Metal Cutting Theory

Dr Stuart Barnes

Scope of the Lecture

1. Introduction
2. Terminology
3. Metal Cutting Theory
3.1 Chip formation
3.2 Cutting forces
3.3 Heat generation
3.4 Machining non-metals
4. Some Recent Advances in Technology
5. Summary
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1. Introduction
Irrespective of how complex modern CNC
machine tools become, the efficiency of
the cutting operation will be influenced to
a great extent by the geometry of the
cutting zone and the interactions which
take place between the tool and
workpiece.

Introduction
These interactions are essentially the same
for the majority of conventional machining
operations such as turning, milling and
drilling.
Consequently, although much of the
terminology and experimental data which
we will discuss is related to single point
turning, the observations are also
applicable to other cutting processes.
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Turning Operations

Turning Operations – Video 1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms 6

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Turning Operations – Video 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZGS35NmUKE 7

Simple Lathe

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2. Terminology
Main parameters in turning.
• Cutting speed
• Feed rate
• Depth of cut

Feed Rate

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Cutting Tool Geometry
Main features of a simple cutting tool.

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Indexable Inserts

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3. Metal Cutting Theory
3.1 Chip formation
3.2 Cutting forces
3.3 Heat generation

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3.1 Chip Formation

Metal cutting is not
the same as cutting
other materials.
All of the chip
material is plastically
deformed.

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Shear Zones
In reality,
there are
three shear
zones.

Third Shear
zone at the
nose

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Actual Shear plane

Quick-stop section taken when cutting 0.4%C steel at 30 m/min

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The Shear Plane Angle Controls
Chip thickness
Chip velocity
Rake face temperature
Area of the shear plane
Shear strain associated
with chip formation

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Large & Small Shear Plane

Angles

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Shear Plane Angle and Shear
Strain

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Discontinuous Chips

Note, this is not a true discontinuous chip, it is

actually a serrated chip

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Continuous Chips

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The Built-up Edge (BUE)

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Formation of a BUE
A BUE is formed by the building-up of
layers of strain hardened material “cold
welded” together on the rake face of the
tool.

Cutting Dural at 38 m/min

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Effect of a BUE During Cutting

Is the presence of a BUE on the rake face
during cutting beneficial?
What determines if a BUE will form on the
rake face?

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Serrated Chips

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Chip Breakers
As continuous chips
are often produced,
chip breakers are
often used to
control them and
break them up.

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 Video of Cutting in the SEM

Chip formation in the Scanning Electron Microscope

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek&list=PLlBqqdlxFOxAlrO58flIznTqoOcTBBdLp 27

Chip Movement on the Rake

Face
How does the chip move over the rake
face of the tool?
• At slow cutting speeds as seen in the video, it
slides over the rake face or forms a BUE.
• What happens as cutting speed is increased?

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Transition - BUE to Flowzone

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BUE and Flowzone Conditions

BUE at 20 m/min Flowzone at 30 m/min

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Classical Friction Theory

Chip

Tool

Real Area of Contact = Apparent Area

1000

31

Contact Between Chip and Tool

Chip

Tool

Apparent area of contact = Real area of contact

(seizure and metallurgical bonding)

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Quick-Stop Sections

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Quick-Stop Sections

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 TEM Image Tool / Chip Interface

Interface

Cutting Tool Flowzone

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Practical Implications of Seizure

Cutting fluid
cannot penetrate
the seized area

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High Pressure Coolant
HP Coolant helps intermittent contact area

Iscar: 360 bar pressure

Increased cutting speed
three times to 140 m/min

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3.2 Cutting Forces

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 Force Dynamometer - Turning

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Effect of Shear Plane Angle on

Forces
Shear Plane Angle Chip Thickness t2 Shear Plane Area Shearing Force Fs
( (mm) As (mm2) (N)
45° 0.50 2.8 1 340
35° 0.71 3.5 1 680
25° 1.07 4.7 2 260
15° 1.85 7.7 3 700
5° 5.75 23.0 11 000

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 Effect of Shear Plane Angle on
Forces
Shear Plane Angle Chip Thickness t2 Shear Plane Area Shearing Force Fs
( (mm) As (mm2) (N)
45° 0.50 2.8 1 340
35° 0.71 3.5 1 680
25° 1.07 4.7 2 260
15° 1.85 7.7 3 700
5° 5.75 23.0 11 000

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Effect of Shear Plane Angle on

Forces
Shear Plane Angle Chip Thickness t2 Shear Plane Area Shearing Force Fs
( (mm) As (mm2) (N)
45° 0.50 2.8 1 340
35° 0.71 3.5 1 680
25° 1.07 4.7 2 260
15° 1.85 7.7 3 700
5° 5.75 23.0 11 000

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 Effect of Shear Plane Angle on
Forces
Shear Plane Angle Chip Thickness t2 Shear Plane Area Shearing Force Fs
( (mm) As (mm2) (N)
45° 0.50 2.8 1 340
35° 0.71 3.5 1 680
25° 1.07 4.7 2 260
15° 1.85 7.7 3 700
5° 5.75 23.0 11 000

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Large & Small Shear Plane Angle

