INTRODUCTION

---------TO-------
ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECT PROFESSOR
INDRANIL SEN
 Notion Press
Old No. 38, New No. 6
McNichols Road, Chetpet
Chennai - 600 031

First Published by Notion Press 2016

Copyright © Architect Professor Indranil Sen 2016
All Rights Reserved.

ISBN 978-1-945926-19-8
This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the
author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for
any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from
negligence, accident, or any other cause.
No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the
author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.
 ARCHITECT PROFESSOR
INDRANIL SEN

MUSIC
is the
Sonic Expression of
Harmony
Rhythm
Unity
And
Variety
So also is
ARCHITECTURE
Should you wish to contact the author, please use the below contact information
M: +91 98313 85880/ +91 84207 21201/ +91 94323 67946
E: indranilsen.net@gmail.com
Dedicated to Maa & Baba
 Contents
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword
Introduction of the Author
Preface
Acknowledgements

CHAPTER–1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER – 2 VOCABULARY
CHAPTER – 3 CLASSICAL ORDERS
CHAPTER – 4 ARCHES
CHAPTER – 5 TIMBER JOINTS
CHAPTER – 6 BRICK MASONRY WORK
CHAPTER – 7 STONE MASONRY WORK
CHAPTER – 8 DOORS
CHAPTER – 9 WINDOWS
CHAPTER – 10 STAIRCASES
CHAPTER – 11 SCALE RATIO PROPORTION
CHAPTER – 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING
CHAPTER – 13 VISUAL VOCABULARY
CHAPTER – 14 COLOUR
 Foreword
21 August 2016
Joy Sen, Ph.D.
Professor and Head, Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Professor, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur

I t has been a matter of great delight to pen the Foreword of a work of a dear senior colleague of mine,
Architect Indranil Sen, incidentally his third book titled ‘Introduction to Architecture.’
Architect Indranil Sen, was always a very serious student and a professional, and I am happy that he has now
started to pen down his experience in the field of Architecture and share the knowledge he has acquired during
his career spanning 36 year, through exposure to many national and international projects. While he has
worked in top positions in leading Consulting and Developers houses, he has always remained grounded to the
basics of this noble profession .
I am especially happy for the publication of this book as this is aimed for the fresher’s and beginners ,’ who, I
am sure, will get their bearings corrected, once they have gone through this book.
The book has fourteen chapters and covers the entire spectrum of knowledge that a newcomer to this field
needs. It will be well said that there are not many books available on this kind of bandwidth of knowledge that
this book covers, and I am sure that this would turn out to be a handbook of information for Architects.
I feel honoured and privileged to write a Foreword for a book authored by a dear friend of mine. His
dedication of giving back to the students what he has learnt in his long successful career is indeed adorable
and I feel proud for him.
His first book titled’ Theory of Architecture-C2C’ has already become a rage among the students and
professional community and I am sure that this book will become even more useful and sought-after.
I am absolutely amazed by the contents of the book which has been put down in such simple words so that
every minute of detail is covered and understood. In short, this book will work as a store house of
information, as it categorically records all the facets of the knowledge base that a newcomer should be
informed about.
I wish him and this book all the success.
sd/-
(Joy Sen)
 Introduction of the Author

I ndranil Sen was born in Kolkata and is a graduate Architect from Bengal Engineering College, Sibpur,
(erstwhile BESU and now IIEST) of 1980 batch and has always been a very serious professional.
In the last glorious 36 years of his career, he has worked in senior positions with leading Architectural and
Developer organizations. Footprints of his project exposure are spread in 8 countries which include, Oman,
Mauritius, Bangladesh to name a few.
He has also worked in projects in all the metros of India and in about twelve state capitals of the country.
He has acted as External Jury on invitation from IIT Kharagpur, Dep’t. of Architecture for assessing the
Project Dissertation and conducting Viva-voce Examination for the Final Year B Arch. Degree Thesis
program.
He has travelled extensively in India and abroad due to his professional exposure to many prestigious
projects and has worked with many famous Architects and Engineers, both from within the country and
abroad.
Presently he is a practicing architect in Kolkata and is the Principal Architect in Interface Design Studio, a
firm jointly owned with his architect wife.
He is also the visiting faculty in the School of Architecture, Techno India University, Kolkata.
Contact Information:
Mobile: +91 98313 85880
E Mail: indranilsen.net@ gmail.com
Other Books of the Author
Theory of Architecture: Concept to Commissioning
Vaastu Saastra: Science not Ritualism
 Preface

W e all know that Architecture is a creative art with a lot of science embedded into it. As Vitruvius had
defined this “Firmitas: Utilitas: Venustas” - which means Firmness; Utility& Delight, Architecture
needs to serve all the three basic purposes.
Being the mother of all art forms, the creations of an Architect are live testaments of his work which are
timeless. No Architect can disown or deny his work.
A line is not only a line in Architecture. It is a part of a dream. A dream nurtured by the interplay of solids
and voids, light and shade, colour and texture, foreground and background against a canvas called Nature
The purpose of this book is to introduce this noble subject to all new comers to this trade and at the same
time act as reminders to experienced professionals.
Since the target audience of this book is primarily students, the contents of the book has been kept plain and
simple. The idea is to inculcate the basics of this learning called Architecture and prepare them mentally to
take the wonderful challenges in life as successful Architects.
I am sure that the chapters touched in this book shall slowly and steadily induce in the reader the warmth of
this subject and make them a better exposed person in terms of basic architectural knowledge.
I am also sure that after going through the entire contents of this book, the reader will find oneself more
confident and better exposed in terms of the entire spectrum of this subject.
 Acknowledgements

W riting an acknowle dgement for a book is never an easy task. The risk of unintentional omittance is great
and thus would like to thank all my teachers in life. I was fortunate to have some great teachers in
school and college and would like to thank them all for making what I am today.
I would also like to thank all my friends and colleagues, from whom I have learnt what is written in the book.
These are just documentations of those small but important facts on this subject.
I would have never written this book or any book, if I did not get a chance to share my knowledge with the
students of School of Architecture, Techno India University. As a visiting faculty, I always found that there are
very few points of reference on the basics of this subject and this thought had always made me feel that
something needs to be done to assimilate this scattered information into one envelope.
This is what drove me to document all such information that needs to be carefully understood by the would be
community of Architects.
I owe a lot of my knowledge to my teachers in school (Don Bosco) and the one name which I should never
forget is Mr Paul Chung, my Technical Drawing Teacher.
Once in college (B E College) the one person who helped me in being a confident person were Prof. G. Ray
and then Prof. Jaydeb Sarkar, who helped me refine whatever skills I had.
I owe a big thank you to my student Arkodeep Sen for helping me in making the various drawings included in
this book.
Finally, a big ‘thank you’ to my family for sparing me the hours of time I spent on writing this bo ok and
sometimes at their cost.
Indra nil Sen
 CHAPTER–1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered why God is called the Architect of the Nature? Or in more sublime terms, a
player who wins a team match is called the Architect of the Game. Never one does hear about any other
profession as powerful as this. And along with this power comes the responsibility of shouldering this
noble profession.
1.1 THEORY OF VITRUVIUS
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, during the 1 st century BCE defined this in three simple words. “ Utilitas,
Firmitas & Venustas .” He is believed to have said that the three elements or qualities that a building must
possess are the above three. The above three in simple words mean: Utility, Strength& Beauty, and in that
order.
A beautiful building without serving its intended function or utility is nothing but a heap full of waste.
Utilitas thus means to satisfy the need of the user by attributing correct functional spaces in correct sizes
and proportions in the plan. As is said for humans, the inner beauty is more important than the external
looks. The same is true for buildings also. A building plan must satisfy all the known and unknown needs
of its users. It is also important for the Architect or Designer to respect the values and thoughts of the
intended users of the building. In some cases, the architect may not know who his actual user may be, and
thus must design keeping the profile of the generic user. This is mostly true for public buildings and non
residential buildings.
Firmitas here means strength of the structure to withstand the vagaries of nature and also its capability to
withstand the torture of its users. So the structural design must consider all possible and predictable
scenarios that the building may experience. So the building must be able to stand to the test of time and
life. Here the most important part to notice is how the building will perform when put to real use under
different load and weather conditions.
Venustas means beauty. Venus, the Greek Goddess of Beauty, has been described by Vitruvius as the third
important building element in his definition of Architecture. The art of achieving this is by studying and
understanding the Elevation and its play of Light and Shade, Solids & Voids. This is where the
imaginative skills of the Architect are tested and his understanding of beauty, colour and proportion is
exposed.
1.2 UTILITAS
This in most cases is expressed as the core of architectural understanding of spaces and it’s inter
relationship with the surrounds and nature. It must always be remembered that all buildings will have a
foreground and a background. This is the canvas of the Architect where he will have to implant his
design. So being respectful to these will only help enhance the utility of the intended design.
Integration of the outside with the inside is important. A building design for a particular site is unique.
Every other thing may be same, but the site will always be different.
 Understanding inter-relationship of spaces and how they ‘talk’ to each other is an important aspect of
preparing a good design. Usually bubble diagrams or space matrix charts are prepared to understand the
stronger and weaker links between spaces and their users.
It is also a good practice to prepare user profiles to understand how the behavioral pattern of the user
affects the overall performance of a proposed plan under consideration.
1.3 FIRMITAS
Firmitas de als with strength and thus engineering prowess. The knowledge of structural engineering has
advanced over the centuries and what was good 200 years ago may not be as wise now. Historically, the
designs of buildings were dependent on the materials available and the strength of these materials to
withstand load span, load etc.
Structures are required to withstand tension and compression and use of material has dictated these over
times. When stone was the primary material for construction, two types structural systems were used;
Trabeated and Arcuated.
Trabeated structures were used in building like the Parthenon and the spans were dependent on the size of
stone available.
After the arch was invented by the Romans, arcuated structures became a very effective way of building
large column-less spaces. The Colosseum is one good example of such a kind.
1.4 VENUSTAS
Ever wondered why some buildings look so appealing and some very depressing. Good and beautiful
buildings always carry this aura of communicating with its users in the best possible and positive way. In
other words, the appeal of the building is related to its inner and outer beauty.
A building which is architecturally good, the experience of the building is enjoyable to its users. There is
something called ‘a feel good factor,’ and a well designed space emits that positivity.
Venustas includes play of solids and voids, scale and proportion, weight & mass and light & shade.
Solids and Voids can be arranged in symmetric and asymmetric patterns. Formal buildings like temples or
churches are generally symmetric while modern building can be asymmetric.
Weight and Mass of a design must address the material, texture, colour, ornamentation and light.
Relationship with the ground and its surrounding is also an important feature for consideration.
 CHAPTER – 2
VOCABULARY
2.0 VOCABULARY
To understand architecture , it is essential to know the names of the various components of buildings. The
building may be old, historical, modern or neo- modern; the nomenclature has to be understood to
appreciate it fully and get to the core of the design.
2.1 DRAWING
Drawing is said to be the language of Architects and Engineers. Every thought and every dream has to be
finally transferred to some imaging mechanism called drawings . Various kinds of drawings are required
to represent the correct image and convey the required information on the Design Intent . So drawings are
the only tools of expression for Architects , Designers and Engineers. The art of this expression is thus
required to be learnt by every architect. As I often say, ‘every line is a part of a building’ and thus should
be understood and carefully drawn.
Drawings are thus scaled two dimensional representations of two dimensional or three dimensional
objects in paper, or any similar media, including digital media . The various components that make a
design complete are explained below.
2.1.1 Plan
In layman’s terms, we all make plans. We make plans for going somewhere, we plan a holiday or we plan
an event. However to architects, the word ‘Plan’ carries a completely different meaning and is one of the
keywords in Architecture.
Plan is a scaled two dimensional representation of an object seen from the top of the object. The two
dimensions that a plan represents are length and breadth. Height is never shown in any plan. However,
inactuality, when we see an object from the top, the height dimension is also visible. But for engineering
purposes, it is imagined that our eye is as big as the object so as not to see or ignore the height dimension.
Plans may be of various types. Top view and Sectional view
Top View or Sky View Plan: In this representation, the view of the object as would be seen from the sky
is shown without the height dimension.
Sectional Plan: A Sectional Plan would mean a scaled two dimensional representation of all visible
elements within an object when sliced or sectioned at a certain level horizontally within the object after
removing the upper slice to render the portion below visible. Sectional plans also do not show height
dimension. In sectional plans, all elements that are sliced are shown in dark or bold lines, and the rest is
shown in lighter mode.
2.1.2 Elevation
In layman’s term, elevation means height or altitude. But to Architects, Elevation means a scaled 2
dimensional representation of an object when seen from one of the sides. Here also it is imagined that our
eyes is as big as the object so that the depth dimension of the object is not seen.
The two dimensions that are seen in an Elevation is the height and one of the planer dimensions.
2.1.3 Section
In ordinary terms, section means a part but to Architects, a Section would mean a scaled two dimensional
representation of all visible elements within an object when sliced or sectioned at a certain plane
vertically within the object after removing the front slice to render the portion behind visible. Sections
also like elevations and show the height and one of the other Planer dimension.
In Sections, all elements that are sliced are shown in dark or bold lines and the rest visible behind is
shown in lighter mode.
2.1.4 One Point Perspective View
The above are all two dimensional representations of 3 dimensional objects ignoring any one of the 3rd
dimension. One point perspective is a 2 dimensional representation of 3 dimensional objects where the
3rd dimension is also shown. This is thus a representation, considering that the eye of vision is located in
one point within the space. Any two dimensions in this view is a real on the picture plane and the 3rd
dimension vanishes to a point by slowing diminishing in size as it distances off from the station point of
vision.
2.1.5 Two Point Perspective View
Like one point, here the eye of station point of vision is outside the plane of the object and the length and
breadth of the object vanishes at two opposite sides on the horizon. Two point perspectives give near
photographic view, if the height is not larger than the planer dimensions. However, if the height is large,
three point perspective views are drawn, where the vertical lines slowly vanish at a point outside the
object, much higher in the vertical plane.
2.1.6 Three Point Perspective View
In this perspective, the height dimension also vanishes at a point above the object. Imagine a very high
tower like building. It is always noticed that the building is visually seen to narrow down as it rises up.
This is called the vanishing of the vertical axis.
Such views, when drawn correctly gives a near photo image and is most commonly used by
professionals.
Today, computer softwares are available to prepare such views and can be used to study views from
various angles and station points.
2.1.7 Isometric View
An isometric view is a scaled 2 dimensional representation of an object where the axis dimensions are
shown to run in parallel instead of vanishing to a point. Isometric views are drawn to axes at 30 degree to
the horizontal plane keeping the vertical axis vertical.
No scaling is done and is sometimes called Engineers 3D In an Isometric view, the top plane is usually
visible.
2.1.8 Oblique View
An oblique views is also, a scaled 2 dimensional representation of an object where the horizontal axes
dimensions are shown to run in parallel instead of vanishing to a point.
 Such views show the height and one of the planer dimensions as horizontal and vertical, and the third
planer dimension is shown to an axis 45 degrees from the horizontal plane.
The third dimension is sometimes represented as half of the actual dimension to give a realistic look.
However there are no hard and fast rules for drawing Oblique views.
Since the front view of this is real and to scale, it is a preferred mode of representation by Architects
Refer next for a hand on example of the above.
2.1.9 Examples
The two views show both isometric and oblique views of the same object.
If seen carefully, the L-shaped front on both sides are seen in true plane and dimension in the oblique
view. The views that would be seen from top (P) is the plan and views from E1 & E2 are elevations.
If the object is sliced off as shown in plane XX, then the Sectional plan visible would as shown below.

2.2 BASIC BUILDING STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

2.2.1 Foundation
Foundation is the lowest part of a building, typically below the ground level that that helps support the
load of the building. Foundations can be of various types.
Foundations may be shallow or deep and the design of the foundation is dependent on the load that the
foundation system has to carry. The load bearing capacity of soil is not same in all places and thus geo-
technical tests are carried out to determine the Safe Bearing Capacity of the soil where the building is
being constructed.
The Foundation may be isolated footings or strip foundation. For bigger buildings, Raft Foundation is
also proposed and for tower like buildings or buildings on weak soil, Pile Foundations are used for
heavily loaded structures.
2.2.2 Plinth
The raised useable level above the ground level from where the habitable level starts is called the Plinth
 Level. The habitable level is purposefully kept above the adjoining ground level so that no water can enter
the habitable space or cause damage to the inside. The level is usually determined by the high flood level
of the area and is advisable to keep the Plinth Level higher than the highest flood level.
Sometimes Plinth Levels are kept higher, especially for public or religious buildings to give a sense of
identity and scale. These may even be as high as the eye level.
2.2.3 Slab
Slab is a horizontal plate or floor in a building that is generally cast in concrete at ground or upper level.
The floor of a space is usually the top surface of a slab.
2.2.4 Beam
A beam is a horizontal or inclined structural member that takes the transferred load from the slab and
transfers the same to the Column that spans the beam. Beams can be in RCC or MS sections, depending on
the structural system.
Wooden beams are also used in buildings for the same purpose. In historic buildings, stone beams are
also visible.
2.2.5 Column
A column is a vertical structural member that transfers load received from other structural members like
beams and slabs into the foundation system. In RCC buildings, the columns are in RCC and MS in steel
structures. Column sizes are dependent on the superimposed load on each of them and load conditions.
In high rise structures, RCC columns are used where as in Steel structures, Standard Sections are used.
Typically, these columns transfer the load to the foundation system discussed earlier.
2.2.6 Storey
A storey in architectural parlance means a floor in a building. We often say that the building is three
storeyed, which means that the building has 3 habitable floors. Likewise upper storey means the floor
above and lower storey means the floor below.
2.2.7 Floor
Floor of a building is the horizontal plate in a building where habitation, storage or any other useful
activity takes place. We usually refer to the top of this plate as the floor and generally is covered by a
floor finish on which we walk and/or conduct our activity.
2.2.8 Ceiling
The underside of the roof of a floor is called. In a multi storied building, underside of every floor is the
ceiling of the storey below.
In case the roof is sloped, the ceiling may also be sloped, unless some other treatment is done to render a
different look from inside.
2.2.9 Roof
Roof of a building is the final or top most weather cover of a building. Roofs may be flat or sloped,
depending on the design. Roofs may also be accessible or inaccessible. Roofs are required to be properly
designed so that the inside of the building is kept weather proof and rendered useable as intended.
2.2.10 Lintel
 A lintel is a structural member placed above door and window openings to span the gap caused by these
voids in the wall structure. Lintels are designed in various shapes and sizes and are generally horizontal.
Lintels are also required to take the load of the masonry work constructed above the door or window
opening. Lintels may be precast or cast-in-situ, depending on the construction methodology being
followed.
2.2.11 Parapet
A parapet is a low wall, like a railing, usually constructed at the external perimeter of a building so that
people do not fall off the edge of the building. It is thus a safety device and its height is generally about
1000 mm or more. Parapets may be constructed in masonry, steel or wood and must be structurally sound
to withstand human load leaning on to it. Parapets are generally seen at the roof level in buildings where
it is accessible and in verandas and balconies.
2.3 BASIC BUILDING FAÇADE ELEMENTS
2.3.1 Pier
A column designed to support concentrated load is called a Pier. This is why bridges are said to have
piers. For load bearing structures, the pier is usually that part which is thickened in section and generally
projects out of the main wall but is an integral part of the wall system. These are generally placed at equal
intervals to provide lateral support.
2.3.2 Pilaster
A pilaster is a pier or pillar attached to a wall, often with a capital and base, which projects slightly from
the wall. Pilasters are more often decorative in nature and are usually used as elevational effects or to
break monotony.
2.3.3 Porch and Portico
An exterior structure that extends along the outside of a building; usually roofed and generally open-sided,
but may also be screened, semi-enclosed, or glass-enclosed. It may be an addition to the main structure or
may be set within the house structure, in which case it is called an inset or integral porch. A porch in
modern use would mean a shade for the car to come and halt for alighting. It is also called a Portico.
2.3.4 Bay
A bay in a building façade is the regularly repeated visual division found in the external façade of a
building. The distance or space between two columns is also called a bay. Buildings having repetitive
bays for more than one consecutive numbers are said to be in a rhythm. An elevation bay is a vertical face
between a grid and apair of columns or load bearing buttresses projecting form the wall.
2.4 STAIRCASE
A staircase is a system or assembly of steps arranged one after the other so that two levels can be accessed
by walking and climbing the steps. It is thus a vertical transportation feature in a building which physically
connects two floors.
The angle of flight in a staircase is important as this determines the ease of climbing.
A staircase comprises of many smaller elements and is defined below. However, for more details on
staircases, refer to chapt er 10.
2.4.1 Tread
The horizontal portion of a step that we step on is called the Tread. The minimum width of a tread must
be 10 inches or 250 mm so that our feet can fully rest on it.
2.4.2 Riser
The vertical portion of a step between two levels of treads or landing is called a Riser. The normal height
of a riser is about 6 inches or 150 mm.
2.4.3 Nose
The small projection made at the edge of the tread to allow proper stepping and placement of the heel is
called the Nose of the tread.
2.4.4 Flight
A flight is a combination of steps placed one after the other without a break. Normally a flight is
recommended to have maximum of 14 steps or risers.
2.4.5 Well
The void space formed between two or more flights in a staircase system is called the Well or stairwell.
A stairwell separates various directions of stair flights.
2.4.6 Landing & Mid Landing
The intermediate space between two flights of a staircase on the floor level is called a Landing. Any
other intermediate space which does not give access to any floor is called a Mid Landing. Landings and
Mid Landings are meant to give the user breathing breaks when climbing a staircase.
2.4.7 Winder
Radial steps originating at a corner of a landing or mid landing with radially increasing width of treads is
called a Winder. Winders are generally provided to save space in staircases or where there is insufficient
space for the number of risers required to negotiate a height.
2.4.8 Rail & Baluster
A rail and baluster is a safety element attached to open ended floors or stairways to prevent people from
falling down. The height of a railing is thus about navel high and is available in various designs for
various purposes. The vertical support element of this system is called the baluster and the horizontal
member is called the Hand Rail.

