Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
by
Arno Egberts
January 1989
January 19902
September 20053
(translated from the Dutch by A. G. McDowell)
Preface
This description of the main lines of Late Egyptian is meant as an aid to the study of M.
Korostovtsev, Grammaire du neo-égyptien (1973), J. Černý and S.I. Groll, A Late Egyptian Gram-
mar (19843). For this reason, the individual paragraphs are furnished with references to these
two grammars. In drawing up this study aid, use was also made of P.J. Frandsen, An outline of
the Late Egyptian Verbal System (1974) and of H. Satzinger, Neuägyptische Studien (1976). The
most important source of inspiration, however, was J.F. Borghouts, Inleiding Nieuwegyptisch
(unpublished).
Jacco Dieleman
1
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Spelling ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
3. Nouns (substantives and adjectives) ............................................................................................................................ 5
3.1 Gender ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Number .................................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.3. Status (different stem forms of nouns) ............................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Connections between nouns.................................................................................................................................. 6
4. Personal pronouns .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Suffix pronouns ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Independent pronouns ........................................................................................................................................... 7
4.3 Dependent pronouns .............................................................................................................................................. 8
4.4 Pronominal preformative (or “pronominal compound”) .................................................................................. 8
5. Articles ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
6. Demonstratives ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
7. Possessive ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
8. Possessive prefix ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
9. Interrogatives................................................................................................................................................................. 10
10. Prepositions ................................................................................................................................................................. 10
12. Particles ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
13. Converters ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
14. Adverbs ........................................................................................................................................................................ 12
15. Verbs. General ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
16. Infinitive....................................................................................................................................................................... 13
17. Stative ........................................................................................................................................................................... 13
18. Analytical conjugation patterns................................................................................................................................. 14
19. The first present sw (Hr) sDm ................................................................................................................................... 14
20. Sequential iw=f (Hr) sDm ........................................................................................................................................... 15
21. Third future iw=f (r) sDm .......................................................................................................................................... 16
22. Narrative form wn.in=f / aHa.n=f (Hr) sDm ............................................................................................................. 16
23. Conjunctive mtw=f sDm ............................................................................................................................................. 16
24. Synthetic conjugation patterns .................................................................................................................................. 17
25. Perfective sDm=f .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
26. Negative perfective bwpw=f sDm.............................................................................................................................. 18
27. Negative aorist bw sDm=f / ir=f sDm........................................................................................................................ 19
28. Prospective sDm=f ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
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29. Emphatic form i.sDm=f / i.ir=f sDm [also called ‘second tense’] ......................................................................... 20
30. Passive sDm(.w)=f ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
31. sDm.t=f.......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
31.1 bw sDm.t=f / ir.t=f sDm ..................................................................................................................................... 21
31.2 (SAa) i.ir.t=f sDm .................................................................................................................................................. 22
32. sDm.y.t=f ...................................................................................................................................................................... 22
33. Imperative .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
34. Negative imperative m ir sDm .................................................................................................................................. 23
35. Causative imperative imi sDm=f / ir=f sDm ............................................................................................................. 23
36. Negative causative imperative ................................................................................................................................... 24
37. Participle ...................................................................................................................................................................... 24
38. Relative forms ............................................................................................................................................................. 24
39. Non-verbal sentences ................................................................................................................................................. 25
40. Existential sentences .................................................................................................................................................. 25
41. Adjectival sentences ................................................................................................................................................... 26
42. Adverbial sentences .................................................................................................................................................... 27
43. Nominal sentences ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
43.1 Deictic sentences ................................................................................................................................................. 28
43.2 ‘Participial statement’ .......................................................................................................................................... 28
43.3. ‘Cleft sentence’ ................................................................................................................................................... 29
44. Interrogative sentences .............................................................................................................................................. 29
45. Negative sentences ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
46. Conditional and temporal subordinate clauses ....................................................................................................... 31
47. Object Clauses............................................................................................................................................................. 32
48. Relative clauses............................................................................................................................................................ 32
49. Frontal extraposition .................................................................................................................................................. 33
50. Final extraposition ...................................................................................................................................................... 34
51. Functions of iw ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
3
1. Introduction
(K 1-4; N pp. xxi-xxiii; J 0.1-2)
The history of the Egyptian language is divided into five stages: Old-Egyptian, Middle
Egyptian (ME), Late Egyptian (LE), Demotic, and Coptic. The sharpest transition in this
development is, without doubt, that from ME to LE, because it also marks a change in the
type of language.
