challenges of flow assurance due to the formation of
hydrates, a mixture of water and gas molecules that crystallise to
form a solid ‘ice plug’, or due to plugging from wax deposition.
In fact, managing the flow assurance and integrity of assets
that are difficult to access presents its own challenges, let alone
those that are also exposed to risks from extreme environments.
Pipelines operating in frigid climates, such as off the coasts of
Nova Scotia, Alaska and the Arctic, face extreme storm conditions
that can affect their structural integrity and floating icebergs,
which can result in mechanical damage, particularly to their risers.
There are ways to mitigate these potential risks: pipelines
can be buried beneath the seabed or covered with protective
concrete mattresses; and rigid steel risers or catenaries can be
replaced with flexible risers that are designed to disconnect from
FPSOs when floating icebergs approach, or when extreme storm
events threaten.
However, pipelines situated in deep water or remote areas
both face challenges associated with a lack of supporting
infrastructure. Each engineering project will have its own specific
challenges which, to manage costs and maximise environmental
performance, are best addressed in a holistic manner throughout
the design, installation, operations, life-extension and
decommissioning stages.
The technology that is immediately available to an operator
and the associated financial risks often have greater influence
on the selection of the solution than does the promise of
innovation, largely due to the time it takes to test and validate
new technology.
Similarly, technically challenging projects with longer gestation
periods more readily lend themselves to exploring the application
of new technology.
New technologies
With oil revenues in decline, the greatest barrier to innovation and
its implementation is cost. Nowhere is that more true than with
projects located in the ‘frontier’ sectors.
Last year, Lloyd’s Register Energy published a comprehensive
industry report – ‘Oil And Gas Technology Radar 2014’ – which
64 WORLD PIPELINES /
examined the state of technology innovation within the industry,
including the motivators and barriers to implementation. Cost, not
technological capabilities, was identified as the greatest barrier.
“The [international oil companies] have great difficulty
replacing their hydrocarbon reserves, which drives them to go
into the most challenging and expensive environments,” Duco De
Haan, Chief Executive Officer of Lloyd’s Register Drilling Integrity
Services, said in the report. “As a result, costs have exploded in the
last four to five years”.
Nonetheless, technical innovation continues to be a central
focus for subsea pipeline owners as they explore operations at
unprecedented new ocean depths. In part, the drive towards
emerging technologies has been brought about by the limitations
of traditional engineering materials and technology; simply
put, the industry is at the extremes of the existing envelope of
capability, and the application of new design techniques, along
with exotic materials, are now necessary to achieve the industry’s
goals.
However, just as the materials and designs in use today
needed to be tested and qualified prior to being used in current
operating conditions, new technologies need to undergo the same
due diligence: They need to be tested, qualified and verified as fit
for service, while also having their operating characteristics tested
and verified to ensure accurate system design and performance
assessment.
Often, new technologies require a whole new set of test
parameters to be developed, along with new test methodologies,
which themselves need to be assessed in detail prior to their
application. All this makes new technology expensive to develop.
The processes can take years to complete, but they are essential
to keep the engineering and financial risks at acceptable levels.
Some new technologies that have been implemented
in deepwater fields include subsea boosting and processing.
These technologies have allowed many reservoirs to be more
economically developed, while reducing the risks of damage to
assets from adverse weather conditions on the surface.
Subsea boosting provides the pressure needed for the risers
to transfer production fluids from the reservoir to the surface,
thereby increasing the recovery volumes from mature wells
and making viable the production of fields that may have been
previously considered marginal.
Subsea processing is being implemented in several
deepwater fields to separate the oil and gas phases and remove
water and sand, thereby reducing the amount of fluids that
need to be transported to the surface. This improves the
efficiency of flowlines and risers by supporting a single-phase
transportation of production fluids, and it reduces or eliminates
the need for the chemical injections that control the formation
of hydrates.
Subsea processing can also allow the operator to maintain
operations during extreme weather conditions on the surface, and
reduces the risk of damage to the asset during such an event.
To support asset-integrity management programmes, the
industry is exploring the use of autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUV), which are docked and recharged subsurface to perform
routine visual inspections, freespan pipe monitoring and cathodic
protection surveys that detect erosion.
In some cases, AUVs could replace current remotely operated
vehicles and their support vessels, potentially reducing cost and
improving integrity-management practices and maintenance
activities.
Advancements in data analytics are also playing an increasingly
important role in the integrity management of pipelines. They are
giving operators better visibility of the operating health of subsea
pumps and the fluids produced in subsea processing facilities, as
well as helping to monitor the condition of the pipeline, including
the use of leak-detection systems.
Pipelines, too, are undergoing a technological evolution with
the emergence and application of thermoplastic composite pipes.
The fibre materials providing the strength within the
composite are typical industry materials, such as glass or graphite
fibres and Kevlar. And the polymers remain typical industry
materials.
The real innovation is that the pipe is a true composite pipe,
rather than a reinforced thermoplastic pipe. The reinforcing
fibres are embedded in the composite matrix, resulting in a
solid pipe wall, whereas in a reinforced thermoplastic pipe the
fibre reinforcement ‘rovings’ (tapes) are wound around the liner
pipe.
This is similar to traditional fibre reinforced plastic pipe,
but it uses a high performance polymer as the matrix rather
than a thermoset plastic, such as epoxy. This advance produces
a collapse-resistant pipe that can operate at a wider range of
temperatures. It is also less brittle, therefore more flexible, and
less susceptible to the problems associated with sour service
operations and corrosion.
When compared with traditional flexible pipes, the new
reinforcement materials can improve structural performance,
The technologies associated with additive manufacturing
have progressed to support component manufacture, moulding
applications and structure repair. These advancements have been
enabled by significant innovation in materials (e.g. metal and
thermoplastic powders, wire, resins and composite materials)
and binding sources (e.g. laser melting, electron beam melting,
photopolymerisation and chemical reaction).
One of the related short-term opportunities for the subsea
industry appears to lie in the ability to rapidly generate or repair
often-replaced or obsolete components from ageing assets.
But, just as additive manufacturing offers an opportunity to
customise materials, these variations from solid materials can
compromise the structural integrity of an asset in ways that would
be new to the industry. Clearly, a deeper understanding of the
benefits and barriers to adoption is required.
Summary
Operating pipelines in ultra-deepwater and harsh climates requires
design, maintenance, and integrity management to maintain a high
level of reliability.
Innovative new technologies continue to be developed
as the easily accessible fields are depleted. Those new
technologies bring improvements, but many also bring new
limitations, which require engineers to revisit accepted risk-
management techniques, develop their standards, procedures
and methodologies, and apply their experience in new ways.

Enduro’s
reduce fatigue and improve a pipeline’s compatibility with
the fluids it is moving – reducing its reliance on the chemical
scavengers and inhibitors that are injected to control the
composition of the bore fluids.
The reduced mass offers engineers lower connection loads 3-Step Solutions

Step 1
and, ultimately, simpler installation in ultra-deep water.
However, the improved structural performance and
increased resistance to corrosive liquids comes at an
engineering cost, including a significant increase in the bending
stiffness of the pipe and its minimum bend radius, both of
which have implications for system designs and installation
procedures.
Another exciting emerging technology is the use of additive
manufacturing for fabrication of subsea equipment. Since
deepwater processing facilities require thick-walled vessels to
contain pressure, equipment such as gravity-based separators
have become very large and difficult to transport when
fabricated using solid steel plate.
In fact, the size of today’s subsea separation equipment is
often limited by the capacity of the lifting equipment during
installation, rather than the performance that is required for
separation.
Additive manufacturing can be used to build plates

Cleaning Tool
constructed in different shapes – such as 3D honeycomb lattice
– to provide a high strength-to-weight ratio when compared
with solid steel plate.
The additive manufacturing process takes a 3D model of an
object stored in a computer and translates it into very thin layers
and builds the object by adding one layer at a time, stacking up
material until the object is complete.

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T
he success of the oil and gas industry depends on
achieving the right balance between optimising
production and ensuring the safety of workers.
Wherever we are in the world, we need to set
standards in training and competency before teams are sent
offshore or into other hazardous environments.
Ageing offshore assets and creeping complacency in the
oil and gas industry can have catastrophic repercussions.
All too often people are focused on the task rather than on
 COLIN GRIFFITHS, MANAGING
DIRECTOR OF OPITO INTERNATIONAL
BASED IN DUBAI, PRESENTS THE
NEED FOR COMMON GLOBAL SAFETY
STANDARDS AND LEADERSHIP AS
THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY RAMPS
UP ACTIVITY IN HAZARDOUS AND
HOSTILE TERRITORIES.