Rail & Baluster

2.5 MASONRY
Masonry is a wall built with the use of regular or irregular pieces of brick or stone with the help of
mortar as the bonding agent. The common materials of masonry construction are brick; stone such as
marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone; concrete blocks, solid or hollow; glass block, and
coble. Masonry generally is highly durable but is also dependent on the materials used, the quality of the
mortar and workmanship along with the laying pattern adopted.
2.5.1 Brick Masonry
Brick masonry means wall constructed with the help of red clay bricks and mortar.
Brick masonry may be of various types and thicknesses.
For details, kindly refer to Chapter 6
2.5.2 Stone Masonry
Masonry constructed with the help of regular or irregular stone is called Stone Masonry. Stone masonry is
also referred to as rubble work, if the masonry is composed of small uncut undressed natural stones.
Masonry with dressed and cut to size and shape stones with straight edges and faces is called Ashler
masonry.
For more details refer Chapter 7.
2.6 ROOF SHAPES
A roof of a building is the ultimate cover to the useable and habitablespaces and can be of various
shapes, sizes and design. The shape, inclination and geometry of a roof arelargely determined on a
number of features. However climate is one of the most important factors and plays the most important
role.
2.6.1 Flat Roof
This is one of the most commonly found roof systems in India and is generally made out of reinforced
cement concrete. Good water proofing is required to be done so that water does not accumulate in any
portion of the roof.

Flat Roof
2.6.2 Sloped or Shed
A shed roof is sloped from one side to another and is generally made of corrugated or similar kinds of
factory made sheets. The slope is unidirectional and generally does not have any gutter. The lower point
of the slope is called the Eaves level and the highest is called the Ridge.

Sloped or Shed Roof

2.6.3 Skillion or Lean-to Roof
A lean-to-roof is also a shed kind of a roof with the only difference being that the roof system is built on
an existing structure or a wall, and thus is said to be leaning against the structure. A lean-to roof is usually
sloped to fall in one direction away from the wall.
A skillion roof is thus a mono pitched roof often attached to another roof system. This term is mostly used
in Australia and beach houses are mostly seen with such roof systems.
 Skillion or Lean-to Roof
2.6.4 Open Gable Roof
An Open Gable Roof is a two directional sloped roof system with a ridge at the top junction of the
slopes. The triangular face that is seen on such a roof system is called the Gable End. In such roof
systems, the roof is generally symmetrical about the ridge line. Here the eaves levels are generally same
and the gable end is open, which means that the wall on this side goes to the top of the roof system.

Open Gable Roof

2.6.5 Box Gable Roof
A box Gable Roof or closed cable is similar to an open gable in most ways. The difference in this is that
the roof system projects out on the gable end side and is thus boxed up along with the roof system. Boxed
gables have over hangs all round the building and thus the eaves act as weather shades also.

Box Gable Roof

2.6.6 Saltbox Roof
A Saltbox roof is similar to an open gable roof. The difference being that the roof slopes are not even and
symmetrical about the ridge line. The rear side of the roof drops down to a lower level than the entry
side, which is generally much higher. The name is derived from the shape of boxes in which salt was
kept.

Salt Box Roof

2.6.7 Pyramidal Hip Roof
Also called the Pyramidal Roof, this roof system is generally adopted for square or rectangular plan
shapes and has a single apex point with four slope faces and four sloping ridges to fall. A hip roof has no
vertical sides or gables. Instead, all the roof sides slope toward the walls.
 Pyramidal Hip Roof
2.6.8 M -shaped roof
M-shaped roof system, as the name suggests, has the roof shaped like the alphabet M. This roof system is
mostly adopted for factories and industrial structures, where north light windows are used. A roof formed
by joining two parallel gable roofs, creating a valley between them is what an M shaped roof looks like.
M-shaped roof system is also used for large plans where a single slope may render the ridge levels too
high or eaves level too low.

M-shaped Roof
2.6.9 Hip and Valley Roof
This is a combination sloped roof system usually adopted for cross type or irregular type plan shapes.
Here, the ridge levels and ridge lines may be continuous or discontinuous depending on the roof design.
This roof system also has four-way pitching on each roof slope and thus valleys are created at the points
of intersection. Hipped roof systems generally have a consistent and continuous eaves level fascia, thus
making it a very attractive roof system.

Hip & Valley Roof

2.6.10 Gambrel Roof
A gambrel or gambrel roof is a usually symmetrical two-sided roof with two slopes on each side. The
upper slope is positioned at a shallow angle, while the lower slope is steep.
Gambrel Roof geometry generally fits in a semicircle, and starts as the top half of an equal sided octagon,
although the roof falls may not be same in length.

Gambrel Roof
2.6.11 Mansard Roof
A mansard or mansard roof (also called a French roof or curb roof ) is a four-sided gambrel-style hip
roof characterized by two slopes on each of its sides with the lower slope, punctured by dormer
 windows, at a steeper angle than the upper.
A mansard roof has two slopes on each of the four sides. The lower slope is so steep that it can look like
a vertical wall with dormers. The upper slope has a low pitch and is not easily seen from the ground. A
mansard roof has no gables.

Mansard Roof
2.6.12 Butterfly Roof
Butterfly roof (or inverted gable roof), resembling the wingspan of a butterfly. This roof consists of two
planes that slant down towards each other forming a valley. The butterfly roof gained popularity in the
1950s and 1960s and is still used by contemporary architects today. Butterfly roofs are an uncommon
alternative style of roofs that provide a modern and luxurious aesthetic to a home.

Butterfly Roof
2.6.13 Combination Roof
A combination roof system generally has more than one kind of roof pattern and is thus used for various
use types.
Generally, gable type is combined with hipped roof types to form very aesthetically attractive roof
formations.
Combination Roof is sometimes composed of two different materials so that the roof systems are easily
identified.

Combination Roof
2.6.14 Dutch Gable Roof
A Dutch Gable is a four way sloped roof or hipped roof system with small gable at the top of the ridge at
both ends.
The term Dutch gable is mostly used in North America and Australasia and has a ridge at the top the hip.
 Double Gable Roof
2.6.15 Gazebo Roof
A gazebo is a pavilion like structure that is generally kept as a standalone element in an open sprawling
roof or a garden. The Gazebos provide shelter from weather and are generally hexagonal or Octagonal in
plan with a pointed pyramidal roof matching the sides of the gazebo

Gazebo Roof
2.6.16 Jerkinhead Roof
A jerkinhead roof is a gable roof in which the peaks of the gable ends are clipped off with what resembles
a hip roof. The advantage of this style is that the clipping streamlines the peak of the gable roof, which can
otherwise be highly stressed in wind, thus reducing the potential wind damage. This is also called as a
hipped roof with a truncated angular gable.

Jerkinhead Roof
2.7 TRUSS
A truss is the structural formation or assembly of elements that help build the roof system to a desired
design, shape and dimension. Trusses are generally fabricated in Timber or Mild Steel sections and
trusses get their names from their configuration.
Trusses were historically used initially for bridges as it uses material very effectively. For the purpose of
analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed and capable of acting on tension and compression.
It is important first know the names of the different elements of a truss system for further read.
2.7.1 Parts of a Truss
A Truss is a structural formation, generally triangular in form and has the ability to span large spans and
spaces by the help of inter-connecting structural members.
Trusses are most commonly triangular in shape but other shapes are also possible in a truss design.
The diagram below shows some of the basic elements that form a truss. Here it must be remembered that
all the members mentioned below may not be present in one truss design and the diagram is just a
representative drawing for explanation.
This, in other words mean that a truss system may have some of the members as shown below for a
formation.
 Top Chord : The top structural members of a truss generally in slope
Bottom Chord : The lower most structural member that spans the truss. This may be horizontal or angular.
Web : The inter-connecting lacing members between the top and bottom chord.
Nominal Span : The span of the truss between the supports
Overall Span : the span of the truss beyond the support points and includes all overhang
Overhang : The portion of the truss that hangs beyond the points of support
Pitch : The slope of the top chord/s of the Truss
Ridge : The highest level of the arch
Pitching point : The point from where the support starts
King Post : Vertical Structural member connecting the bottom chord and the highest point of the arch. This
is thus the longest vertical member in a truss.
Fascia : The height of the structural members as seen from the side of the truss. Fascia is also referred to
the horizontal band that hides the truss members visually.
Bottom Chord Tie : This is a horizontal structural member that ties all the bottom chords of Trusses
placed in series.
Web Tie : Similarly, this is also a structural member that ties the webs of the trusses in series.
Nail Plates : These are pre holed MS galvanized plates usually used in wooden trusses for nailing the
members to each other.
Screw Plates or Gusset Plates : Similarly, for MS unwelded trusses, pre holed plates are used to connect
structural members with screw nuts and bolts
Roof Batten or Purlin : Non structural members used to span the roofing system with the truss. These are
horizontal and span between the trusses.
Rafters : Inclined non structural members that follow the pitch of the truss and act as intermediate
members resting on purlins between the trusses.
Ceiling Battens : A series of non structural members fixed or hung from the bottom chord to receive the
ceiling or false ceiling system
Ridge Cover : A weather proof cover at the ridge junction of roofing to prevent entry of water inside from
the roof joint.
2.7.2 Types of Truss Designs in Building Design
Trusses draw their names from either the shape of the truss or the function they perform.
However the ones mentioned below are mostly used in buildings and sheds and are used to create shaded
space below.
Truss used in bridges and railroads have other names and some of the most commonly used types have
been listed later in this section
Scissors Truss : A truss system where the bottom chords are not parallel to the top chord and have a
triangular formation and meets at the eaves level.

Vaulted Parallel Chord Truss : Same as above, but the bottom chord is parallel to the top chord thus
leaving a fascia to the truss.

Vault Truss : A simple triangular truss where half or part of the bottom chord is discontinuous, forming a
secondary scissor truss. This secondary truss is within the basic truss. This is thus a truss within a truss.

Flat Vault Truss : Same as the above truss and but the secondary truss is formed at the mid section of the
bottom chord instead of the end section.

Studio Vault : Similar to the simple vault truss but here the bottom chord is discontinuous and part of the
truss becomes similar to the scissor truss.

Tray or Coffer Truss : Here also the bottom chord is partly allowed to form a coffer to increase the height
of the portion below. The coffer formed is continuous and is used for special requirements of increased
heights.

Barrel Vault: In this, the semi circular space is derived from the core of the truss. The bottom chord thus
is discontinuous and web members attached to the top chord help the formation.
2.8 TRUSS DESIGNS IN ROADS & BRIDGES
The above types are mostly used to cover or span spaces. The trusses seen outside in our daily lives
when we cross a bridge across a river or a rail bridge is completely different.
2.8.1 Parts of a Road & Bridge Truss
First let us get acquainted to the additional nomenclature of such outdoor industrial type Trusses that we
see on a day to day basis.

Floor Beam : Members that join the width of the ROW (Right of way)
Deck : the platform formed at the bottom above the floor beam for use
Stringers : Horizontal members along the span of the truss that helps in supporting the deck along with the
beam.
Struts : Members that join the two planes of the truss
Lateral Wind Bracing : Diagonal members that join the two planes of the truss to hold the truss for
movement.
Sway Bracing : Members, both horizontal and inclined used to tie the portal frame and prevent the same
form swaying
Some the most commonly seen are shown below.
2.8.2 Types of Truss Designs in Roads & Bridges
A Truss
This truss has the shape of the alphabet ‘A’ and that is how it has been named. Two sets of Triangular
Trusses are placed in two parallel planes joined at the top and other points with the help of girders. The
bottom of the A is usually the span of the bridge and the distance between them is the width.
This truss is generally a single span truss and is used for small culverts and bridges

Pratt Truss
A Pratt Truss is one of the simplest of all trusses used in road bridge construction. Here the top and
bottom chords are straight and horizontal with inclined tension members away from the central span.
 Deck Truss
A Deck Truss is generally used for forming a deck above the truss usually for a roadway. The bottom
segment of the truss is generally below the useable surface and thus the truss hangs below the visible
plane. Here two sets of linear trusses are latticed to form a composite truss with a deck at the top. Struts
and Wind bracings are uses for effective strength. This is an inverted truss and is quite useful.

Through Truss
A Through Truss is a simple multi- span truss usually seen in rail bridges. Here the width of the passage is
held by two planes of simple trusses. The multiple spans are supported by masonry columns or piers
placed on the bed of the river or similar depression. The trussed are joined to each other at the top and
bottom planes to render a composite latticed structure.

Pony Truss
A pony truss is a small truss usually the height of a railing. These trusses may be single span or multi span.
The spans of these trusses are not very high and thus are useful for making roads or culverts over narrow
rivulets and water channels. Pony trusses are connected to each other at the bottom plane only which forms
the bed structure for the roadway or railway .

Allan Truss
An Allen truss is similar to a Through Truss with overhead bracing. This can be single or Multi Span and
has a set of overlapping members at the centre of the span. Allen Trusses have a long history and the design
is more than 100 years old.

Bailey Truss
The Bailey Truss was developed during World War II for military use for ultra quick fabrication. The
Truss is modular and can be erected very quickly due to its standardized joinery system. In this truss the
vertical and horizontal members are of the same dimension thus making it easy to be stacked and carried
Baltimore Truss
This is a simple truss with additional members to support the deck. Used for locations with heavy
loading. This member helps in preventing deflection at the bottom plane.

Bowstring Arch Truss

This is a beautiful looking truss wherein the top chord is a true arc. The other members forming the truss
are generally vertical and inclined.

Brown Truss
A Brown Truss is used generally for timber trusses with MS tension members. This is simple in
construction and quick to execute.

Fink Truss
A fink truss is a multi-latticed truss with members forming trusses and sub trusses in a rectangular portal
section with diagonal bracing.

Howe Truss
This is a simple truss used for large spans where the diagonal web members are in compression and the
vertical web members are in tension

K Truss
A multi segmented truss where the members of the truss are in the form of a K due to the orientation of the
vertical member and two oblique members in each panel.
Lattice Truss
As will be seen, this type of truss uses many lightweight members so that the construction is fast and easy
due to favourable handling of material.

Lenticular Truss
A lenticular Truss bridge is in the shape of an eye or is lens shaped. Here the Top chord and bottom chord
are arch shaped meeting at the same end points.

Parkar Truss
The Parkar Truss on the first glance looks like a Bowstring truss, but on a closer look, it may be noticed
that the top chord is not a continuous arch but a series of straight members forming an arch like shape with
polygonal upper chord.

Pegram Truss
The Peagram Truss is a hybrid of the Parkar Truss. Here the upper chord members are longer than the
corresponding lower chord member thus giving a trapezoidal shape to each section of the truss. The
vertical members have incremental inclination at each section as it travels inwards towards the span
center .

Arched Truss
Such arched bridges are seen mostly above deep gorges and rivers across mountains. This truss is reverse
to the Bowstring Truss. Here the bottom Chord is arched and the top chord is horizontal. The bottom chord
is generally double layered with geometrically laced members forming tension an d compression
members. These Trusses are visually very pleasing and is seen mostly in Europe
 Vierendeel Truss
The Vierendeel Truss or Girder, unlike common pin joints can withstand a lot of bending. There are no
diagonal members and the structure is not triangulated. The openings are rectangular and are thus
advantageous for use in building structures. Allows a lot of flexibility in the design and thus gives the
architect freedom in his expression of the external façade.

2.9 CLASSICAL BUILDING ELEMENTS

Before we get into more details of buildings, it is important to also know about what is what in classical
buildings. Although, a separate chapter has been dedicated to this subject, some basic knowledge is
important. Here-in-below, some of the most commonly found elements are explained. However, more
details are available in chapters 3 & 4 where the topic has been illustrated in details.
2.9.1 Arch
An ach is a curved structure spanning across the top of an opening in a vertical surface (such as a wall).
Arches were dominantly used before the advent of concrete in buildings, bridges and other similar
structure.(Refer to Chapter 4 for more details on Arches)
2.9.2 Buttress
A buttress is a vertical structural member, usually found in load bearing structures, resembling a massive
post or pier, built against an exterior wall. Buttresses are basically support walls placed intermittently.
Some buttresses are bigger at the bottom and taper down towards the top in steps. Also, sometimes, the
buttress is away from the main structure and supports it by a flying beam (A). These are called Flying
Buttresses. Buttresses are mostly seen in dams and ancient religious structures.

2.9.3 Column
A column is a vertical post and in classical buildings used to support a structure and would generally
have a base, shaft and a capital.
Columns in classical architecture were generally circular and were sometimes tapered upwards. Columns
were designed with very decorative capitals and had a strong base.
 Classical Columns ( image source : Google )
2.9.4 Capital
A Capital is the decorative feature at the top of a column or pilaster and structurally helps in
concentrating the load onto the column shaft.
Capital in classical building were highly decorative and would usually dictate the architectural style

Classical Capitals (image source: Google)

2.9.5 Corbel
A Corbel is a masonry unit or series of masonry units that progressively step out from a supporting wall
or column to span a void. Sometimes corbels are also used to make projection in a structure. Corbelling
is done by retaining the load centre of the individual brick, stone or any other building element within the
previous layer below.

2.9.6 Cornice
A Cornice is a horizontal, projecting decorative molding along the top of a wall or building, or the top
portion of an entablature. Sometimes, in layman’s language it is called a ceiling skirting. Cornice
moldings are generally used to hide the joint between the ceiling and the vertically wall.

2.9.7 Cupola
A Cupola is a small domed structure on top of a roof adjacent to a larger main dome. Usually Cupolas are
seen along the sides of larger domed structure. The Taj Mahal is one very good example of cupolas
around the main dome.
2.9.8 Dome
A roof structure in the shape of a portion of a sphere or sphere like usually used to cover large spaces. In
classical architecture, domes used the theory of corbelling to span large areas. The shape of the domes
along with its base and top were usually the design statements of the time it was built.

2.9.9 Dormer
A dormer is a roofed projection from a sloping roof often with a window. Dormers were generally used
to take in light at higher level of a sloped roof system, and were specially used for attics.
Dormers can be of different types and they get their names from the shape of the dormer

Some of the commonly found shapes are Gables, Shed, Hipped, Eyebrow and Segmental.
Eyebrow dormers can be circular (not shown), semi-circular or triangular.

2.9.10 Finial
A Finial is an ornament at the top of a roof gable, spire, dome or any other architectural feature and is
usually used to proclaim authority. Finials were also used to identify the building from far. In religious
structures, finials usually come with the symbol of that particular religion. Some classical Hindu temples
also carried flags as a part of the finial system to display the authority of religion.
2.9.11 Pediment
Pediment is normally a term used in classical architecture and means the triangular end of a low-pitched
gable. It also means a triangular element used over doors and windows. Pediments are found mostly in
Greek and Roman styles and are also very dominant features of the building. These are highly decorative
in nature and sometimes carry sculpted motifs.

2.9.12 Spire
A spire is a tall, narrow, steep roof structure ending in a point, rising from a tower or roof peak. Spires
are generally seen as the top element to buttresses. However, it must be noted that a spire is not a finial
and is just a roof peak to a narrow structure.
Spires were mostly used to create a sense of dominance and control over an area and were thus lofted to
heights above the main structure.

2.9.13 Turret
A Turret is a small, slender tower characteristically projecting from the corner of a building or from long
unsupported walls. The Great Wall of China has numerous turrets and is used as a support structure to
long wall runs. Historically, many forts were seen with turrets with a security post at the top to view
outside. The slotted parapet of the turret is called ‘Battlement’ as these are use to aim guns or arrows
during warfare.

2.10 DOMES AND ROOF COVERS

The earlier section, 2.6 have dealt with all kinds of pitched roof system where the roof pattern and its
 face are sloped but flat. In this section, curved roof forms will be discussed. There are basically two
types of curved roofing, Vaults and Domes.
2.10.1 Vaults
A Vault (French voûte, from Italianvolta) is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a
roof system or ceiling system.
Like arches, every part of the vault exerts lateral thrust towards at the external side and thus needs an
opposite counter resistance to keep it in position.
Given below is a few types of Vaulted Roof systems which have their geometry same in the entire run,
except for the last one.

A Pointed Vault , is in the shape of a pointed arch, has a top ridge and due to the sharp top line, there may
be an occasional rib .
A Semicircular Vault also known as a Barrel Vault has a semi circular shaped roof. Barrel Vaults
occasionally have ribs across the vault.
A Segmental Vault is similar to barrel vault and has a low roof due to its segmented nature. Segmental Vault
is nothing but a truncated part of a Semi-Circular Vault.
A Catenary Vault has the geometry of a parabolic arch and has a very high apex .
A Groined Vault is also known as a Cross Vault as the formation of a groin vault is by the intersection of
two similar semicircular vaults.
2.10.2 Simple Domes
The other variety of roof cover is by formation of domes.
Domes also have similar geometry as the vaults and thus are not being explained in detail as the figures
explain themselves about the basic geometry.
Shapes of dome s are dependent on culture, religion and availability of technology. Out of the ones shown
below, the faceted dome does not have a smooth surface as the perimeter is sliced into straight lines
which move all the way up to the crown of the dome.
The horizontal sectional properties of all the below mentioned domes are circular in nature, except for
the last one, which is polygonal
Also, all domes under this category have a circular base except for the last one.

2.10.3 Complex Domes

Complex domes are such roof systems that have a relatively complex geometry than the simple domes and
usually have a different plan shape than the origin or base of the dome. A brief description of the domes
under thus category is given below.
Hemispherical Dome on Pendentive
This is a double layered dome. The diagonal of the square base is the diameter of the lower dome which
is truncated vertically along the sides of the square.
The apex of the four arches thus formed is the base of the upper dome which is a hemispherical in shape.
This upper dome is actually inscribed in the square base.

Hemispherical on Squinches
This is also a double layered dome where the base is again a square, whose corners are splayed to form
an octagon. The octagonal squinches form the base of the upper hemispherical dome. The bottom octagon
is an octagonal prism and can have decorative arches etc on its vertical faces.

Pendentive Dome
This is a single layer dome whose base is a square. The diagonal of the square is the diameter of the
dome and the hemisphere sit on it with its vertical sides sliced off as per the square.