ME has a synthetic structure, that is, grammatical functions are expressed by means
of inflection (e.g. indicative mri=f versus ‘imperfective’ mrr=f) and morphemes (e.g. .n in
sDm.n=f). In contrast, LE is essentially analytic, that is, grammatical functions are expressed
by means of individual words. Another important typological difference concerns word or-
der, which in ME is primarily VSO and in LE primarily SVO.
Although as a spoken language LE probably already existed in the Middle Kingdom,
its use as a written language began in the Amarna period. The result was a steady stream of
LE texts. This stream comes to an end in the Third Intermediate Period, after which the LE
stage of the language is succeeded by Demotic, which differs only marginally from its prede-
cessor.
The LE texts are written in hieroglyphic or hieratic scripts. They comprise diverse
genres. The distinction between literary (including historical) and non-literary texts seems to
correspond to certain grammatical differences; literary LE is still under the influence of ME,
and the non-literary texts therefore represent a purer form of LE. For this reason, Černý and
Groll limit themselves in their grammar chiefly to non-literary texts (ČG XLIX-L; LIV-
LXVII).
Not all texts from the Ramesside period and the Third Intermediate Period are LE.
This holds in particular for religious texts (e.g. the Book of the Dead), which are consistently
written in ME.
Several aids are available for the study of LE. Only the most essential of these are named
here: in addition to the outdated grammar of A. Erman (Neuägyptische Grammatik, l9333) there
are the more modern grammars of M. Korostovtsev (Grammaire du néo-égyptien, 1973), J.
Černý and S.I. Groll (A Late Egyptian Grammar, l984), F. Nevue (La langue des Ramsès. Gram-
maire du néo-égyptien, 1996), and F. Junge (Late Egyptian Grammar. An Introduction, 2001). A dic-
tionary of LE has been assembled by L.H. Lesko (A Dictionary of Late Egyptian I-II, 2002-042).
4
2. Spelling
(K 19-28; ČG 1; J 1.1-2)
Here follows a short description of some orthographic peculiarities of LE.
1) The suffix .t which marks feminine nouns in ME disappears in LE and therefore is
not always written. At the same time, is sometimes added to masculine nouns as a
‘hypercorrection’.
2) , , at the end of a word are often transcriptions of hieratic ‘space fillers’ and as
such have no phonetic significance.
3) is often added to the phonograms with which verbs are spelled. In the case of verbs
which end in , this addition takes the form . This phenomenon, too, appears to
be purely graphic.
4) The plural strokes etc. are sometimes added to singular words and to infinitives.
5) /r/ at the end of a word is reduced to the vowel /e/. This can be expressed by
dropping the in the spelling of the word, or by means of the group which
5
3.2 Number
(K 40; ČG 4.1.2; N 1.1; J 2.1.1)
Nouns are singular or plural. The dual has disappeared and only lives on in certain spellings,
e.g. rd.w(y) “feet.” The plural is indicated in a number of ways; the most usual means
are the plural strokes, etc., which are, however, also added to nouns in the singular. Some-
times the plural morpheme .w/.y is written out. The archaic tripling of the determinative is
only seldom encountered. Finally, indication of the plural may be omitted altogether; in that
case, the number of the noun can only be deduced from context.
6
4. Personal pronouns
4.1 Suffix pronouns
(K 69-78; ČG 2.4; N 7.1; J 2.1.2)
Forms:
Singular Plural
l c. =i 1 c. =n ,
2m. =k 2 c. =tn ,
2f. =t ,
3 m. =f 3c. =sn
3 s. =s , =w
“one” =tw
A comprehensive survey of possible writings can be found in the grammars. An important
addition to the ME suffix pronouns is the suffix pronoun 3 pl. c. =w, which occurs beside
=sn.
Function: (1) subject in various conjugation patterns; (2) direct object of infinitives and after
the suffix pronoun =tw “one”; (3) genitive with substantives in the case of inalienable posses-
sions such as parts of the body; (4) object of prepositions. These functions are identical to
those in ME. The suffix pronoun =tw can only appear in function (1).
