Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 219
Fundamentals of the Electric Arc Furnace
by J. R. Bello
The electric arc furnace has its roots back in the
early 1900's as a practical device for melting metal. It
has, however, been traced to 1800 with the discovery of
the carbon arc. The first production electric arc furnace
for metals melting was successfully installed in France
in 1900. This furnace of rather primitive design was a
two-electrode, single-phase unit with manual electrode
positioning and rectangular carbon electrodes (Figure
1).
During the period between 1900 and 1940, furnaces in
sizes ranging to 15 feet or 50 tons capacity were built
and supplied to specialty steel users. The direct arc
furnace was first thought to be only applicable as a
specialty steel producing tool particularly useful in
stainless and alloy steels. Just prior to World War 11,
the arc furnace began to realize substantial acceptance
in the steel industry for the production of plain carbon
steels with a corresponding increase in size and power
ratinas. During this period the electrical suppliers rec-
ognizing an interest in the equipment involvements de-
veloped improvements in the electrical equipment to
meet this fast expanding industry.
Perhaps the most significant improvements in electric
furnace design has taken place in the last ten years.
During this time, ultra-high-powered equipments have
been installed and power supplies extending beyond
200,000 kva are now contemplated. These furnaces are
highly sophisticated in their electrical design, but still
retain the original circular shape with the cantilevered
electrode positioning idea.
An electric arc furnace can operate using direct cur-
rent, single-phase alternating current, or three-phase
alternating current. The most widely accepted service
is a three-phase electrical supply system connecting
three electrodes mechanically displaced at 120". The
thermal energy produced in an arc furnace is radiation
at the foot of each of the three electrodes. Any metal
which will conduct electricity can be melted in an
electric arc furnace. Limitations must be applied to
certain low melting point metals, which in effect must
be treated very carefully in order to produce the de-
sired results with some degree of economy.
In a three-phase supply system, the power which
occurs at the tip of each of the three electrodes is elec-
trically displaced 120". Domestic power supplies use a
frequency of 60 cycles per second. At 60 cycles per sec-
ond or 60 Hertz, 120 bursts of energy will occur under
each of the three electrodes each second. The tempera-
ture of these arc bursts is the boiling point of the ma-
terial acting as the cathode during that period of igni-
tion and energy flow. For example, when the graphite
electrode becomes the emittor or energy producing
source, the power is transmitted from the tip of the
electrode to the scrap charge, leaving in its wake a
highly ionized resistance path. At this time the tempera-
ture of the arc will range from say 6,500" to 19,000°F.
During the opposite period, or interval when the arc
energy flows from the metal back to the electrode, the
arc temperature may be in the range of 6,000" to
9,000°F. Arc ignition and energy flow follows a somewhat
plastic path established by gases and vapors suspended
between the electrodes and the metal. The average or
mean temperature may be in the range of 6,000" to
9,000°F. Needless to say, this temperature is signifi-
cantly higher than the thermal resistance of the refrac-
J. R. BELL0 is a Staff Engineer, Lectrornelt Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Fig. 1--One of the first electric arc furnaces.
tories, and the arc flaring toward the refractories will
cause rapid wear patterns.
The effect at the foot of the electrode is quite like a
welding operation where a converter is used, either a
transformer or M-G set, stepping the voltage down from
a typical supply of 460 volts, three-phase, 60 cycles to
a low voltage required for weld metal fluidization. The
electric arc furnace uses a transformer which in effect
develops the low voltage required to create the electric
arc.
The three-phase electric arc furnace is the most prac-
tical type due to its compatibility with typical three-
phase utility transmission system. Single-phase furnaces
are built more for experimental purposes in rather
small sizes which will not disturb the utilities mains.
The amount of energy produced in the arc zone is a
function of the rating of the equipment, and is basically
a volt-ampere consideration. In an alternating current
profile, this volt-ampere relationship displaced by phase
angle or power factor produces kilowatts in the arc zone,
and these kilowatts can be directly related to energy in
the form of BTU, one kw-hr being equivalent to 3413
BTU. To explore this, let's consider a typical alternating
current circuit involving the three fundamental com-
ponents: voltage, current, and impedence. Ignoring for
the moment arc resistance and a small com~onentof
circuit resistance, the impedence element translates to
inductive reactance. So, essentially we have a voltage,
current, reactance consideration. The circuit reactance
causes volt-ampere displacement, the vector sum of
which is the energy or power that appears at the tip of
each electrode. In its simplier form, we can say an
analogy of this might be an automobile being stopped
from a sample speed of 60 mph. To stop the vehicle in-
volves a certain amount of reaction distance and brak-
ing distance, the sum of which then becomes the total.
If we assume that the energy or kilowatts in the arc to
be the actual distance traveled during braking reaction
time, that time required to apply braking or reactance
or kilovars of the circuit, the vector sum would then be
kva. Unfortunately the values do not add arithmetically
in the alternating current circuit but form a right tri-
angle. The circuit power vector is obtained from the
resulting angle.
This operating power factor varies according to fur-
nace size. On small electric arc furnaces, satisfactory
operation occurs in power factor ranges of 75 to 80%. As
220 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971

the furnace and power supplies become larger, lower

operating power factors are used due to the longer
overall electrical circuit length requiring higher secon-
dary voltages. This is necessary to obtain a desired arc
length which will not cause unusual refractory wear.
Arc radiation emission becomes a matter of equal dis-
tribution of energy at the tips of the three electrodes
with 1/3 of the measured kilowatts being supplied to
each electrode.
Since the average arc temperature of roughly 6500°F
never changes, in spite of energy input change, we con-
trol the thermal input by increasing and decreasing the
kilowatts thereby increasing or reducing the BTU in the
arc zone. For this reason, it is necessary to observe
caution in furnace operation at the end or the meltdown
period. At this time refractory wear can occur from a
high energy long arc sweeping across the metal surface
and bursting against the exposed refractories of the
sidewall and roof. In theory, no refractory damage can
occur during meltdown. The cold scrap has a high affin-
ity to absorb thermal radiation from the arc. In fact, the Fig. 3--Charging with a clam shell bi-parting type bucket.
hot face refractories actually dissipate latent or stored
heat into the scrap charge. The time of critical concern duced to essentially one half of the transformer name-
is the transition period between meltdown and the re- plate kva rating expressed in kilowatts. When the metal
fining energy levels. With cold scrap all around the is then totally fluidized in the furnace, samples are
slag line, no damage can occur from.the long meltdown
arc. However, if any area in the furnace becomes com- taken for metallurgical and chemical analysis and cor-
pletely melted away to the refractory surface during this responding adjustment made. The furnace may then be
period, the arc related to that particular electrode will slagged off by tilting backwards and then tilted forward
then impinge on the refractories. for tap out through the spout into a ladle to facilitate
In a typical electric arc furnace, the charge material a complete drain (Figures 4 and 5).
or scrap is vertically unloaded or drop charged into the During the finishing period, the power input is re-
refractory-lined steel jacketed vessel. This is done by duced by voltage adjustment of the furnace transformer,
clam shell or orange peel type charge bucket delivered creating an arc length which will drive the energy deep
to the furnace by overhead crane (Figures 2 and 3 ) . The into the liquid metal.
charge device is generally sized at about 80% of the vol-
ume metric holding capacity of the refractory lined ves-
sel interior. This provides a near uniform filling of the
furnace to the top flange. Due to scrap volume it is gen-
erally necessary to make a minimum of two charges in
order to get the proper heat size.
In o p e ~ t i o nduring meltdown, the electrodes drill
three throats through the scrap charge thereby reducing
approximately 15% of the total charge to fluid at the
hearth of the furnace. At this time, the liquid metal
begins to expand consuming the remaining scrap from
beneath and causing the metal to descend into the
liquid pool. During this descent, the scrap may tend to
tilt or come in contact with the electrodes requiring
rapid electrode withdrawal. When the first bucket
charge has been sufficiently reduced to accommodate the
second bucket, this charge is then dropped into the
furnace and the total scrap melted to fluid. During the
meltdown period, the furnace transformer operates at an
energy level consistent with its maximum rating. When
the metal is nearly fluid around the periphery of the Fig. &Tapping a 25-ton furnace.
slag line, the power input to the furnace should be re-

Fig. 2--Charging a furnace with an orange peel bucket. Fig. &Tapping a 200-ton furnace.