On Squinches
This is again a truncated hemisphere with sides truncated along the octagonal base. The vertical faces
thus formed have an arched surface.
Squinches formed at the octagonal faces are equal in size and is obtained by corbelled corners

Cloister Dome
This is a diagonally chamfered pyramidal dome and the apex formed thus is traced on the diagonal of the
square base. Each of the four faces is created be the interpenetration of larger diameter domes.
 CHAPTER – 3
CLASSICAL ORDERS
3.0 CLASSICAL ORDERS
Whenever we talk about classical architectural styles that were practiced in ancient Rome, Greece and
Egypt, the 3 Grecian and 2 Roman Orders of Architecture are the ones that come to our minds first. These
5 basic Orders of Architecture form the basis of most styles during that age.
An Order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts subject to uniform established proportions,
regulated by the office that each part has to perform.(Wikipedia)
These Architectural Orders are the ancient styles of classical architecture , each distinguished by its
proportions and characteristic profiles and details, and most readily recognizable by the type of column
employed. Three ancient Orders of Architecture, the Doric , Ionic , and Corinthian originated in Greece. To
these the Romans added the Tuscan , which they made simpler than Doric , and the Composite , which was
more ornamental than the Corinthian .

The Architectural Order of a classical building is akin to the mode or key of classical music, the grammar
or rhetoric of a written composition. It is established by certain modules like the intervals of music, and it
raises certain expectations in an audience attuned to its language.
Each style has distinctive capitals and entablatures . The column shaft is sometimes articulated with vertical
hollow grooves known as fluting . The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its ‘entasis‘,
beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top, although
some Doric columns are visibly “flared,” with straight profiles that narrow going up the shaft.
The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the
entablature on the supportive column, but it primarily serves as an aesthetic purpose element.
The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other
using moldings or bands.
3.1 DORIC COLUMN
The Doric Order was the first style of Classical Architecture, which is the sophisticated architectural
styles of ancient Greece and Rome that set the standards for beauty, harmony, and strength for European
architecture.
In the original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly from flat pavement without any base. The
height of the shaft was about 4 to 8 times the diameter and had concave grooves called flutings. These
were topped by smooth capitals that flared to meet a square abacus.
 The Parthenon in Athens Greece is one of the finest examples of the Doric order
The various parts of the Doric order and their nomenclature is given on the sketch below.
The architecture followed rules of harmony. Since the original design came from wooden temples where
the ‘triglyphs’ were real heads of wooden beams, every column had to bear a beam, which lay across the
centre of the column.
‘Triglyphs’ were arranged regularly; the last triglyph was centered upon the last column. This was
regarded as the ideal solution which had to be reached.

3.2 IONIC COLUMN

The Ionic order forms one of the three orders of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being
the Doric and the Corinthian. (There are two lesser orders, the stocky Tuscan order and the rich variant of
Corinthian, the Composite order, added by 16th -century Italian architectural theory and practice).
The Ionic columns are the most thin and small columns out of the three canonic orders.
The Ionic capital is characterized by the use of volutes. The Ionic columns normally stand on a base
which separates the shaft of the column from the ‘stylobate‘ or platform; The cap is usually enriched with
egg-and-dart design.
The various parts of the Ionic order and their nomenclature are given on the sketch.
The major features of the Ionic order are the volutes of its capital.

The Ionic column is always more slender than the Doric; Ionic columns are eight to nine times the
column-diameters and are most often fluted. After a little early experimentation, the number of hollow
flutes in the shaft settled at 24 numbers.
3.3 CORINTHIAN COLUMN
The Corinthian order is the last developed of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and
 Roman Architecture.
The name “Corinthian” is derived from the ancient Greek city of Corinth, although the style had its own
model in Roman practice.
Proportion is a defining characteristic of the Corinthian order. The ratio of total column height to column-
shaft height is to a 6:5 ratio, so that, secondarily, the full height of column with capital is often a multiple
of 6 Roman feet while the column height itself is a multiple of 5.
In its proportions, the Corinthian column is similar to the Ionic column, though it is more slender, and
stands apart by its distinctive carved capital. The ‘abacus‘ upon the capital has concave sides to conform
to the out scrolling corners of the capital, and it may have a rosette at the center of each side. Corinthian
columns were erected on the top level of the Roman Colosseum, holding up the least weight, and also
having the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Their height to width ratio is about 10:1.

3.4 COMPOSITE COLUMN

The Composite Order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus
leaves of the Corinthian order.
The Composite order volutes are larger; however, the Composite order also has ‘echinus’ molding with
egg-and-dart ornamentation between the volutes. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters
high. Until the Renaissance, the composite was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered
as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The Arch of Titus, in the Forum in Rome, built in 82 AD, is
considered the first example of a Composite order.

The Composite order, due to its delicate appearance, was deemed by the Renaissance to be suitable for
 the building of churches dedicated to The Virgin Mary or other female saints. The church of San Carlo
alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, has 16 composite columns. The load-bearing columns placed underneath the
arches have inverted volutes. This choice was highly criticized at the time, thinking it was a lack of
knowledge of the Vitruvian orders that led him to his decision.
3.5 TUSCAN COLUMN
Among the canons of classical orders of classical architecture, the Tuscan order’s place is due to the
influence of the Italian SebastianoSerlio, who meticulously described the five orders including a “Tuscan
Order,” “the solidest and least ornate,”

Because the Tuscan mode is easily worked up by a carpenter with a few planing tools, it became part of
the vernacular Georgian style that has lingered in places like New England and Ohio deep into the 19 th
century.
In its simplicity, the Tuscan order is seen as similar to the Doric order , and yet in its overall proportions
and intercolumniation, it follows the ratios of the Ionic order .
This strong order was considered most appropriate in military architecture and in docks and warehouses
when they were dignified by architectural treatment. Serlio found it “suitable to fortified places, such as
city gates, fortresses , castles, treasuries, or where artillery and ammunition are kept, prisons , seaports
and other similar structures used in war.”
3.6 ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL ORDERS
3.6.1 Acunthus
A Mediterranean plants (Acunthusmollis and Acunthus Spinous) whose deeply serrated leaf was stylized
by the Greeks and the Romans to become one of the principal ornaments of classical architecture. It is
identified to a Corinthian capital

3.6.2 Bracket
A Bracket is support for a projection in a wall surface, such as a cornice, and usually is scroll shaped.
Many derivative designs had evolved from the basic bracket and with the passage of time, the
 ornamentation became simpler.

3.6.3 Bay or bayberry

A Bay is a stylized leaf and berry of bay tree. Often this is imbricated as in a wreath, or in the enrichment of
a torus.

3.6.4 Cartouche
A Cartouche is a shield or ovoid form often bearing inscriptions and devices in relief, frequently set in an
elaborate scroll frame and bordered with ornamentation.

3.6.5 Egg -and -Dart

A familiar convex moulding, an ovolo in profile with eggs and arrowhead is called the Egg-and Dart
moulding.

3.6.6 Festoon
A Festoon is a garland made of fruits, flowers, leaves, or husks and hanging in a curve.

3.6.7 Fluting
Shallow grooves running vertically along a surface are called Flutings. The term typically refers to the
grooves running on a column shaft or a pilaster, but need not necessarily be restricted to those two
applications.
 CHAPTER – 4
ARCHES
4.0 ARCHES
An arch is an extremely efficient structural system suitable for spanning almost any distance. It was
probably first used by the Egyptians as early as 2500 BC and was used widely in ancient buildings and
structures in Greece and Rome.
4.1 PARTS OF AN ARCH
First let us see what the various parts of an arch are called. From the diagram below, it will be clear
along with the descriptions given for each of them.

Let us start from the bottom

Span : The is the clear void horizontal length of the arch between the two supported sides
Pier : The structural edge of the arch which spans the archway
Abutment : The portion beyond the pier that abuts the pier and supports the span along with the Pier
Springing : The level from where the arch starts to rise from the span
Impos t : The springing level members on both sides of the Arch
Voussoirs : The individual wedge shaped arch elements that helps in spanning the arch
Crown : The top of the arch
Keystone: The central piece at the top of the arch that help retain the arch its geometric form
Introdas : The width of the voussoir element on the underside
Extrodas : The projection that the arch elements make from the abutment wall
Rise : The vertical height of the arch from springing to the topmost par t, that is the bottom of the keystone
4.2 TYPES OF SIMPLE ARCHES
Now arches can be built in various kinds of geometry and the shape and size of the arch is dependent on
such geometry. The geometry of the arch is mostly region based and may also sometimes be religion
based.
Arches with simple geometry of constructions are listed below with drawings for easy understanding. It
will be seen that the arches explained here are the most commonly used arches and mostly related to brick
or stone construction types.
However, there are many other types of arches that are seen, which are complex in their geometry and
 hence construction.
4.2.1 Gothic Arch
This may also be called as an equilateral arch. The Span and the Rise points for this type of arch form an
equilateral triangle. These arches were most commonly used by the Goths and thus are called a Gothic
Arches.The spring point on either side is the centre for the construction of the inner arcs. This is a two
centered arch.

4.2.2 Tudor Arch

The rise in this arch is much less and is also called a perpendicular arch due to its geometry.
Here the span is divided into 4 segments at the springing level and quarter circles are drawn at each of
the outer division nodes upto 60 degrees to the center. Tangents are then drawn to form the apex of the
arch.

4.2.3 Semi Circular Arch

This is a simple single centered arch where the centre is on the springing level and the radius is half the
span.

4.2.4 Venetian Arch

This is atypical semi circular arch with the center at the middle of the span. This is also a single point
arch. The characteristic of this type of arch is that the impost span is less than the arch span and this
character makes it different from the Semi Circular Arch.

4.2.5 Triangular Arch

This is a pseudo arch of two courses of stretchers at acute angles leaning towards each other to form a
 mitred apex. Such arches were commonly used in Anglo-Saxon architecture.
Since the geometry is not very dictating, the span is to rise proportion can be anything. These arches are
also called Pediment or Mitred Arch

4.2.6 Bulls Eye Arch

This is also called a Circular Arch as there is only one center. Such arches are used to create openings
for light and ventilation. Here all the voussoirs remain in compression always and there is no keystone
for such arches. In old historic towns, underground brick sewers were laid in this fashion.

4.2.7 Horse Shoe Arch

As the name suggests, the shape of this arch is like a horse shoe. Usually associated with the Islamic
style, these arches are formed on straight piers which narrow towards the base of the arch at the
springing. The arches may be circular as shown or may be stretched vertically to have a more pointed
look. The center of th is arch is above the springing levels.

4.2.8 Jack Arch

This is also called a Horizontal Wedge Arch as the spanning members are all truncated wedge shaped
voussoirs that exert mutual pressure to each other to stay in place.
This arch type was used before the advent of concrete and steel. The name Jack Arch has been derived
from the concept that it was a commoner’s arch.

4.2.9 Segmental Arch

 This arc of this arch type is a part or segment of a circle. Out of all the arches shown before, this arch has
its centre below the springing level at the middle of the span. This is also a very commonly used simple
arch.

4.2.10 Multi Centered Arch

A multi centered arch may have many centers and the location of the centers may vary. The diagram
below is an example of a 3 centered arch where the end arcs have their center on the springing line and
the central arc below the spring line on the middle of the span.
There are many variations of the multi centered arches and there may be upto six centers.

4.2.11 Four Point Arch

As the name suggests, there are 4 centers, two on the spring level for the edge quadrants of the arch and
two below the above centers by half span. Needless to say, the span is divided into 4 equal segments.

4.2.12 Corbelled Arch

The simple technique of corbelling is used for such type of arches. Here it must be explained that each
brick or stone projects from the one below by as much so that the center of gravity remains within the
brick below. Usually one-third or one-fourth projection is given.

4.3 COMPLEX ARCHES

In addition to the above, there are a few more types arches which a have a little more complex
construction geometry and are used in specific regions. These arches have many centers and are difficult
to build.
Some examples are given next but there are many more types that may be seen. Some arches are also
multi layered and traces the basic shape into many projecting or recessed layers in the arch thickness to
add to the overall aesthetic appeal.
4.3.1 Shouldered Arch
 Shouldered Arch may be of two types, Inward or outward. The geometry is very simple and the edge
spans have a quarter circular shoulders generally. However, it is also common to find smaller shoulders
to comparatively larger spans.

4.3.2 Trefoil Arch

Mostly used in Islamic architecture and has 3 individual arch patterns stuck to each other. The geometry is
quite complex and depends on the desired shape. The central segment always has a pointed crown and is
mostly layered with various Introdas dimensions.

4.3.3 Ogee or Keel Arch

This is also an Islamic 4 point arch where two of the inner segment arcs have their centers above the
springing level and is generally on the crown level of the arch as shown. The inner segments of this arch
may have centers at various geometrical locations on the spring level

4.3.4 Parabolic Arch

This is also a multi centered arch and is a derivative of the Gothic arch excluding the pointed apex. The
point above the center of the span equal to half the span forms the center of the top segment of the arch.
This segment tangentially touches the outer arcs of the Gothic arch and form a soft circular apex or crown.
 CHAPTER – 5
TIMBER JOINTS
5.0 TIMBER JOINTS
Wood has been the basic material of construction, worldwide and till today, wood plays an integral part
of architectural realization. The many varieties of wood used world over for the various functions
demand good and stable joinery methods to be employed effectively. Also the type or species of wood
dictate the joinery that is required.
As is well known, wood is used for structural and non structural reasons. Also not all wood species have
the same load bearing capacities. So it is important to know how and where a joint is to be employed
effectively.
Timber joints are used for primary for two reasons. The first is for elongation or for linear joints. The
other is for turns or angled joints.
The following section details the basic timber joints used.
5.1 BRIDLED JOINT
Also known as open tenon, open mortise and tenon, or tongue and fork joints. This joint is where the
through mortise is open on one side and forms a fork shape. The mate has a through tenon or necked joint.
Bridled joints are commonly used to join rafter tops and are also used in scarf joints and sometimes sill
corner joints in timber framing. This is basically an angled joint

5.2 BUTT JOINT

This is a simple angular joint and is non structural in nature. This is a very weak joint and is used with
wooden or metal pins to keep the members in position.

5.3 MITRE JOINT

This is another type of angled joints where the ends are splayed or bevelled to receive each other. This
also is a weak joint and wooden or metal pins are required for affecting the joinery.

5.4 FINGERED JOINTS

Fingered joints may be of two types, Linear or Corner joints. Alternate projections matching each other
are made to hold on to each other.
 There is no structural lock in both cases and may be used only for simple cases where there is not much
lateral force is in play.

5.5 DOVE TAIL JOINT

As the name suggests, the joint shapes like the tail of a dove. This joint is much secured and is able to
sustain tension forces as the fingers are keyed and locked to each other. The joints will never open up in
the direction of the members once keyed in. The joint is used as a corner joints or also as a boxed joint.

5.6 TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT

The Tongue and Groove Joint is generally used as a linear joint to place wooden planks in flooring
locked to each other so that movement in one direction can be restricted. Since this is a sliding joint kept
in position, the locking is in only one direction.

5.7 TENON MORTISE JOINT

A stub (the tenon) will fit tightly into a hole cut for it (the mortise). This is a hallmark of Mission Style
furniture , and also the traditional method of jointing frame and panel members in doors, windows, and
cabinets. This joint is a good and strong joint to use.

5.8 HALF LAP JOINT

This is another linear joint and is generally used for extensions or elongations. Here the width of the
extending member is cut half way on both members to make them receive each other without change in
overall width or section.
This joint may also be used as a corner joint. In both cases, pinning is required to secure the joint.
 Half lap joints may be various kinds. Some of the most commonly used Half Lao joints arebelow.

5.9 HALVED JOINT

This is a derivative of the Half Lap joint and is commonly used in the construction of trusses or similar
structural conditions. Here members cross each other at the same level and thus get locked to each other.
This is a solid joint and is load bearing also.

5.10 DADO JOINT

This is also called Housing joint or Trench joint, as a slot is cut across the grain in one of the members
for the other member to be housed or set into it. This joint is used where it may not be possible to cut
through the entire thickness of the wooden member for visual or other reasons.

5.11 RABBET JOINT

Rabbet or Rebated Joints is used mostly as corner joint where a portion of the end thickness of the wood
is cut off or rebated to receive the other joining member. A very commonly used joint in readymade
furniture making as it requires pinning to secure the joint.

5.12 SPLICED JOINT

This Joint is a derivative of the half lap joint and is also called sloped half lap joint. The purpose of this
joint is also similar to the half lap joint and is stronger but more labour intensive to make.
5.13 KEYED JOINT
The above joint systems are often modified to achieve desired results and such modifications get their
name from the joint types. Mostly these are keyed to obtain better strength. A few examples of such
combination joints are given below.
Half Lap Keyed Joint
Here the half lap is not a simple rebate but has an L shaped form to allow tension from both the
directions.

Spliced Half Lap Keyed Joint

Here the laps are spliced or angled so that it gets locked to each other when slid into position.

5.14 COMBINATION JOINT

Joint types are also combined to obtain better holding, tension and compressive strengths. A typical
example of a combination joint is given below. If noticed carefully, the joint is Half Lap combined with
Tenon Mortise and Dove Tail Joint. Such innovative joints are made for special joinery situations.

5.15 THREE WAY JOINTS

Most joint discussed above are bi-planer ort two way joints. Tri-planer or 3 way joints are also required,
mostly in furniture building. A typical example of 3 members joining into one corner is shown below.
 CHAPTER – 6
BRICK MASONRY WORK
6.0 BRICK MASONRY WORK
To understand brick or stone masonry, it is essential to have knowledge on the nomenclatures used for a
single piece of brick or stone that is used in masonry works. The diagram below shows a typical brick.

L– Length: longest side of the brick

W– Width: wider side of the brick
HT – Height: The smallest side of the brick
B – Bed: largest surface where mortar is placed
F – Frog: Depression in the brick to hold mortar
S – Stretcher or Face: the length & height face
H– Header: the width & height face
6.1 CLOSURES & BATS
In most masonry works, bricks are required to be cut to have good bonds between layers of brickwork,
called Courses. Each of these courses has full bricks and also cut bricks to terminate or end a layer of
brickwork.
The below six diagrams explain how the bricks are normally cut and the name given to them.
Half Bat : Brick cut half on the length.
Three-Quarter Bat or Closure : A brick with one fourth portion cut off the length
Quarter Closure : A brick in which one-forth on the length is retained
King Closure : A brick with its corner splayed from width to length
Queen Closure : A brick cut half way on the width.
Split Closure : A brick cut half way on the height

6.2 HALF BRICK MASONRY WORKS

Single half brick masonry is used where strong bonds are not required and is generally an internal
partition wall. The width of this masonry work is equal to the width of the brick.
6.2.1 Running Bond
The Stretchers are laid in both layers. The bricks are laid half lap. Thus is a two course bond with every
 alternate course being same.

6.2.2 Common Bond

This is the most commonly used bond and each set consists of 3 courses. The first two courses are similar
to a running bond. The third course consists of half bats.

6.2.3 English Cross Bond

This is a two course bond. One layer is a stretcher bond and the second layer is half brick bats placed to
discontinue vertical joints.

6.2.4 Third Bond

This is generally used for oversized bricks or longer bricks. This is a three course bond and the overlap
is on the one-third length at each or alternate course.

6.2.5 Stack Stretcher Bond

Stack bonds are generally used to stack brick. These have very week bonds and have directly vertically
joints. This is not used for normal masonry works.

6.2.6 Stack Soldiers Bond

Here the stretchers are placed vertically and is a very weak joint. This masonry type is used for very fast
work and is thus called so. Not recommended for good quality work.

6.2.7 Stack Header Bond

 This is similar to the above bonds. The difference being that the headers are visible in this type. Also the
thickness of such bonds is full length of the brick.

6.3 FULL BRICK MASONRY WORKS

There are many types of masonry works that are used, but the most common are the English and Flemish
Bonds. The width of these masonry bonds are a full brick.
6.3.1 English Bond
An English bond is a full brick width bond. All odd courses consists two layers of stretchers with a
queen closure at the corner where there is a turn in the masonry work. The even courses have headers
placed across the two layers of Stretchers, again with a queen closure on the turn. The queen closure help
avoid vertical joints across the full width of the masonry.

6.3.2 Flemish Bond

Flemish bonds have a combination of headers and stretchers in both odd and even courses. Each course
has one header with two layers of stretchers and the alternate layers have a half brick length overlap. Half
bat closures and three quarter closures are used at the corners to avoid vertical joints.

6.4 ONE AND HALF BRICK MASONRY

When the thickness of brickwork is required to be more than one full brick length wide, such brickwork is
used. Such brickwork was more used in Load Bearing Building but after the advent of framed building in
RCC, such brickwork is hardly seen.
6.4.1 Double English Cross Bond
Here each course consists of one header layer and one stretcher layer. The alternate layer is same but just
reversed and the headers and stretchers are interchanged. Queen closures and half queen closures are
 used to avoid vertical joints.

6.4.2 Double Flemish Cross Bond

This bond is a very decorative bond and half bats are used as a core block surrounded by headers placed
all-round the half bat. The alternate layer is same but reversed. Queen Closures and Three Fourth
closures are used in alternate positions to avoid vertical joints and create a very interesting design.

In the enclosed sketch, it must be noted that the queen closure is not visible from outside.
There is an optional method where the queen closure can be made visible, thus making it very decorative
and interesting. Given below is the arrangement of the alternate layers for such type of brickwork.
 CHAPTER – 7
STONE MASONRY WORK
7.0 STONE MASONRY WORK
Rubble masonry is rough, unhewn building stone set in mortar, but not laid in regular courses. It may
appear as the outer surface of a wall or may fill the core of a wall which is faced with unit masonry such
as brick or cut stone.
Stone Masonry can be of two types: Rubble and Ashler.
Rubble Masonry is made of pieces of rough or undressed stone used in building walls, especially as
filling for cavities.
Ashler masonry is made of hewn stone with straight cut edges or squared building stone cut more or less
true on all faces adjacent to those of other stones so as to permit very thin mortar joints.
Each of the above has many sub types but the more commonly used varieties are discussed below.
7.1 RUBBLE MASONRY
Rubble Masonry, as discussed above is made of undressed or random pieces of stone and so have various
types to fit in the many shapes and size scenario.
As natural stone blocks are involved in the process of making the masonry work, the name of each type is
derived from the size and course adopted.
7.1.1 Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry

Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry is made of pieces of stone of any shape and size. There is no
particular course or layer involved in such masonry types of work. This is the roughest and cheapest
masonry type.
7.1.2 Coursed Random Rubble Masonry
This is a more definite type of rubble work and has a sense of coursing with the combination of small and
big stones. This is a more stable system. In this type the stones have straight beds.

