 In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” and its

interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an
expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
 He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted toward the
red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower frequency; thus, the
inference that the star or galaxy must be moving away from us.
 This is similar to the Doppler effect for sound waves: to a stationary observer, the frequency or
pitch of a receding source decreases as it moves away.
 When it is approaching, the sound seems to have a higher-than-normal pitch, and when it is
moving away, the pitch sounds lower than normal. This effect was first explained by Christian
Doppler in 1842 and is called the Doppler effect. The reason for the difference in pitch is that it
takes time for the wave to be emitted. If the source is moving away, the beginning of the wave
is emitted nearer to you than the end, which stretches the wave— that is, gives it a longer
wavelength (Figure 23.6). The opposite is true for an approaching source.
 The Doppler effect is important because it reveals whether Earth is approaching or receding
from a star or another celestial body. In addition, the amount of shift allows us to calculate the
rate at which the relative movement is occurring. Large Doppler shifts indicate high velocities;
small Doppler shifts indicate low velocities. Doppler shifts are generally measured from the dark
lines in the spectra of stars, by comparing them with a standard spectrum produced in the
laboratory
 Hubble discovered that the red shifts of galaxies increase with distance and that the most
distant galaxies are receding the fastest. This concept, now called Hubble’s law, states that
galaxies recede at speeds proportional to their distances from the observer.

Big Bang Theory

 As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang
Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot
mass to its present size and much cooler state.
 The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. In Einstein’s
General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General
Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury and the bending of light by the Sun
and has passed rigorous tests. The Cosmological Principle assumes that the universe is
homogeneous and isotropic when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our current
large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
 The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2) abundance of
hydrogen, helium, and lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background
radiation-the remnant heat from the bang.
Misconception: The “bang” should not be taken as an explosion; it is better thought of a simultaneous
appearance of space everywhere. The theory does not identify the cause of the “bang.”

Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory

 From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second later, all matter and energy in the
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state (fig. 7). It then underwent extremely rapid,
exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which and until 10 seconds from time zero,
conditions allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
 Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and produced protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and
then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after time zero when sufficient cooling did
not allow further nucleosynthesis.
 From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling universe entered a matter-dominated period
when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic microwave background radiation.
 As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected into clouds giving rise to only stars
after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies would form after 100 million years from time zero
during which, through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
 From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy dominated and
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the solar system
was formed

Tip: It was previously thought that the gravity would eventually stop the expansion and end the universe
with a “Big Crunch” and perhaps to generate another “bang” . This would occur if the density of the
universe is greater than the critical density. But if it is lower, there would be not enough gravitational
force to stop or reverse the expansion---the universe would expand forever leading to the “Big Chill” or
“Big Freeze” since it cools during expansion. The recent observation of accelerating expansion suggests
that the universe will expand exponentially forever.
Classifying Stars: H-R Diagrams

 Early in the 20th century, Einar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell independently studied the
relationship between the true brightness (absolute magnitude) of stars and their respective
temperatures. Their work resulted in the development of a graph, called a Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram (H-R diagram), that employs these intrinsic stellar properties. By studying H-R diagrams,
we can learn a great deal of information about the relationships among the sizes, colors, and
temperatures of stars
 The hottest main-sequence stars are intrinsically the brightest, and conversely, the coolest are
the dimmest
 The luminosity of main-sequence stars is also related to their mass. The hottest (blue) stars are
about 50 times more massive than the Sun, whereas the coolest (red) stars are only 1/10 as
massive. Therefore, on the H-R diagram, the main-sequence stars appear in decreasing order,
from hotter, more massive blue stars to cooler, less massive red stars.