It is the furnace operator's judgment a t refining as to
power and arc length which will prevent rapid refrac-
tory wear and also establish a power input situation
consistent with raising temperature and meeting final
suecifications. The modern electric arc furnace provides
instrumentation to aid the furnace operator in-making
this determination. For example, in a typical steel- or
ironmaking operation, the equation for determining
when to add the second bucket charge or reduce the
power input for refining is a function of the scrap
weight charged into the furnace. It is a power-time
equation where the number of tons charged is multi-
plied by approximately 320 kilowatt-hours. This total,
when registered on the kilowatt-hour meter, should
represent the approximate time for recharge. After re-
charging, following the same procedure of measuring
the total tons charged by 320 kilowatt-hours, will give
an indication when to reduce the power for the refining
or finishing period. There are three basic factors which
affect the overall performance of the electric arc furnace
as related to refractories, electrodes, and power con-
sumption.
1. The power input distribution to each of the three
electrodes must be symmetric.
2. The furnace should be mechanically in good repair
and maintenance with the electrodes truly vertical and
equally spaced.
3. Distribution of scrap, where the scrap should be
graded from the heaviest material at the bottom of the
furnace to the lightest at the top. The furnace should be
uniformly filled and all zones properly covered with
scrap. The charge buckets should be opened quickly so
that the metal, if properly located in the charge box,
wili then relocate in the furnace with the heaviest at
the bottom and the lighter, fluffy scrap at the top. Fol-
lowing this procedure, refractory erosion adjacent to
the three electrodes should be relatively uniform.
If, at any time, unusual wear occurs in any one of the
arc zones, this could be attributed to non-compliance in
any one of the three areas outlined above.
The electrical equipment in the electric arc furnace
involves a utility transmission system, generally at sub-
transmission voltages delivered to the furnace trans-
former primary windings (Figure 6 ) . The furnace trans-
former and power equipment is generally located in a
vaulted enclosure designed to accommodate the ~ h v s i c a l
equipment size (Figure 7 ) . Furnace transformers are
made up in on-load as well as off-load tap changing
equipment. Tap changers are ratio adjusting mechanisms
necessary to secure the voltages required to accommo-
date the varying power input requirements for melting
and finishing. The furnace transformer is not unlike a
utility power transformer in that it has an iron care and
uses copper or aluminum windings separated with an
insulating barrier. In the case of the furnace trans-
former, however, the high voltage coils are wound next
to the iron core, an insulating barrier, and the low
voltage heavy copper or aluminum bus sections wound
on the outside. The bus bars representing the coil ends
are brought up through the tank cover arranged for
Fig, 6-Electrical line diagram of a typical orc furnace.
Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 221
Fig. 7-Furnoce transformer installation.
connection in delta for attachment to the conductors
going to the electrodes. Tap changing or ratio adjust-
ment is always done in the primary winding where the
current or ampere flow is significantly lower than in the
secondary. Off-load transformer tap changers are gen-
erally arranged to make available four or six tap posi-
tions at the operator's control panel. On small furnace
applications, generally up to 10,000 kva, four tap posi-
tions are selected from twelve available voltages in the
furnace transformer. Six of these voltages are in pri-
mary delta-secondary delta, the other six in the primary
wye, secondary delta profile. The latter six represent
reduced capacity or low energy levels of voltages useful
for final finishing and holding metal temperature await-
ing the ladle. Above 10 mva with off-load tap changers,
six taps are selected again from the twelve total taps as
outlined above.
In nearly all cases the secondary or low voltage
winding of the furnace transformer is connected in
delta. In the early days of electric furnace operation,
furnace transformer secondaries were connected in wye.
The neutral leg of this wye was brought out and at-
tached to the bottom center of the furnace shell. Un-
fortunately, in such an arrangement, if nonconductive
material-such as wood, cloth or brake shoes, should
insulate two electrodes-the third, having an electrical
connection to the furnace transformer, could melt
through the bottom of the furnace since insufficient
metal would be delivered to the basin during meltdown.
With the advent of the delta-connected furnace trans-
former secondary, the possibility of electrically melting
through the hearth has been eliminated, but unfortu-
nately there are occasional run-outs and burn throughs
due to lining problems.
The electric arc furnace operating switch or circuit
breaker has for many years been a very difficult prob-
lem for electrical manufacturers as well as furnace
builders. The arc furnace imposes the most stringent
switching duty of any power electrical equipment. The
earliest switches were oil circuit breakers with their
related maintenance due to oil contamination. These
were superceded by air magnetic circuit breakers which
did a fine job electrically, but again were simply ham-
mered to pieces mechanically. In order to provide good
switching performance, the air magnetic unit had to
function extremely fast. This meant high inertia on the
moving parts and usual stresses on the linkages or con-
necting pins. These linkages and other mechanical parts
would fail and require frequent maintenance. The main-
tenance, however, on this switch type was far less fre-
quent than on the old oil circuit breakers. Recently,
hybrid switching devices have become available, and a t
this time perhaps the most desirable switching device
for the arc furnace is the vacuum interruptor. This
method involves tungsten conductor rods impregnated
with a low melting point ionizing alloy in a glass-vac-
uum evacuated envelope (Figure 8). The complete
222 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
"bottle," as it is termed, is located in a porcelain en-
closure and requires very little mechanical force for
operation. As a result, it has been most successfully
applied to eIectric furnace applications. Its overall phys-
ical size makes it ideal for location adjacent to the
furnace transformer in the transformer room vault
(Figure 8 ) .
Capacitors are sometimes used for power factor cor-
rection on electric arc furnace installations, particu-
larly in large electric furnace operations where melt-
down power factors are in the 70% range (Figure 9 ) .
Utility power contracts imply that some power factor
improvement is necessary in order to reduce the kvar
load on step-down transformers and transmission sys-
tems. This sometimes appears as a "penalty" in the bill-
ing contract. We have found that the use of capacitors
requires consideration from the standpoint of over volt-
ages and switching. The capacitors should be rated for
the highest system voltage excursion, and should take
into account harmonic penetration from furnace opera-
tion. If possible, the capacitors should be located at a
position in the system where it will not be necessary to
switch them frequently. This is particularly true on
large capacitor bank installations.
The arc furnace electrical circuit toward tlhe furnace
from the furnace transformer is designed to reduce
inductive effects in such high current applications. This
means transposing the winding ends of the furnace
transformer to minimize the inductance and also make
greater use of the copper or aluminum bus sections.
The delta closure at the furnace transformer, either
made up by air-cooled or water-cooled bus connections
from the furnace transformer secondary terminals, goes
through the transformer room wall for connection to the
--
Fig. &Vacuum interruptor rated 15 kv 600 amps.
Fig. 9-Capocitor bank instollation adjacent to step-down trans-
former.
flexible conductors. Inside the wall, the bus connections
are made at various elevations so the secondary bus
bars may pass each other in closing the delta vector. The
bars are then rigidly emplaced in the transformer room
wall and insulated to prevent current flow between the
phase sections. On medium and large furnaces the total
secondary system is arranged in a triangular form. The
reason for this "triangulation" as it is called is an effort
to balance the power input between each of the three
phases by equidistant mechanical centers between the
three phases. This provides a situation where each of
the electrodes will deliver the same amount of energy.
Water-cooled or air-cooled cables are used as a
method of carrying the current from the terminal head
connection point at the transformer room wall to the
terminal head at the furnace side (Figures 10 and 11).
Flexibility in this area is necessary to permit the fur-
nace to rock or tilt for slagging and emptying, and also
to provide flexibility in roof swing for vertical charging
of scrap.
On the furnace, the water-cooled bus tubes, located
above the electrode arms, are also arranged in a tri-
angular profile. With electrical triangulation resulting
from the mechanical arrangement of secondary flexible
cables and bus tubes and the obvious 120" displace-
ment of the electrodes, an effort should be made to keep
the electrode arms at the same relative elevation. This
can be done by slipping the electrodes just prior to
meltdown, or during the early phase of meltdown, such
that the arms do become essentially level, thereby en-
hancing the possibility of getting good uniform electri-
cal energy distribution at the tips of the electrodes.