7.1.3 Uncoursed Squared Rubble Masonry

Squared Rubble Masonry is made of combination stone pieces which form a square pattern. Generally the
majority of pieces is square like in shape and is more or less sized on the edges.
7.1.4 Coursed Square Rubble Masonry
In this type, the masonry is similar but coursed. Combinations of stone of various sizes are used to form
courses on the largest stone available. It is required to be done very meticulously and is also very time
taking.

7.1.5 Coursed Rubble Masonry

Coursed Rubble Masonry consists of stone pieces of similar height so that a course may be built with a
particular group of stones. It is important thus to do a full sorting of available stones for such kind of
masonry.

7 .1.6 Polygonal Rubble

As the name suggests, the stones used here are hammer dressed and are made of irregular stones. The face
joints are thus seen running in all directions. However, the corners are made of more stable pieces.

7.1.7 Dry Rubble Masonry

This type of masonry is self supporting and does not require any mortar bonding. This is generally rested
in place on gravity and acts like a dry retaining wall. Mostly used for temporary works.
7.2 ASHLER MASONRY
Ashlar is finely dressed (cut & worked) masonry, either an individual stone that has been worked until
squared or the masonry built of such stone. This is one of the finest stone masonry units and is widely
used where stone is available as a basic building material.
7.2.1 Ashler Fine Masonry
In this type of masonry, each stone is cut to uniform size and shape, with all sides rendered rectangular,
perfectly horizontal and vertical joints are available. This is a very costly type as it is very labour
intensive.

7.2.2 Ashler Rough Tooled Masonry

In this type the bed and the sides are finely dressed and chiseled but the face is kept undressed to an
extent so that the rough face gives a very rustic and natural look.

7.2.3 Ashler Rock Faced Masonry

In this type of masonry, stones of irregular sizes are chosen and the exposed side is chiseled to form an
perfect or near perfect face. The rest of the other edges are kept uneven and rock faced to give a very
subtle rustic look.

7.2.4 Ashler Chamfered Masonry

This type is one step ahead of the Fine Ashler masonry.In this type, regular sized stones are used with
their edges chamfered or beveled on all the visible sides. This gives a very neat and regimented look and
is thus a costly type.
7.3 STONE MASONRY SECTIONS
For stone masonry works it is important to know how the core of such masonry works behave. As these
are very heavy in terms of weight, the forces of gravity play a very important part in the buildup of stone
masonry works.
Stone masonry may look very robust due to its heavy appearance but are actually not. Due to the
irregularity in size, type and weight patterns, stone masonry find itself difficult to established coursed
bonds between its layers.
Stone masonry is thus advised to be avoided in seismic or high seismic zones as there are very few
lateral ties that can be established in this system.
A few examples are given below to understand the point.
7.3.1 Straight Coursed Masonry Section
When the masonry rises vertically with all its courses having similar width, it is important to have a bond
header that covers the entire width of the masonry. This is important to have lateral ties in the masonry
which is otherwise weak.

7.3.2 Retaining Wall

In situations where the stone work is used to retain earth due to a difference in level, through headers are
important elements and must be placed at regular vertical intervals. The core may however have small
rubble infill with inner and outer rubble liners.

This is another variety of a retaining wall where the built up section is large. Here cobbles and smaller
stone rubbles are used to make the infill while the larger stones are dressed to have the fascia. The
overall section is sloping to retain earth.
 CHAPTER – 8
DOORS
8.0 DOORS
A door is a movable barrier made of pieces of wood, glass, or metal that swings or slides open and shut
so that people can enter or leave a space. A Door may be of security or non-security type depending on
the desired functions the inter-connecting spaces may have.
A doorway is thus the opening between two spaces that is created to fix the door to allow entry or exit
once the door is opened or closed.
It is important to first know what the different components that make a door are.
8.1 DOOR COMPONENT
Fundamentally a door has two basic components; the frame and the shutter. The frame is fixed on the
doorway opening and the shutter is fixed to the frame.
The frame and its surrounds have specific names which are listed below:
Masonry Opening : This is the doorway opening between two spaces and is expressed as the ‘width x
height.’ Masonry opening includes both the ‘openable’ and ‘fixed’ parts of a door, if any.
Frame: The outer surround member which help to keep the door in position is called the frame.
Jamb : The vertical sides of the masonry opening where the frame is fixed is called the Jamb
Head : The top face of the masonry opening is called the head. For arched doorways,the portion above
the spring line is the ‘head’ and the topmost point is known as the ‘Crown’ of the door.
Cill: The bottom of the doorway is called the Cill or Sill
Shutter: The operable portion of the door for allowing passage is called the shutter and each shutter is
also called a Leaf.
Threshold: The bottom part of the frame which physically divides the two spaces between a door way is
called a Threshold. Most doors do have a threshold member.
Core: The inside material of a door shutter is called the core
Fascia: The external visible material of the shutter is called the face or fascia of the shutter.
Rebate: Depression or cut made in the frame to hold the shutter in position.
8.2 SHUTTER COMPONENT
Likewise, the shutter is also composed a many small parts and the names of these parts are explained in
the diagram next. It important to note here that all door types may not have all the components shown
below.
8.2.1 Basic Components
Style : The external vertical members that holds the shutter is called Style.
Top Rail : The external top horizontal member that holds the shutter is called the Top Rail.
Lock Rail : The horizontal member at the middle section of the shutter that would generally have the lock
is called the Lock Rail.
 Bottom Rail : The external bottom horizontal member that holds the shutter is called the Bottom Rail.
Mid rail : Any other horizontal Member in the shutter that helps in holding the shutter panels is called the
Mid rail
Panel : The material that infills the doors shutter between all such styles and rails is called Panel. These
may be in glass or wood or of any other material.
Mid Style : Any other vertical member that helps in holding the shutter panels is called the Mid rail
Glazing Bar : Small non structural members that are used horizontallyto hold glass is called Glazing Bars
Muntin : Similar small non structural members that are used verticallyto hold glass is called Muntin.

8.2.2 Detail Components

Reb ate
This is a cut made in the frame, as thick as the door shutter , made in the door frame to receive the shutter
and stop the shutter from further movement. The rebate is generally 10 to 15 mm wide. The shaded portion
below shows how a rebate is made in the frame.

Meeting Style
The two styles that meet each in case of double leaf doors is known as the meeting style. There is a rebate
on both the styles so that one can receive the other. Usually the shutter intended to open first is required to
be lapped later in the direction of opening and the shutter to receive the first shutter has the matching
rebated profile. Generally the right hand shutter is opened first.

Lipping
The piece of wood used to edge timber doors so that the shutter is secured all round is called a Lipping.
This is generally made of hardwood and may be 6 to 12 mm thick. The lipping helps to secure the edge of
the door.
8.3 TYPES OF DOORS WITH RESPECT TO HANG
As has been said, the door shutter is a movable piece and thus how the door shutter moves from the frame,
to create the necessary opening for passage, determines the type of door. So how the door shutter is hung
and its mode of operation to create the opening in the doorway defines the door and gives it part of its
name.
Some of the hang types are on Jamb and some outside the jamb called Off Jamb doors.
Fundamentally the hang is of three types:
1. Hinges
2. Pivoted
3. Sliding
There are several such types but the ones used most commonly are listed below.
The door hung comprises these and their combinations as explained below:
8.3.1 Side Hung Hinged Door
Here, 3 or more hinges are used to hang the shutter with the frame. The shutter once hinged can rotate
about the hinge and move outwards. The number of hinges is dependent on the height and weight of the
door shutter. There are many types of hinges and the type of hinge used, dictate the swinging pattern of the
shutter. Normally butt hinges are used and the swing is 90 degrees.

Side hung doors are necessarily hung with hinges. These doors are represented by two dotted lines with
the corner pointing towards the hinge side.
A sample drawing is shown above.
8.3.2 Side Hung Parliamentary
This is similar to the above. The only difference is in the hinge and the jamb detail. Since the shutter has a
180 degree swing, the hinge is also different and the door frame is required to be fixed at the edge of the
jamb.

8.3.3 Inter Hung Door

For doors having more than one shutter and if there is a restriction or limitation to hung the door from
both sides of the opening, Inter Hung Doors are recommended.Inter Hung doors are used where the
shutters open on to one side and are hung against each other. In such doors, the first shutter is hinged with
the frame and the other shutter is hung against this shutter. This is most commonly used for two leaves.
8.3.4 Revolving Door
In this type of door, the frame and the shutters are not attached to each other. The Shutters are pivoted at
the centre of the opening, and thus is able to revolve all-round on the central pin or pivot. Such doors
generally have 3 or 4 segments and are used for high traffic areas. The movement of shutters in these
kinds of doors is unidirectional, and helps ingress and egress simultaneously from either side of the
central pin.

8.3.5 Centrally Pivoted Door

This type of door system has a set of pivots or pins fixed at center of the top & bottom of the shutter. The
shutters can rotate in both directions and is generally used to control movements in high traffic zones.
This is not termed as revolving doors as this works on a spring action pivot and not on revolving
mechanism.

8.3.6 Assymetrically Pivoted Door

This is similar to the above door. The only difference being that the pins & pivots are located off centric.
Mostly the divisions are 60:40 or 70:30. This type of asymmetrical pivots is used to regulate passage
width to control the movement rate of persons at a given time.

8.3.7 Side Pinned Roller Door

In this type of door, the shutter is segmented and is made out of small vertical ‘slats’ inter linked to each
other. The shutter rolls into a turnstile roller with a spindle and drum located at one end of the opening.
This may also have drums located at both end for center parting doors also.

8.3.8 Top Pinned Roller Door

This is commonly known as the Roller Shutter and is used in industrial building and shop fronts. The
shutter in this case is segmented and is made of interlinked horizontal members and rolls up against a
 spindle & drum. The vertical movement is generally regulated by the use of guide channels located at
either end of the shutter

8.3.9 Multi Track Sideways Sliding Door

Sliding Do ors can be of two or more tracks. Here the Shutters slide against each other with the help of
sets of rollers located at the bottom or at the top of the shutter. Each shutter moves on a track between the
scheduled openings.

8.3.10 Vertical Sliding Door

This door is mostly used for industrial purposes. Here the shutter is single un-segmented piece that slides
up vertically without folding or turning. The shutter movement is either machine operated or is operated
with the use a geared chain pulley block. For this type of door to operate, height above the opening, equal
to the shutter height is required for the shutter to open fully.

8.3.11 Segmented Vertical Sliding Door

This is mostly used as a garage door and the shutter is segmented inter-linked horizontal pieces . This is
generally electrically operated and the segmented shutter slides on edge channels or guides. The shutter
once opened becomes completely horizontal and rests on the ceiling void above the door. A motor is
located inside, above the guide channel , which pulls the shutter inside or releases the same. This is an off
jamb sliding door and may also have a remote controlled opening device.
8.3.12 Pivoted Vertical Sliding Door
This is an on jamb sliding door and the door shutter slides within the jamb on two guides located on the
jamb. The shutter is fitted with a sliding pivot and is located on the center of the shutter . The door shutter
first revolves from vertical (1) to become horizontal (2) and then rises up on the channel to stay in
position. Special types of hardwareare required for such doors. Mostly used in warehouses and high
doors.

8.3.13 Accordion Door

This is more of a zone separato r door and is very light in nature. As the name suggests, the shutter
segments open and close like an accordion bellow and move against a tracks. The shutter is sometimes
made of thin plywood or fabric and is hinged to each other with continuous piano type hinges.
There may be many segments in the shutter and each shutter is kept at a manageable width.

8.3.14 Pocket Door

This is generally a single panel door which slides inside a pocket created within the width of the door
jamb on oneside. This may also be used for a two shutter sliding out scenario. Such doors are used where
the shutter needs to be concealed while in open position and is used when the shutter is to be kept open
more often for longer periods of time.

8.3.15 Sliding Gravity Fall Door

This is an off jamb door and works on any one side of an opening. Used mostly for industrial heavy doors
 with large openings. There is a sloped rail above the door opening and the shutter is hung on the rail by
roller fitted straps. The door is opened by means of a ‘winch’ and is allowed to slide down when required
to close. A safety ‘buffer’ is placed on the end positions of the rail so that the shutter does not slide out
completely. The shutter is required to be slightly bigger than the opening to seal off completely.

8.3.16 Sliding Folding Door with End Guides

Unlike multi track sliding doors, here there is only one track and floor guide for many shutter segments.
The shutters are hinged to each other alternately so that it may open or fold likean inter hung doors.
However, the inner end of each shutter runs on a guide on the floor and head, so that the door does not fall
out of alignment. The shutters in such doors are gathered at one side of the jamb. The sketch shows
unidirectional fold but may be made for both ways sliding folding also.

8.3.17 Sliding Folding Door with Center Guides

This is same as the above. The only difference being that the guides are located at the center of each
shutter segment to contain the door within the jamb. Since the guides are in the centre, the end shutters are
half the width of the other shutters.

8.3.18 Telescopic Sliding Door

This is an on jamb sliding door where each segment or shutter is housed in side the core of the adjacent
shutter. Thus on open position, only the core shutters is visible. Not very profoundly used as this is
cumbersome in operation. There may be two or more shutters in such types of a door. No floor track is
required and they operate on channels fixed on the shutters like drawer channels.

8.4 GENERAL DOOR MATERIAL

The above type of door can be made of various materials and each has a definite purpose for choice of the
frame and shutter material. The most commonly used ones are discussed below.
Doors may be made of any one of the below mentioned material or a combination of them.
8.4.1 Timber or Wood
Wooden or Timber is the most common of all door material and is extensively used f or all kinds of doors.
The doors may be Paneled, Flush, Battened, Louvered or combination of all the above. Wood in all forms,
including manufactured boards is used for door shutters. Transparency has to be sacrificed for doors in
 wood but wooden doors are generally very strong doors and are used mostly as security barrier doors.
Privacy is also achieved from timber doors shutters.
8.4.2 Glass
Glass is also a very commonly us ed material and is used mostly to keep the door light in weight. It is
imperative, that glass doors offer a see through vision from one side to the other and at the same time can
cut off the zones climatically. Glass offers many design options and some glass doors may even be
tempered to make it break free and a security barrier.
Glass in some options may also be smoked or designed for a particular functional purpose.
8.4.3 Aluminium
Aluminium is mostly used in the framework of doors and is made of specially designed aluminum
extruded profiles manufactured for various kinds of usages and purposes. As the extrusions are very
versatile in design, it is possible to have many kinds of doors, especially with glass as one of its partners.
Only aluminium doors are very uncommon except for some designs where aluminium bars or extrusions
are used to form a semi transparent barrier door.
Aluminium being very light, the doors are mostly used for commercial use and can offer a great variety in
shutter design.
8.4.5 Mild Steel
Mild Steel or MS doors are mostly used for high security areas as these doors have very high fire rating.
MS doors are very heavy and are made of MS sections and MS sheets welded or screwed to form the
desired design. MS slats or slotted sheets are also used to make the shutter light and transparent . Exposed
to weather, mild steel requires a lot of maintenance and must be painted to keep it in good health .
8.4.6 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is mostly used as internal or external liners for very high end areas such as science research
labs and the likes. SS sheets of fine thickness of less than a millimeter are used as the fascia material for
such doors. However, higher thicknesses are also used for special conditions, like clean rooms etc.
8.4.7 PVC
PVC being inert to water is used in doors where exposure to water is more but at the same time offer
visual privacy between two spaces. PVC doors are not security doors and extrusions similar toaluminium
are used to fabricate PVC shutters. The shutters are very light in weight and are used in toilets and
washrooms.
8.5 TYPES OF DOORS WITH RESPECT TO MATERIALS
The third item that makes doors different from each other is the design of the shutter with the chosen
material. All the above materials can be used in combination or in isolation. The design decisions are
based on looks, usability, cost, purpose, performance, fire and sound transmission criterion.
When a door is described, the hang, its material or materials and its design is expressed. In most cases, if
the inside and the face are different, both materials are mentioned while describing, including the
composition of the shutter. The thickness of the door needs also to be mentioned in some cases along with
physical characteristics.
 The most commonly used designs are discussed below.
8.5.1 Timber Flush Doors based on Core Design
Solid Core Flush Door
This is a very commonly used door and the shutter is made of hard wood timber core with fascia on both
sides. The core frame work is fixed to each other to render a solid formation. The overall thickness of
these doors is generally 32 mm to 40 mm with 4 to 6 mm face ply on both sides.

Semi Solid Core Flush Door

Look wise this door is similar to the one above, but the core is made of hard wood framework spaced
with gaps in between to make the core semi solid. The hollow portion in the core framework makes the
door lighter and thus cost effective. The door shutter comprises outer fascia liners as per design. These
doors are generally 32 to 40 mm thick.

Hollow Core Flush Door

This is a cheap and lighter variety of the above door type and comprises a hollow core of only outer
framework within the shutter. The hollow portion in the core framework makes the door even lighter than
the semi solid core door also and is thus cost effective. These doors are generally 32 to 40 mm thick.
 The above three flush doors may have various kinds of fascia to have different kinds of visual look and
feel. The fascia may be same for any of the above three kinds of shutter core and is named as per the core of
the shutter.
8.5.2 Timber Flush Doors based on Shutter Fascia
Commercial Flush Door
Solid, hollow or semi-solid core Commercial Flush Doors has plywood external fascia liners. The
plywood is generally 4 to 6 mm thick and is fixed to the core by means of adhesives. The outer surround is
lined by a hardwood lipping. Such doors are generally painted.
Veneered Flush Door
Solid, Hollow or Semi Solid Core Veneered Doors have an additional external decorative fascia liner .
The liner is generally made of wooden veneers, 4 mm thick and is polished to give a very rich an elegant
look.
Laminated Flush Door
Again all the above core types may have plastic laminates of desired colour and design fixed over the
commercial door external face as its final v isible fascia. High traffic areas and wet areas have such
laminate finish.
8.5.3 Timber Paneled Doors
In contrast to flush doors, paneled doors are made of solid wood and panel in-fills. Paneled Doors may
have various kinds of frame design and panel design. The frame work of styles and rails along with
intermediate styles and rails may vary in design and is dependent on the desired look of the door.
Panels may be of different material and size and is also design and function dependent. Most paneled
doors are polished but may also be painted.
The size of the Panel is also dependent on the material and it also dictates the design of the door shutter.
The most commonly used paneled doors are either fully in timber and or are a combination of glass and
timber.
Timber Paneled Door
Timber Paneled door has wooden Styles and Rails with timber panels as infill between these styles and
rails. The styles and rails are generally 100 mm wide. The lock rail is 150 mm wide. The panels are 12 to
15 mm thick and are inserted within the styles and rails by suitable wooden joinery. The overall thickness
of these doors is generally 32mm to 40 mm with 4 to 6 mm ply on both sides.
 The panels may be flat, sculpted or beveled, depending on the design.
Glazed Timber Paneled Door
For such doors, the upper panel is made of glass of suitable thickness. The glass may be clear, smoked or
frosted or pinned glass. The glass is fixed to the rails and styles by glazing beads generally made of small
wooden sections.
The glazing thickness may be 4 to 6 mm thick in normal door shutters.
The size of the glass panel may be made smaller to make it look like a vision panel.

Full Glazed Timber Paneled Door

Fully glazed door shutters have all panels in glass and only the styles and rails are made of wood . The
Glass may be of any kind depending on the design. The Timber surrounds may be polished or painted.
Sometimes, self adhesive masking paper or designer sheets are fixed to the glass to obtain desired
designs.
Here also, the glass may be 4 to 6 mm thick and is fixed with timber glazing beads.

8.5.4 Timber Battened Doors

Ledg ed Batten Door
A battened ledged door comprises of door height vertical boards or battens joined to each other by simple
butt joint for very cheap doors or by tongue and groove joint. However to keep the members secured in
position, ledge pieces are screwed or nailed over them at the top, middle and bottom.
The battens are usually made of rustic wood, 75 to 100 mm wide. The ledge rails are generally 100 to 150
mm wide. This type of door is mainly used for fencing gates, low cost barriers etc
Braced & Ledged Batten Door
This is a similar kind of door to the above except that two more a dditional braces are fitted to the door
diagonally to give more strength. These braces are more required, if the battens are on a simple butt joint
vertically.
Both the above type of doors is used for industrial and temporary locations. These are also used for
boundary gates.

Double Braced & Ledged Batten Door

The fundamentals of this door is similar to the above two types. The only difference is that the bracing is
on both diagonals and thus the doors are stronger than the single bracing.

The overlap of the diagonals is in half lap joints, so that both the members are in the same level as the
ledges. All braces , like ledges are screwed or nailed to the battens. The above doors are generally hung
with long strap hinges.
8.5.5 Louvered Doors
Louvered doors are generally used where vision needs to be obstructed without compromising on the
flow of air. Such doors are used in areas where fresh air intake is required. Mechanical Rooms also have
louvers to allow movement of air.
Full Timber Louvered Door
A full louvered door comprises of louvers on the full body of the door shutter. The louvers are made in
such a manner that direct horizontal vision is not possible through the shutter.
The louvers are made of wood or timber boards and fixed to the styles by making sloped recesses in
them. The louvers are slid from inside and sealed with a timber stopper bead after insertion. The louvers
generally slope downwards on the inside of the room so that the contents of the room are not visible.

Timber Paneled & Louvered Door

This is a similar type of door where the Louver portion is at the top or bottom part of the door shutter.
The panel may be of timber or glass or any other material as may be required by the design.
In some cases, the louver portion of the panel is fitted with fine wire netting to stop the passage of insects
and fly’s inside clean rooms.