67
 safety, which is the cause of many accidents. OPITO
aims to make sure that every oil and gas worker is
totally focused on safety with the right training and
competence to carry out the task.
The nature of the oil and gas industry, which has
been operating some of the most complex technology
in some of the most hazardous areas in the world for
decades, dictates that there will always be risk.
However, as we exploit our natural resources in
countries with less stable regimes and growing conflict,
where the threat of terrorism, war and piracy presents
a very real danger, and as we seek to squeeze the
world’s remaining hydrocarbons from ever deeper
waters in the Gulf of Mexico and under the ice in
the Arctic, the people in our industry are exposed to
greater risks than ever before.
It is how we effectively prepare and support our
workforce to reduce the risk that ultimately dictates
our success.
OPITO believes that the industry still needs
more effective leadership on safety to prevent fatal
accidents, lost time incidents and near-misses. The
most recent figures (2012) from OGP – the association
of oil and gas producers – revealed that there were
88 fatalities in the industry with lost-time incidents
increasing by 12%.
This is simply not good enough. The global
industry has to change in its approach to safety
and competence. Staying the same is not an option
because, despite improvements, too many major and
minor incidents are happening. And that is before we
start ramping-up activities in even more hostile and
hazardous territories.
Adopting adequate standards
There are a number of common causal factors but
one factor highlighted in the report was inadequate
standards. This is hugely disturbing to OPITO as the
solution already exists. OPITO standards, recognised
as the best in the world, can and must be adopted
by every employer in every oil and gas region in the
world. Every worker has the fundamental right to know
that the person working above or below or alongside
on the helicopter has been trained to the same high
standards.
While over 250 000 people in 40 countries
are trained annually to OPITO standards, universal
adoption of these standards is yet to be seen. This
is despite the evidence that inadequate standards
are a cause of incidents and the growing correlation
between the increase in uptake of OPITO standards
and the decrease in fatal and other accidents.
In the OGP report, a five year rolling average in
the Middle-East showed a marked improvement in
the reduction of accidents between 2007 and 2012.
OPITO has been active in this region since 2005.
68 WORLD PIPELINES /
OPITO’s standards are being rolled out by the major
employers and it is working with regulators, industry
and governments to develop a safer workforce through
positive changes in behaviour through its standards
framework.
While this improvement is not solely down to
OPITO, there is more than simply coincidence here.
Effective leadership
OPITO’s standards framework ensures employers
change the way in which people think about workforce
development in relation to safety and then accurately
measure the improvements. The measurement is
vital because it is about the impact of change, rather
than the process of change itself. OPITO can lay the
groundwork but it is the employers themselves who
will ultimately drive long-term high value change. And
this needs strong, committed, courageous leadership.
When organisations start talking about change, people
inevitably become apprehensive, even fearful, and
often disillusioned and disengaged. It takes bold
and inspirational leaders to make change happen
effectively, to bring people on board and make them
part of that change, to ensure they embrace it, rather
than fear it. New ways of doing things will only
actually happen if people understand why they need to
change and the benefit change will have on them and
those who work with them.
Shell, for example, has shown real leadership
in safety through a new global programme that
it outlined at OPITO’s Safety and Competence
Conference in Abu Dhabi towards the end of last year.
Equally, its leadership in the development and roll-
out of a major training programme in Iraq alongside
OPITO, has to be commended. In a region fraught with
conflict, OPITO is working with the Iraqi government
to help deliver a safe and competent indigenous oil
and gas workforce. As a major employer here, Shell has
been involved in the first industry-led programme to
train Iraqi workers. Up to 15 000 Iraqis will be trained
in how to deal safely with the potential hazards of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a prevalent risk in the region.
The multinational has invested in a new training
centre in Majnoon and worked with us to customise
the training standard relating to H2S for the Iraqi
workforce.
Customisation is important. While OPITO’s quest
is to deliver common global safety standards, it
recognises the need to customise standards for each
region.
Safety training and new standards
In 2010, OPITO commissioned a first of its kind
research study into how internationalisation impacted
on emergency response and basic safety training
requirements in the industry.
 The study highlighted the regional barriers to the
implementation of safety standards. These related to
culture and behaviours, climate, as well as specific
local issues, protectionism, legacy, history and ‘not
invented here’ syndromes. OPITO has sought to
overcome these barriers by engaging and consulting
with the industry in several countries to develop
standards within a framework that takes account
of specific local and regional requirements in a
meaningful way. This involves taking the guiding
principles of OPITO’s standards, their quality and
rigour, and then adapting them for each region.
During the eighties, in the harsh North Sea
environment, OPITO pioneered the basic offshore
safety induction and emergency training (BOSIET) and
helicopter underwater emergency training (HUET)
standards. Every North Sea worker must be trained
to these standards before going offshore and OPITO,
through a rigorous accreditation process, makes sure
that training providers are delivering the training
to the highest standards in order to demonstrate
competency among trainees. Since then, these
standards have been successfully customised to reflect
local needs and environments and rolled out all over
the world.
For example, OPITO has recently set new and
higher standards for the 2.3 million people travelling
OPITO’s tropical basic offshore safety induction
emergency training standard (TBOSIET), of which
THUET is one element, is not mandatory in the Gulf
of Mexico. However, OPITO is hopeful that it will
eventually become a statutory requirement in this
region as operators accept the value of this three day
course over what is currently being offered.
OPITO has recently been tasked with regionalising
its existing BOSIET standard to deal with Arctic
conditions. Although this has been put on the back
burner in the current low price oil climate where
frontier projects, particularly in the Arctic region, have
been shelved, it anticipates getting back on track as
these projects start up again.
Summary
Whatever the environment, benign or extreme, safety
cannot be taken for granted and wherever there is
oil and gas exploration and production, you will find
OPITO.
OPITO is a guardian of global safety standards and
will never be complacent in its mission to protect
those who risk their personal safety to provide the
world with hydrocarbons.

Enduro’s
to work on offshore installations by helicopter in
the Gulf of Mexico every year. The training has
increased from four hours to a one-day course,
which must be repeated every four years. It covers
how to get out of a helicopter in the event of a 3-Step Solutions

Step 2
ditching or controlled landing on sea as well as rig
abandonment and sea survival. The training takes
an individual through many scenarios to get them
comfortable with a safe evacuation of the helicopter
whether it is upright or submerged and upside down.
Survival training in the Gulf of Mexico has been
sporadic with no common standard and no common
quality control. The new THUET standard goes well
beyond what is outlined by the Bureau of Safety
Environment and Enforcement (BSEE) by the US
government and is designed to give offshore workers
the knowledge, competence and confidence they
need to remain safe in the event of an incident
while travelling to work.
The new training standard meets the criteria of
all the various operating companies in the region
and it is anticipated that more training centres will
be seeking accreditation from OPITO to run these
courses as demand increases. In the last three years,
OPITO has been raising awareness in the Gulf of
Mexico of its offshore safety training standards,
Caliper Tool
recognised to be the best in the world, and as a
result the number of training centres in the region
certified to run OPITO courses has doubled.

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 Leading the way to
new pipe coating
solutions

© OMV

BorcoatTM pipe coating solutions

The oil and natural gas that power industry and society
go through extreme conditions on their way to their end
destinations and consumers. Whether they pass through
scorching deserts or arctic tundra, they need to be
protected against corrosion and external damages.
Borealis and Borouge deliver a full range of durable
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for the transportation of natural gas and crude oil, as well
as petrochemicals and water. These PE or PP coating
solutions include materials for field joint coating and are
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and individually customized temperature ranges.
Borealis and partner Uponor Infra Ltd (former KWH Pipe)
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www.uponor.com
 An
unfazed
workforce
Jeff Wilson, Chief Technology
Officer, T.D. Williamson, USA,
celebrates elite technicians who
brave some of the world’s most
unforgiving climates to keep
pipelines running.

A
s anyone in the pipeline industry knows, hot
tapping and plugging (HT&P) requires a specific
skill set aligned to unique challenges – the
procedure involves isolating small sections of
a pipeline in order to perform routine maintenance or
make repairs or modifications, all without shutting down
the entire line. And, because of the nature of the work,
there is simply no room for error. To mitigate the risks and
ensure that the job is done safely, the people performing
the actual HT&P work have to be the best of the best – no
exceptions.
Even in the most favourable of working conditions,
HT&P is a delicate undertaking. But when the pipeline
you are working on is located in one of the world’s
most extreme climates, words like ‘challenging’ and

71
 ‘delicate’ seem wholly inadequate. In the mercilessly hot,
sandblasted deserts of Iraq or Saudi Arabia, or the isolated
tundra of Siberia, the environment itself becomes a risk
factor.
Suddenly, the best of the best is no longer good
enough. And that is when you turn to someone like Olga
Kondratyeva.