On small arc furnaces, generally below 5,000 kva tri-
angulation of the secondary conductors is not done since
Fig. l&Furnace equipped with air-cooled cables.
Fig. 11-Furnace equipped with water-cooled cables.
 Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 223

a sizable reactor acting as a symmetric impedence is

included in the furnace transformer.
Graphite electrodes act as the conductor material for
the energy flow to the arc. Graphite, incidentally, is an
excellent material to produce a high temperature arc
since it has a extremely high boiling point. It also pro-
duces high levels of ionization or vaporization which
then causes a quick return reaction or circuit connec-
tion from the metal back to the electrode to provide
continuous arcing.
There are a number of methods of electrode control
applicable to the electric arc furnace: electrical, me-
chanical, hydraulic, and combinations of hydraulic and
pneumatic (Figures 12-16).
There are two salient entities in the operation of the
arc furnace. These are power circuit stability and ac-
curate electrode positioning control. We will deal with Fig. 1 L A s s e m b l y of magnetic variable (flux clutch) drive.
the power circuit consideration a little later. As regards

Fig. 16-Control module for one phase of magnetic variable coupling.

Fig. 12-Wiring diagram of contactor regulator using d.c. motors.

the electrode positioning control system it should be
fast, accurate, and responsive to the error signals, this
error being developed as a product of the phase to
P --! neutral voltage and line current reference. Such an
"Impedence" control permits operation at a constant
power factor and arc length in spite of line voltage
variation consistent with good operation. The electrode
travel speed should permit fast electrode movement
especially when the scrap topples against the electrodes
and the controller must then elevate the electrodes at
high speed to reduce the stresses of such a short circuit
on the utility system's supply and furnace electrical
equipment.
The electrode speed, particularly during cave-ins, and
the period when electrodes are being raised to swing the
roof, should on small furnaces be in the range of 13
feet per minute to the largest furnaces up to 20 feet per
Fig. 13-Assembly of rotating amplifiers tor electrode control. minute. During automatic normal electrode control
electrode speeds of about 8 feet per minute down and 8
feet per minute raise serves the melting needs quite ef-
fectively providing the maximum available ascent travel
speed automatically occurs on scrap cave-in short cir-
cuits.
The electrode control should provide a uniform power
input control in maintaining a very narrow kilowatt
envelope (Figure 17).
High response in the electrode drive system is de-
sirable in order to minimize the disturbances to the
power system while the electrodes are in arcing opera-
tion. A high speed system will also reduce the fre-
quency of furnace circuit breaker operations. This high
speed can only be available if the electrode drive sys-
tem has very low inertia. In an electromechanical sys-
tem, the drive motor therefore should have a high
torque to inertia ratio. The drive system should be
capable of forcing the arm-column-electrode assembly
into its natural frequency. This natural or resonant
frequency on large electric arc furnaces is in the neigh-
borhood of four cycles per second. This means that a
Fig. 1 k A s s e m b l y of static (S.C.R.) regulating system. responsible electrode control system or one being able

I
224 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
Fig. 17-Typical power input (kw) recording of a furnace heat.
to position at the rate of 15 cycles per second would
reach the natural node of a conventionally designed
electric arc furnace mechanical system (Figure 18).
Beyond this, resonance would precipitate hunting and
require reduced gain in order to produce uniform con-
trol. In all cases where electromechanical systems are
involved, a gear box is necessary to act as a speed re-
ducer between the electrode drive and the drum capstan
for rope positioning. The load in this case is overhauling
in the down direction, and since you cannot push a rope,
the electrodes always descend by gravity. A number of
variations of hydraulic systems have been used, these
are both hydraulic cylinder piston arrangements for
raising and lowering of electrodes as well as hydraulic
motors acting directly on gear boxes with rope drums.
In operation, the electrodes are raised to full height
and the roof swung around for charging. This is done by
appropriate control actuators. With the roof swung, the
batch charge can be added to the furnace. The furnace
operator then returns the furnace roof onto the fur-
nace usually from a separate control stand which posi-
tions the roof. The remote location of the roof lift and
swing apparatus is used in order to permit the furnace
operator good visual access to this area when this func-
tion is being performed. After the charge has been added
to the furnace and the roof returned and lowered, the
furnace operator closes the furnace circuit breaker,
turns the furnace control into its automatic mode oi
operation. At this time the electrodes descend and begin
the meltdown procedure. The electrodes randomly con-
tact the scrap which means that one electrode will
usually touch before the other two. When this first
electrode contacts the scrap, it stops. It stops because its
descent signal resulting from the phase to neutral volt-
age is reduced to zero. In other words, the control ele-
ment which causes the electrode to descend is taken
directly from the electrode to the bottom grounded
center of the hearth. When the second electrode con-
tacts the metal, a single phase situation is developed
and energy flows between the two electrodes. They then
Fig. 18-Electrode travel speed oscillograrn.
begin to melt, and when a third electrode contacts,
three-phase power contact occurs.
Electrodes are added at the top and this is done by
adding a nipple to a machined socket in the top end of
the electrode, and then adding a new electrode to this
insert. The electrodes are tightened with a chain wrench
and then adjusted in the electrode holder. Electrodes
should never be clamped in a joint. Normally, the
graphite producers of electrodes use a narrow white
band painted on the electrode as the space within which
the electrode must not be clamped. Slipping the elec-
trode can be done shortly after a new charge is dropped
into the furnace. The melter will meltdown until he
creates a socket in each of the three electrode zones. At
this point, the furnace circuit breaker is tripped. The
electrodes can then be lowered into this socket, the
power clamp released, the electrode arms raised to the
new elevation, and the electrodes clamped again. This
method does not involve the overhead crane.
Typical commercial arc furnaces range in size from 4
foot ID rated 1200 pounds and powered with about 500
kva to 32 foot rated 400 tons, and powered in excess of
150,000 kva. A 32-foot furnace is now in operation at
Northwest Steel and Wire Company at Sterling, Illinois.
Modern foundry furnaces range in size from 8 foot to
12' 6" with holding capacities of 5 to 30 tons and
powered with transformers ranging from 3,500 to 15,000
kva. Nominal transformer primary voltages range from
13.8 kv to 34% kv.
One of the most important matters in good furnace
performance is a good ground connection between the
furnace shell bottom and the electrode control equip-
ment. The ground connection should be a flexible con-
ductor attached precisely at the bottom center of the
furnace shell, and brought directly to the electrode con-
trol system, then tied to the common ground of the
earthing system in the building.
When the refractories are cool in the furnace, or after
a new lining has been installed, the refractories mate-
rial does not conduct well. This means that a good con-
duction path between the metal and the furnace shell
is not available. To assist regulation at this time, a pipe
should be laid across the furnace hearth under the
charge and this pipe then jammed aaginst the furnace
door to provide a ground connection until the refrac-
tories become hot and conductive. When the refractories
are hot they will conduct properly. Magnesium oxide
and aluminum oxide both act as good conductors be-
tween the furnace basin to ground. Silica refractories,
however, do not have this resource. In cases where elec-
tric arc furnaces are lined with acid material, ground
rods must be located in the bottom of the furnace
brought up through the refractories material and then
flattened out over the surface of the refractories. This
is necessary to provide a good ground circuit connection
during operation, since acid refractories tends to sur-
face sinter and remain in power form several inches
under the glazed hot face. With acid bottoms, ground
straps should be attached to the shell of the furnace di-
rectly beneath each of the three electrodes and a fourth
strap in the bottom center of the furnace. These straps
should be %" thick, 1%" wide, and say 42" long, welded
in the zones required and brought up through the re-
fractories. The brick or ramming material should be
laid around these straps so they can project up through
the final impacked refractories. They can then be bent
over against the outer face of the hearth. This ground-
ing is a vital part of good acid electric arc furnace per-
formance.
In order to determine if the ground of the furnace is
effective, you can proceed as follows. With liquid metal
in the furnace, insert a pipe into the liquid with the fur-
nace in operation at a low tap, and bring this pipe into
contact with the furnace shell at the door. If sparking
occurs, this means that the ground connection at the
bottom center of the furnace is not effective. I n this
case, it would be desirable to keep a pipe connection
under the charge against the door of the furnace in each
of the consecutive heats until the sparking disappears.