 Above and to the right of the main sequence stars lies a group of very luminous stars called
giants, or, on the basis of their color, red giants (Figure24.8). The size of these giants can be
estimated by comparing them with stars of known size that have the same surface temperature.
Scientists have discovered that objects having equal surface temperatures radiate the same
amount of energy per unit area. Any difference in the brightness of two stars having the same
surface temperature can be attributed to their relative sizes. Therefore, if one red star is 100
times more luminous than another red star, it must have a surface area that is 100 times larger.
 Some stars are so immense that they are called supergiants. Betelgeuse, a bright red supergiant
in the constellation Orion, has a radius about 800 times that of the Sun.
 In the lower portion of the H-R diagram, opposite conditions are observed. These stars are much
fainter than main-sequence stars of the same temperature, and likewise are much smaller.
Some likely approximate Earth in size. These stars are called white dwarfs.
 Considering that almost 90 percent of stars lie on the main sequence, we can be relatively
certain that they spend most of their active years as main-sequence stars. Only a few percent
are giants, and perhaps 10 percent are white dwarfs.
Life Cycle

 Death of Low-Mass Stars Stars less than one-half the mass of the Sun (0.5 solar mass) consume
their fuel at relatively low rates
 Their only energy source is hydrogen fusion.
 Thus, low-mass stars never become bloated red giants. Rather, they remain a stable main-
sequence star until they consume their usable hydrogen fuel and collapse into hot, dense white
dwarfs.
 Death of Medium-Mass (Sun-Like) Stars Stars with masses ranging between one-half and eight
times that of the Sun have the same evolutionary history. During their red giant phase, Sun-like
stars fuse hydrogen and helium fuel at accelerated rates. Once this fuel is exhausted, these stars
(like low-mass stars) collapse into Earth-size bodies of great density—white dwarfs.
 Without a source of nuclear energy, white dwarfs become cooler and dimmer as they
continually radiate thermal energy into space. During their collapse from red giants to white
dwarfs, medium mass stars cast off their bloated outer atmosphere, creating an expanding
spherical cloud of gas. The remaining hot, central white dwarf heats the gas cloud, causing it to
glow. Recall that these spectacular, spherical clouds are called planetary nebulae
 Death of Massive Stars In contrast to Sun-like stars, which expire nonviolently, stars exceeding
eight solar masses have relatively short life spans and terminate in brilliant explosions called
supernovas
 During supernova events, these stars become millions of times brighter than they were in
prenova stages. If a star located near Earth produced such an outburst, its brilliance would
surpass that of the Sun.
 A supernova event is triggered when a massive star has consumed most of its nuclear fuel.
Without a heat engine to generate the gas pressure required to balance its immense
gravitational field, it collapses. This implosion is enormous, resulting in a shock wave that
rebounds out from the star’s interior. This energetic shock wave blasts the star’s outer shell into
space, generating the supernova event. Theoretical work predicts that during a supernova, the
star’s interior condenses into an incredibly hot object, possibly no larger than 20 kilometers in
diameter.
  These incomprehensibly dense bodies have been named neutron stars. Some supernova events
are thought to produce even smaller and more intriguing objects called black holes. We
consider the nature of neutron stars and black holes in the following section on stellar
remnants.

Galaxies

 The first galaxies were small and composed mainly of massive stars and abundant interstellar
matter. These galaxies grew quickly by accreting nearby interstellar matter and by colliding and
merging with other galaxies. In fact, our galaxy is currently absorbing at least two tiny satellite
galaxies.
 Spiral galaxies are flat, disk-shaped objects that range from 20,000 to about 125,000 light-years
in diameter. Typically, spiral galaxies have a greater concentration of stars near their centers,
but there are numerous variations. Spiral galaxies have arms (usually two) extending from the
central nucleus. Spiral galaxies rotate rapidly in the center, while the outermost stars rotate
more slowly, which gives these galaxies the appearance of a fireworks pinwheel.
 The central bulge contains older stars that give it a yellowish color while younger hot stars are
located in the arms. The young, hot stars in the arms are found in large groups that appear as
bright patches of blue and violet light (barred spiral galaxies)
 Elliptical galaxies have an ellipsoidal shape that can be nearly spherical, and they lack spiral
arms
 Some are so small that they are known as dwarf galaxies
 Large elliptical galaxies are generally composed of older, lowmass stars (red) and have minimal
amounts of interstellar matter. Thus, unlike the arms of spiral galaxies, they have low rates of
star formation. As a result, elliptical galaxies appear yellow to red in color, as compared to the
bluish tint emanating from the young, hot stars in the arms of spiral galaxies.
 Approximately 25 percent of known galaxies show no symmetry and are classified as irregular
galaxies. Some were once spiral or elliptical galaxies that were subsequently distorted by the
gravity of a larger neighbor. The best known irregular galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic
Clouds