A high pressure job in an unforgiving

environment
It has been awhile since Olga Kondratyeva held the
position of General Manager, Russia, with pipeline services
provider T.D. Williamson (TDW). She currently works out
of the company’s global headquarters in Tulsa, Oklahoma,
as the Director of Pigging Technology. These days,
Kondratyeva spends most of her time solving operator
challenges by developing new products, such as fully
automated pigging systems. But before coming stateside,
she spent 15 years working on the operations side of the

Figure 1. Hot tapping and plugging stackup in Siberia.
Figure 2. Technicians working in shifts.
Guaranteed completion
It is a common problem: in some of the swampiest areas of
northern Russia and Siberia, pipeline excavations can start
flooding within hours of a project start. Until a few years
ago, this was especially problematic for crews when it came
time to permanently seal – or ‘plug’ – the fitting after hot
tapping was completed. The completion process required
frequent stopping and starting to ensure that the fitting
plug would not leak. A technician would use a tapping
machine or plug-setting device to guide the plug in place,
stopping every few minutes to ensure that the plug was
fitting snugly into the grooves of the flange. This process
could take quite a while.
“A technician would have to climb a ladder to get up
to the machine, do some work, climb back down, check the
plug installation, and climb back up and start loading the
plug,” says Kondratyeva. “The installation required several
trips up and down, and every hour the water level in the dig
was rising.”
When the water levels got too high, the technicians
would have to stop working in order to pump water out of
the excavation. As a result, a process that normally should
have taken one day was stretched out into two or more
days.
But when TDW introduced its LOCK-O-RING® Plus
technology, completion times were shortened dramatically.
The LOCK-O-RING Plus completion plug features a special
design that indicates when it is attached snugly, eliminating
the need for technicians to stop the work and manually
check the fit. This feature also helps guard against human
error during installation.
“With the new completion plug, we could complete the
job in several hours,” says Kondratyeva. “This technology
saved us several days of operations in a harsh environment,
which translated into cost savings for the operator.”

72 WORLD PIPELINES /
business in Russia, where she was in charge of organising
some of the most complicated – in terms of preparation
and risk mitigation – HT&P jobs in the world, on some of
the largest pipelines in the industry.
A typical large pipeline in the US or Western Europe
might measure between 34 and 38 in. dia. In Siberia and
other parts of northern Russia, the pipelines run much
larger – in some cases, up to 96 in. This is mostly due to
the enormous distances involved in these pipelines, which
transport huge amounts of oil and natural gas from Siberia
all the way west through Ukraine, the Czech Republic, and
on to Poland, Germany, and other European destinations,
as well as east to China. Figure 3. Sinking in the thawed earth.
Kondratyeva’s job was to make sure that all HT&P work
on these massive pipelines was performed quickly, safely
and efficiently – without incident and without disrupting And not just the workers require special gear: much
the flow of oil and gas to customers throughout Russia. It of the standard HT&P equipment – even the equipment
is a tough, high pressure job. And, in Siberia and northern specially designed for work on large pipelines – simply
Russia, it is a job where nearly everything – from your cannot stand up to the conditions of a typical Siberian
equipment, to the length of the days, to the very ground winter.
beneath your feet – seems to be working against you. “You have to have a particular grade of steel that
One of the biggest challenges, explains Kondratyeva, is doesn’t lose its properties in extreme cold conditions,”
that the larger pipelines in places like Siberia require larger says Kondratyeva. “And you need to be able to start the
equipment. For example, the necessary HT&P equipment engine on your power unit when it’s -30°C outside. That’s
for a more standard 34 or 38 in. pipeline might weigh in not easy. You have to have a special cover for it and
at around 7000 kg (approximately 15 000 lbs). Similar
equipment for a 48 or 56 in. pipeline could easily weigh in
at 23 000 kg (approximately 50 000 lbs). And in northern

Enduro’s
Russia, weight matters – a lot.
While the word ‘Siberia’ may bring to mind images
of an endless, frozen wasteland, that is not exactly an
accurate picture. The area does freeze during winter,
but during the spring and summer it is a vast, marshy 3-Step Solutions

Step 3
swampland that makes HT&P work virtually impossible.
“Most of the pipelines in Russia are buried in swamps
or rivers,” says Kondratyeva. “And when there’s no
snow or ice on the ground, the soil does not support
anything – you’ll just go right through. So when you’re
working with big, heavy equipment, it’s very difficult –
the only time you can really make repairs or make a new
connection to a new oilfield is in the winter when the
ground is frozen. This is why maybe 60 or 70% of our
work in Russia takes place in the wintertime.”

Cold, short days and wet, muddy nights

Working on a pipeline in Siberia in the dead of winter
poses its own unique set of challenges. While the frozen
ground is better able to support the heavy equipment
necessary for HT&P work, the trade-offs are substantial.
For one thing, it is cold: winter temperatures in the region
commonly reach -30°C. To reduce the risk of injury due to
exposure, pairs of technicians typically work in two hour
Multiple
shifts, dressed head-to-toe in cold-weather gear. When
their shift is over, they take shelter in a heated trailer
Technology Tool
onsite while another pair of technicians takes over. It
makes for a slow process, but it is the only way to really
ensure worker safety in such extreme temperatures.

800-752-1628 • 918-446-1934
w w w. e n d u ro p l s. co m • i n fo @ e n d u ro p l s. co m
 protection with heating. As a result, TDW developed
custom equipment that withstands such cold weather.”
But innovations and highly specialised equipment
can only do so much: for example, there is no getting
around the fact that Siberian winter days are incredibly
short – and adequate daylight (and heat) is essential to a
detail-oriented job like tapping and repairing a pipeline. In
the interest of safety, HT&P crews have no choice but to
work as efficiently as possible in the two to four hours of
available daylight.
Figure 4. Working in the snow.
Figure 5. Sandwich valve buried in fresh snow.
74 WORLD PIPELINES /
“HT&P is a very complicated operation,” Kondratyeva
says. “You’re drilling into the pipeline and making a cut,
and you have to plug the line and install a temporary
valve. It’s not a dangerous operation if you follow the
rules, but you really need daylight.”
And, because most operations take place in swampy
marshland, it is not unusual to leave a jobsite at night
and come back the next morning to a hole full of muddy
water. Even in winter, when the top layers of the ground
are frozen solid, it is a different story beneath the surface.
The lower layers of soil never quite
freeze.
“There might be snow around,
but the soil is so wet that even when
it’s frozen on top there is still water,
and the job takes several days,” says
Kondratyeva. “We dig the pipe out, weld
a fitting, and then the day is gone, so
people go home and the next morning,
we start again – but now the dig is full
of water. So we have to start every
morning by pumping the water out. It’s
very time-consuming. Instead of working
for three days, we end up working for a
week.”
Action, adventure and a
changing Russia
Even in a large, global company
like TDW, there are only a cadre of
technicians able to perform such
highly complex HT&P jobs in extreme
environments. To qualify for a job in
a place like Siberia or Saudi Arabia, a
technician must have five or more years
of experience, plus extensive, site-
specific training. It is an art, Kondratyeva
says. And it is a skill that takes time
to master. Currently, the company
has a specialised team of devoted
technicians who travel the world to
complete complex pipeline repairs and
maintenance.
“Very few people in the world can
do such operations,” says Kondratyeva.
“Our technicians come from all over,
including Belgium, France, the UK, the
US, Russia and more – and they go to
these extreme environments all over the
world. Hot tapping means you have to
drill the pipe under pressure – and in
these environments you have to be very
experienced to be able to do this safely.
Because we can deliver this expertise,
extreme environments and complicated
operations become simple routine
maintenance for our customers.”
 Kondratyeva has spent enough time in the field to had scaled back her time on jobsites considerably.
gain a deep respect for these extreme environments: But she remains proud of her time in the field and of
When she joined TDW’s Russian office 15 years ago, she the role she and her elite team of technicians played
was the person responsible for supervising the jobs – in maintaining pipelines in one of the world’s most
this meant that, wherever her crews were working, she unforgiving climates.
was usually out in the field with them. As a result, she “Whether challenged to complete the Far East
has a near-endless supply of stories that sound more like gasification programme; building a new railway to
heroic quests rather than routine pipeline maintenance. Sheremetievo airport; delivering gas from Sakhalin
Today, from her office in Tulsa – far from the Island to a key LNG plant; or connecting existing
frozen, swampy Siberian landscape – she can tell you infrastructure to a Nord Stream pipeline…we are proud
about the time her crew had to use a pontoon boat to serve, whatever the environment.”
to complete a job after a
frozen ‘winter road’ over
the normally icy Pur River
thawed unexpectedly. She
can tell you about the day
the Amur River flooded,
creating an island around
a jobsite and stranding her
technicians until military
boats and helicopters could
come to the rescue. And
she can tell you about when
her technicians were tasked
with replacing seven large
sections of a major pipeline
responsible for serving the
Sochi Olympic facilities
from a remote mountain
landscape only accessible by
air – the crew was able to
finish the work just in time
for the games to begin.
Since her early
days in Russia, TDW’s
presence there has
expanded considerably,
Kondratyeva says. Today,
field supervision in Siberia
and northern Russia
is usually handled by
designated supervisors or
technical directors. The
service centres now house
their own specialised
equipment, localised
pipeline solutions, and
expert Russian personnel,
including engineers and
technicians. This expansion
means that TDW is better
equipped than ever to meet
Vacuworx outperforms the competition.
the changing needs of its Get the same efficiency and lifting performance in all weather conditions with Vacuworx
Russian customers. Lifting Systems. Wireless remote operation and vacuum technology are faster and safer
Even before moving to during challenging project environments. Learn how to protect your investment with the
the business development Vacuworx Advantage.
side of TDW, Kondratyeva Visit our website for videos and information or
contact our sales team to find out how we can
lower your project costs.