If acid refractories are used in the furnace, it may be
necessary to drill up through the bottom and drive a
rod into the hearth in order to create a ground connec-
tion. When sparking does occur with the metal fluid in
the furnace, you can almost expect excessive electrode
breakage during meltdown and extremely erratic fur-
nace operation. It could also cause unusual refractories
wear, simply because the electrode control system is
not truly neutral at the bottom center of the furnace.
This is a point at the precise center of the delta vector
formed by the secondary circuit of the furnace trans-
former.
Since small electric arc furnaces seem to operate bet-
ter at power factors generally higher than large fur-
naces, regulation of small furnaces is more difficult.
The very large furnaces seemingly require very little
electrode control where the scrap is literally blasted
out from under the electrode. In order to sustain and
follow and arc near its threshold of stability, as is the
case in the small electric furnaces, the control must be
extremely reliable. With a related longer arc on the
small furnaces, less latitude for control over-shoot oc-
curs and the regulator, in order to control the relative
longer arc, of necessity must be much more responsive.
So much for the theoretical side. Now let us consider
the practical aspect of the electric arc furnace. I believe
that the most important concern of a furnace user is to
have a good understanding of how and why the arc
performs. We have all looked in the furnace and we
have all seen the arc in operation at the tip of the elec-
trodes. In order to comprehend exactly how the energy
is transmitted from the electrode, let us again review
some of the discussion items. First of all, arc tempera-
ture. The arc temperature in an electric arc furnace
never changes. The average arc temperature is a func-
tion of the materials producing the arc. Reducing or
increasing the kilowatt input of the furnace does not in
any way affect the actual temperature of this arc. Short-
ening the arc or lengthening the arc in no way affects
this temperature. The transfer of energy at the foot of
the electrodes is affected by making adjustments both
to raise or lengthen, lower, or shorten the arc, which
will increase or decrease the actual kilowatt input to
the furnace.
Ignition intervals, during both the times of the elec-
trode acting as the cathode and the metal response, af-
fect the shape of the sine wave input and produce addi-
tional variations on its shape which are called harmon-
ics. Depending on the nature of operation, long arc or
short arc, high or low power input, this characteristic
could be modified to the point where the actual fre-
quency produced in harmonics from-the arc could be
in the high kilocycle range.
Ionization or conductive vapors which occur in the
electric arc zone, both during the positive and negative
period, produce a resistance path from th? electrode to
the metal. The gases in this zone are highly conductive
and provide the ignition and re-ignition paths from the
electrode to the metal. The result of looking at the arc
gives the appearance of one continuous arc stream, elec-
trode to metal. This gaseous and plastic resistor can be
influenced by a number of factors. There is a weather
influence, for example. Many of you will find that your
furnace will perform better in the summer than it does
in the winter. As humidity is generally higher in the
summer months, this high humidity tends to cause the
electrode to operate slightly closer to the metal. The
result is a better thermal distribution of energy from
the tip of the electrode to the metal.
The actual arc length is a function of secondary vol-
tage, impedence, circuit design, and ionization density.
An example of extreme ionization density and perhaps
the best one that comes to mind, is a small electric fur-
nace operation in Northeastern Ohio. This customer
charged some zinc-coated scrap into their furnace. When
they began to meltdown, the electrodes retracted to the
roof of furnace. The instrumentation on the operator's
panel indicated that everything was normal in the fur-
nace. The fact is that it was normal as far as power in-
Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 225
put was concerned. The kilowatts were there, the volt-
amp relationship was there, but the electrodes were
certainly not melting. This extreme condition was cre-
ated by the high level of zinc in the furnace which pro-
duced a super ionization situation between the electrodee
where all the input energy was being transmitted from
electrode to electrode rather than from electrode to
scrap. In varying degrees this type of ionization prob-
lem occurs in all operating electric arc furnaces. A cer-
tain amount of energy is bled from electrode to electrode
during operation. It increases as the arc length increases,
however, and if the arc length then becomes greater
from electrode to metal than it is from electrode to elec-
trode, the electrodes will retract possibly to full height
with no appreciable change in power input.
Most new furnace installations are equipped with
smoke and fume collection apparatus which tend to
ventilate the furnace and can reduce this problem.
However, there still remains a problem with certain
low melting point residual metals which can get into
the scrap and cause unusual power input consumption.
In fact the super ionization situation can very easily be
detected if significant changes occur in the kilowatt-
hour consumption per ton or heat. An analysis review
of the scrap in such a situation may reveal that unusual
levels of low melting point residuals are the problem.
Scrap quality is fundamental in developing good elec-
tric furnace performance. Ionization excess causes un-
usual happenings in the electric furnace where low
melting point residuals can really be a liability. Scrap
dealers are cognizant of the various qualities of scrap.
Generally, the more costly scrap does produce fewer
difficulties and will provide the best operating econom-
ics.
If, in the electric furnace, we were arcing from a
graphite electrode to a graphite pad, the arc length
would be an absolute dimension. This arc gap at a spe-
cified power input would be maintained all the time.
However, since various types of scrap are used in the
furnace, the arc length varies depending on that type
of scrap and hence the thermal transfer varies accord-
ingly. We have no control over the type of scrap that
customers use and it is up to the customer then to do
his homework in data collecting on the various types
of scrap that he purchases for a given furnace opera-
tion. It is often the case that saving a dollar or two per
ton on certain types of scrap develops costs of $10 to
$15 per ton in the melt shop. Such an economic ap-
praisal can very easily point up the need to purchase
better quality. This means a good communication liaison
between the purchasing agent and the melt shop and
the importance of not using arbitrary judgment in pur-
chasing raw material.
Visual as well as audible indications of refractories
damaging arc lengths are part of the arc furnace scene.
A good melter can easily detect the cutting sound of
arc flare. This can also be detected during the refining
period by simply opening the door of the furnace. If
sparks issue from the furnace, this means that the va-
pors and gases from the tip of the electrode to the metal
are actuaIly impinging on the refractories surface and
are causing refractories erosion. During the finishing
period, with the door opened, and assuming there are no
small chunks of graphite floating around to intercept an
electrode and produce a burst of flare energy, the fur-
nace should be very quiet and have a smooth 60 cycle
hum.
As the electric arc furnace, during meltdown, drills
three holes through the scrap, the actual amount of
metal delivered to the hearth is a function of a number
of factors and the character of the scrap. Most signifi-
cant is secondary voltage and residual scrap carbon
Properly designed, the voItage should be correct for the
furnace size and power rating. Carbon is a vehicle for
thermal conductivity. As the carbon levels increase, the
throat size will increase. As the carbon levels decrease,
the throat size will cause a very narrow socket to be
drilled through the scrap and result in cave-ins high u p
on the electrode column with resulting breakage. This
226 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
would imply that if the charge carbon is quite low,
higher voltage and longer arc would be necessary to
produce the desired result of delivering about 15% of
charge into fluid metal to the hearth. With low carbon
and a small throat through the scrap, the insufficient
metal in the basin will be super-heated and cause
hearth refractories eruption. The hearth will spa11 or
become quite soft. This may also cause scrap bridging
and adhesions. The charge carbon should be somewhere
around 0.3 to 0.8%.
Chemical and metallurgical adjustment should be
made after the metal is fluid. If the aim is for unusually
low carbon such as the stainless steel heat, you simply
could not do a good job in melting down all stainless
since the lack of carbon would cause an unusually
small meltdown throat and precipitate the problems
outlined.
In order to develop an electric arc and do a reasonably
good job with scrap steel, the phase-to-phase voltage
should not be below 150 volts. As a result, on electric
arc furnace transformers below 7,500 kva, iron core re-
actors are used and mounted inside the furnace trans-
former case. This means that varying amounts of re-
actance will be used in furnace transformers from say
1,000 kva having a 35% or a 350 kva reactor to 7,500 kva
at 10% or a 750 kva reactor. The reactor does not cause
a voltage drop at no load and will give a full voltage
impulse to pierce or puncture through rusted or coated
scrap at initial contact. As the load increases with cur-
rent flow the reactor produces a voltage reduction to a
level consistent with the furnace transformer rating.