Glass Louvered Doors

Glass is sometimes used as the material for louver in place of wood. The glass is generally frosted to
allow some diffused light inside the space but disallows direct vision. Such doors are generally used in
passages and corridors.
 Metal Louvered Doors
Metal louvers in Mild Steel or Stainless Steel are also used in some cases where the duty conditions are
harsh. Metal Louvers are used mostly for clean rooms and for industrial kitchens which require intensive
maintenance. The louvers are 2 to 5 mm thick sheet metal slats and are fitted in similar fashion on metal
framework.
8.5.6 Glazed Doors
Glazed Doors can be of many types and depend on the shutter framework or its material to define the
door. The functional requirement of the door dictates its design criterion. Glass in combination with
Wood, Aluminium or other material is used to form the shutter. Timber Glazed doors have been discussed
in the foregoing section under paneled doors where the door is made of wood with glass panel at places
to suit a design.
Here doors with glass having the primary area of design are discussed.
Glass used may be of various thicknesses and design itself. The glass used may be clear float glass or
may be smoked or ‘sand blasted’ to design.
Glass is toughened and tempered under a special process to increase the compression and impact taking
strength. Door shutters where the glass itself takes the load itself is required to be toughened or tempered.
Glass is also profiled to certain shapes or is beveled on one or both sides to make it more useful.
Beveling may be done as per the following types.
Side Hung Timber Framed Glazed Doors
Timber framed glazed doors have shutters which have a top & bottom rail with two styles forming the
surround in wood. The space in between is one piece glass. The glass for such doors is minimum 6 mm
thick and can be as high as12 mm thick for large span doors.

There is no lock rail in such doors and the locking fixture is fitted on the style itself. For some doors, a
push plate is attached on the style. Such doors may be single leaf or double leaf and is hinged on rebated
timber frames for timber doors.
Pivoted Timber Style Less Glazed Doors
In this type of door, although called frameless, there is a timber top rail and bottom rail. There is no
vertical style in this door design and the glass is housed on the top and bottom rail in recesses matching
the glass thickness. The minimum thickness of glass used here is 12 mm and is toughed.
 A floor spring and pivot is used to hang the door. It is important to ensure that the pivot and the floor
spring is perfectly aligned so that the movement of the door is correct and on plumb.
Full Glazed Door on Patch
This type is one of the most commonly used door types and shutters. The glass in this door is minimum 12
mm thick and is toughened. There are no frames required for this kind of door and shutter can be fixed
directly on the jamb.
The glazed shutter for such doors have a small portion cut out on the pin side where the patch is fitted
before the toughening process so that the patch fittings can be fixed into this cut alter. The dimension of this
cut is dependent on the specific type and brand of patch fittings that will be used.

It is thus highly important to have this data before the glass is sent for toughening. Push Plates, Handles
and Locks are also required to be predetermined so that necessary holes may be kept in the glass shutter.
8.5.7 AluminiumDoors
Whenever the term Aluminium Door is used, it is generally meant to be the framework that is in
aluminium and not the entire shutter. The shutter is generally made of glass, light weight laminated
impregnated particle board or aluminium flat extrusions built on aluminium extrusion framework.
The Door may be side hung, pivoted or sliding.
Side Hung Alumniuim Glazed Door
This is similar to a side hung glazed timber door. The difference being that instead of timber, aluminium
framework is used for such doors. The shutter is generally made of glass and is fixed to the styles and
rails by means of special Glazing Clips.
The extrusions are so designed to receive the glass of designed thickness. The extrusions come in various
varieties and have different load bearing capacities.

Pivoted Alumniuim Glazed Door

This door is similar to the above except for its hanging conditions. Here the shutter is hung on floors
springs at the bottom and pivot at the top.

Operationally, the timber type and this type have no difference except that this is a much lighter door and
is more on maintenance. The glass here is also fixed with the help of glazing clips. Generally the Floor
springs allow both way movement, but single action floor springs are also available.
Style Less Pivoted Alumniuim Glazed Door
As has been explained for the timber variety, this type of door is called style less, as there is only an
aluminium top rail and bottom rail and no vertical style. The glass is housed on the top and bottom rail in
recesses matching the glass thickness. The minimum thickness of glass used here is 12 mm and is
toughened.
A floor spring and pivot is used to hang the door. It is important to ensure that the pivot and the floor
spring is perfectly aligned so that the movement of the door is correct and on plumb. Long Grab Handles
are generally used in such doors.
 Sliding Folding Aluminium Glazed Doors
Aluminium glazed door panels are also used for sliding folding doors of both types. The Door may be
with guides in the edge or at the centre (Refer Section 8.3.16 & 17). The guide channels are fixed on the
floor finish with roller type pivots fitted on the underside of the door pane.
Sliding Aluminium Glazed Doors
Sliding doors are best with Aluminium as they are light but give all the advantages of a metal. The
number of panes or shutters and its design condition decides the number of tracks that the top & bottom
frame must have.

The bottom frame is embedded in the floor finish and the underside of each shutter is fitted with a set of
roller. These rollers help the pane to move on tracks in the bottom frame. The top frame has similar guides
to keep the pane aligned.
8.5.8 Mild Steel Doors
MS Doors are used mostly to protect costly installations and in locations where other materials cannot be
used. MS doors are made of MS framework and MS sheet metal shutters. The panels may be composed in
sheet metal or of other MS metal and section. The commonly used types are listed below:
Side Hung Opaque MS Door
This type of door has a MS sheet welded on one side of the door shutter. The shutter is framed with MS
angle sections with intermediate horizontal members at intervals. The thickness of the fascia sheet and the
span decides the number intermediate members required so that the sheet does not buckle on force.
The MS framework is required to hold such doors and is fixed with MS pin hinge or hooks & eye hinge.
Side Hung/Pivoted MS Louvered Door
A variation of the above door is obtained by having a part of the shutter with louvers made of MS flats.
Each section is welded to the MS frame.
Side Hung / Pivoted MS Section Door
These types of doors have a requirement of transparency like louvered doors. Typically T or L sections
are placed alternately to from a strong visual barrier. The manners in which these sections are placed are
as shown below:

Perforated MS Sheet Door

Here the door panel or shutter is made of perforated sheets or slotted sheets to allow visual
communication and climatic interface between the two separating zones.

Circular or square or similar shaped holes or ‘punches’ are pre-made in the MS sheet. These perforations
are necessary to have visual connection. The rest of the door is similar to a opaque door.
8.5.9 Stainless Steel Doors
Stainless steel Doors are mostly used for clean room environment which requires it being maintenance
free. Stainless Steel sheets are used as fascia for such doors on both sides and no screw or pin is used.
Precision Labs, Walk-in Cold Storages and areas requiring inert environment are provided with such non-
reactive doors made of Stainless Steel.
8.5.10 PVC Doors
PVC doors are like battened and aluminium doors. The PVC profiles come in various widths and can be
joined edge to edge. The joints are like dovetails and the panel is formed by sliding or pushing each
profile.
The design is very flat and simple and PVC doors do not generally have much aesthetic presence.
PVC doors have frames made of extrusions and the panel also has styles and rails.The extrusions look
much similar to the aluminium, but are much lighter. Nowadays, UPVC doors are also available in very
attractive colours and design.
8.5.11 Doors with Infill
Sometimes doors are required to fulfill certain technical requirements. These may be related to thermal or
acoustical features, that a door must possess. Sound proof enclosures like a recording studio will require
doors which donot allow transmission of sound from one space to another. Same is for cold rooms. For
such cases, doors are to be designed in such fashion so that they meet the required Performance Criterion
when installed.
Thermally Insulated Doors
Thermal insulated doors are required to give thermal breaks between two spaces. The materials generally
used are fiberglass (specifically glass wool), cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam, poly urethene
foam, vermiculite, perlite, cork etc.
These materials come in sheets or rolls and are placed inside the core of the door shutter. For this
purpose hollow core doors are most often used as they generate the space for laying the insulation.
Poly Styrene Foam (PSF) or Poly Urethane Foam (PUF) is also used and is required to be sprayed in the
desired space in layers so that the thickness required is achieved. This is commonly used where the reach
of normal rolled or sheets is difficult.
Such thermal barriers are also used in wall panels where the passage of heat is required to be restricted,
like in very hot or very cold climates.
Nowadays, many factory made door brands offer readymade doors solutions of various sizes and designs
on given standard thermal properties. These doors are well finished and the hazard of handling the infill
material is avoided at the local level. It must be noted that these infill materials are harmful to health on
contact and proper protective clothing and gear must be worn while handling the same. These doors are
generally opaque and the core is not visible.
Acoustically In sulated Doors
Acoustic insulation means to cut off the passage or transmission of sound or noise from one environment to
 another. There are several methods to reduce sound be creating barriers between the source and the
receiver. Noise mitigation is thus a challenging task and is done by either reflecting the sound or absorbing
the sound.
For doors requiring a good Sound Transmission Class (STC), both the above are used. While the outer
surface of the door, which is the fascia, is used to reflect the sound, the inner core is used to absorb the
residual sound so that it ‘dies down’ while passing the door.
Depending on the Acoustic Absorption Profile required and the frequency range of the sound, the thickness
and quality of the Insulation material is chosen. The materials are generally porous like open cell rubber,
melamine sponges etc, are good acoustic insulation material commonly used. Acoustics boards and open
cell foam, fiberglass and mineral fiber wool are also used.
Here also the core of the door is used to have the acoustic material and thus these doors are opaque in
nature. Like Thermal doors, acoustic doors are also factory made and can be bought off the catalogue.
Heat Insulating Doors
Both above types of doors are opaque in nature and thus looking through the doors is not possible.
However to make this is possible, a Unitized Double Glass System of doors is required to be adopted.
Here the two glass panes are either separated by vacuum or are gas filled to reduce passage of heat.
The glass panes are separate d by Spacers which are made of metal or fiber.
Since this is very equipment oriented process, the unitizing has to be made in the workshop or factory and
is never possible as an on-site work.
The thermal performance of the door depends on the thickness of glass, its heat reflective properties and
the space infill. Vacuum or inert gases like Argon, Krypton or Xenon are used in the infill as these gases
are non-toxic, clear, odorless, chemically inert, and commercially available because of their widespread
application in industry.
8.5.12 Fire Doors
Fire doors play an important role in saving lives and building regulations specify where they need to be
fitted in in any building type.
With the advancement of technology, thankfully, Fire Doors do not have to look functional or boring any
more.
Fire doors require various withstanding capacities, in terms of time of Resistance, as they are exposed to
fire, and thus are rated with the help of time. Fire Doors are thus made to 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours or
even more hour ratings. This means that the door would be able to disallow fire and be able to withstand
the fire for the rated time.
Fire Doors are generally made of Gypsum, Steel, Timber, Vermiculite boards, Aluminium, Glass or a
combination of them. Both the door frame and the shutter are required to meet the required rating norms
and the frames must possess required smoke seals.
Doors must also have proper hardware and the hinge, closing device, latching mechanism also form part
of the Fire Door and thus the door and the shutter along with its hardware form a complete set and is
 generally factory made as it may not be possible to make them on site.
Some fire doors may r equire Vision Panels or glass panels in the upper section of the door. Such doors
are located at mandatory locations to compartmentalize the space with fire doors but at the same time
maintain visual connectivity.
The glass used for such doors is called Pyrobelite Glass and is composed of float glass and intumescent
interlayers, built up to the necessary thickness to meet the specified fire resistance rating. In the event of
fire, the interlayer expands at around 120 ˚C and transforms into a rigid and opaque fire shield, which
enables the glass to meet the integrity criterion.
A Double Leaf Fire Door set typically looks like the images shown below. Every Fire Door must be
swinging in nature and must have a labeled automatic latching device to engage the strike.

Deadlocks may be provided in addition to the latch bolt, except on doors used as a means of egress,
where interconnected locks may be used which retract the dead bolt with the latch bolt. Dead bolts may
not be used in place of latch bolts.
8.6 SPECIAL DOORS
Today, when the entire world is concerned on security, privacy of user and rights of admission to a space,
the architectural and engineering community required urgently to respond to this global need. And right
fully the industry has responded to this need. Along with the above, it was also required to save air-
conditioned spaces and building from losing the internal climate built at high energy costs. So to have all
these, controlled doors were put to use for each different purpose.
8.6.1 Automatic Sliding Doors
Visually this door look similar to a normal sliding door except that the top frame rail has a set of built in
motor assembly that moves the panes sideways on receiving signals of operation. At the top of the head of
the door, right at the center of the opening, a sensor is placed to identify intended use by a person. The
sensor on reading this send a signal to the motor assembly and the door opens sideways and closes once
the passage is complete. The sensor is capable to read proximity at a designed cone of operation so that the
intending user finds the panes opened before he has actually come near it.
Sideways sliding door is commonly used in various kinds of situations where there is high both way
 traffic . Shopping Malls, Hotels, Metro stations etc are places where such doors are commonly used.
8.6.2 Automatic Pivoted Doors
The basic operation is similar to sliding doors but here the doors open sideways like hinged doors onto
one direction. Such doors are also sensor controlled which activates the door springs to open the door on
receipt of a signal from the sensor. The shutters, which are generally double leaf, open on to the desired
direction of passage. Such doors are used where the direction of passage is required to be controlled to
achieve unidirectional movement and are commonly used in Departmental Stores, Theatres etc where
entry and exit activities do not take place through the same door.
8.6.3 Air Curtained Doors
In locations where there is a continuous stream of movement through a doorway opening, automatic doors
become irrelevant as the time gap between open and closed position is very small or is absent for all
practical purposes. Here to affect no loss of conditioned air to the outside, Air Curtains are used above
the doorway opening and the door is kept open during normal hours of operation. The Air Curtain throws
a uniform sheet of air form the top of the doorway at high velocity which the internal condition air is
unable to bypass or stream through and is thus unable to escape. People can easily pass through thus
artificial sheet of air but the inside air cannot. This system is very noisy and feels very uncomfortable
while passing.
Airports and ultra busy Rails Stations have such installations.
8.6.4 Access Controlled Doors
As the name suggests, these doors are designed to allow passage of only authorized personnel and works
on electronically operated low voltage magnetic locking devices. The doors are normally in closed
position and opens only when a predesigned signal in the form of an alpha numeric code is received by
the lock. Once the system receives the signal, the magnetic lock is released and the door shutter can be
pushed to open. Some doors may additionally have the automated opening device so the lock release and
opening is simultaneously actuated and manually opening is not required.
This is completely a computer controlled system and keeps a logging data of every single passage made
through a door. There may be various operational modes for such kind of controlled access. The most
commonly used ones are mentioned below.
Access Card : Looks like a credit card with a normal magnetic strip and e-chip. The authorized user is in
possession of this card and is required to swipe or insert the card to open the door. These cards may be
programmed to restrictive usage or permissive usage. The use protocol is programmed into the card and
thus the number of operations, location of operation etc are all available on use by the card holder. This
means that a card may be programmed for single use, multiple uses or may be programmed for operation
by the hour of the day. These cards allow entry only through the authorized doors and are thus useful for
many use types. Hotels and other leisure point use such cards quite dominantly. Offices and other similar
spaces also use such cards.
Password Protected Doors : Password or passkey protected doors have a numeric or alpha-numeric
digital pad located at each door and the user must punch in the designated password into the pad to allow
 entry. The password may be good for one time entry or otherwise. The system is designed in such fashion
so that the required level of control and user profile can be programmed, logged and maintained.
Biometric Entry: Such doors are seen where the users profile is known beforehand and their biometric data
is stored into the system beforehand. For entry through such doors, the user needs to place his thumb or
index finger on a biometric reader. If the user is authorized, the magnetic door opens automatically
allowing passage.
Proximity Card Access : This is similar to the Access Card and the only difference is that the card is not
required to be swiped every time and the door opens if the intending user is in possession of the required
card. The card may be kept in his or her wallet or purse or any other location of the body. The sensors have
the ability to read such cards and act accordingly.
Retina Display Entry : This is a higher security variation of the biometric system and is said to be
foolproof and latest. This involves collection of retina data of the authorized personnel and storing the
same in the computerized system. On every door, a Retina Sensor is placed and the predefined user needs
to look at the sensor. If found matching, the lock opens to allow passage. This is a very costly system and is
only used for very important and high value installations such as bank lockers and vaults etc.
Mobile Interfaced Access : This is also a very high end security variation of the biometric system and is
used in areas where the user profile is known and controlled. This system works on wi-fi integration
between the user’s mobile phone and digital interface of the locking device. The user may need to punch in
a pass key or may have saved it for regul ar use.
8.7 DECORATIVE DOORS
All the above sections in this chapter have basically dealt with the functionality of doors without much
mention on the aesthetic value of the door. As is well known, doors can be of very high decorative value
leaving behind a statement of elegance on the space and its users. A few types of single and composite
door types are discussed below.
8.7.1 Composite Panel Door with Glazed Side Lights
This is generally timber glazed door where the shutter is fully opaque and is a simple arched side hung
panel door with fixed sidelights which are partly glazed and partly paneled. The glazing is segmented and
has MS grills on the outside to control the security aspect.
Doors without the security grill may also be proposed and is a functional requirement.
8.7.2 Arched Glazed Decorative Door
This is a door where the shutter is arch shaped with glass panels on mid styles and mid rails or muntins
and glazing bars. For such doors, glass used is generally thick so that there is enough refraction to
disallow clear vision inside but allow full light.
The example given below is just one of the possible design options. However, may other types of designs
are possible. Sometimes coloured glass or printed glass is used for such decorative options.

8.7.3 Palladian Door

A Palladian Doors is necessarily a door topped with arch or a pediment over it. The door may be glazed,
paneled or its combination.

There are generally fixed glazed side lights, either integral or separated, on both sides of the door and is
used where classical treatments are preferred. Coloured glass or glass with decorative inlay work is
often seen in such doors.
8.7.4 Paneled Door with Inlay work
A simple paneled door can be made very rich in look by having inlay work done on its panels. The inlay
may be in wood or any other shining metal like brass. Inlay design may carry motifs, geometric patterns
or floral patterns. Sometimes marble of other colourful stones are used in such inlay work.
8.7.5 Glazed Door with Deco Grill work
This is another method of making decorative doors. The glazed door shutter is kept to a simple door with
decorative MS grills made out of square bars fixed to the insides of the styles and rails. This gives a very
rich look and adds to the overall interior flavor and ambience. The grill also acts as a security layer to a
normal glazed door.
 CHAPTER – 9
WINDOWS
9.0 WINDOWS
A window is an opening in a wall or similar internal or external facade or space envelope which allows the
passage of light, air and sound. In architectural and engineering terms , it means a device to allow or
disallow the above three natural elements, when kept open or closed. Thus windows fundamentally act as
barriers against the above three items when any of the one or moreis not desired; but at the same time act
as a facilitator, when any of the one or more are desired. So window can be kept open or closed depending
on what results are required out of it.
9.1 WINDOW COMPONENTS
Like doors, windows use the same set of nomenclature and fundamentally a window has two basic
components; the frame and the shutter. The frame is fixed on the window opening while the shutter is fixed
to the frame and does all the work. The performance of a window is adjudged when in closed position and
such closed position qualities and determine the design.
The frame and its surrounds have specific names which are listed below:
Masonry Opening : This is the window opening between two spaces and is expressed as the width x
height. Masonry opening includes both the openable and fixed parts of a window, if any.
Jamb : The vertical sides of the masonry opening where the frame is fixed is called the Jamb
Head : The top of the masonry opening is called the head. For arched windows, the portion above the
spring line is the ‘head’ and the topmost point is known as the ‘Crown’or Apex of the window.
Frame: The outer surround member which helps to keep the window in position is called the frame.
Cill: The bottom of the window is called the Cill or Sill
Shutter: The operable portion of the window is called the shutter and each shutter is also called a Panes
or Leaf.
Sash: This is another name of a shutter, generally glazed
9.2 WINDOW SHUTTER COMPONENTS
Top Rail : The external horizontal top member of the window shutter
Bottom Rail : The external horizontal bottom member of the window shutter
Style : The external vertical member that holds the shutter
 Mullion : Vertical intermediate framing member
Transome : The Horizontal intermediate framing member.
Fanlight: The top openable pane of a window
Stay : A hardware used to keep the window at a particular position
Friction Stay Hinge : A hinge that can keep the window open at the desired position without being
required to lcok it to that position.
9.3 TYPES OF WINDOW WITH RESPECT TO HANG
Like doors, windows also have three different kinds of hanging modes.
1. Side Hung or Casement
2. Pivoted
3. Sliding
Also, windows have On-jamb and Off-jamb hanging and comprise the following known types.
9.3.1 Ordinary Casement Window
Casement windows have openable side hung panes or sashes opening outwards. The panes are hung with
hinges and the number of hinges is dependent on the height and weight of the window pane.

9.3.2 Inter Hung Casement Window

Like doors, inter hung windows are hinged only on one side and the other shutter/s are hinged to each
other. The first shutter is hinged with the frame and the other shutter is hung against this shutter. This is
most commonly used for two leaves.

9.3.3 Awning or Top Hung Window

For such windows, the hinges are located at the top of the pane so that the sash can open outside from top
 and form an awning when kept fully open. Such windows are used in rest rooms and other spaces where
direct external view is not important.
This type is also popularly used in small street side vendor counters where the opened sash forms a
weather sun shade during operation.

9.3.4 Hopper or Bottom Hung Window

This is similar to the above except that the hinge here is located at the bottom of the panes. Such windows
are sometimes kept on a drop down position when kept open.
Similarly, these types of window are used as a display or work counter when kept open.

9.3.5 Horizontally Pivoted Window

Window panes pivoted at the center jambs to allow revolving motion on a horizontal axis is called
Horizontally Pivoted Window.Sometimes stopper blocks are fixed on the frame to disallow the pane to
take full rotation. Such windows are used as top lights or ventilators and are operated by draw strings to
open or close the sashes.

9.3.6 Vertically Pivoted Window

This is similar to the above type and the pivots are fixed on the top and bottom of the pane. The pane here
rotates on the vertical axis and here also, stopper beads are used to control movement.
9.3.7 Sliding Sideways Window
Sliding windows move sideways on tracks and channel and is best seen in aluminium and UPVC types.
Sliding windows are used commonly in areas where a part of the window opening may be sacrificed to
accommodate the sash gathers.