Nebular Theory: Formation of the Solar System

 The Nebular theory, which explains the formation of the solar system, states that the Sun and
planets formed from a rotating cloud of interstellar gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and
dust called the solar nebula.
 As the solar nebula contracted due to gravity, most of the material collected in the center to
form the hot protosun. The remaining materials formed a thick, flattened, rotating disk, within
which matter gradually cooled and condensed into grains and clumps of icy, rocky material.
Repeated collisions resulted in most of the material eventually collecting into asteroid-sized
objects called planetesimals. The composition of planetesimals was largely determined by their
proximity to the protosun. As you might expect, temperatures were highest in the inner solar
system and decreased toward the outer edge of the disk. Then, through repeated collisions and
 accretion (sticking together) these asteroid-sized rocky bodies combined to form the four
protoplanets that eventually became Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Internal Structures

 The planets fall into two groups based on location, size, and density; the terrestrial (Earth-like)
planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), and the Jovian(Jupiter-like) planets(Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune). Because of their relative locations, the four terrestrial planets are also
known as “inner planets” and the four Jovian planets are known as “outer planets.” A
correlation exists between planetary locations and sizes—the inner planets are substantially
smaller than the outer planets, also known as gas giants. For example, the diameter of Neptune
(the smallest Jovian planet) is nearly four times larger than the diameter of Earth or Venus.
Furthermore, Neptune’s mass is 17 times greater than that of Earth or Venus

Cosmological Principle
 Observations to date support the idea that the Universe is both isotropic and homogeneous.
The cosmological principle derives from the Copernican Principle.

 A corollary to the cosmological principle is that the laws of physics are universal. The same
physical laws and models that apply here on the Earth also works in distant stars, galaxies, and
all parts of the Universe - this of course simplifies our investigations immensely. Note also that it
is assumed that physical constants (such as the gravitational constant, mass of the electron,
speed of light) are also the unchanging from place to place within the Universe, and over time.
 The clearest modern evidence for the cosmological principle is measurements of the cosmic
microwave background
 The greatest consequence of the cosmological principle is that it implies that all parts of space
are causally connected at some time in the past. Thus, a homogeneous Universe leads to the
conclusion that the whole Universe appeared at a single moment of time, a Creation.
 There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in the universe. Its
accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them the
physics Nobel Prize in 1978.

Earth Systems

 El Nino is not limited to atmospheric conditions. It is the result of hydrosphere (ocean)-

atmosphere interaction. The subsystems of the Earth (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
lithosphere) interact with each other.
 The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
 The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9%
 argon, and trace amount of other gases.
 One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
through atmospheric circulation.
 There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
 The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and
the solid metallic inner core.
 The Plate Tectonics as an important process shaping the surface of the Earth. The primary
driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.
 The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the
rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep
sea.
 For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is
released as a by-product. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the
carbon cycle.
 Sunlight is not necessary for life.
 About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form
of ocean water
 Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third
is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
 The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and
indirectly through the weathering of rocks.
 Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.
 Through the process of weathering and erosion, the hydrologic cycle is another important
process contributing to the shaping and reshaping of the surface of the Earth.
 The hypsographic curve is a graphical representation of the proportion of land at various
elevations (meters above or below sea level)