The total circuit reactance in a typical electric arc fur-
nace involves between 52 and 65% total. In furnaces
less than 10,000 kva, a great portion of this is made up
in the iron core reactor. As a result, this component,
which is symmetric by winding design and flux linkage
within the transformer tank, does not contribute to an
unbalance operation.
On a typical 3,000 kva electric arc furnace trans-
former, the supplemental reactance or iron core reactor
in the transformer is 25%. This is 750 kva of reactance
in series with the primary windings, and will provide a
25% voltage drop under full load conditions.
Above 10 mva, no supplemental reactor is used, and in
fact efforts are made to reduce the reactance, especially
intraphase reactance. This is the reason for triangulation
of the secondary conductors. At these power levels the
secondary flexible conductors represent about 40% of
the total circuit reactance with the bus tubes involving
perhaps 30%, the electrodes 20%, and the remainder in
the delta enclosure and primary supply. On these larger
furnaces, flux linkage is an extremely important factor
in obtaining good furnace balance. The conductor spac-
ing should form an equilateral triangle. The triangle
ideally should be sustained a t all times during operation.
Obviously, its not possible to have the arms of the fur-
nace level throughout meltdown since the scrap is ran-
domly distributed in the furnace, and one electrode con-
ceivably could be melting through a light scrap section
while another electrode is working on very heavy dense
scrap. This will always shake out to be offsetting with
uniform scrap distribution and will result in uniform re-
fractories wear in the three sectors in the furnace.
r h e electrodes in an electric arc furnace should al-
ways be truly vertical and the face to face spacing of
the electrodes should be such as to provide an equilat-
eral triangle, or 120" displacement between the elec-
trodes. The objective in good electric arc furnace design
is to use the smallest possible electrode size with a mini-
mum electrode pitch diameter. This means the electrodes
should be held as close together as possible within the
mechanical clearance tolerances, such that the distance
between the face of the electrode and the inside hot face
refractories is maximized.
Furnace powering has steadily increased over the
years with better refractories and improved electrodes.
Both of these expendables will obviously continue to
improve as time goes on and furnace powerings will
continue to increase. Ten years ago the standards for
electric arc furnaces were in the 80 to 100 kva per square
foot of hearth cross section. These have been superceded
and we are now using hearth loadings in the 200 kva per
square foot range. Again, these higher powered fur-
naces require careful electrical design, and demand the
use of the smallest possible electrode size with mini-
mum pitch diameter circles to contain the effect of arc
flare. Consistent with arc control, is the low impedance
furnace circuit design which in effect offers operation of
the furnace at lower voltages with corresponding higher
currents. Again higher currents call for larger diameter
electrodes or electrodes that have lower resistivity fac-
tors. It almost goes without saying that as we progress
in the direction of increasing the power input to arc
furnaces, more and more demands will be put on the
electrode suppliers to develop electrodes that are of
extremely high purity so that smaller diameters can b%
used with a given size furnace and power supply. Cor-
responding improvements in refractories will be neces-
sary to provide longer useful operating campaigns to
dilute the furnace downtime.
We often have inquiries relating to incipient sparking
or arcing around the furnace, furnace shell, or tap spout.
Obviously safety is no small factor in the melt shop and
we recognize our responsibility relative to the safe op-
eration of all electrical equipment, be it in the trans-
former vault or around the furnace. Unfortunately the
electric arc furnace can tolerate only one ground with-
out substantially impeding its satisfactory operation as
regards regulation. This ground should be located at
the bottom center of the shell. No other grounds should
be attached to the furnace. We have heard of cases
where customers have experienced sparking and arcing
around the roof ring, the tap spout, and charging door
and have grounded these areas. The grounds then
quickly melt off and the customer becomes more
alarmed. The voltages that are apparent as a result of
this sparking are generally below 20 volts. The threshold
of sensitivity for personnel safety is approximately 40
volts. Obviously, a man should not be on top of the fur-
nace, in the proximity of the electrodes, the secondary
flexible conductors, the furnace transformer primary
conductors, or any other area where power voltages are
involved during operation. However, it is not uncom-
mon to obtain spoon specimens from the furnace while
the electrodes are arcing. Nor is it uncommon to make a
temperature test while the electrodes are in operation
in the furnace. Certainly, the furnace operator should
avoid bringing his sampling spoon or his temperature
measuring probe into contact with an electrode during
this time. The biggest hazard in an arc furnace as re-
lated to the secondary voltage side is burns. Since an
arc furnace is like a welding operation, severe burns
can occur if metallic objects are brought in contact with
an electrode, with a secondary bus tube, terminal head,
or a connection to an air-cooled secondary flexible con-
ductor during the time the circuit breaker is closed. Not
only surface burns, but also severe eye arc burns have
occurred from watching the electric arc.
In an effort to minimize the amount of secondary bus
copper used in the furnace transformer through the wall
to the terminal connection flexible conductors, low vol-
tage current transformers are installed within the fur-
nace transformer proper. These current transformers
are located on one of a number of parallel low voltage
bus sections. As a result of their electrical location in
the parallel secondary groupings, some inaccuracy may
occur on these low voltage CT's. This inaccuracy', of
course, is reflected in the secondary current measure-
ment. This error, due to impedance coupling at the vari-
ous transformer tappings is generally found to be uni-
form between the phases and does provide reliable elec-
trode regulation. Power measurements, kilowatts, kilo-
watthours and kilovars should be made in the primary
circuit as electrical noise as well as varying voltage in
the secondary precludes accuracy across the complete
tap range.
Electric arc furnaces sometimes have inherent hot
spots akin to the electrical conductor arrangement. A

good method of determining the hot zone is to perform
a so-calIed short circuit or impedance test. This is done
by selecting a transformer tap which will cause full load
current to flow in the secondary circuit with this tap
position, usually the lowest delta-delta connection, and
a flat bath in the furnace, run the electrodes into the
liquid metal. The metal penetration should be perhaps
18 to 24 inches for good electrical contact of liquid metal
and electrodes. The electrode arms should be level. Dur-
ing the time the electrodes are in the metal, measure
the primary kilowatts, primary kilovars or phase angle
on each of the three phases in the primary, and also
primary and secondary currents and primary and sec-
ondary voltages both phase-to-phase and phase-to-neu-
tral. This test procedure will provide a complete evalua-
tion of the system under sine wave conditions.
A simpler method is to proceed as above, immersing
the electrodes into the liquid metal and simply record
the three phase primary watts on the wattmeter. Raise
"A" phase out of the metal while leaving "B" and "C"
phase in, again record watts. Run "A" phase back in
and raise "B" phase; record watts and do the same for
"C" phase. The variation between these single-phase
(two electrode penetration) tests is the furnace unbal-
ance.
With triangulation of the secondary conductors, the
quantity of imbalance is reduced and reasonably uni-
form power input distribution is available to each of
the three phases. If an unbalance of power input exists,
the refractories damaging effects of the hot phase can
best be controlled by increasing the current to this
phase. This may seem contrary to solving the problem,
but in fact works best since this adjustment will create a
shorter arc on the hot phase thereby reducing the arc
flare impingement.
There has been much discussion on just how you go
about starting a cold furnace. In starting a cold furnace,
the best measure of electrode control with power cir-
cuit stability is for the furnace operator to observe the
secondary flexible conductors and/or phase ammeters.
On Monday morning after the furnace has been down
over a weekend, for example, with cold electrodes and
cold scrap charge in the furnace, arc ionization vaporiza-
tion or the gaseous resistance path between the elec-
trodes to the metal is at minimum. The graphite elec-
trodes, having a high affinity to produce ionization or a
conductor path, will cause conduction to occur during
interval whenever the electrode acts as the emitter. If
the high transformer tap is used, extreme bursts of en-
ergy will occur from the electrodes to the metal (diod-
ing) without re-ignition from the metal back to the
electrode. This results in unusual violence with the
electrodes dancing and the cables whipping. Under
these conditions the power input should be reduced to
approximately 50% of the original meltdown power.