7
Function: (1) as member of nominal sentences (43); (2) for emphasis after a suffix pronoun
of the same person (e.g. Hna=i ink, “with me”) (3) in frontal extraposition, sometimes intro-
duced by the particle ir (49); (4) in final extraposition, sometimes introduced by the particle
gr (50); (5) possessor in adjectival sentences (41); (6) possessor in nominal word groups (e.g.
wa pr ink, “a house of mine”). In (5-6) the independent pronoun corresponds to ME n-ink, n-
ntk > ntk, etc.
8
5. Articles
Late Egyptian possessed a definite article (“the”) and an indefinite article (“a”, “an”). This is
a marked development from ME. The forms are:
Definite article (K 37; ČG 3.5; N 2.1; J 2.1.2)
sing. m. pA
sing. f. tA
pl. c. nA (n) ( )
6. Demonstratives
(ČG 3.1.2; N 3.1; J 2.1.2)
The ME demonstratives pn/tn/nn, pf/tf/nf, and pw/tw/nw hardly appear any longer in LE. The
usual demonstrative is:
sing. m. pAy
sing. f. tAy
pl. c. nAy
This demonstrative precedes the substantive to which it refers. In addition, it can also be
used as an independent substantive. A variant of pAy is the demonstrative pAw.
7. Possessive
(K 93; ČG 3.2; N 4; J 2.1.2)
The possessive is formed by adding the suffix pronoun to the following demonstrative base:
sing. m. pAy=
sing. f. tAy=
pl. c. nAy=
E.g. pAy=f, “his” (with a masculine substantive).
9
The possessive is used when it is not a matter of inalienable possession; when that is the
case, then the suffix pronoun is used (e.g. pAy=f pr, “his house”, vs. ir.t=f, “his eye”). The
possessive precedes the substantive to which it refers.
8. Possessive prefix
(K 96; ČG 3.6; 3.2; J 2.1.2)
Forms:
sing. m. pA(-n)- ( ),
sing. f. tA(-n)- ,
pl. c. nA-
This prefix can be added to substantives and means “the one of.” It thus does not agree with
the following substantive, as do the article, the demonstrative, and the possessive. The gen-
der and number depend on the persons or things to which the possessive prefix refers. It is a
common element in personal names, where it is usually followed by a god’s name (e.g. pA(-n)
-1r, “He of Horus”).
9. Interrogatives
(K 66; ČG 2.7; N 11.2)
The most common interrogatives are
nim (< ME in-m) “who?”
ix “what?”
They function as substantives and thus occur in nominal sentences.
10. Prepositions
(K 105-159; ČG 7; N 8; J 2.2.4)
There are simple and compound prepositions. A compound preposition is always a combi-
nation of a simple preposition and a substantive, in which the first element is sometimes left
out (e.g. Xnw <m-Xnw, “in”). Even when they are used independently, certain simple preposi-
tions are not always written; this is particularly the case with Hr, “on”. Like substantives,
prepositions appear in the status constructus and the status pronominalis.
10
11. Conjunctions
Conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses. Some conjunctions can only be used in combi-
nation with certain verbal conjugation patterns. The LE conjunctions include, among others,
inn, “if”; hn, “if’; ir “if, when” and wnn “as soon as, when”, all of
which introduce subordinate causes preceding the main clause (46). With other conjunctions,
the subordinate clause follows the main clause, e.g. m-xt and m-Dr, “after” (46).
The conjunction xft “when”, can introduce initial and non-initial subordinate clauses.
12. Particles
(K 160-190; ČG 9; N 10; J 2.2.4)
In LE, as in ME, there are enclitic and non-enclitic particles. The last group is the most im-
portant; to it belong, among others, the interrogative particles (see 44) and the negative par-
ticles (see 45). In addition, there are various other particles which can give a nuance to a sen-
tence, although it is not always clear what precisely their semantic contribution is. The most
common particle is xr, which, depending on the context, can be translated as “but”, “after
all”, “moreover” etc. The compound particle xr-iw means “nevertheless, although”. It
is combined with suffix pronouns. Other frequently used particles are yA, “indeed”;
pA-wn, “after all”, “because”; and ptr, “see”.