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Vacuworx is ISO 9001:2008 Certified ©2015 Vacuworx

WP_V_ISL_XTRM.indd 1 4/23/15 9:27 AM

 Repairs in the

Jose Zapata, NRI,

USA, discuses a repair
project in a notoriously
challenging jungle
environment.

I
t was an urgent repair request that called us out into the middle of the jungle
in the middle of August. The humid air was alive with insects and the drone
of the river as we disembarked from the boat. Behind us was Barrancabermeja
and civilisation. Ahead was almost a mile of steaming Colombian jungle. A
jungle filled with puma, poison dart frogs and pit vipers. A jungle through which
we would walk to a pipeline repair located underneath the Magdalena River – the
very river on which our unloaded supply boat was now sailing away, leaving behind
a crackling walkie-talkie as our connection to the rest of the world. Picking up the
boxes of supplies and equipment, which included a generator and gallons of fresh
water, we began our walk through the jungle.
The Magdalena River has a reputation as being ‘the most dangerous part of the
world,’ earned partly from the years of warfare that have engulfed the area and
partly from literature and journalists, but walking through the jungle in the August

76
77

Figure 1. Buried under Colombia’s Magdalena River,
the 900 psi (62 bar), 12 in. OD petroleum transmission line was
found to have significant wall loss over a 42 in. area, including
a bolted flange. Shutting down the pipe for repair was not an
option.
Figure 2. All the components of the job, from the materials and
tools, to the generator and drinking water, had to be carried –
literally – by the crew, as they trudged through muddy water
to the repair site.
Figure 3. In order to access the pipe the crew had to hold
the Magdalena at bay. They created a temporary dam using
sandbags.
78 WORLD PIPELINES /
heat, it was easy to picture pitfalls around every bend. In
fact, one member of our eight man crew carried a shotgun, in
order to ward off vicious prey – animal or otherwise – that
might stalk our vulnerable caravan.
The walk was made more precarious by the fact that the
ground was such a muddy mire that we had to walk on the
pipeline to be sure that we were following the right path. A
wrong step off the pipe meant the exhausting task of hauling
self and load up out of the sucking mud, which was 3 in. deep
in spots, and back up onto the pipe. Not an easy task under
the best of circumstances, but when weighted down with
over 20 lbs of equipment or supplies, not to mention hip
waders or rubber boots, digging out from the mud, retrieving
the fallen boxes, and regaining footing on the pipe, took
increasing effort.
And just what was it that called us out to such a
treacherous spot, at such an unforgiving time of year? The
energy company that owned the pipeline had discovered that
the 900 psi (62 bar), 12 in. OD petroleum transmission line
had substantial wall loss over a 42 in. area, including a bolted
flange. This pipeline was instrumental to their service and
could not be shut down. A full replacement of the troubled
section, scheduled or not, was out of the question.
A river runs over it
Finally, after more than a half-mile slog balancing on the
mucky 12 in. pipe, we reached the repair site and quickly set
up camp. Since the surrounding area was either mud 3 in.
deep or underwater, we first had to use sandbags to create a
temporary dam around the section of pipe and flange in need
of repair. Even with the sandbags in place, the Magdalena
kept weeping into the freshly dug trench, seeping around the
edges, as if to remind us to hurry.
Once we had identified the site to be repaired, we began
surface preparation. First, we fired up the generator. In
order to promote proper adhesion following the standards
for surface preparation established by NACE 2 or Sa2.5, we
used an MBX Bristle Blaster to remove the mud, rust, paint,
and any other foreign matter from the surface of the pipe.
Figure 4. To meet the standards for surface preparation
established by NACE 2 / Sa2.5, the crew used an MBX Bristle
Blaster to clean the pipe.

Figure 5. The freshly prepped steel was wiped with an oil-
free solvent and then brought back to configuration with
the application of Syntho-Poxy™, a load-transferring epoxy
compound.
Figure 6. Using trowels and putty knives, the crew applied
Syntho-SubSea™ LV, a Kevlar® reinforced epoxy that displaces
water and is engineered to cycle with the 900 psi (62 bar)
pipeline.
Figure 7. To fully restore the pipe’s integrity, 12 layers of
Syntho-Glass™ XT, a 54 000 psi (3723 bar) tensile strength,
fibreglass composite was installed.
80 WORLD PIPELINES /
While cleaning the steel, the MBX Bristle Blaster also creates
an anchor profile, which allows the composite-reinforced
coating system to properly adhere to the pipe’s substrate.
Working quickly so that the freshly profiled pipe and flange
were not re-contaminated, we cleaned the steel surfaces
with solvent wipes that contain a high percentage of alcohol
and no oil.
With the pipe and flange cleaned and prepped, it was
time to restore the pipe to its original configuration. Any pits
in the steel substrate were filled with NRI’s Syntho-Poxy™
HC. Syntho-Poxy HC is a high-compressive, two-part, load-
transferring epoxy compound that cures quickly and is used
to reinforce and reconfigure pipes. Using cartridge guns,
we applied the Syntho-Poxy HC, filling each pit with the
epoxy compound as needed. Combined with the next steps
in the composite system, the epoxy would help to transfer
the pipe’s load stresses from the damaged pipe wall to the
composite system.
Next, the entire repair area was coated with Syntho-
SubSea™LV, a solvent-free, two-part, Kevlar® reinforced
epoxy. Able to displace water, this two-part epoxy is
designed to stop corrosion. It is engineered to cycle and
work with the 900 psi (62 bar) pipeline. After mixing the
epoxy resin with the curing agent, we applied the 100% solids
mixture onto the pipe and flange using trowels and putty
knives at a thickness of 30 mm.
While the epoxy was still wet, we then wrapped the
line, including the flange, in 12 layers of Syntho-Glass™ XT, a
54 000 psi (3723 bar) tensile strength, fibreglass composite.
Syntho-Glass XT is designed to provide structural integrity
to the pipeline. Working in combination with the Syntho-
Poxy HC and the Syntho-SubSea LV epoxy resin, the Syntho-
Glass XT composite is designed to ‘pick up’ the load stresses
from the damaged pipe, fully restoring the pipe’s integrity.
The wrap also provides corrosion protection, encapsulating
the pipe and preventing the elements from reaching the
compromised section of steel.
The engineered, water-activated, polyurethane resin in
the fibreglass composite system, not only ensured proper
fibre-to-resin ratios, but also made for a quick application
process – even over the flange’s difficult geometry. This was
something for which we were all grateful, especially given
the heat, humidity, and unsettlingly large paw prints that we
discovered in the mud near the jobsite. Even though we had
an armed guard, nobody wanted to come face-to-face with a
puma.
Hydration for product and crew
A major challenge in the midst of this fast-paced, watery
project was to avoid dehydration. The crew was constantly
reminded to drink from the supply of fresh water that
was trudged in, but even with the reminders, it was barely
enough to keep sun stroke at bay. Heavy personal protective
equipment (PPE) was another challenge in the sweltering
morass. The work shirts, so vital a protection against sunburn
and bug bite, became our own personal saunas. Our rubber
boots also quickly filled with river water and mud. For
most of us, that happened within our first few steps on the
 pipeline, which meant that the entire project was bogged
down in mud from the start.
Fortunately, four hours after we first started digging
our sandbag dam, the Syntho-Glass XT was installed. This
meant that a repair that would ordinarily have taken weeks
was inexpensively completed in one day. Our Syntho-Glass
XT composite-reinforced coatings system fully restored
the pipe’s strength and enabled operations to return to full
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of 900 psi
(62 bar).
The crackle of the walkie-talkie never sounded as
sweet as when we called for our return boat. Packing up
our boxes, somewhat lighter now that they contained
mostly trash – empty product containers and water
bottles – powering down the generator, and dismantling
the sandbags, we prepared for the trek out of the jungle,
Figure 8. In less than four hours, the Syntho-Glass XT
before the sun set. Somewhat slower, having put in an composite-reinforced coatings system fully restored the pipe’s
exhausting days’ slog before putting in a full day onsite, strength and enabled operations to return to full maximum
we hiked back on top of the pipe, balancing our way over allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of 900 psi (62 bar).
mud that caught at our feet, seeming to want us to stay
in the jungle. Occasionally we would hear the cry of some
creature, bird or cat, I could not say, but I was glad as the and humid evening, I could understand the hold that the
drone of the river increased and the welcoming sight of Magdalena has – the raw power and the pull. For a time, we
our boat came into view. stood up to those forces. We met the challenge. And we
Loading our generator and the remains of our hard work won – as of this writing, the pipeline and our repair are still
onto the boat as the afternoon faded into an equally hot in full operation.