Whenever the cables begin to quiet down, the tap changer
can be increased to a position at a time to full power,
again observing the cables as you go along. The time in-
terval, depending on furnace size and power input, is
generally from three to eight minutes. After the furnace
refractories are hot, and if they remain hot during con-
secutive charges, recharges, or start-ups after the fur-
nace has been tapped empty, the furnace can be started
after charging on the highest energy level. There has
been much discussion about roof wear as a result of
starting on the high tap with the electrode being close to
the roof and the cap scrap being closer to this area. We
have not found this to be valid in most cases, since again
during the meltdown period the scrap has an unusual
high infinity to absorb all of the thermal energy from the
electrodes, and little if any refractories damage will
occur in the roof or throat areas around the electrodes
using this procedure.
The furnace operator's control panel contains instru-
mentation and controls to properly operate the furnace
(Figure 19).
The load adjusting rheostats located on the front of
the operator's control panel, if the furnace is properly
adjusted, should only be used on the low tap to obtain
Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 227
Fig. 19-Arc furnace operator's control panel.
sufficient energy to hold metal temperature awaiting a
ladle or for some arc length control in cases where the
scrap density is either unusually heavy or unusually
light. This means that minimum rheostat control should
be used. If a furnace operator chooses to increase or de-
crease the energy level in the operation of a furnace to
get a corresponding increase or decrease in power input,
he should relate only to the furnace transformer tap
changer by increasing or decreasing its relative tap
position. The load fixing rheostats should not be used
as a method of governing power input on a given tap
through a complete heat. A good example of this would
be a situation where you would be operating on trans-
former tap position one for meltdown and using this
same tap position for refining and finishing the heat.
Assume this to be a 10,000 kva transformer operating at
75% power factor at meltdown. This means that you
would be applying 7,500 kilowatts into the furnace dur-
ing the meltdown period. During the finishing period we
say that the power input should be % the transformer
nameplate kva rating expressed in kilowatts or in this
particular case 5,000 kw at a power factor about 5% less
than the meltdown or 70%. At this level, 5,000 kilowatts
would be used to finish the heat. If by rheostat control
you could reduce the power input on tap one from 7,500
kilowatts to 5,000 kilowatts, an unusually long arc would
be created as a result of the current or ampere reduction
which would be very detrimental to the refractories.
Therefore, the furnace operator should reduce the power
input by corresponding tap change adjustment which
reduces the voltage and provides a shorter arc which
will be both captive, generally in the slag layer, and not
precipitate flare to the sidewalls. The shorter, stouter arc
with the electrodes actually physically closer to the
liquid metal produces a vertical deflection in the liquid
metal surface. The cavity that is established then con-
fines the arc flare to the under side of the electrode and
drives the heat deep into the metal. Rheostat reduction
on tap position No. 1, for instance, in order to obtain
5,000 kw in our hypothetical case would result in ther-
mal input in the metal of perhaps 60% or 3,000 kilowatts
. as compared to a thermal input of 5,000 kilowatts with a
shorter arc. Explaining this a little further, the arc as
related to 5,000 kilowatts under rheostat adjustment us-
ing the high tap would be approximately six inches long.
This six-inch arc would both flare to the sidewall and
have little impact on driving the heat deep into the
metal. On the other hand, by reducing the transformer
tap and not adjusting the rheostats in this properly
adjusted furnace, nearly all of this thermal energy
would be driven into the metal to cause a rapid increase
in temperature consistent with good operation obtain-
ing a fast temperature rise and a reasonably short heat
time.
I 228 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
Instrumentation is available on the operator's control
panel to make a determination of power factor. This is
indicated by a wattmeter and varmeter connected
through instrument transformers in the primary circuit
of the power system ahead of the furnace transformer.
When the wattmeter and varmeter read the same value,
a phase angle of 45" exists and the power factor is
70.7%. This would be consistent with meltdown opera-
tion with furnaces sized 25,000 kva and above. For
smaller furnaces, high power factors have proven effec-
tive in obtaining good production with the best eco-
nomics. The ranges are as follows: Furnace transformers
up to 7,500 kva, meltdown 80% power factor and refining
at 75% power factor; 7,500 to 15,000 kva, meltdown
78% power factor and refining 73%. From 15,000 to
25,000 kva, meltdown 75% power factor and refining at
70%. At 25,000 kva and above, meltdown is 70% power
factor and refining 65%. These power factors are mea-
sured at the primary terminals of the furnace trans-
former using properly mated furnace transformer and
furnace sizes. These are not necessarily the power fac-
tors that will achieve the best economics in all opera-
tions. Unfortunately, there is no way to absolutely pre-
dict a power factor level for every size and every scrap
condition which will prove to be year in and year out
the very best for any class of scrap. The scrap material
pretty much dictates the variation to be used in power
factors and the values above should be starting points
only. It certainly would behoove a furnace user to collect
data information on all the types of scrap that are being
used in his plant and relate these to energy consumption,
power factor and corresponding arc length. We recom-
mend that the furnace be operated through a refrac-
tories campaign at a specific power factor setting. After
this refractories campaign, if the customer feels they
can obtain better economics at higher or lower current
flows, longer or shorter arcs, then make the adjustment.
There simply are not enough data available from one or
two heats to make an economic assessment of a furnace
operation (Figure 20).
Back-up Breaker
The back-up breaker suitable to handle the total sys-
tem short circuit capability, generally an oil type, can be
located either in the transformer room or out in the sub-
station. It is preferable to locate this switch in the sub-
station since it can then act as the total system protec-
tion device. With current transformers and time-over-
current relays on the incoming bushings of this back-up
breaker, the total current flow to the furnace circuit is
monitored and protected. Such an arrangement provides
back-up protection for major faults, both at the furnace
transformer as well as in the conductor system from the
substation to the furnace transformer.
Disconnect Switch
A no load manual or motor-operated disconnect
switch is located in the transformer room to provide
visual isolation of the supply system to the furnace
vacuum interruptor and furnace transformer. This
Fig. 20--Characteristic power input diagram.
switch is equipped with mechanical key interlocks to
prevent operation of this mechanism while the furnace
switch is closed. It may also have mechanical key inter-
locks to a capacitor bank which could be included in the
circuit line-up.
Capacitor Bank
Capacitor banks may be used for power factor correc-
tion on electric arc furnaces where power factor penal-
ties are part of the utilities billing and demand con-
tract. These capacitors generate what is termed leading
vars which can compensate the lagging vars or lagging
power factor involved in electric arc furnace operation.
Perhaps the most important consideration in the ca-
pacitor bank is to size them properly so that there is
sufficient over voltage range to protect the capacitors
from premature failure. We found it desirable also that
the capacitor bank be located at a point in the system
where it will not be necessary to frequently switch the
capacitors. Switching capacitors as well as over voltage
can lead to capacitor failures.
Furnace Switch
The furnace switch which has proven to be most re-
liable is a vacuum interruptor. This device is the prod-
uct of a great deal of research and with low inertia
makes it very suitable for repetitive switching the type
required for electric arc furnaces.
Furnace Transformer
Gince most all furnace transformers are water cooled,
the ambient temperature is said to be that of the inlet
cooling water. Routine maintenance of a furnace trans-
former consists of internal inspection by oil test. The oil
should be semiannually tested for dielectric strength,
acid, color, and interfacial surface tension. This test data
should be carefully logged and a comparison made
against previous tests to determine the condition of the
transformer.
Perhaps the most severe loading on an arc furnace
transformer occurs during the refining or finishing time,
where the furnace operator may, in an effort to get an
unusually short arc to prevent refractory erosion, cause
unusually high currents to circulate in the windings.
This ampere overloading may be well beyond the capa-
bility of the transformer and cause unusual hot spots
which will result in oil sludging and reduce the effective
cooling of the windings.
Furnace Electrical Protection
Due to switching effects, lightning arrestors, and surge
capacitors should be located as close as possible to the
high voltage terminals of the furnace transformer. We
recommend they be pedestal mounted adjacent to the
high voltage bushings on the transformer tank.