9.3.8 Vertical Sliding Window

Sliding vertical windows can be of two types. In a single segment window, (refer to the image below),
the entire sash slides above the window opening. The sash opens and rests above the opening.
In a two segment window, one of the panes is fixed and the other pane slides into the same. To stop the
vertical sashes to fall down, clips are used to arrest them and keep them in position. The inner pane is
generally kept inside so that it may be pushed up. Sometime, fly-nets are fixed on the openable portion for
such windows.

9.4 WINDOW NOMENCLATURE AS PER LAYOUT & LOCATION

Nomenclature of windows change or tend to change on the location there are fixed. Windows also get
their names from their shape and functional quality.
9.4.1 Side Light
Windows panes, fixed or openable, located on the side of the main window is called Side Light. This is
also called Wing Light or Margen window or Flanking windows (portion shaded).

9.4.2 Ribbon Light

A ribbon window is a horizontal band of at least three windows, separated only by glazing bars and
muntins, on the façade of a building. It may also be called a window band (shaded portion).
9.4.3 Jalousie Window
Also known as a louvered window, the jalousie window consists of parallel slats of glass or acrylic that
open and close like a Venetian blind, usually using a crank or a lever. They are used extensively in
tropical architecture. A jalousie door is a door with a jalousie window.

9.4.4 Clear storey Window

A window set in a roof structure or high in a wall, used for day lighting is called a Clear storey window.
Such windows are set in between two floors and are used to obtain light from a higher level where
windows at lower level is not possible or available. Factory North light is one of the most common usage
for such types.

9.4.5 Sky Light

A flat, sloped or pyramidal window system used for day lighting, built into a roof structure that is out of
reach is called a Sky Light. This is used in high roof areas over Atrium and similar kind of spaces.
Generally malls or buildings with very high external dimensions have such type of windows.

9.4.6 Roof Lantern

A roof lantern is a multi-paned glass structure, resembling a small inverted cup, built on a roof for day or
moon light. May also be called a light cupola and are generally accompanied with other larger domes.

9.4.7 Bay Window

A multi-panel window, with at least three panels set at different angles to create a protrusion from the
wall line. Such windows are used as projections in the slab and generate additional space and create a
dramatic interior space.

9.4.8 Oriel Window

An oriel window is another form of abay window which projects from the main wall of a building but
does not reach to the ground.
 Supported by corbels, brackets or similar, an oriel window is most commonly found projecting from an
upper floor but is also sometimes used on the ground floor. Oriel Windows are generally very decorative
in nature and is seen in traditional styles of building architecture.
9.4.9 Diocletian Window
These are large segmental arched windows (or other openings) which are usually divided into three lights
(window compartments) by two vertical mullions. The central compartment is often wider than the two
side lights on either side of it.

9.4.10 Picture Window

A picture window is a large fixed clear glass window in a wall, typically without any glazing bars, or
glazed with only perfunctory glazing bars near the edge of the window. Picture windows provide an
unimpeded view, as if framing a picture. These kinds of windows are used in resorts and hill stations
where the scenic beauty is great and is the only point of attraction. Picture windows are generally made
of thick toughened glass to avoid any accidental breakage.
9.4.11 Lattice Window
A window glazed with small panes of glass separated by wooden or lead glazing bars, or muntins,
arranged in a decorative glazing pattern often dictated by the building’s architectural style. Due to the
historic unavailability of large panes of glass, the multi-lit (or lattice window) was the most common
window style until the beginning of the 20th century, and is still used in traditional architecture
9.4.12 French Window
A French window is a window that typically has low cill levels and has large door-sized lattice work
panes or lights, typically set in pairs. These windows often overlook a terrace and are commonly used in
modern houses.
9.5 GENERAL WINDOW MATERIALS
Taking reference form the foregoing chapter, doors and windows are made from the basic 6 materials
described in this section under Doors. Needless to say, windows are smaller in size but occupy far more
surface area in a building and thus must be chosen very carefully.
The materials that have been discussed are being repeated here once again for ready reference. These are
Wood, Glass, Aluminium, Mild Steel, Stainless Steel and PVC. However, Wood, Glass Aluminium and
 UPVC are the most used materials when windows are concerned .
9.6 TYPES OF WINDOWS WITH RESPECT TO MATERIALS
Windows are generally made of one or two materials. The most commonly used material is wood and a
variety of designs can be made in wood.
Wood is also combined with glass and very interesting designs can also be made with this combination.
The next best combination that is profoundly used is the Aluminium and Glass and most modern building
have such window.
UPVC windows with glass are also used and have very elegant looks as they can be had in a choice of
colours.
The last type is full glass windows panes found in curtain wall glazing or structural glazing.
MS and Stainless Steel is also used for large windows and fixed glazing in atriums and skylight. Since
these do not fall under the category of windows, the same is not being discussed here in detail.
There are hundreds of designs that are there but the ones most common and generic as per the material is
discussed herein below in the upcoming section
9.6.1 Timber Windows
Timber Paneled Casement Window
This is one the most used window systems where it is used more for cutting off light in full when closed.
In closed position, being fully opaque, there is no light or air from such kind of windows.On the other
side, in open position, passage of air and light from outside cannot be controlled. For such windows, the
frame, styles and rails,all are made of timber sections and the panels are generally made in timber
boards.

Timber Louvered Window

Louvered Windows are used and required when the space requires only ventilation and natural light may
not be the criterion.
 In such cases, fixed timber louvers or jalousie type louvers may be proposed. Louvered windows are
used in very hot climatic regions. This window may be fixed or side hung.
9.6.2 Timber Glazed Windows
Timber Paneled Glazed Casement Window
This is a window similar to the timber paneled window. The difference is in the panel design. Here the
panels are vertical split into two parts and normally, the upper panel is glazed while the lower one is kept
opaque by the use of timber panel boards. The upper part provides the desired light even in closed
position while maintaining privacy through the lower panel. Clear or smoked glass may be used as the
glazing panel.

Timber Glazed Casement Window

In contrary to the above design, here the window pane is fully glazed with no opaque panels at all.

This is one of the most commonly used window design in wood as in both open and closed positions,
light is allowed inside. Tropical climate tends to use this design the most as daylight is one of the most
important aspects of such climate.
Timber Glazed Pivoted Window
As has been explained in the foregoing section, pivoted windows may be both horizontal and vertical and
depends on how the window needs to function. These windows are generally vertically pivoted in man
height and horizontally pivoted above man height. This is done as at higher levels, there is no visual
requirement and light is the only criterion. The diagram shows both central pivoted panes, horizontal at
top and vertical at bottom.

Timber Glazed & Louvered Casement Window

This is similar to a paneled casement window except that the lower portion of the window is louvered to
 allow air inside at closed positions and at the same time allow light from the upper glazed panel. The
louvers may be fixed or jalousie types.
The glass above may be clear or smoked depending on the space where such windows are used.
In spaces where the louvered variety is used, the louver slope is always from inside to outside so that
privacy is maintained. Also rainfall entry is negated by having the slope towards outside.

9.6.3 Aluminium Glazed Windows

Aluminium Glazed Casement Window
Visually this kind of window looks same as the wooden variety. The frames work and all styles are made
from aluminium extrusions and glass is fixed with the help of glazing clips. The glass used may be clear,
smoked or of any other variety.
Special hinges are used for such casement windows as it is difficult to keep them in open position. These
hinges are called friction stay hinges and can keep the pane in the position that it is left to stay. However,
other simple swing hinges with pin and stay brackets are also used.

Aluminium Glazed Sliding Window

The most common window type in aluminium glazed is the sliding variety. Here glazed panes are slid
sideways on tracks and rails and generally is very smooth in movement, if fabricated properly. Since no
hinges are involved, the panes can stay in positions that they are left and need not be arrested to position.
Here also any kind of glass may be used.
 Aluminium Glazed Louvered Window
Here, the louvers are made of glass and are fitted on aluminium side tracks which have channels to receive
the glass slats. The thickness of the glass determines the channel widths and generally varies between 4mm
to 8 mm.
Sometimes adjustable sash rods are fitted to the louver pane to open and close the louvers by up and
down movement.

9.6.4 UPVC Glazed Windows

UPVC Glazed Casement Window
UPVC glazed window system is similar to the aluminium window system and also operate on SS friction
stay hinges. The advantage with UPVC as the framing material is that they are very light and come in many
colours including white and red. The only disadvantage with UPVC windows is that they easily receive
scratches which cannot be repaired.
UPVC Glazed Sliding Window
Similarly UPVC sliding window systems have very good movement and thus are very comfortable to use.
The pros and cons of the sliding window are same as the casement window.
9.6.5 Structural Glass Windows
Structural Glazing Windows
Windows built in a structural glazing or curtain wall system is generally called Structural Glazing
window. These windows are generally top hung windows and merge in the overall window system. Since
structurally glazed building are sealed floor by floor from the outside ambient, The openable sashes are
provided with friction stay hinges and are generally kept closed.
Similar methods are also used in case of curtain wall window system.
The only advantage here is that the system allows the framework of the window to be expressed and this
is a much easier arrangement.
 Picture Windows
Picture windows, as explained in the earlier section are used in places where the window opening is
expressed as a picture frame. There are no intermediate members in such windows and thus offer
uninterrupted view of the outside.
Picture windows are generally large fixed glass windows, fully toughened and crash proof to avoid
accidents in case of crashes. Minimum 12 mm thick glass is used for such windows and is securely
framed.
9.7 SPECIAL WINDOWS
9.7.1 Windows with Vibration Sensors
Vibration sensor windows are used in high security areas and are generally fitted to casement windows.
These windows are wired and have a small sensor hidden into the framework. When activated, any
vibration caused by movement of the shutter or pane sends audible/digital alarm to the security system of
the building. Generally, spaces having high value installations are fitted with such sensors and are kept
activated only during the off hours of the space. This helps in securing and identifying forceful
unauthorized entry through any window.
9.7.2 Windows with Motion Sensors
Similarly, to control unauthorized movement near the window, Motion Sensors are fitted to window.
These sensors are hidden in the framework and can sense any movement near the window on a defined
cone of the sensor. Like the vibration sensor system, Motion Sensorsalso send signals to the buildings
security system and from where audible alarm is generated.
9.7.3 Remote Controlled Windows
For window installations which are beyond the normal human reach, windows are fitted with IR devices
which can be operated by remotes. Such remote control windows are sometimes located in at skylights
which are kept normally closed.
9.8 DECORATIVE WINDOWS
9.8.1 Glazed Window with Decorative Grill Work
Like doors, these windows have a simple glazed panel with decorative MS Grillwork fitted to the inside
of the styles and rails so that the window is secured from intrusion by breaking open the glass. This
design is very much used for single level houses where the windows are very much on the accessible
level.
9.8.2 Stained Glass Window
Windows sometimes are required to carry a visual statement about the heritage and other factual
expressions. Stained glass panels with patterns of various kinds are used in such cases. Many traditional
and classical buildings are seen to have high windows with stained glass work. The designs are range
from floral, geometric to religious motifs.
 CHAPTER – 10
STAIRCASES
10.0 STAIRCASES
As has been briefly mentioned in the Vocabulary Chapter, staircases are an important element in building
having more than one floor. It is important to make the staircase design good and comfortable so that
climbing the floor does not become difficult.
10.1 STAIRCASE BASIC
It has been seen worldwide that human have a standard pattern of walking and climbing. Although, this
varies from region to region, the differences are minimal and so generic values for steps and staircases
are globally used.
Staircase design starts with the study of the human feet and its dimensional values of walking, climbing
etc. The human foot is normally about 10 inches or 250 mm long and a human stride is normally two foot
or 600 mm long.

From the above diagram, it will be seen that the horizontal plane on which the foot rests is called the
Tread and should be as large in depth as that of a human feet. It is thus 10 inches (250 mm) to 12 inches
(300 mm) in dimension.
The vertical distance between the two treads is called the Riser, which means the amount of rise. This is
normally 6 inches or 150 mm, as this is the best rise that a human can deal most comfortably.
Here it must be said that not all staircase can have such dimensions and there are various reasons for this.
Space constraint is one reason for economizing on tread and riser dimensions, as treads tend to become
smaller and risers tend to become larger, so that less space can negotiate a greater height.
The projecting part of the tread is called the nose and is also a very important element in step design. The
nose helps part of the heel to step on and thus avoid tripping. A staircase riser with no nose has a high
chance of people tripping.
So it is evident that step design is important and the ratio between the tread and riser must be correct to
suit human anthropometry. The golden formula to this very complex study is as follows:
2 Riser + 1 Tread (2R + T)= 24 inches or 600 mm
Thus if the Tread is 10 inches, then the Risers should be 7 inches. Similarly if the Tread is 12 inches, the
 riser then must be 6 inches.
This formula has huge implications and classifies staircases into various kinds and names as this dictate
the gradient or slope of the staircase.
10.2 STAIRCASES AS PER SLOPE
From the above formula, it can be seen that as the riser dimension increase, the tread dimension is
reduced to fit into the overall value of 24 inches or 600 mm. This increase in riser dimensions cause
different types of stairs as detailed below.
Thus as the gradient increases, the staircase from horizontal becomes vertical
10.2.1 Flat Stride
When walking in horizontal, the rises value is zero so the length of each stride is about 24 inches. Thus
when level changes are designed, it is always advisable to have them on odd multiples of 2 feet so that
the riser comes at the correct human rhythm of walking.

Sometimes, large plazas have pedestrian ways and if carefully noticed, a good design will always take
care of such facts.
10.2.2 Ramp
When the horizontal plane is inclined to a slope, the sloped walkway is called a Ramp. Humans are
comfortable to walk up a ramp of 1:12, which means one unit of rise in 12 unit of horizontal run, but
steeper gradients up to a maximum of 1 in 8 is acceptable.

10.2.3 Stepped Ramp

Walking long distances on ramps may be tiring and so intermediate landings are provided for a few paces
of horizontal walk. This is called a stepped ramp. The rules of a ramp apply for this kind of a ramp also.

10.2.4 Staircase
A staircase is an assembly of continuous steps with a gradient of 30 to 45 degrees maximum. Any gradient
beyond this is not considered as a staircase. Staircases with a 45 degree gradient have the tread and riser
dimension equal and each of them is 8 inches or 200 mm, which is very challenging.
10.2.5 External Steps
Steps having gradient between 20 to 30 degrees is generally used externally in large spaces requiring
level changes. Usually the tread dimensions are a stride long and the riser are kept at 100 mm. Public
plazas are seen with such low rise steps grouped together.

10.2.6 Ladder
Stairs having gradients or more than 45 degrees and up to 75 degrees are called ladders as they have very
high risers and steps are generally short in width. Sometimes rung are also seen in ladders.
Ladders with steps are called step ladders or are otherwise called rung ladders. Such ladders generally
have a hollow riser so that the feet can rest midway on the step or rung

10.2.7 Cat Ladder

Once the limit of ladders is crossed in gradient, then the step arrangement has a new name as these are
near vertical climbs. These are called Cat Ladders and may have the tread as zero with a riser of 600 mm
or 2 feet.

Such ladders are used as access steps in narrow locations and in spaces where the movement is restricted
and by authorized personnel only. Safety rings are generally provided with such cat ladders.
10.3 STAIRCASES AS PER PLAN
Staircases may be planned in various kinds of layouts and each have a distinctive use pattern and
usefulness. The most common and basic types are discussed below, although there may be many more
 derivates of the ones shown below.
The name of the staircase is obtained generally from its planer disposition and how the flights are
arranged.
A golden rule to be followed in staircase planning is that the climb should always be anti-clockwise to
render the railing on the right hand side while climbing.
10.3.1 Straight Flight Staircase
Here the two levels are negotiated by a straight flight of steps. However it must be remembered that not
more than 14 risers at one go is allowed or advisable in one single flight. For such staircases, the tread
lines are parallel to each other, thus making it convenient to climb. Another golden rule that must be
observed for such type of staircase is that the width of the landing must be equal or more than the overall
width of the flight.

10.3.2 Straight Flight with Winders

Same as the one above but this type has winders on the beginning and end. Not very commonly used. The
number of winders is decided by how many overall risers are required to negotiate the height.

10.3.3 Right Angled or L type

As the name suggests, this is a two flight staircase with each of the flights arranged at right angles to each
other. The intermediate space, as has been mentioned earlier, is called a Mid Landing and the width of
this must be equal to the width of the flight.

10.3.4 Right Angled with Winders

This type is same as the one above but with winders in the mid landing. Winders are used for stairs with
less space available for normal steps. Providing winders is never encouraged as there is always a chance
of tripping if not careful while climbing up or down. All the other rules explained above apply to such
 type of staircases.

10.3.5 Right Angled with Double Winders

This type is same as above, but with two sets of winders leading to the same side on the floors being
negotiated. Generally used when the plan space is restricted for a large height. The double winders help
entry on the same side.

10.3.6 Dog legged Staircase

Dog legged staircase is a double flight staircase with a mid-landing and a landing at each floor where the
flights run in opposite directions within the floor.Here every alternate flight is parallel to each. This is the
most commonly used staircase. The space between the two flights is called the well.

10.3.7 Dog Legged Staircase with Winders

Same as normal dog legged stair. The only difference being that there are winders on the mid-landing side
to allow more no of risers within a defined space.
10.3.8 Quadrant Staircase
As the name suggests, the staircase plan radiates through a quarter of a circle, or a quadrant. The steps are
radial in nature like winders. Mostly used as an internal decorative staircase for connecting two levels.
Each step here is wedge shaped and thus the minimum width criterion must be fulfilled for such stairways.
These staircases generally are planned in void spaces and thus also fall in the ‘open well’ staircase
category. It is important thus to ensure that saf ety railing are provided on both sides of the step.

10.3.9 Semi-Circular Staircase

In this type the steps are also radial against a center. Each step is wedge shaped and forms a semi-circular
plan. These staircases have an inner dimension which is less than normal and so should be carefully
climbed . The average width of the tread at the middle of the flight is to be reckoned and the edge
dimensions should atleast be 8 inches or 200 mm. This is also an o pen well type staircase.

10.3.10 Curvilinear Staircase

Curvilinear staircases can be many types. As the name suggests, the staircase plan is generally a
combination of curves and straigh t lines.
 Sometimes there may be a double turn like an ‘S’ in plan. For this type of staircase the average tread
width is kept between 10 to 12 inches with a minimum of 8 inches at the narrowest end. Being open well
in nature, the stair must have railing on both sides.
These staircases can be made to look very interesting and inviting. However, it must be noted that due to
its complex three dimensional geometry, it is rather difficult to construct.
10.3.11 Spiral Staircase
Spiral staircases are radial steps originating on a shaft at the center and are often used as service stairs.
Spiral stairs are never used for public buildings as the safety factors are not very high.
For spiral staircases, it is recommended to have a minimum of 71/2 inches at the 12 inch offset mark from
the shaft, so that no danger is caused when climbing on the inner edge.
Spiral staircases should generally be planned with the railing on the right hand side for climbing
upwards. This in other words means that the travel up should be anti-clockwise.
For spiral staircases, the shaft needs to be secured at the top and bottom and at every floor so that there is
no vibration while climbing up or down.
Spiral staircases are generally made out of factory made cast iron tread pieces which is slid on a shaft.

10.3.12 Circular or Helical Staircase

Circular staircase is another type where the plan shape exceeds a semi-circle. As can be seen from the
diagram below, the staircase has a large well.
 The difference between a spiral and circular staircase is that a circular staircase has a matching stairwell
void. The rest is same as a semi-circular staircase.
10.3.13 Circular Non -radial Staircase
This is a decorative staircase where the tread lines are not radial and form a near tangent line to the inner
core. This staircase is used to have slightly wider treads in a given diameter.
However it must be noted that very high traffic zones, this kind of stairway should not be proposed. Also
this may be good for very wide staircase where the non radial pattern is not noticed by the user.

10.3.14 Curvilinear Funnel staircase

This is also a highly decorative type where the step widths keep on increasing as the flight rises with
some times very decorative terminations. The stair geometry here is multi-centered and may have radial
or non radial steps.
The stairway geometry for such type of unconventional stairway design may be complex in nature and
thus must be made sufficiently clear before erection. Some typical examples of such type of staircases are
given below.
 The image above is that of a multi-centric funnel staircase. The tread lines for parts of the stairway may
actually look non radial due to its multi-centric nature.
The centre of the funneling side shifts on the same axis thus giving a funnel effect.
The image shown above has a curved funnel.
However, there may be a straight funnel as shown below in type 2. Here the funnel side tangents out of the
external face thus giving a very interesting shape to the overall staircase.
It must be decided be the designer as how to place this type of funnel stairways in plan. There may be two
options. The first option being that the narrower side is placed on the entry point so that there is a wow
factor on arrival.
In the other option, the stair plan may also be reversed to have the wider side at the entry point to create a
feeling of invitation and specific sense of arrival.

10.3.15 Ceremonial Staircase

As the name suggests, this type of staircases is for the kings.
 These staircases are mostly found in large buildings and buildings of high orders where the stair widths
are large and bifurcate into two opposite directions.
Palaces and building with a very important sense of entry tend to have such staircases.
Ceremonial stairs may be Dog Legged where the unseen flight travels across the main entry flight in the
opposite direction, as shown above.
Another variation to this type of stairway is shown below where the unseen flight travels at right angles
on both directions, opposite to each other.

10.3.16 Twin Staircase

A twin staircase is just opposite to a ceremonial and has two up flights from two sides leading to a
common landing at the floor above. Also is a very decorative stairway type and used in very high value
prestigious building where the staircase is a focal point of entry and is integral to the design as an entry.
As may be seen from the drawing under thus section, there is a ceremonial balcony which serves as a
view point or as a place for audience of royalty or heads of states.
Such staircases are highly decorative in nature and are always open well in plan.
10.3.17 Double Helix Staircases
These staircases are very complicated in nature and may have straight or circular path of travel.
Fundamentally, this is two staircases enveloped within the volume of a single stairway.