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Protecting turbines in

HARSH
ENVIRONMENTS
Gas turbines are used in a wide variety of
sh or
environments, many of which present har
and
extreme conditions that can affect the life
er,
reliability of the installation. Stephen Hin
the
CLARCOR Industrial Air, UK, examines
importance of customised filter designs.

T
he air inlet filter on a gas turbine installation may not
be the highest priority or concern when specifying a
system, but it is a vital component in prolonging the
life of the turbine and reducing ongoing maintenance
and repair costs. Selecting the optimum filter configuration is
a balance between the level of protection, cost, and pressure
drop across the system.
Environmental characteristics that may affect the system
include levels of salt, water (rainfall or fog) and dust, as well
as types of particulate (dry or sticky), size of particulates,
minimum temperatures and any snowfall. Each one of these
needs to be evaluated to determine the optimum filtration
solution to protect turbine performance.

83
 In coastal and offshore locations, a combination of salt
and moisture in the air threatens the turbine. If the salt is
not prevented from entering the machine, it will combine
with fuel in hotter areas and cause Type I and Type II
highly accelerated corrosion. The mean time to failure in
such conditions is usually dependent upon the level of this
corrosion in the machine and what protection is in place
to stop the salt getting into the turbine.
Dust is another threat to turbine life and performance.
Large dust particles (>2 µm) cause erosion throughout
the machine. This damage can affect the efficiency of the
turbine but if the erosion causes parts in the front end
of the equipment to break, these may travel through and
cause severe damage in other parts of the machinery.
Coarse filter media can prevent the dust that causes such
problems, but this still leaves finer dust (<2 µm) entering
the system. This dust can stick to parts of the machine,
creating a build-up that changes operating aerodynamics.
Figure 1. The wrong system design can lead to filter blockage
and eventual loss of gas turbine performance.
Figure 2. Every gas turbine site is different. The inlet filter
system must be optimised to handle extreme conditions.
84 WORLD PIPELINES /
This, in turn, reduces the efficiency of the turbine and
increases operational costs.
In extreme cold conditions where ice and snow are
present, the turbine can usually handle the associated
water content. When, however, this is combined with salty
or dusty environments, the level of protection can be
compromised as the filter becomes blocked.
Each turbine installation will have varying
environmental conditions, performance requirements, cost
considerations and, as such, different filter house needs.
Where both dust and salt are present, different filtration
stages will afford better protection. However, by adding
a filtration stage for each contaminant, the pressure loss
across the system is increased. This can be countermanded
by making the filter house larger but this is very much
a balance between cost and performance. The type of
application and value of the turbine output are also,
therefore, considerations when specifying filtration needs.
Offshore applications tend to require smaller, faster
running turbines due to the space restrictions on platforms
and floating production units. Onshore, land based
applications where there is easy access for maintenance
often require more basic filtration requirements and many
applications can be more cost-sensitive. In high value
applications such as pipelines, LNG, aluminium smelting,
etc.; low maintenance, high availability, high performance
and long machine life are the priority and the return on
investment on a more comprehensive filtration system can
make sound business sense.
Low maintenance is also a requirement for remote
pipeline locations where mobilising personnel adds
significant cost to an operation. To meet this need
specifications often include precision materials, paint that
does not flake, proven technology and large filter houses.
Applications are slow running to help prolong maintenance
intervals and the installation of pre-filters and/or a HEPA
filter stage is not uncommon.
In multi-stage filtration systems it is usually the last
filter that is the most efficient. Where it is highly desirable
not to have to stop the process to change a filter, a
further protection filter stage may be installed after this to
enable maintenance while the turbine is running without
risk of damage.
Evaluating site characteristics
Let’s take a look at the broad decision process for
filtration requirements for a dusty, coastal application
where the output of the gas turbine is high value by way
of example.
Static filters are suitable for low to average dust
concentrations but self-cleaning systems, such as
‘pulse’ filters, are more typically applied for higher
concentrations. In some locations with particularly high
dust in the atmosphere, an upflow pulse system may also
be used to extend the filter life.
If dust levels are high, the dust also needs to be
evaluated in terms of type and size. High levels of ‘sticky’
dust mean that long life filters in an oversized filter house
Figure 3. At this coastal site in the Middle East, fog, sand, dust and
hot temperatures create a unique environment that makes inlet filter
optimisation essential.

may offer significant benefit to outweigh the additional cost. If the

average dust particle size is less than two microns, high dust efficiency
F9 or EPA/HEPA filters should also be installed.
The type of turbine technology and standard of fuel used
are further factors to be considered when defining the filtration
stages. High tech turbines with long life components are likely to
need a solution that avoids outages simply to change filters. These
turbines are also less tolerant of fouling so higher efficiency filters
are required. The use of sour fuel will also require high efficiency
filters to protect these units, which have a lower tolerance of high
sulphur fuels. Older, low tech turbines, however, have relatively
short component life and are more tolerant of fouling. As such, lower
efficiency filters may be perfectly acceptable.
The ease of maintenance is another stage in evaluating filtration
requirements. If the turbine is in a remote location, for example,
where there are no site personnel to carry out regular maintenance,
increasing the intervals between maintenance is an important cost
consideration. Maintenance frequency will determine the filter house
material and construction. If onsite maintenance is readily available,
consideration also needs to be given to whether there is any backup
capacity available in the system. If there is, standard filter house
materials and construction can be utilised and the number of filtration
stages installed can be reduced.

Addressing moisture
Once the requirements for the filtration system have been defined,
levels of moisture in the area should also be factored in. Moisture
can cause captured contaminants in the filter system to swell,
increasing pressure loss. If fog or mist is a common phenomenon
or a site is within 12 miles of water, the installation of coalescers is
recommended. These remove moisture and liquid phase corrosives
from the air stream to help protect the downstream filters and the gas
turbine.
The issue with installing coalescing filters is that they frequently
need to be maintained. This increases the downtime of the system and
replacing them adds to ongoing costs. If they are left out, however,
 Figure 4. CLARCOR Industrial Air has a full suite of filter products that are proven to protect gas turbines in extreme environments.
small water droplets will mix with contaminants. If there
is a lot of dust present, for example, the water will
combine with dust to form mud – increasing the system
pressure loss and maybe even tripping the gas turbine.
If the final filter allows the moisture to wash through
to avoid this, contaminants will also pass through and
increased fouling, damage and corrosion of compressor
blades may occur.
To counter these conflicting issues, a new type of
coalescer, the TS1000 from CLARCOR Industrial Air, was
developed that allows sand and dust to pass through
while removing moisture from the air stream. This has
been shown to extend periods between clogging, require
less monitoring and less maintenance. The media is also
easily cleaned with a water hose, reducing maintenance
time and cost compared with traditional coalescers that
require replacement when clogged.
Each site is different
Each gas turbine installation has different requirements.
In exceptionally harsh environments, such as remote
pipelines in desert or jungle, offshore platforms, marine
vessels or coastal sites where there is a mixture of dust,
salt and moisture, turbines are particularly vulnerable
to damage that will reduce efficiency and increase
the risk of failure. Multi-stage filtration systems which
incorporate vanes, hoods, coalescers and/or preheaters
to combat water, vapours, snow or ice may be needed
to handle all conditions present.
Summary
At the end of the day, the variance in the requirements
of each turbine installation depending on environmental
conditions, turbine technology, application and fuel
86 WORLD PIPELINES /
quality, means that one filtration solution certainly does
not fit all. To get the best in terms of efficiency, life and
optimised maintenance, each application needs to be
evaluated and a customised air inlet filtration solution
defined.
Harsh environments will present unique challenges
from extreme volumes of contaminants through to the
need to consider multiple environmental elements to
protect the turbine. The ideal filter solution may be
costly but this needs to be assessed against all lifetime
operational and maintenance costs for the turbine as
well as lost production from increased downtime.
Through the use of the latest media technology
and clever aerodynamics, filters that perform well at
elevated flowrates and provide the same performance
to similar solutions but in a smaller filter house can be
achieved. This reduces the compromise between cost
and performance, lowering the cost of adding greater
protection to the system.
CLARCOR Industrial Air has 50 years of experience
delivering innovative solutions for gas turbine inlet
filtration and monitoring fleet-wide performance
data across a variety of environmental conditions.
Its altair® brand of filters are specifically designed
with predictable and reliable performance in mind to
meet the challenges of the oil and gas industry. Altair
gas turbine inlet filtration can extend turbine life
through efficient and effective removal of moisture in
combination with handling other filtration requirements
in harsh, remote environments. With a full range of
filter media at all efficiency levels, altair filters can
help achieve higher power output, extended gas turbine
availability and maximum protection against corrosion
and fouling.
 A significant
ENGINEERING
FEAT
IN IRELAND
Adrian Blakemore, Murphy International Ltd, Ireland, outlines how
early contractor involvement, collaboration and a strong focus on
innovative engineering, ensured the safe and successful completion
of the Corrib Gas Pipeline Project.