Power Input Control
The adjustments of the voltages for good furnace
operation should be based on equal energy levels across
the tap range. For example, on a four position trans-
former changer, tap No. 1 or the high tap, should be
selected based on the full load capability of the furnace
transformer. This, then would be the meltdown tap. Tap
No. 3 should be one half the nameplate kva rating ex-
pressed in kilowatts. Tap No. 2 then should be a kilowatt
or energy level between these two values, and tap No. 4
should be one half of the available kw or energy input of
tap No. 2.
Secondary Circuit
The furnace secondary circuit or that portion of the
current carrying conductors between the furnace trans-
former and the electrode holders should be arranged to
minimize electrical imbalance. This is particularly true
of furnace installations where the secondary currents
exceed 15,000 amperes. The conductors should have a
profile which will provide equal distances between the
centers of the phase conductors. This can most effec-
tively be done by using water-cooled secondary flexible
cables since bundling of air-cooled cables results in an

unwieldy secondary flexible circuit. In addition, air
cooled secondary flexibles should be arranged such that
they effectively become a cylinder of conductors. If one
of these conductors in the air-cooled secondary flexible
phase group should get inside the group of cables, elec-
trical erosion will occur and lead to cable failure. This is
due to current flow as regards skin effect. The current at
60 cycles tends to flow on the outer surface of the con-
ductors. The resulting voltage drop then is a product of
the conductor group resistance and current flow, and is
summarized in the equation Ed = IR, or the voltage drop
is a product of the current times the resistance. Since the
outside conductors carry the bulk of the current, their
singular voltage drop will be significantly higher than a
conductor which may exist in the core of the group. The
result is a voltage difference between the outside and
inside conductors which will cause sparking or arcing
when the conductors touch leading to rapid cable ero-
sion.
Arc Voltage Indicating Lamps
The arc voltage indicating lamps on the front of the
operator's control panel are good indications of balanced
furnace operation during the period when the metal is
fluid in the furnace. The intensity of these lamps should
be essentially the same during operation.
Electrode Regulation
The regulation of an electric arc furnace requires good
control, sensitivity, and gain during the meltdown pe-
riod. During this time the electrodes are positioned
rapidly to compensate for the scrap movement under the
electrodes. Regulation then requires extreme accuracy
from the standpoint of maintaining and supporting an
arc at a specific power factor. This is particularly true of
smaller furnaces where a relatively longer arc is neces-
sary in order to do a good melting job. During the refin-
ing o r finishing period, regulation should be suppressed
to reasonably stabilize movement of the electrodes to
drive the energy deep into the bath.
Smoke and Fume Collection
Smoke and fume collection is now pretty much the
concern of our city fathers, and all new electric arc
furnaces are equipped with effluent or emission contain-
ing devices. They are also rapidly being applied to exist-
ing furnaces (Figures 21 and 22). Smoke and fume
collection somewhat enhances the electrical performance
of the arc furnace. In fact, this is the only melting tool
whose performance is influenced and influenced in a
positive way for melting or producing liquid metal. The
slight negative pressure in the furnace does tend to
ventilate the arc zone and does tend to get better ther-
mal transfer in this area. A major steel producer in
Atlanta, Georgia, found that with the use of direct
evacuation on their furnaces the kilowatt-hour per ton
consumption was reduced about 50. Assuming a penny
Fig. 21-Furnace equipped with side drnft hood.
Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 229
Fig. 22-Furnace equipped with direct evacuation system.
per kilowatt-hour, this is a 50 cent per ton reduction in
power input. I t is certainly not the whole story in op-
erating costs, but again reveals the sensitivity of the arc
to environmental change.
Time Utilization
In the operation of the furnace, time utilization is
perhaps the most important criteria. Since all electric
arc furnace melt shops develop their costs as a function
of the number of tons produced, it is obvious that the
furnace operator's first concern is to tip the furnace
empty as many times as possible to produce as much
fluid metal as he possibly can. It is a rarity to find
a melt shop where the people record the time the fur-
nace was at 2,900°F. For example, how many hours
a day were the furnace hot face refractories a t 2,900°?
How many hours of that 24 hour period were the elec-
trodes subjected to an environment where the tempera-
ture was 2,900°? If these were developed, you prob-
ably would find that the kilowatt-hours, refractory con-
sumption, and electrode usage from shop to shop would
be nearly the same in spite of the number of tons pro-
duced.
Productivity
It has generally been considered a rule of thumb that
you should be able to produce one ton per hour per
thousand kva tap to tap. This means that if you have a
10,000 kva furnace transformer, your shop should pro-
duce approximately 10 tons per hour tap to tap. To de-
termine the amount of time to produce a typical heat,
you can use the following equation:
A. Meltdown: multiply the number of tons charged
times 1.08 x 1.1 x 375 x 60 divided by the kva and
power factor. This will give the time in minutes to get
the charge up to an average 2,600°F.
B. Refining-finishing from 2,600°F to tapping tem-
perature: multiply the number of liquid tons times a
factor of 30 kilowatt-hours per ton per hundred degrees
of temperature boost x 60, divided by one half the
nameplate kva (refining kilowatts). This will give the
time in minutes to reach tapping temperature.
We generally figure charging to be 5 minutes per
bucket. Tap out should involve 5 to 9 minutes. Slag off
and chemistry perhaps 5 to 15 minutes, patching the bot-
tom, slipping and adding electrodes, etc., perhaps an-
other 5 to 20 minutes depending on the furnace size. This
then will yield a complete heat profile for a typical car-
bon steel charge in a basic operation.
Burning in Procedure
When complete new refractories are installed in the
furnace, it is necessary to heat sinter both the hearth
and lining. This should be done by using 8 kilowatts per
square foot of cross section across the hot face. This is
the number you should read on the wattmeter during
the burn in cycling period. We recommend a graphite
230 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
"T" as the contact device to provide good uniform heat
absorption and glazing not only in the hearth, but to the
sidewalls and the roof.
Computer Programming
A lot has been done relating to computer program-
ming of the electric arc furnace. A comwuter is nothine
more than a super clerk in this connection, save its us:
as a demand limiting tool. Perhaps the most vital con-
cern in obtaining benefit from a computer would be to
categorize scrap. That is, develop a good analysis in-
ventory of the type scrap that is purchased and its op-
erating characteristics in a furnace. From such data you
can easily determine, when cheaper scrap is purchased,
what it really means to the furnace operator. For ex-
ample, nominal savings may occur in purchasing a
cheaper grade of scrap, but many hours will be spent in
the melt shop in order to meet specific chemistry as
required in the final product. If total in-plant control
can also be used, heat time can be improved by divert-
ing certain heats to meet the order book requirements.
For example, assuming both high carbon and low carbon
heats are required, the meltdown sample tests with high
carbon may indicate this heat be completed in a short
time and meet the specifications of a current order re-
quiring high carbon. It could then quickly be diverted
precluding a lengthy oxygen blow to achieve a low
carbon chemistry which may meet the requirements of
another customers' specifications. If a computer is con-
sidered, it should be used not as a rival to but an as-
sistant for the melter. If this conditioning of personnel
to the use of a super clerk is done beforehand, little if
any difficulty will occur during operation and the com-
puter can be made to be useful. We know cases where
very expensive computers have been purchased and in-
stalled and have later been abandoned because the
equipment did not satisfy the melting personnel.
Power Demand Control
Power demand control is often used in electric furnace
shops with the electric arc furnace the target for demand
cut backs. Power shedding can easily be done during
meltdown on a furnace or furnaces, but it should be in a
fashion where the electrodes are simply raised to arc
extinction. This can very easily be accomplished by
interrupting the potential reference circuit so that fur-
nace switching is not necessary. The electrodes during a
demand situation are then raised to arc extension and
remain there until the demand interval is cleared. At
this time the electrodes go back into operation provid-
ing automatic control not necessitating the furnace op-
erator's supervision. Demand control implies holding a
uniform level of kilowatts based on production require-
ments in a specific operation. Obviously, if frequent de-
mand cut backs occur, they should be carefully weighed
against the consequence of increasing the demand level
and the corresponding improvement in production. The
power cost, although the most significant, save scrap
cost, in the total operation, can often be easily offset by
the added production as a result of increasing the de-
mand just slightly.