In this, two helixes or straight flights run in opposite directions and reach the floors, one clockwise and
another anti-clockwise. In designs where the flight is straight, the same principles are applied. Double
helix stairs necessarily need at least two man heights head room between each floor two be designed
efficiently.
If carefully studied, it may be observed that there are floor landings on both sides of the flight and
bidirectional double sided entry exit is possible with such a stairway.
10.4 STEP PROFILES
10.4.1 Vertical Profile
Here there is no nosing and the Treads and Risers are structural in right angle to each other. This is not a
very desirable and favoured design and must be avoided.

10.4.2 Angled profile

In this, the structural formation of the riser is kept inclined so that no separate nosing treatment is required
 to be done. Generally adopted for monolithic tread and riser finishes, like ‘cast in situ’ mosaic etc.

10.4.3 Vertical with Nose

Here the Nosing projects out of the riser finish by about 6 mm (1/4 “) so that the heel of a person walking,
specially with a shoe does not get scratched on the underside. This is very commonly used where stone or
thick tiled flooring is used, like marble, granite etc.

10.4.4 Angled with Nose

Similarly, when the tiled floor finish is made to project on an angled riser, the step is known to be angled
with nose.

This system is adopted where there is a paucity of space and thus part of the tread is overlapped into each
other to save on space. However it must be remembered that the overlap may be stretched to an inch or
25mm maximum.
10.5 SAFETY STRIPS
In many staircases, where the flooring material is highly polished, non slip profiles and tapes are used to
prevent accidents. This is done in two ways. Option one is to fix self adhesive non slip tapes, about 50
mm wide on the edge of the tread as shown. The other option is to embed 2 numbers carburandom strips
in pre grooved tread pieces.

10.6 TYPES OF NOSING

As has been explained earlier, a nosing is an important an integral part of step design, specially, where
the step finish is made of rich stone like marble or granite. The nosing design plays a very important role
in the overall beauty and aesthetics of a stairway. Some typical designs adopted in the industry are shown
herein below.
10.7 STAIR RAILING
A stair railing consists of a combination of few elements. All these elements, when assembled are called
a stair railing.
A railing system consists of Hand Rail, and Baluster. Sometimes a Shoe is used at the bottom of the
baluster to fix verticals on the stair system.
10.7.1 Modes of Fixing Hand Rail
Stair Hand Rails can be fixed in various ways to the railing system. These are:
On Masonry Guard Wall
Such Railing is fixed on a masonry baluster from the top or from the side of the wall. The overall height
of the hand rail with respect to the finished floor level of the tread is between 900 mm to 1000 mm.

On Wall
Hand rails are sometimes fixed on the wall in cases where there are walls on both sides and so there are
no balusters on such systems.
 Here the Hand Rail is fixed to the wall as a projection. But this reduces the effective width of the
staircase.
To overcome this shortcoming, the handrail is housed in a linear recess along the profile of the staircase
in the same gradient of the stairway flight.
On Baluster
Sometimes, the handrail is fixed directly on the vertical baluster and generally these balusters are of
metal, like MS, SS or Aluminium.
The handrail material and the baluster material may be same or different.

Elemental Guard
Sometimes, no baluster or handrail is provided. So to take care of the safety, wide low boxed elements,
like planters are provided.

The width takes care of the safety factor so that the barrier of safety is good enough to prevent any
accidental fall by any user. The boxed elements may also be decorative but inaccessible raised water fall,
or similar design element.
10.7.2 Ways of fixing Stair Baluster
Staircase balusters can be fixed to the staircase system in a variety of ways. Some of the most commonly
used types are discussed below.
On Tread or On step
Here the Vertical Balusters are fixed on the step directly. Necessary pockets are left on the edge of the
step and are used to fix the vertical baluster system. There are many ways of doing this. There is a slight
reduction in the overall width of the stairway in this type of arrangement.

On Edge
Balusters are sometimes fixed on the edge of the step, that is on the side of the waist slab, on the well
side face of the staircase. In this arrangement, there is no reduction of step width, but has a very
cumbersome method of fixing, as normally very little space is available on the well side.
However, if the well is wide enough, this is a good option.

On Well
This is one of the most effective but rarely used options. Here the Railing system does not touch the
staircase and is supported by a pair of vertical members anchored on the lowest floor and roof of the stair
well. Handrails are then run as per the stair gradient between these two verticals.
Since all work can be done post concreting during the finishing stage, this system is very effective as no
holes, post or pre drilled, are required to be made in the finishing material.
10.7.3 Types of Stair Railing System
As has been explained earlier, a railing system consists of many elements and the various elements may
be made of various materials.The most commonly used have been mentioned below.
MS Baluster with Metal Handrail
A very common railing system with MS baluster generally made of square bars. The handrail is made of
circular MS section and welded to the verticals to form the total railing system. Generally a MS railing
system is painted.
MS Baluster with PVC Handrail Profile
In this system, the handrail is made of readymade profiled PVC handrail.The profile is made in such a
way that it can be slipped into and wrapped on to a continuous MS flat. These profiles are available in
many colours and sizes and are commonly used for low cost and service staircases which are less
visible.
MS Baluster with Timber Handrail
This is one of the most commonly used handrail systems and the handrail is made of timber, profiled to
suit, and fixed to the fabricated balusters. Here the timber handrail is fixed to the baluster system by
having a matching rebate at the bottom of the timber handrail by countersunk screws on a pre holed
continuous MS flat from the underside.
SS Baluster with SS Handrail & Glazed infill panels
This railing system is used in decorative conditions where the balusters should not become impediments
to vision across the stairway. Glass panels are generally used against SS uprights fixed to the floor or
tread. The glass used is toughened and fixed to the vertical upright system. The top handrail is made of
stainless steel. This system is used in highly visible and very high traffic areas.
 CHAPTER – 11
SCALE RATIO PROPORTION
11.0 SCALE, RATIO & PROPORTION
How often we have come across the word ‘scale’ and every industry has its own meaning. The architecture
and engineering fraternity use the word scale to its own meaning. Whenever we talk of scale, the other
term that pops up immediately to our mind is the word ‘ ratio.’ Every student of science surely knows what
ratio is and needs no specific introduction. Along with ratio and scale comes ‘proportion.’
The following sections in this chapter details out possible introductory knowledge and throw light on this
huge subject.
It must be remembered here that the above three are the keywords in the practice and profession and good
architecture is all about getting these three right.
As I always say: Architecture is a game of scale, ratio and proportion.
11.1 SCALE
Scale has basically two meaning in our trade. One is the scale of drawing and the other is the scale of an
object or a building or a space.
Scale of drawing is the representative factor of the original object into the drawing medium. This sounds a
little confusing. The better way to understand is by an example. Suppose anobject is 100 units long and if
the object is represented in the drawing by 1 unit, then the scale of representation is 1:100. Similarly, if the
unit of representation is 2, then the scale of representation is 2:100 or more mathematically, 1:50.
Thus when 100 cm is represented by 1cm in drawings, the scale mentioned is 1:100.
This is all good when we are in the metric system. But the system has a slight variation when we adopt
the imperial inch-foot system. Here the scale is not mentioned as a ratio and is rather mentioned as an
equivalent. It is well known knowledge that 12 inches make a foot and 3 feet make a yard and 1760 yards
make a mile.
So when we say the drawing scale is ‘1inch to a foot’ (1”=1ft), we actually mean a scale of 1:12.
Similarly, a scale of 1/8th inch to a foot would mean a representative scale of 1:96 and 1/4th inch to a
foot would mean a scale of 1:48.
It is to be noted here, that 1/8th inch and 1/4th inch scales are very near the metric 1:100 and 1:50 scales
and are sometimes considered equivalent to each other in the larger perspective.
Scale of a drawing or a map can be mentioned in the drawing by two representative methods. These are
called the Unit Scale and Graphic scale
11.1.1 Unit Scale
Unit scale can be mentioned in Metric or in Imperial methods and as stated earlier, the mode of
representation is by mentioning a factor.
The scales that are normally used in the metric method are generally multiples of ten and five.
The most common scales are 1:2, which mean half full size; 1:5, which means the object is shown 5 times
 smaller; 1:10, which mean the object, is shown 10 times smaller. Likewise 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200,
1:500 etc are the standard and most common architectural scales used.
In the Imperial system, multiples of 2, 4, 8 and 12 are the most commonly used. The standard scales in the
imperial method is ½ inch to a foot, ¼ inch= 1 foot, 1/8 inch= 1 foot etc.
11.1.2 Graphic Scale
A graphic scale is use mostly in maps and other drawings where the print of the drawing may not be to the
intended size and also for situations where the mention of a graphic scale is an easier mode of
communication. Graphic scales are mentioned within the body of the drawing itself and is represented as
shown below.
Graphic Scales are shown both in the metric and imperial mode. However a comparative scale may also
be used without any unit, if so desired.

Comparative Graphic scales with no units generally mean that the scale does not follow any standard
linear unit method and is just the reduction factor.
11.2 RATIO
Ratio is a very mathematical term and means the relative magnitude of two quantities and does not have
any unit. It is thus expressed as a quotient between two quantities or objects having finite measurement.
Thus ratio can be between two linear dimensions, area or volume.
Ratio plays a very important part in architectural design and as they say, some buildings look better than
the others because the ratio between solids and voids are better and aesthetically more acceptable to the
normal human eye.
Ratio is something that makes or breaks a form along with proportion.
11.3 PROPORTION
Many think that there is not much difference between ratio and proportion as both are expressions which
compare finite quantities. While ratio is the expression for two finite elements, Proportion can be
expressed for more than two elements. Proportion can also be expressed as the ratio between two or
more unequal finite sets of values.
Now how does proportion affect architecture.
Ever wondered, why the Taj Mahal is so magnificent and is praised world over for its architectural
brilliance?
 Not because it was made in marble or was built by the mogul emperor Shahjahan. The only reason for its
dominance in world architecture is for its pure proportion of the various elements. In fact, many studies
have been conducted on the design of the TajMahal by making changes in the heights of the Minars, the
Dome size and other elements. All studies have concluded that the best proportions have been used here.
So what does this tell us?
It only a covey to us that the right proportions of every item is one of the biggest challenges that an
architect faces and balancing all of this is the name of the game.
Proportion and its interplay of solids and voids, light and shade, colour and texture, foreground and
background are the basics of building design that needs to be attended in good Architecture.
11.4 GOLDEN RATIO
Having said about ratio and proportion, the automatic question that comes to the mind of everyone is what
the best ratio is then.
There has been tons of debate on the subject and no one answer has been found true for all situations.
However, one thing that has been conclusively proved that a ratio exists which is the most desired and
attractive ratio among all humans. This is called the Golden Ratio. It is believed that the Greek sculptor
and mathematician Phidius studied this and thus the value of the Golden Ratio is named after him by the
Greek letter ‘phi’(φ )
11.4.1 Golden Rectangle
There are two concepts that are believed to have been the source of this massive invention. The Egyptians
have used this in many structures including the Great Pyramids, but the honour is generally given to the
Greeks.
What is a Golden Ratio?
There have been many references on this subject but in art and architectural terms, the golden ratio, also
known as the divine proportion, golden mean, or golden section, is a number often encountered when
taking the ratio of two entities.
The most common method of finding what this Golden Ratio is all about is to draw a Golden Rectangle
shown below.

A square is first drawn (step 1) and then is divided into two equal rectangles (step 2). The base of the
square is then extended and an arc with center at the midpoint of the side is drawn (step 3). The bigger
rectangle thus obtained is called a Golden Rectangle and the sides of this rectangle are said to be in
Golden Ratio of 1:1.618…
This is also referred to as the Divine Proportion as many things in nature have been found to follow this
proportion.
11.4.2 Golden Spiral
As an extension to this, when such golden rectangles are added to each other by adding squares to the
 larger side of the rectangle, the quadrant curve that is obtained is called the Golden Spiral or Spiral of the
Nature.
There is an abundance of examples of such spirals in nature and one need to be a good observer to notice
this.

The most interesting part of this is that the Golden Spiral is continuous and infinitely expanding. This in
other words means that one can keep on adding squares on the larger side of the rectangle and the new
rectangle generated is also a Golden Rectangle and has the same golden proportions of 1:1.618.
11.4.3 Euclids Pentagon
Greek mathematician Euclid, who is also known as the father of geometry also made some studies on this
‘extreme mean ratio ’ during his time. It must be remembered that Phidius lived during 500 BC to 432 BC
and Euclid’s works on this subject was more than 100 year latter as he lived from 323 BC to 283 BC.
Euclid proved that the same proportion is derived if diagonals of a regular pentagon are drawn to
intersect each other.
This theory was later taken forward by another Italian scientists and mathematician called Leonardo
Fibonacci around 1200 AD that is around 1500 years later to Euclid’s theory.
Euclid had said that the when diagonals of a pentagon intersect each other, the smaller pentagon formed
inside is in a golden ratio with the outer pentagon and the sides intersect each other in the same divine
proportion. (shown in Firm and dotted lines in the diagram below).
Thus ‘phi’ φ was re-established as the divine proportion once again and the assigned value was 1.618.

11.4.4 Fibonacci Series

Taking forward the theory of Phidius and Euclid, perhaps unknowingly, Leonardo Fibonacci , an Italian
born in 1175 AD discovered the unusual properties of a numerical series that now bears his name and is
called the Fibonacci series .
It is not certain that he even realized its connection to φ (phi) and the Golden Mean and went on to give
the world a series of numerical numbers that are found by adding the previous two numbers.
Here it must be remembered that Fibonacci’s most notable contribution to mathematics was a work
known as ‘Liber Abaci, ’ which became a pivotal influence in adoption by the Europeans of the Arabic
decimal system of counting, over Roman numerals.
Fibonacci Series starts from zero and it goes on and on in the following manner:
0
 0+1=1
1+1=2
2+1=3
2+3=5
3+5=8
5+8=13
8+13=21
13+21=34
21+34=55
34+55=89
55+89=144 …. So on and so forth
Here 1, 2, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987…. Is the numeral series called the Fibonacci
Series and the interesting part of this series is that after the first two numbers in the series, the ratio
between the numbers are 1.6 and after 34, the ratio is 1.618. So magical, isn’t it.
Like π(pi), which is approximately equal to 3,14, φ (phi) is also an irrational number and the general
value taken is 1.618.
One more very interesting part about this series is that it is reciprocal, which means, if the reciprocal
values of the numbers in the series are taken, they are always 0.618. This is a very unusual character of this
series and there is no other decimal integer of a number whose reciprocal value is also same. This is what
makes this series along with the Golden Ratio so mystique and special.
Later in the 1500 AD, the famous Leonardo da Vinci gave this the name ‘ Divine Proportion. ’
11.4.5 Vitruvian Man
Leonardo da Vinci, during his time made great studies on this aspect of golden ratio and perhaps he was
the one who first called it ‘sectio aurea, ’ which in Latin means golden section. He used this extensively in
his paintings, including the famous Monalisa, which is in golden proportions.
Later scientists have also proved that the elliptical nature of the orbits of the planets around the sun also
have its axes in Golden Proportion or as aptly called by Da Vinci as the Divine Proportion.
Leonardo da Vinci worked on this subject and as result of this research of his, he went on to establish a
very important fact about the human body, which no other artist ever spoke of. He made a sketch of a
human body, which he called the Vitruvian Man.
The ‘Vitruvian Man’ is thus a famous drawing with accompanying notes by Leonardo da Vinci made
around the year 1492 in one of his journals. It depicts a naked male figure in two superimposed positions
with his arms and legs apart and simultaneously inscribed in a circle and square . The drawing and text
are sometimes called the Canon of Proportions or, less often, Proportions of Man. It is on display in the
Gallerie dell Accademia in Venice, Italy.
 (Image Source: Google)
According to Leonardo’s notes in the accompanying text (written in mirror writing), he made this study of
the proportions of the (male) human body as described by the Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius, who
wrote that in the human body:
“... the length of a man’s outspread arms is equal to his height …”
The drawing above is the copy of the original image that Leonardo da Vinci had drawn to explain his
theory. The Vitruvian theory consisted of 10 ratios of the human body that follows the divine proportion
of 1:1.618.
The notes of Da Vinci are basically divided into two parts. The upper part deals with space and scale and
the remarks made are:
1. A palm is the width of four fingers.
2. A foot is the width of four palms (i.e. 12 inches).
3. A cubit is the width of six palms.
4. A man’s height is four cubits
5. A pace is four cubits.
6. A Man is thus 24 palms
In the second section of his notes, he has made some more observations and to quote he has said “if you
open your legs enough that your head is lowered by one-fourteenth of your height and raise your hands
enough that your extended fingers touch the line of the top of your head, know that the centre of the
extended limbs will be the navel, and the space between the legs will be an equilateral triangle.”
This was a breakthrough study made by the famous painter and that is why he is regarded as one of the
Forefathers of Architecture.
The Important observations made in his notes on the Vitruvian Man are as follows:
1. The length of the outspread arms is equal to the height of a man.
2. From the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-tenth of the height of a man
3. From below the chin to the top of the head is one-eighth of the height of a man
4. From above the chest to the hairline is one-seventh of the height of a man.
5. From above the chest to the top of the head is one-sixth of the height of a man
 6. The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of the height of a man.
7. From the breasts to the top of the head is a quarter of the height of a man
8. The distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is a quarter of the height of a man.
9. The distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-eighth of the height of a man.
10. The length of the hand is one-tenth of the height of a man.
11. The root of the penis is at half the height of a man.
12. The foot is one-seventh of the height of a man.
13. From below the foot to below the knee is a quarter of the height of a man.
14. From below the knee to the root of the penis is a quarter of the height of a man.
15. The distances from below the chin to the nose and the eyebrows and the hairline are equal to the ears
and to one-third of the face.
11.5 HUMAN ANTHROPOMETRY
In the design of spaces in Architecture, thus the study of human dimensions is very important. Da Vinci’s
study alsorevealed a few more startling information’s related to the golden ratio.
Da Vinci stated firmly that the human ear is also a Golden Spiral and there are many other features in the
human body that follow the golden section.
A few examples of his findings are given below:
• Height of face: Width of face
• Width of lips: Width of nose
• Height of Face: Height between jaw & eyebrow
• Theratio of the front two incisor teeth
11.5.1 Golden Section in Human Body

( Image Source : Google - Architects Data - Ernst & Peter Neufert )

From the above diagram it will be seen that all measurements marked ‘m’ and ‘M,’ have the golden ratio
dimensions and that is why it is also called the Divine Proportion. If studied carefully, it will be seen that
each aspect and each body part is in the golden ration and who better could have been the creator of this
wonderful thing called ‘Man,’ than God himself.
11.5.2 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of human body and generally deals with the characteristics of human body that
need to be considered in designing things they use in order to achieve maximum efficiency in their output
or work.
The study relates to the dimension of humans at various position of activity.

( Image Source : Google )

The diagram above deals with the dimensions that are required to be known by every architect so that he
may do justice to his or her design. A few major ones are given next.
It is thus important to take note of a few of the most important dimensions as given below. However, it
must be noted that the human body size differs from region to region and thus may vary as per the country,
creed etc.
Given below is some of the important anthropometric information’s considering the Indian scenario and
its related dimension:
• Man Height 1700 mm - 1800 mm
• Arm Span Same as above
• Body width 500 mm
• Body depth 300 mm
• Arm spread or reach 900 mm
• Squat Width 750 mm
• Sitting height 450 mm
• Working height while seated 750 mm
• Working height while standing 900 mm-1500 mm
• Top of head while seated 1450 mm
• Comfortable reach height 2000 mm
• Maximum arm reach 2200 mm
The diagram below gives some of the above in imperial units.
11.6 LE MODULE
The French architect Le Corbusier developed the concept of Vitruvian and wrote his theory called ‘Le
Module’ or The Modular. It was developed as a visual bridge between two incompatible scales, the
imperial and the metric system. It is based on the height of a man with his arm raised.
The system is based on human measurements, the double unit, the Fibonacci numbers, and the golden
ratio. Le Corbusier described it as a “range of harmonious measurements to suit the human scale,
universally applicable to architecture and to mechanical things.”

(Image Source:Google)
Corbusier was confused with the imperial inch and foot and wanted desperately to unite it to the metric
measure that France was practicing in the 1940’s.
Corbusier assumed a man of 1820 mm height and with his arm raised 2280 mm, he developed a graphical
representation of derivation of scale. It was then refined and the properties of the golden section was
included in the representation. This was called the ‘Le Module’ in French, which means The Moduler.
La Modular deals with two series of dimensions expressed in millimeters, called the red and blue series
in the form of a spiral expanding at each step. The spiral on each side has a pair of vertical smaller loops
of similar height. The Blue series pairs the similar loops and the dimensions are the sum of the previous
two heights 18, 30, 48, 78, 126, 204, 330, 534…..
The Red series alternates between the equal loop segments and the values also summation of the previous
two, but in a different order like 6, 9, 15, 24, 39, 63, 102, 165…
The major thing to notice here is the three guiding dimensions; 1130, 698 and 432 to to add up to 2280,
considering the best universal man height. The point to be noted here is that both the blue and red spiral
loops respect the above three body dimensions.
 CHAPTER – 12
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING
12.0 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING
Since this book is all about introducing the subject called Architecture, the aim is to first become friendly
with manual methods of drawing. It is an established fact and many great architects of today’s digital age
have time and again said that one can only design in paper and then convert the design to a drawing in
digital mode with the help of the various computerized drafting tools available. It is thus of utmost
importance to get the manual methods of drawing right and correct. As is known, we always talk about
‘going back to the drawing board ’ as a metaphor for all walks of life. So the drawing board is one of
the most sacred places of an Architect.
12.1 MANUAL DRAWING TOOLS
The picture below gives an assembly of instruments that are normally required for manual drafting.