Figure 1.
Assembling vent
pipe strings in the
yard.

T
he Corrib natural gas field was discovered in 1996
by Enterprise Oil, some 83 km off the north-west
coast of Ireland, 350 m underwater, with the gas
reservoir a further 3000 m below the seabed. The gas
field was bought by Shell E&P Ireland Ltd (SEPIL) in 2002. By
global standards, the Corrib gas field is a medium sized field,
estimated to contain approximately two thirds of the amount
of gas contained in the Kinsale Head gas field. It will supply
up to 60% of Ireland’s gas needs during peak supply and is
estimated to have a field life of between 15 and 20 years.
Corrib gas is being developed using subsea technology
tied back to an onshore gas terminal at Bellanaboy, Co. Mayo.
As a result, the Corrib Gas Pipeline Project would be one of
the most significant engineering projects ever undertaken
in Ireland, and Murphy International (Murphy), a subsidiary

87
 of J. Murphy & Sons Limited, was awarded the final phase of
its construction – the laying of the onshore pipeline from the
landfall site at Glengad to the Bellanboy Bridge Gas Terminal.
The onshore pipeline is 8.3 km long, with 4.9 km of this being
laid in a 3.5 m ID tunnel running at a depth ranging from 5.5 - 12 m
under Sruwaddacon Bay in north-west Mayo. The tunnel is the
longest in Ireland, making the gas pipeline the longest gas pipeline
tunnel in Europe.
The works were awarded in two stages – the first in January
2013 for the 3.2 km land section from Aghoose to Bellanboy
in collaboration with Roadbridge, who prepared the spread,
backfilled and reinstated it. The second phase involved the
installation of a 500 mm dia. gas pipeline in the tunnel.
Aghoose to Bellanboy weld challenges
Murphy was employed as the specialist pipeline contractor to
weld, NDT and ditch the 310 weld pipeline in single pipe lengths
in a trench wide enough to fit a side boom. The first five months
of the project, which was scheduled to be completed at the end
of October 2013, were spent developing the weld procedures and
gaining approval.
The 500 mm dia. pipe had a 27.1 mm wall thickness and was
specified for offshore use. The contractual requirement was to
use an automated welding process together with an automated
UT process that would give the client total guarantee of quality.
Figure 2. Corrib onshore pipeline route.
Figure 3. Gas pipe lowered into pit.
88 WORLD PIPELINES /
Murphy, with considerable research and development done
by its welding engineers, used its Scorpion automated welding
equipment to develop a system and set of welding procedures
that could work consistently in the field. The approval process
was both exhaustive and rigorous and a co-ordination exercise
in itself to marry the requirements of numerous specifications,
approval agencies and designers into one approval regime.
Commenting, the SEPIL Welding Engineer said: “SEPIL
sought to uniquely apply a set of offshore mechanised welding
acceptance criteria to an onshore pipeline, a weld engineering
process that had never been attempted prior to Corrib.”
Constructing suitable welding habitats
Murphy subcontracted the specialist AUT operations to Shaw
Pipeline Services, who was responsible for the offshore pipeline
AUT works. Prior to works commencing onsite, Murphy had
to overcome a number of separate challenges that the site
conditions presented.
The first of these was to provide a welding habitat that could
fit over the pipe, be transportable, and also protect the welding
process from the extremes of north-west Mayo weather. Murphy
International developed a lightweight aluminium shelter made
from chequer plate shaped for placement over the pipe that was
self-contained to support the Scorpion welding equipment. This
was designed to be lifted into position using either a crane or
backhoe.
The second challenge was to develop a set of plant and
equipment specifically for use on a narrow spread where weight
and mobility were important considerations. The normal pipeline
plant for handling pipe and equipment – side booms and cranes
– were unsuitable for the geography and condition of the spread.
There were several pinch points along the route where the
spread was less than 8 m wide so it was essential to have plant
that could travel through these sections and function without
disruption to welding production. The team engineered an option
whereby all the welding plant and power packs were mounted
on the back of zero-slew 20 t rated backhoes. The counter-
balance weights were removed from the machines and platforms
welded in place to mount the generators, gases and welding
equipment. The backhoe was also used to lift and transport the
welding habitat along the spread. Murphy developed two of
these backhoes and put them out in the field in mid May 2013 for
trials.
Production welding eventually commenced in late June,
with one crew averaging one to two butts a day depending on
circumstances. The second crew joined the spread a month later
following bend prepping works at the Murphy offsite fabrication
facility in Newbridge.
By this time, many of the expected start-up problems
had been overcome and production increased considerably.
Murphy International further increased the welding resources
during September with conventional 4WD welding rigs to boost
production and achieve SEPIL’s milestone date of completion by
30 October, 2013.
Specialist design of the pipeline
The second stage, negotiated with the tunnelling contractor
BAM/Wayss Freytag Joint Venture (BW JV), was tendered in
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 May 2013 and following an international competition, was
provisionally awarded to Murphy International in November 2013
under a letter of intent. The award was for the installation of the
500 mm dia. gas pipeline, together with a number of service and
umbilical control lines into the tunnel, through the pits to the
tie-in locations.
Murphy undertook the design of the pipeline installation
and services within the tunnel and landing areas, employing the
specialist design services of J. Murphy & Son’s Limited specialist
design subsidiary Protech to approve the pipeline support and
restraint systems. The pipeline was designed to operate at
Figure 4. Gas pipe entering tunnel.
Figure 5. Welding on spread.
Figure 6. Improved welders habitat.
90 WORLD PIPELINES /
approximate MAOP of 100 bar and a test pressure in excess of
500 bar had to be designed for this.
All pipelines, services and umbilical lines had to be supported
in the tunnel and some 10 000 brackets were required to
achieve this. These were designed by Murphy International and
manufactured locally ahead of the tunnel being made available
by BW JV.
Early engineering and design tackle project
challenges
In the five month lead up to the tunnel handover by BAM,
Murphy had a number of challenges to surmount.
The first of these was the tweaks required to the welding
process to make it more suited to welding strings in the pipe
yard. Again, it was required to weld using an automated welding
process and AUT. Murphy decided to use the Firefly bug system
over the Scorpion bugs as they were more stable and consistent
in a pipe yard environment. Shaw Pipeline Services was appointed
again as an AUT subcontractor.
From lessons learnt on the previous model, Murphy decided
to further develop the welder’s habitat to make it considerably
larger to accommodate welders, mates and inspectors in one go.
Ventilation was also improved in the habitat.
From the outset, the main challenge was how to install the
gas pipe, water pipes, grout pipes, umbilicals, fibre optic and
signal cables and ventilation ducting into the tunnel in a set
sequence to satisfy the planning layout requirements.
Extensive early engineering and design work was required
by the Murphy team to propose, test and approve the various
systems required to install the pipework. This process took four
months to gain all approvals and involved the construction of a
life-sized tunnel mock-up to prove the installation methodology.
In the final scheme, the tunnel locos were utilised to pull
a working platform mounted on tunnel bogeys up and back
through the tunnel.
The working platform was 72 m long and on it were mounted
bespoke designed and engineered work stations providing
welfare, lifting, welding, NDT and coating operations as well as
transport for the tunnel crews. All of this was designed from first
principles and manufactured in Murphy’s Newbridge workshop.
The designed and approved installation method of the main
pipelines involved welding them into 72 m long strings and
stockpiling them in the yard in Aghoose before delivery and
lifting onto the working platform in the drive pit and subsequent
travel and installation into the tunnel. The compound in Aghoose
was designed and constructed to minimise environmental
impacts particularly as the site stood in a dedicated conservation
area – a candidate special area of conservation (SAC) and
proposed special protection area (SPA).
Safety in the tunnel section
BW JV handed over possession of the tunnel in mid June 2014.
From then on, Murphy International worked a 24/7 three-shift
system for nearly five months to install the series of support
brackets, pipelines and umbilical lines to complete the tunnel
section works.
The prefabricated strings of pipe were transported from the
pipe yard to the Aghoose Drive Pit by four backhoe excavators
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 working in tandem and lowered down on to the working
platform before being pulled up the tunnel by the locos. Inside
the tunnel, the pipe was lined up and levered into position
using the mechanical arms on the loading platform, put in the
clamp and welded, NDT’d and wrapped before the next string
was brought up the tunnel. At peak times, Murphy installed four
strings in a 24 hour day with six welders.
Safety milestone
Safety was the primary driver on this project, and Murphy
shared a common objective with SEPIL during the construction
of the pipeline to promote a strong culture of behavioural and
attitudinal safety with everyone feeling responsible for their own
safety and the safety of their co-workers.
With the participation and support of all employees, Murphy
introduced and implemented a number of safety initiatives,
Installation facts:
) Construction duration – 11 months.
) Tunnel possession – five months.
) Number of men employed at peak – 70 front-line
staff and 15 supervisors.
) 200 000 Murphy hours worked accident free.
) 6200 brackets installed in two weeks.
) 4900 m of 750 mm dia. PE ventilation pipe
installed in one week.
) 18 000 m of 250 mm dia. PE water outfall and
grout pipe installed in three weeks.
) 4900 m of 500 mm dia. welded steel gas pipe
installed in seven weeks.
) 30 000 m signal and fibre optic cable installed in
three days.
) 20 000 m of umbilical cable installed in
10.5 weeks.
Figure 7. Weld equipment mounted on backhoe.
92 WORLD PIPELINES /
including detailed site environmental safety inductions for new
employees, management HSQE inspections and weekly meetings,
method statements for all work activities, detailed lift plans,
work permits, toolbox talks, pre-task talks and lifesaving rules.
A safety stand-down was also held once a week and after all
bank holidays, and safety observations and conversation cards
were also introduced. As a result, Murphy achieved the milestone
of 200 000 man-hours worked without an accident.
Successful project completion
Murphy completed the tunnel installation works exactly two
months ahead of schedule in early November 2014. The tunnel
was handed back to BAM on 7 November 2014 and all as-built
documentation and records were completed and submitted a
few days later.
The hydro-testing of the pipeline was carried out by others
before Murphy completed the final golden weld at the LVI in
Glengad on 15 December.
The project was considered a success on all levels by
all parties, with the main factors for this being the effective
planning, good communication and key people involvement
throughout the project.
Early involvement by all concerned parties through meetings
and workshops ensured that a robust design for the installation
process was agreed. This enabled a smooth installation when
works started onsite. Regular site meetings with all concerned
parties led to early intervention and the efficient and effective
resolution of all challenges which the project faced. Finally,
Murphy International allocated key people dedicated to the
adherence and attention to detail the project demanded, to
ensure all design, planning, safety, quality and environmental
challenges were met within the budget forecasts, throughout the
duration of the contract ensuring no surprises.
A delighted Corrib Project Director for SEPIL, Roeland
Borsboom stated: “At every stage, the team adopted measures to
minimise risks as well as construction and environmental impacts
on the local community.”
The bulk of the gas produced from the Corrib field will be
supplied to the national grid via the finished 149 km pipeline
from the gas terminal in Bellanaboy Bridge Gas Terminal for
processing in Mayo to Ballymoneen outside of Galway.
Figure 8. Terminal tie-in.
 Cyber security is a growing concern around the globe and a major talking point
within the oil and gas industry. Jay Abdallah and Adrian Clarke, Schneider
Electric, USA, discuss how targeted attacks over recent years have led to
mandated compliance, with standards and directives widely enforced to protect
the distribution of oil and gas.