The quotation markers in=, xr=, and kA= (ČG 10.3) can be regarded either as
particles or as verbs. They are combined exclusively with suffix pronouns. They introduce a
quotation (xr=), interrupt it (in= and xr=), or conclude it (in=, xr=, and kA=). The best transla-
tion is “so says …” or “thus spoke …”, “so …”. In= refers to the past, xr= to the present or
the past, and kA= to the future.
For a comprehensive survey of the particles, the reader should consult the grammars.
13. Converters
(N 11.3; J 3.6 and 5.1)
The so-called ‘converters’ take a special place among the particles. They are placed at the be-
ginning of a main sentence and change its semantic or syntactic status. The following con-
verters can be distinguished:
1) The temporal converter wn (with valence for suffix pronouns), which sets in the
past the action or situation described in the sentence.
11
2) The negative converter , , bn, which makes the sentence a negation (45).
3) The circumstantial converter iw (with valence for suffix pronouns), which turns a
main sentence into a subordinate clause (“while …”) or a relative clause (“which /
who …”; only with an undefined antecedent) (46; 48; 51).
4) The relative converter nty (no longer agreeing with the antecedent as in ME),
which turns a main clause into a relative clause (only with a defined antecedent). A
relatively rare variant of nty is nty-iw (with valence for suffix pronouns). The element
iw of this compound relative converter has nothing to do with the circumstantial
converter iw (51).
The converters can be combined with both verbal and non-verbal sentences. There are,
however, certain restrictions on possible combinations. The converters can also be attached
to one another. In combinations, the circumstantial and relative converters precede the nega-
tive and temporal converters. The relative order of the last two varies.
In the presentation of the verbal conjugation patterns and the non-verbal sentence
types below, attention will regularly be given to the conversion possibilities.
14. Adverbs
A survey of LE adverbs can be found in ČG 8; N 9; J 2.2.4.
12
become”; aHa, “to stand”; Hmsi, “to sit”; and sDr, “to lie (down)”. In their capacity of auxiliary
verbs they are always in the infinitive (introduced by Hr) or in the stative. They therefore oc-
cur particularly in analytical conjugation patterns (18). They are followed by the main verb,
which is also in the infinitive (introduced by Hr) or the stative. The auxiliary verb xpr indi-
cates an ingressive aspect (e.g. xpr Hr sDm, “begin to hear”); the aspect of aHa, Hmsi, and sDr is
more difficult to define, although we are familiar with the same phenomena in spoken lan-
guage (“don’t stand there looking stupid” or “don’t sit there doing nothing”).
16. Infinitive
(K 227-251; ČG 11; N 13; J 2.2.3)
Forms: Like substantives, the infinitive appears in the status absolutus, the status constructus
(if it is followed by a nominal direct object) and the status pronominalis (if followed by a
pronominal direct object). In the status absolutus and constructus, infinitives (particularly
those of weak verbs) may be characterized by the suffix .t. In the status pronominalis this
morpheme takes the form .tw=, followed by a suffix pronoun (if this is the suffix pronoun
1 sing. c., it is often not written, and the spelling remains tw=(i)).
Function: The infinitive can be used independently or as an element in a conjugation
pattern. In the first case, the infinitive is the equivalent of a substantive. From the use of pA
as definite article before the infinitive we can deduce that its gender is masculine. Independ-
ent infinitives are negated by means of the auxiliary verb tm, followed by the infinitive
of the main verb. As in ME, the adverbial phrase Hr + infinitive indicates a concomitant cir-
cumstance, while the adverbial phrase r + infinitive indicates a purpose.
17. Stative
(K 334-349; ČG 12; N 14; J 2.2.3)
Forms: The personal endings which are characteristic of the ME stative are also found with
the LE stative. At the same time, there is a tendency to generalize the suffix , .ti/tw (orig-
inally restricted to 2 sing. c. and 3 sing. f.) on the one hand, and the ø-suffix (originally re-
stricted to 3 sing. m. and 3 pl. c.) on the other. There are therefore three paradigms: (1) the
classical with various personal endings; (2) that with the suffix .ti/tw for all persons; (3) suf-
fix-less for all persons.
13
Function: (1) as an element in a conjugation pattern; (2) as an adverbial adjunct
which refers to a previously named noun or pronoun and gives a concomitant circumstance
(compare the identical use of Hr + infinitive).