Before we get in the list of tools, how they look and what their functions are, it must be understood as to
what we should expect from a drawing. As has been said time and over, drawings are visual expressions
of an architect’s thought and thus it must convey accuracy, legibility and neatness at a reasonable speed.
An architect thus requires an array of tools to do this job effectively. There could be many more than what
is listed below but these are the ‘must haves’ for beginners and so has been considered.
12.1.1 Drawing Board
Drawing Board is the surface where drawings aremade in paper or similar medium. Drawings boards can
be of two types. One with edge normally used by architects or the second type called the mechanical
drafter, normally used by other engineering professionals. The picture above shows a drawing board with
edge on the left hand side for right handed people. There is also a third variety that is used called a
Parallel Bar
12.1.2 Tee Square
 A Tee square is a kind of a slider that works on the edge of the drawing board for drawing straight
horizontal lines.
Tee squares are made of two elements called the ‘edge piece’ and the ‘blade.’
Tee Squares were originally made of wood but now, these are available with a transparent blade, so that
the drawing below is visible.
To draw lines, the pencil or similar instrument must be glided on the edge of the blade as shown below.

It is good practice to rotate the pencil while drawing lines

12.1.3 Comp ass set
A Compass set , comprising of a centre wheel compass, a bow compass and giant bow compass is
required to draw circles. An attachment for fixing ink pens is also available in some sets .
The center wheel compass is used to draw fine circles and the bow compass for basic circles. The giant
bow attachment is used to draw bigger circles.
12.1.4 Set Square 45 degree
Set squares are always sold in pairs and are generally made of triangular transparent plastic sheets. The
edge of the set square may be beveled or butt. The 45 degree set square has both corners at 45 degree and
one at right angle.
To draw a vertical line, it is required to press the head of the T-square against the working edge of the
board with the left hand and place the set square against the blade of the T-square. The pencil is then
leaned in the direction of the line at an angle of approximately 60º and lines drawn upward, rotating the
pencil to distribute the wear uniformly on the lead and to maintain a symmetrical point.

12.1.5 Set Square 30 degree

The other part of the set is a 30 degree set square with angles at 30, 60 and 90 degrees. The rest of the
functions are same as the other set square.
The above two set squares can be combined to get a variety of angles in the multiple of 15 degree.
Set squares must be generally not have any graduations and must be cleaned periodically for pencil dust
 that may have gathered on the faces and its edge.
12.1.6 Hatching Plat e
This is a very useful equipment used to draw parallel hatch lines. These come with small dot like holes
and is used by gliding the same against the Tee square or set square. Hatching plates are very useful when
spacing between the hatch lines are required to be equal.
12.1.7 Triangular Scale – Decimal
Scales are used by architects and engineers to draw an object to a factor of reduction as explained in the
section dealing with scales earlier. Scales may be made of wood or in plastic and are either flat or
triangular in section. Decimal scales are rarely used and have markings related to various decimal related
scales. These are available both in metric & imperial.
Decimal scales are not very common and are rarely used by architects.
12.1.8 Triangular Scale – Imperial
Imperial scales have graduations on its body related to the inch. Architects mostly use triangular scales
and each has6 different scales on its 3 faces, with each face having two.
12.1.9 Triangular Scale – Metric
A metric scale is similar to the imperial scale with metric scales marked on the edges. The rest is same.
12.1.10 French Curve
In addition to the compass, curved lines are required to be drawn. These are ge nerally drawn with the
help of French curves and a set of French curves is always handy
12.1.11 Protractor
As is known to any student of science, a protractor is an instrument used for measuring and drawing odd
angles that may not be possible to draw with the help of set squares. These are also transparent in nature
and have degree markings on them.
12.1.12 Drawing Pencils & lead
Various kinds of pencils are used in drafting work and each are used for a specific purpose.

Drawing Pencil : This is the most commonly used media for drawing. Historically pencils were used for
all forms of drawings. Wood pencils, as they are called are available in various grades of hardness and
softness and are denoted by ‘H’ and ‘ B’ marks on one edge of the pencil
Mechanical Pencils: These pencils are a much later addition to the instrument array and are used
extensively these days as the cumbersome process of using a knife to cut and sharpen a wood pencil is
easily avoided. Raw pencil lead, available in all grades is used and a mechanical device keeps the lead
in position and can be pushed out by pressing the back. These pencil leads however require sharpening
Thin Lead Mechanical Pencil: This is also a subsequent addition and in such pencils, the need to sharpen
 the lead is also gone as they come in very thin variety. The only disadvantage with these thin leads is that
they are very brittle and break off very easily with a little pressure.
The various grades of pencils and leads that are available can be categorized in three parts as shown
below.
Hard
9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H
Hard leads are used where extreme accuracy is required. Generally these leads are used for construction
lines
Medium
3H2HHFHBB
Medium leads are used for general purpose line work in technical drawing.
Soft
2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
Soft leads are used for various kinds of art work. These leads are too soft to be useful in mechanical
drafting.
12.1.13 Pencil Sharpener

Pencil sharpeners are used to sharpen pencils and various mechanically operated sharpeners are
available. The rotary lever screw type is the most common but battery or electrically operated
sharpeners are also available for wood pencils.
For mechanical pencils and for raw lead pencils, coarse paper is sometimes used to sharpen the point of
the pencil.

Soft zero grade emery paper is also used to sharpen the lead of pencils and is usually shaped to a bevel
for better results.
12.1.14 Soft Eraser
Soft erasers are used to erase or rub off lines that have been drawn with soft pencils. Soft erasers leave a
lot off shavings and thus must be cleaned regularly.
12.1.15 Hard Eraser
Hard eraser, also sometimes called ink erasers are used to rub off hard pencil lines that are thin and may
have engraved the opaque medium. Hard erasers are also used to take off inked drawing to a reasonable
 extent.
12.1.16 Erasing Shield
An erasing shield is a thin metal plate with slots or holes in various shapes and sizes. The shield has
linear, circular etc slots so that this may be used to erase off a particular portion of a drawing keeping the
good part intact.
12.1.17 Cleaning brush
When dealing with pencils and erasers, a lot of dust and shavings are generated on the sheet. If these are
not cleaned off at intervals, the Tee Square and set squares may dirty the sheet on rubbing against these
and make the sheet very unattractive and uncared. To save this, aflat cleaning brush is use to wipe off all
such dirt from the surface of the sheet.
12.1.18 Drawing Sheet
The drawing sheet is the medium where drawings are made and so must be of good quality. Drawings
sheets must be securely fixed on the drawing board by means of cello tapes.
Drawing medium may be opaque paper or transparent tracing sheet. Opaque paper is available in
various kinds like handmade, machine made etc.
For rough work, a cheaper variety of paper called ‘butter paper’ is also used. Such paper is translucent
and thus is very useful for sketching.

12.1.19 Cello Tape

Cello tapes are used to secure the paper drawing sheet or similar media against the drawing board so
that it does not move when the Tee or set square is moved against it. Cello tapes should be fixed with the
sheet pulled outside so that it is in full tension and thus flat.
12.1.20 Rapidographs – Ink pens
Rapidographs are ink pens used to draw in ink. Before the advent of these pens, crow-quill pens were
used and lines were drawn by adjusting the screw blade and dipping them on ink pots. This process was
very cumbersome and with advent of rapidographs, the ink drawings become very easy. Thesepens are
available in various point thickness from point one millimeter to 2.5 mm thicknesses.
12.1.21 Black Chinese ink
Used mostly in black & white drawings, black Chinese ink is extensively used in manual drawing and till
the advent of computerized printing, black ink was used to prepare drawings on tracing paper as they
would then generate very good quality blue or ammonia prints. Also inked drawings have a better shelf
life and thus had become very popular among architects.
12.1.22 Circle Master
A template used to draw circles. This is a plastic transparent plate with circular punches of various
 diameters.
12.1.23 Calculator
As is well known, a calculator is used to calculate. In drawing, this is mostly used to find or calculate
dimension amounts required for a drawing.
12.1.24 Drawing Table
The table in which the drawing board is kept is the drawing table. Drawing boards are generally kept at a
slope towards the user so that the far upper end is easily reachable and readable. The incline must be so
adjusted so that the back of the user is not stressed while leaning. Good drawing Tables come with a slope
adjustment screw.
12.2 LINES
To an artist, a line means a piece of his art, but to an architect, ‘ a line is a part of his dream. ’ Lines can
be of various kinds, and each type has different meanings. It is thus important to know how lines become
representatives of architectural information when drawn in combination.
Lines are basically of three types; firm, dotted and dashed, and each of these line types are discussed
below. Line types are thus defined by its nature, its intensity and its line weight meaning thickness. Lines
may also be hard and soft to portray a separate set of information.
12.2.1 Firm Continuous Line
As the name suggests, this is a line type which is continuous and thus without a break. Now a line may be
thin or thick and each type of line thickness can be used to differentiate on the information in a drawing
All visible objects are shown in continuous lines and some times, far off objects in elevation are shown
with diminishing line thickness.
Thin Continuous Line
A thin continuous line is generally used to denote a construction lines. These are kept very light, so that it
does not disturb the main drawing. A thin line is also used to represent objects in elevation
Thick Continuous Line
Used basically to shown elements in section and also used to represent the hierarchy of elements involved
in the drawing. The thickness or line weight of the drawing also depends on the scale of the drawing
12.2.2 Dotted Line types
Thin Dotted Line
A thin dotted line is used to mean hidden geometry and fine lines are used in such case
Thick Dotted Line
A thick dotted line is used to denote insulation or similar sandwiched materi al in section between two
other elements
12.2.3 Dashed Line types
Thin Dashed Line
Thin dashed lines are used to show hidden elements or elements that are not visible due to the opacity of
the front object
 Dashed Thick Line
Used sometimes to refer to a thin layer on a surface in section, like a coat of paint, or water proofing etc.
12.2.4 Combined Line types
Dashed Thin Line with Dots
Used to represent center line or axis line of elements and is also used in architectural drawings to denote
building grid line
Alternate long and double short dashed lines
Also called the phantom line, is used more in mechanical drawings. This type is also used to denote
section line or plane in a drawing.
12.3 LETTERING AND FONTS
The other most important aspect of any drawing is its lettering and style. Since this is like one’s own
signature, everyone is entitled to have his or her own style of lettering. Lettering may use straight upright
fonts or slight ‘sloped to the right’ fonts. Fonts sloped to the left are generally not seen and is not used
normally.
Every font style has a character of its own and thus the 26 alphabets and 10 numerals are required to
follow the same style.
12.3.1 Basic Lettering Rules
Manual lettering is done by drawing guideline, which are thin very light lines used to control the height of
the letters and numbers. Usually 3 lines are drawn for all types of uppercase lettering and four lines are
drawn where lowercase lettering is also involved. The four lines are called as mentioned below.

The 26 + 10 alphabets and numeral have various parts and are as follows:
12.3.2 Letter Groups as per Stroke
All the above 36 letters can be divided into 3 groups as per the following
Single stroke letters
These letters are made of vertical and horizontal strokes only. These letters are:
IHEFLT
1
Single stroke Oblique letters
These letters are made of oblique strokes in addition to vertical and horizontal strokes only. These letters
are:
AN K ZVXYWM
 47
Single stroke Rounded letters
These letters are made of curved strokes in addition to vertical and horizontal strokes only. These letters
are:
JUPRBSDCGOQ
2356980
12.3.3 Spacing of Letters
Spacing between letters is an important feature that needs to be remembered and executed correctly while
lettering, but the golden rule is that the spacing should look equal even if they are actually not.
Straight vertical letters have the normal spacing unit and are good for most letters like IHEF etc.

IHEF
Two sloping letters like W & M and V& A, when written one after the other may not have normal spacing
and may be half the normal spacing or overlap into the same line as shown below

VAWM
Letter spacing for curved mid section letters like DCGOQ may have a reduced gap than the normal
spacing between letters.

DCGOQ
Letters like L & T when one after the other may not have any spacing at all.

LT
12.3.4 Best Manual Lettering Style
Today in the digital age, hundreds of fonts and styles are available on the click of a mouse. But all of
these are not suitable for adaptation in manual drawing. In fact some of the fonts have been developed
directly from historically used fonts. However, some fonts are very architectural and are used extensively
due to its simplicity.
Some of the widely used fonts or styles are as follows. Any of the one best suited may be chosen for use.
 CHAPTER – 13
VISUAL VOCABULARY
13.0 VISUAL VOCABULARY
Visual vocabulary deals with symbols and representation used in drawings to explain the intents of the
drawing. Since these are required to be visually identifiable, these are referred as items or element under
the visual vocabulary category for representing various materials in drawings.
 CHAPTER – 14
COLOUR
14.0 COLOUR
Colour is that aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of light being reflected or emitted by
them. To see colour , you have to have light. When light shines on an object, some colours bounce off the
object and others are absorbed by it. Our eyes only see the colours that are bounced off or reflected. To
understand colour, we need to first understand a few more thing.
14.1 LIGHT SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum of light is enormous and visible light is only a small portion of
this spectrum. This is the only part of this energy range that the human eye can normally detect. This is
called the visible spectrum and what we see is a rainbow of colours.
A diagrammatic representation of the spectrum is given below. It will be seen that the visible spectrum is
only from 400 nm to 700 nm (nm is Nanometer)

(Refer coloured image at the end of the section)

When light falls on an object, some or all the light may be absorbed or reflected. The light that is
reflected to our eye is what we see. The amount of reflection is dependent on the pigmentation of the
object.
The human eye can and is most sensitive and can basically perceive three colours in the visible spectrum
range. These are Red (610 nm); Green (560 nm); and Blue (430 nm).
14.1.1 Human Eye
The human eye is capable of feeling three different color sensations. Light of different kinds excites these
three sensations in different proportions, and it is by the different combinations of these three primary
sensations that all the varieties of visible color are produced and sensed. This is why the human eye is
called ‘Trichromatic’ and the above three colours are called ‘Primary Colours’ and is often represented
as RGB, meaning Red, Green & Blue
14.1.2 Colour Space
The human eye perceives colour in all its shades, hues and saturation due to the conic sensory pattern of
the eye. This can be easily represented in the following diagram.
 Thus a colour is represented by 3 numerical values each of RGB. Let us imagine a colour which has
individual spectral colour values and pattern as shown below.

The colour obtained by the combination of RGB is expressed by the values xyz
So any colour in the human spectrum is denoted by 3 values of RGB.
14.2 COLOUR THEORY
The colours that we see in our day to day life is due to the presence of three primary colours. Now
colours work on two models. One is called the Additive model and the other is called the Subtractive
model.
14.2.1 Additive Model
In this model, colour or light is added to one another to get the desired colour. The diagram below
explains clearly what is meant by this.
When the two of the 3 primary colours RGB is added to each other, this is what happens:
Red +Blue gives Magenta (M)
Blue + Green gives Cyan (C)
Red +Green gives Yellow (Y)
And when R +G+B is added to each other we get White (W)

( Refer coloured image at the end of the section )

In the additive model, colours are thus obtained by adding various proportions of RGB to get a particular
colour. In this model, no colour is black.
14.2.2 Subtractive Model
This model is just the reverse, and as can be seen, the primary colour are obtained by subtracting colours
from the spectrum. This is how it works.
 Magenta +Yellow gives Red
Magenta +Cyan gives Blue
Cyan +Yellow gives Green
And when M+C+Y is mixed, we get Black (K)
When there is no colour, in this model it is White.

( Refer coloured image at the end of the section )

This is how this model works and must be understood carefully.
M = R + ____ +B
Y =R + G + ____
So, M + Y = R, as Red is the common colour with Magenta & Yellow
All colour printers that we use today work on this principle and 3 colour cartridges are used. As
combining CYM every time to get black becomes an expensive proposition, a separate Black cartridge is
used.
14.3 COLOUR VALUE
From the above it is clear that colour is represented by values of RGB. When the RGB values are
minimum and maximum, we get Black and White. The minimum value is 1 and the maximum is 255. Let us
see the table below to understand a few more things. Here one mean full and 255 means nothing.
14.3. 1 Red Green Blue –RGB Values

The subtractive model is clear from the above table and it will be seen that absence of a primary colour
is the fundamental method followed here.
14.3.2 Hue , Saturation &Luminosity – HSL
 What are these 3 terms and what do they mean when we talk of colours.
Hue or Chromacity is the actual colour we see like Red, Blue and Green.
Saturation is the used to denote how far it is from Grey or Black
Luminosity is the brightness of the colour.
To understand the above 3 terms more meaningfully, an example with red is given below. We all know
that RGB value of Red is 255,1,1.

14.4 PHYSICAL COLOURS

In art schools and everywhere before, the concept of colour has always been based on Red, Blue &
Yellow and thus it may be surprising that the foregoing sections mention that RGB and not RYB are
primary colours. The confusion is valid and needs to be clarified.
When we are dealing physical colours like using paint or something, we talk about RYB as the 3 basic
primary colours.

(Refer coloured image at the end of the section)

The concept of RGB (Red, Green, Blue) and RYB (Red Yellow, Blue) is the perspective at which light
comes to the viewer. A great analogy is the movie projector, where the video projecting out of the
projector is in RGB and when it hits the screen it is reflected through the screen, known as RYB.
We have been always told that Red, Yellow and Blue were the primary colors and these colours may be
mixed to get Orange (Red + Yellow), Green (Blue + Yellow) and so on.
Since the concept of paint is that colour absorb every colour but the one that it is reflecting, it means that
red absorbs every colour but red, blue absorbs every colour but blue and yellow absorbs every colour
but yellow. When one adds colours together ,what is being done is adding amounts of colour that the
paints can absorb. This colour scheme is known as a subtractive colour scheme because when different
 colours are added together, what actually is being done is subtracting equivalent amount of light that the
paints can reflect.
Thus RGB is the way we all see light and is known as an additive colour scheme as explained before,
because when lights are added together, spectrum of light are added so that can it reflect back or go straight
into the eye .
14.5 COLOUR WHEEL
A Colour wheel arranges the colours as per its position in the system and positions all the secondary and
tertiary colours that are obtained by the mix of colour in a progression.
Primary Colours are those that form the basic Triad, like RGB or RYB.
Secondary Colours are obtained when Two primary colours are mixed or added.
Tertiary Colours are obtained by adding or mixing one primary and one secondary colour.
By this we have a set of 12 colours and is called a Colour Wheel
14.5.1 Types of Colours
Colour positions in the colour wheel define the colours types.
Complementary Colours
A pair of colours located on diametrically opposite ends of a Colour Wheel and complements each other
when the two are placed together.
Supplementary Colours
A pair of coloursthose are located next to each other on the Colour wheel. These colours are the ones
very nearby on the colour palette.
14.5.2 Spectral Colour Wheel
The Colour wheel shown below is in the form of 12 pointed starthat shows all the 12 basic colours
Primary : Red, Green, Blue
Secondary : Cyan, Magenta, Yellow
Tertiary : Orange, Chartruese Green, Spring Green, Azure, Violet, Rose
Complementary : shown by arrows thus
Supplementary : shown thus

(Refer coloured image at the end of the section)

14.5.3 Physical Colour Wheel
 The Colour wheel shown in the form of 12 pointed star shows all the 12 basic colours
Primary : Red, Yellow, Blue
Secondary : Green, Orange, Violet
Tertiary : Red-orange, Yellow-orange, Yellow-green, Blue-green, Blue-violet, Red-Violet
Complementary : shown by arrows thus
Supplementary : shown by arrows thus

(Refer coloured image at the end of the section)

14.6 INFLUENCE OF COLOURS
Colour plays an important part in the lives of humans and is sometimes determinant of a particular human
behavior. Colour, if conducive to the environment can act as stimuli. Food is one good example. Palatable
food is always known by its accepted colour.
Various colours have different effects on the humans and the liking or disliking of a particular colour tells
us a lot about the person.
14.6.1 Colours speak a thousand words
Red : Red is one of the primary colours and represents strength, passion and anger. It also represents
vitality and lust. People who like this colour are believed to be impulsive, vigorous, aggressive and
ambitious and cannot stand monotony. It is also observed that such people are restless and not
introspective enough.
Orange : Orange is a secondary colour and represents warmth and luxury. Flamboyance and fun is often
attached to this colour. This colour being very luminous is very good for quick or early attention. It is
often seen that fickle and vacillating people love this colour. Orange also symbolizes youth, strength,
curiosity and restlessness. However orange also defines never ending passion and if used correctly can
dramatize an environment.
Yellow : A symbol of power, vitality and ego. Romance is always delinked with this colour and people
who love themselves more than normal are lovers of this colour. Often associated with the ‘me first’ kind
of people and is often seen to posses good business acumen and shrewd thinking capabilities. People who
love orange hold themselves in very high esteem and also a good sense of humour. Generally such people
are clear and precise thinkers and love the freedom of thought.
Green : Green is the colour of nature and symbolizes harmony and balance. It is also the symbol of hope,
renewal and rejuvenation. Green displays abundance and people who love green as a colour are said to
be self effacing, modest, patient and supposedly warm hearted. Green lovers put forward greater good
than own good and are lovers of tranquility and peace.
Blue : Blue is the colour of conservatives and people who are generally dutiful. People who like blue are
generally very soft, compassionate and caring. Blue has a charm and is often used for clarity. Blue lovers
like to be admired for their steady character and wisdom. However, they may be indecisive and are
sometimes inflexible. Blue also represent ego and royalty.
Purple : Purple is the colour of energy, imagination and fantasy. This colour also inspires romance,
coyness, and flirtations with playfulness. Purple lovers want to live in their dream world than the real
one, and sometimes have unreal expectations out of life. People who love purple may be fastidious, witty,
and sensitive but artistic. Ego is also another quality; purple lovers may have and thus have a strong
desire to be unique and different, sometimes at the cost of being temperamental, expansive.
Black : Black represents the unknown and unseen and thus creates and sense of mystery. Most cultures
relate black with evil. However people who love black are the ‘look at me’ type and indicate suppressed
desire and worldly aims. Black also indicates silence and great inner depth. Black lovers are generally
tough nuts to crack.
White : White is the symbol of purity, innocence and has strong connotations with the youth. White lovers
are perfectionists, and may have impossible ideals. White symbolizes freshness and simplicity. White
lovers thus may have clean and organized thinking process. White may also mean traditional and
conservative and is associated with good.
 14.1:LIGHT SPECTRUM

14.2.1:COLOUR THEORY – Additive Colours

14.2.2:COLOUR THEORY – Subtractive colours

14.4: PHYSICAL COLOUR

14.5.2 : COLOUR WHEEL – Spectral Color Wheel

14.5.3: COLOUR WHEEL – Physical Color Wheel