The
The growing
growing

THREAT

A
ccording to Eugene Kaspersky, the threat posed by
cyber terrorists to critical infrastructure is very real,
and growing all the time. As the head of one of the
world’s leading security firms, Kaspersky’s words carry
weight. When asked what the worst case scenario was, his advice
was to watch Die Hard 4.0, a Hollywood action movie where cyber
terrorists cause chaos by attacking vulnerable US IT infrastructure.
“States are scared,” Kaspersky said. “They’re absolutely not yet
ready for this challenge. They understand the problem, and it’s
huge. But they don’t yet have the strategy in place.” What applies
to states, also applies to oil and gas, and as a cornerstone of
infrastructure all around the globe, the energy industry needs to get
ready for increasingly regular and more sophisticated cyber attacks.
However, there are signs that progress is being made, and that
the threat is being taken seriously. One recent cyber attack on
an oil and gas company resulted in the Chief Executive Officer
personally delivering a deadline for system improvements to every
single Plant Manager across the organisation. This directive did not
come via a circular email, a company-wide teleconference, or a
monthly newsletter. It involved the CEO personally speaking with
every Plant Manager to reinforce the importance of the measures,
and to ensure the deadline would be met.
The reasons for the CEO’s involvement were clear. The attack
had resulted in a significant loss of time, money, and reputation,
both at national and regional company level. What’s more, it
was evident that the losses were preventable and would not
have been incurred had mistakes not been made. It was vital not
only that these mistakes should not be repeated, but that newly
emerging security threats in the oil and gas sector were also
insured against.