Small shear plane angle Large shear plane angle

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Effect of Rake Angle on Forces

Rake Angle (°) Cutting Force (N) Feed Force (N)

+5 913 392
+10 840 289
+15 743 200
+20 716 151
+25 627 80
+30 600 49

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Effect of Rake Face Contact Area

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Effect of Rake Face Contact Area

Normal Tool Reduced Contact Tool

Cutting Force Fc 1400 N 670 N
Feed Force Ff 1310 N 245 N
Shear Plane Angle 8° 22°
Chip Thickness t2 1.83 mm 0.66 mm

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Effect of Cutting Speed &

Workpiece Material

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Compressive Stress on the Rake
Face
Work Material Cutting Force Contact Area Mean Comp. Stress
(N) (mm2) (MN/m2)
Iron 1070 3.1 340
Med. C Steel 490 0.65 770
Copper 4150 13.5 310
70/30 Brass 500 12.2 420
Lead 323 22.5 14

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Compressive Stress on the Rake

Face
Work Material Cutting Force Contact Area Mean Comp. Stress
(N) (mm2) (MN/m2)
Iron 1070 3.1 340
Med. C Steel 490 0.65 770
Copper 4150 13.5 310
70/30 Brass 500 12.2 420
Lead 323 22.5 14

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Compressive Stresses on the Rake Face

Work Material Cutting Force Contact Area Mean Comp. Stress

(N) (mm2) (MN/m2)
Iron 1070 3.1 340
Med. C Steel 490 0.65 770
Copper 4150 13.5 310
70/30 Brass 500 12.2 420
Lead 323 22.5 14

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Stress Distribution on the Rake

Face

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 3.3 Heat Generation
In the order of 99% of the energy
expended during metal cutting is
converted into heat.
Due to the large plastic deformations
involved, significant amounts of heat are
generated.

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Deformation at 30 m/min

Primary Shear

Secondary Shear - Flowzone

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Heat Sources and Heat Sinks

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Temperatures Generated
Shear strains in primary shear are in the
order of five and generate temperatures in
the order of 350 – 500°C.
Shear strains in the flowzone are in the
order of 640.
• A shear strain of 20 = 99.999% reduction in area in
a tensile test.
These extremely large strains in the flow
zone can produce temperatures of 1200°C.
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Tool Temperatures Cutting
Copper
a) 120 m/min
b) 240 m/min
c) 530 m/min

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Cutting Steel
Rake face
temperatures
are now much
higher.

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Cutting Steel

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Machining Non-Metals
Most of our understanding and experience
is based on “metal cutting”.
However, recent years has seen an
increase in the use of other materials, e.g.,
Carbon Fibre Reinforces Plastics (CRFPs).
These are light-weight and strong
materials but extremely difficult to
machine.

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 CFRPs
They are made up of a carbon fibre
reinforcement and a plastic matrix (often
epoxy).

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Workpiece Damage in CFRP

Damage on the surface of
a drilled hole.

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Workpiece Damage in CFRP

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Tool Wear with CFRP

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4. Recent Advances in Technology
Traditionally, cutting operations have been
“flooded” with a cutting fluid.

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Through-Tool Application
A better way to
apply coolant is
through the tool, it
is delivered where
it is needed.
Through-tool is
important in
drilling, especially
for deep holes
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Through-Tool Application Video

(K = SG Iron, P = medium carbon steel)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZ2gxoS_MXc 67

Are Cutting Fluids a Good Thing?

Cutting fluids perform an essential
function, but do we like to use them?
Are there any alternatives?

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Minimum Quantity Lubrication
As the name suggests
MQL, uses an extremely
small quantity of cutting
fluid.
These techniques
lubricate rather than
cool the cutting zone.

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MQL Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uoqDMPzSyGU 70

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Cryogenic Machining
Use CO2 or liquid nitrogen as cutting fluid.
What are the advantages?
What are the disadvantages?

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Cryogenic Machining Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QvCSawS0FX0 72

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Cryogenic and MQL
Some systems use both techniques.

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Cryogenic and MQL

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Ultrasonic Assisted Machining
Ultrasonic vibrations are applied to the
tool (or workpiece) in addition to the
conventional machining parameters.
Reported to have beneficial effects when
machining “difficult-to-machine” materials
such as CFRPs and titanium alloys.

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Ultrasonic Assisted Machining

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Ultrasonic Assisted Machining

Generation of ultrasonic oscillations

https://www.youtube.com/user/GILDEMEISTERTV 77

5. Summary
Metal cutting involves extremely large
plastic deformations during the formation
of the chip.
These large plastic deformations generate
the high cutting forces and significant
temperatures experienced in the cutting
zones.

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Summary
Due to the intimate contact between chip
and rake face of the tool, the heat
generated in the flowzone is conducted
into the tool.
This temperature rise (combined with high
forces) is a major limiting factor restricting
cutting speeds when machining high
melting point materials.

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Summary
There are some significant machining
challenges ahead due to the increased use
of non-metallic / difficult-to-machine
materials.
There are also interesting developments
taking place, such as cryogenic and
ultrasonic assisted machining, which
should help address these challenges.

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Any Questions?

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