In comparing off-peak power versus on-peak opera-
tion in a number of economic evaluations covering this
subject, we found that it sometimes is a standoff and
generally favors on-peak operation. We are not advocat-
ing that everyone just simply ignore off-peak power
savings, but you should review on-peak versus off-peak
in light of available personnel, handling facilities, the
actual energy cost, and the equipment involvements in
the final analysis.
Electrode Handling
Electrode handling should be carefully considered in
the operation. The threaded socket and nipple of the
electrode section should be cleaned and the electrodes
carefully attached to prevent thread, socket and nipple
damage. The electrodes should be properly torque
tightened to prevent separation and spalling whenever
the joint arrives at the arcing tip. Good electrode prac-
tice is a service that the electrode manufacturers spon-
sor, and we strongly advocate customers taking advan-
tage of these programs which can significantly reduce
loss in electrode usage from breakage and also reduce
consumption.
Refractory Repairs
This is another area where the suppliers can be of
great service. In replacing furnace linings, a water-
cooled dish or pan is generally located in the hearth of
the furnace and the wall refractories torn down into this
dish and lifted out with the overhead crane. Roof repairs
can be expedited with a roof break out station where the
brick arch can be broken, dropped through a floor open-
ing into a dump box below.
On larger electric furnaces there are a number of
clever devices used for both patching and relining. I
have seen a small track vehicle with attached boom hook
which is crane lowered into the furnace and the hook
used to pull in all of the wall refractories onto the
water-cooled dish. This provides a very quick removal
of the sidewall refractories and the reline time is sig-
nificantly reduced. There are a number of refractory
service organizations which have such equipment for
furnace linings.
Scrap Preheating
This is a subject of much discussion and controversy.
We believe that the electric arc furnace efficiencies are
such that scrap preheating may prove to be a liability
when compared with the melting performance of a fur-
nace. In a small furnace shop a customer may advan-
tageously overcome a temporary peak production period
reauirine additional BTU into the scraw bv the use of
naiural gas or oil fired devices. ~ o w e v e i thk
, great bulk
of energy during meltdown goes directly into the metal
with the arc furnace efficiency unusually high during
this time. During this same period if you consider scrap
preheating, there would be the additional involvements
of effluent control, refractories lined charge vessels, as
well as the straight forward problems involved in han-
dling hot material from a preheat station to the furnace
proper. If supplemental heating is used in an operating
furnace, it should never be directed toward the arc zone
thereby upsetting the arc environment.
Charging
In charging the electric furnace, the charge bucket
base should be at vessel bezel height. We have seen
some very interesting methods of charging with clam
shell buckets where the auxiliary hook or the hook con-
trolling bucket opening is held stationary while the main
hook and bucket is lowered. Doing it this way, the
bucket tends to remain located more precisely centered
across the two axes of the furnace and provides a good
bottom discharge of the scrap.
Since most electric arc furnaces involve more than one
charge, the first charge should be melted only so far as
required for accommodation of the second or consecu-
tive charge. A good way of determining this time factor
is to observe the roof when it is being swung between
bucket charges. The roof should be orange to yellow
during this time. This means there is very little heat
impinging on the roof and all of the energy has gone
into the scrap.
Tapout
The taphole of the arc furnace should be quite large
to accommodate a good fast metal drain flow from the
furnace and also to prevent temperature loss from cas-
cading metal. We have seen cases where the complete
tapout involves two or three minutes.
Furnace Performance
Each electric arc furnace is a bit different from the
other, and particularly when there is a broad range of
scrap material available. A furnace operator should be-
come familiar with the audible and visible indications of
good furnace performance. He should have a smattering

of how and why the arc works and what the indications
on the operator's control panel a r e as regards instru-
mentation. Certainly kilowatt-kilovar input is the most
DISCUSSION
by Robert C. Maxton
Would you care to comment on the degree of electrode
"penciling" that occurs in an acid-lined furnace, versus
the basic-lined furnace?
Author's R e p l y
It has generally been the practice in electric arc fur-
nace operation to use somewhat higher voltages particu-
ROBERT C . M A X T O N is Technical Director, Minneapolis Electric
Steel Co., Minneapolis, Minn.
DISCUSSION
by Paul E. Lacke
Question: You mentioned that the electrode position-
ing unit should be big enough to push the electrode to its
natural frequency of vibration. In practice, how do you
test for the natural frequency of vibration?
Author's Reply: Put a stylus on the electrode clamp.
Let this stylus operate a potentiometer with the output
going to the brush recorder.
Question: Do you know of anyone having trouble with
the hot metal burning through the bottom where the
ground rods come up through the refractory? We 'don't
have ground straps in our furnaces and the operation is
satisfactory.
Author's R e p l y
As I pointed out earlier, neutral or basic refractories
do, after initial preheating, effectively conduct to the
hearth basin and ground straps are not required. This
PAUL E. LACKE is affiliated with Laclede Steel Co., Alton, Ill.
--
DISCUSSION
by R. S. Harrison
-
R. 5. HARRISON is affiliated with Beaver Electrical Machinery Ltd.,
Burnaby, B.C., Canada.
Arc Furnace Electrical Workshop 231
significant and yields perhaps the best measure of just
how the furnace is functioning.
larly when melting in an acid operation. These higher
voltages would imply a longer arc dimensionally, at the
foot of each of the three electrodes. The longer arc at a
higher voltage means somewhat lower current for a
given furnace transformer size. It would follow then that
somewhat greater pencilling or tapering would occur
near the tip of the electrode than would be exhibited at
higher currents, ie., lower voltages, in a basic operation.
In steel production using either basic or acid practice,
about 50% of electrode wear is oxidation. The remain-
ing 50% could be roughly considered sublimation and is
more definitively analyzed in a paper given by Union
Carbide during these technical sessions.
resource is not available in an acid bottom furnace since
this material tends to surface sinter developing a ce-
ramic glaze which penetrates perhaps an inch or two
from the hot face. The remaining refractory is highly
insulating and the ground straps are necessary. The
placement, size and location of these straps is covered in
the text.
The ground straps melt to the normal hearth grade
since the surrounding refractories wiil insulate them
from liquid metal penetration. It was common practice
some years back to install ground straps at the tangent
junction of the shell basin to the vertical shell side plate.
Some 12 to 15 spires were used projecting toward the
hearth center. This was a carryover from earliest elec-
tric furnace operation where acid refractory material
was universally used. The present practice is to obtain
from the ultimate customer, information regarding the
type of refractories to be installed and be guided ac-
cordingly. That is, in case of neutral or basic materials,
no ground rods are used and with acid-lined hearths,
ground rods are installed at the factory.
You state that arc temperature is constant and not a
function of current other things being equal. I find this
difficult to reconcile with my understanding of what
232 Electric Furnace Proceedings, 1971
happens. It would appear if this were true that arc
diameter would be a function of arc power because arc
energy must radiate from a proportional surface area.
If the statement were true it would seem that much
about arc behavior has been simplified.
I would be interested in the theory or measurements
made to arrive a t this conclusion.
Author's Reply
The phenomenon surrounding the electric arc still
leaves a great deal to fundamental research. At present,
we could say that rudimentary information is available
and largely the investigations have been devoted graph-
ite to graphite exploration in the main with direct cur-
rent. The purpose of my paper was not to delve heavily
into the sophisticated technical aspects surrounding the
nature of an alternating current arc with ignition inter-
vals from graphite and metal and metal to graphite, but
to make clearly apparent that the electric arc, the melt-
ing vehicle in an electric arc furnace, creates a tempera-
ture during both phases of ignition which is significantly
higher than the thermal resistance of a furnace refrac-
tories lining. It is not so imperative as to the precise
temperature, save that the furnace operator and main-
tenance technician recognizes the inherent effects of the
arc gasses and vapors sweeping across the surface of the
metal and bursting against the side walls and roof arch.
The thermal emission, a function of kilowatt input must
be controlled or directed to accommodate the meltdown
and refining entity. The greatest danger is the transition
period between these energy levels and remains con-
stant during the complete refining cycle, particularly
with high energy input and a minimum slag cover on the
metal surface. From the standpoint of people concerned
both with the production and economics of the furnace
operation, recognizing arc flare and its damaging effects
is consistent with the criteria used in the paper relating
to arc temperature.