93
 Cyber meltdown
Cyber attacks are not new. On the eve of a major public holiday in
2012, an IT vulnerability was exploited. This targeted cyber attack
against several energy plants resulted in thousands of systems
being rendered inoperable. The cause of the devastation at such an
inconvenient time was a destructive computer virus, and all affected
plants needed urgent assistance to help remedy the situation.
Cyber security teams were contacted and mobilised to provide
urgent incident response based upon pre-existing action plans. A
best practice approach focuses on swiftly implementing six key
chronological stages – identify, isolate, remediate, verify, re-join
and monitor.
Resources were dispatched across numerous countries in
order to implement and execute this plan, and work was carried
out around the clock in order to bring the situation under control
and to accurately report the fallout of the attack. There had been
thousands of infections, and considerable resources were needed
in order to bring all impacted systems back on line.
The fallout – mandatory compliance
Despite thousands of impacted systems having to be rebuilt across
multiple plants, a combination of factors meant the production
environment and infrastructure were not adversely impacted.
Fortunately, the plant control systems themselves, the safety
systems, the supporting infrastructure and overall production
safety, were all unaffected and not a single hour of production
time was lost due to the incident.
Strong host security and the segregation of business and plant
networks had helped to contain the virus outbreak, but the virus
code itself was examined and classified as having been relatively
poorly written. In essence, a more sophisticated attack could have
had a devastating impact, but in this case the incident response
plan was swiftly implemented and proved to be effective.
It had been a close shave for this particular refinery. There was
a widely held view within the region that additional preventative
measures had to be introduced to defend against advanced
persistent threats. The realisation that the attackers were going to
become more sophisticated and potentially unleash a plethora of
attacks in the near future sparked a review of operations.
Options were discussed and considered at the highest possible
government levels, resulting in the introduction of cyber security
controls through mandated compliance. This directive also had a
mandatory compliance date, and despite the considerable size and
complexity of the various companies and plants involved, the first
phase was to be implemented within months rather than years.
The task was substantial, but all parties were aware that there
was a lot at stake. CEOs and Plant Managers sat down to urgently
consider multiple issues, including operating systems, updated
antivirus and anti-spyware, intrusion prevention, device control,
storage systems and centralised monitoring and management
of all plant assets. When the dust settled, the hard work of
implementation began.
Practice makes perfect
To illustrate how mandatory compliance worked in practice, it
is perhaps best to examine the efforts involved in one particular
plant. The plant in question is deemed to be one of the most
critical in its country, assisting in the production of millions of
barrels of oil per day. In fact, it is the largest plant of its type in
94 WORLD PIPELINES /
the world. The site on which it is located stretches over several
kilometres, and the plant has been in operation for about 30 years.
The path to cyber security compliance was split into two separate
phases, following the initial incident response process.
The first task was to set the baseline for a well defined, fast,
multi-tiered, reliable security infrastructure that could sustain
failures and continue to function when under attack. This involved
a number of planning and design meetings at a corporate level and
at the plant sites. The architecture proposed was based on the
standard recommended solutions developed over time and based
on the unique architecture of the plant IT systems. This security
infrastructure is well documented, tested thoroughly, and has been
executed several times previously.
With good reason, phase one timescales were extremely
aggressive. Once the approach was agreed upon, appropriate
network hardware was ordered for express delivery, cleared
customs, and arrived on site. Two members of the cyber security
team were then dispatched to the site and undertook a challenging
but rewarding 10 day implementation.
With the deadline met, the refinery now had a fully redundant,
fast, reliable, and secure network infrastructure and secure zones
to protect its systems in the event of another attack. The newly
installed controls would also help prevent such an attack from
occurring again in the future.
Protecting against advanced persistent threats
Phase two involved upgrading the existing distributed control
system (DCS), which was functional and reliable, but out-dated.
The plant had already performed an upgrade to the control system
network infrastructure, and was running a reliable and secure MESH
platform. The plan was to perform minor infrastructure upgrades
across the system without affecting production.
The solution involved upgrading to the latest distributed
control and safety system offerings, as well as the purchase of
new engineering and operator stations. State of the art security
technologies managed the entire environment in order to meet the
remaining criteria set out by the government directive.
As with phase one, timescales were again extremely tight, but
the necessary resources were deployed to ensure that all project
tasks could be delivered on time. The new environment was
secure, reduced maintenance costs, improved return on assets and
significantly improved flexibility.
Insulating against cyber attacks
The successful implementation of this coherent and integrated
strategy demonstrates the value of a joined-up approach when
dealing with cyber security in oil and gas. However, the threats
are ever present and attacks will continue to occur and evolve in
complexity. Adhering to mandatory compliance is just one part of
that process, but the energy industry needs to do even more to
stay ahead.
Energy is at the core of our infrastructure, underpinning
international trade and transport, and helping to fuel the world
economy. By acting now, the sector can insulate against the worst-
case scenarios that cyber attacks pose. Hollywood’s depiction
of widespread infrastructure chaos is genuinely terrifying, but
by putting the right systems in place, organisations can ensure it
remains the stuff of big screen blockbuster, rather than real-life
disaster.
 PIPELINE FOCUS
IPLOCA member contribution
Pipelines are still built in the same way as they always have been,
ever since pipes were laid some 80 years ago: individual 12 m
pipe lengths are transported by truck and laid along the side of a
ditch, welded together and then lifted and laid into the trench by
sidebooms.
Existing tried and trusted methods have served the industry
well over the years. Technical innovation arrived in the 1960s
with the introduction of hydraulic excavators, and in the 1970s
with automatic welding, both of which have contributed to a
substantial increase in construction efficiency and speed.
However, there is still a market driven demand for a shift in
technology to generate the required productivity improvements.
A project was initiated in 2004 by BP and IPLOCA under
the name of ‘Novel Construction’ and was aimed at increasing
onshore pipeline construction productivity to the level of
offshore methods. In the early days this project was also known
as the ‘Land Train’ or ‘Land Barge’.
After years of development in what was defined as the
‘innovation desert of onshore pipeline construction’, the
challenge was taken up by Marco Laurini of Laurini Officine
Meccaniche of Busseto, Italy. Winner or runner up of the
BP-sponsored IPLOCA Innovation Award in 2007, 2009, 2011
and 2013, Marco focused on what was defined within the Novel
Construction Initiative as ‘the ideal laying machine’ – a machine
or system that would meet the following requirements:
)) Would be totally safe. In other words, would not be subject
to tipping-over when overloaded.
)) Would be easily transported to the next project. Risks and
costs associated with machine transportation are more and
more important to pipeline contractors.
)) Would minimise ‘bureaucratic’ requirements such as
inspections and permissions and the huge amount of
paperwork that contractors have to meet in order to lay pipe
in certain countries.
)) Would be useable in developed regions with high quality fuel,
and also in less developed countries where only high sulfur
content diesel is available, without requiring the use of two
different fleet of machines.
)) Would be more economical in terms of initial investment.
Laurini, Italy
Laurini Laying System: line-up pipe/ditch.
)) Would allow a quantum leap in laying operation by
contractors.
“My vision”, says Marco Laurini, “was that a revolutionary
machine or laying system was needed to meet all of these
requirements. It took a lot of thinking out of the box,
developmental work and testing to create the Laurini Laying
System (LLS) but we think we have achieved all these objectives.
The LLS meets all the requirements of the ‘ideal laying machine’
and in addition provides other substantial benefits to the
contractor, to the client, and in the end also to the general
community.”
Key features
The LLS is totally safe for the operator. One track sits on the
right-of-way and the other track stays inside the trench. No
matter how much load exists on the machine, the LLS cannot
tip over. Unfortunately, it is sometimes still the case nowadays
that poor soil conditions, unexperienced operators and
incorrect laying techniques are causing sidebooms to tip over,
sometimes with dramatic consequences for the operator. Some
12% of all accidents in pipeline construction are due to lifting
and laying operations. This danger is completely eliminated
when using the LLS.
Having only one track on the right-of-way means that the LLS
needs approximately 3 m less right-of-way than using a traditional
sideboom with counterweight extended. This feature can be
critical in areas where a narrow right-of-way is imposed by the
95
 MACHINERYFOCUS
review

Advertisers’ client. In any case it constitutes a substantial saving opportunity for

the contractor: 3 m less to prepare, to maintain and to restore. For

Directory a length of 100 km this equals a saving of 30 hectares, which is over

60 soccer fields.
The load distribution between tracks gives another substantial
Advertiser Page advantage versus traditional sidebooms. Due to the revolutionary
design the maximum load on one of LLS tracks will be about 50% of
ABC 82 the maximum load on the left track of a traditional sideboom. This
American Augers 53 means better flotation and the capacity to work in worse terrain
conditions, thus extending the working range of the LLS system.
Borealis 70 Differing from the traditional sideboom, the LLS is not a lifting
Bor-it 44 device. It is therefore not subject to special certifications and
verifications by governmental or safety agencies. This constitutes
Corinth Pipeworks SA 21 a considerable saving for contractors, which cannot be quantified
17, 37
specifically but every contractor will know what type of benefit this
CRC-Evans
could be for operations.
Darby 35 Marco Laurini is particularly proud of one specific feature of
this new system: transportability. “Based on customer input coming
DENSO GmbH 43
from the field, we have developed in the past few years a welding
DMI International 48 tractor that could fit inside a 40 ft container. A similar system,
which is covered by International Patent, has been designed into
Enduro 65, 69, 73
the LLS, allowing each LLS unit to be disassembled into modules
Erciyas 2 that fit in a 40 ft open top container. Customers are telling us that
transportation costs of a container can be up to 70% lower for
Gulf Interstate Engineering 31
road transportation and 90% lower for ocean freight, compared to
Hoelscher Dewatering 85 transporting a traditional Ro-Ro machine”.
Another benefit of modular design is the possibility to swap
Holdtight Solutions, Inc. 51 engine modules as separate units. This not only allows proactive
Horizontal Drilling International 89 engine maintenance without interruption of operations, but also
allows for installation of Tier 4 or Tier 2/3 engines, according to the
Laurini 57 destination of the unit. With traditional sidebooms, a contractor
LCS Cable Cranes OFC, 91 will need two different machines in order to be able to work with
high sulfur content fuels, and in regulated countries.
Maats Pipeline Equipment OBC As far as economics, Laurini’s calculations indicate that the
Magnatech International IBC
LLS system requires one less unit for every five sidebooms used
in the laying operation. In addition, the LLS unit is lighter, simpler
Midwestern 4 and does not carry any dead counterweight, thus its unit cost
will be considerably lower than one traditional sideboom. The
Neptune Research, Inc. 15
LLS can handle various sizes of pipe, indicatively from 36 - 56 in.,
Pipeline Inspection Company Ltd 81 thus eliminating the need for two or three sizes of traditional
sidebooms. Laurini is now developing a smaller LLS system that will
PipeSak International IFC
use the same patented design to handle pipes from 18 - 36 in. All
Platipus Anchors 82 this will bring substantial savings to contractors for their pipe laying
operations.
Quest Integrity 23
“Do we think we have found the universal answer to all
Seal For Life Industries 41 pipelaying situations, or do we think the LLS will completely
substitute the traditional sidebooms? No”, says Marco Laurini, “we
Shawcor 9
are well aware that traditional working methods, or certain specific
STATS Group 59 portions of projects with high slopes, or some utility work done by
traditional sidebooms, will not cause the death or disappearance
Vacuworx 75 of traditional sidebooms. However, we are strongly convinced
Vermeer 27 that, like it happens for trenchers versus the traditional hydraulic
excavators, the LLS can provide a more economical, more efficient
Wasco 79 and certainly safer method of laying pipe.”
Weld Revolution 47 Laurini looks forward to providing IPLOCA members with
more details on the LLS, and to welcoming them to see the LLS in
World Pipelines 89 operation on various jobsites in the near future.

96
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