The meaning of the stative is the same as in ME, i.e. it describes a state; in this way it
differs from the dynamic construction Hr + infinitive, in which a process is described.
14
formative is replaced by a suffix pronoun (wn =f (Hr) sDm). The construction wn +
first present is sometimes called preterit (i.e. past time).
2) negation: the first present is negated by placing the converter bn before the subject
(bn sw (Hr) sDm)
3) circumstantial: placing iw before the first present produces a subordinate clause. As
with wn, a pronominal subject then takes the form of the suffix pronoun (iw=f (Hr)
sDm). The construction iw + first present is also called ‘circumstantial’.
4) relative: by placing nty before the first present one gets a relative clause.
15
21. Third future iw=f (r) sDm
(K 422-430; ČG 17-18; N 19; J 3.2)
Forms: When the subject is a noun, the element iw is replaced by ir. The preposition r is
often not written. In case of a pronominal subject, there is then no visible distinction be-
tween this form and the sequential and the circumstantial. The verbal element of the third
future is always an infinitive; the stative does not appear in this conjugation pattern.
16
events which really took place. The conjunctive is primarily concerned with events which, in
the opinion of the speaker, are thematically related; their relation to reality is of lesser im-
portance. The sequential is therefore objective and the conjunctive is subjective. For this rea-
son the sequential is primarily a narrative form which has reference to the past, while the
conjunctive occurs most often in direct speech with future temporal reference. In itself, the
conjunctive is a neutral form. Time, mood, etc. are taken over from the preceding main
clause. This summary of the sense of the conjunctive is based on J.F. Borghouts, ZÄS 106
(1979) 14-24.
Sometimes the conjunctive functions as an initial conjugation pattern, as in the prot-
asis of oath formulas; see also, J 6.2.2 (3) and 7.1.
There are no conversion possibilities for the conjunctive. Negation is by means of
the auxiliary verb tm (mtw=f tm sDm).
17
Function: The perfective is an initial main clause pattern. It is chiefly used with transitive
verbs and should be translated as a perfect (he has heard”) or preterit (“he heard’). The
equivalent of the perfective in the case of intransitive verbs of motion is formed by the first
present with the stative as the verbal element. In some cases translation as a present (“he
hears”) is preferable; this is the case in gnomic (i.e. generally valid) statements, such as prov-
erbs.
Conversion:
1) temporal: wn sDm=f is used as a pluperfect (“he had heard”). The construction is
found in this capacity especially in the protasis of unreal conditional sentences after
the particle hn (the unconverted perfective can also perform this role); see also 46.
2) negative: distinct conjugation patterns expresses the negation of the perfective, to
wit: the negative perfective (26) and the negative aorist (27). Nevertheless, there are
several examples of the conversion bn sDm=f; in these cases the negative is perhaps
emphasized.
3) circumstantial: iw sDm=f is used as a pluperfect and can often be translated as “after
he had heard.”
4) relative: the perfective is incompatible with the converter nty. Instead, the participle
(37) and the relative forms (38) are used.
N.B.: In some grammars, including K, the perfective is not distinguished from the prospec-
tive.
18
Conversion:
1) temporal: no examples of this are known.
2) circumstantial; iw bwpw=f sDm can often be translated as a pluperfect (“after he had
not heard’).
3) relative: in contrast to the perfective, the negative perfective can be combined with
nty.
27. Negative aorist bw sDm=f / ir=f sDm
(K 289-293, ČG 20.7; N 17; J 2.3.2 (3))
Forms: the negation bw is followed by the perfective. Non-literary texts consistently use
the periphrastic variant of the perfective (bw ir=f sDm).
Function: In a number of cases the negative aorist refers to the past, but in this ca-
pacity the form is superseded by the negative perfective. The usual temporal reference of the
negative aorist is the present; it is often used to negate custom or habit. Usually the form can
be adequately translated as “he cannot hear” or “he will not hear”. Besides, bw ir=f sDm often
means “he does not hear.”
Conversion: The negative aorist can be combined with the circumstantial converter
iw and the relative converter nty.
19
one also finds the use of the negative auxiliary verb tm (tm=f sDm) and for negation of the
prospective at subordinate clause level tm is always used. In its subjunctive use the prospec-
tive cannot be negated (in such cases rdi, “to cause” is negated).
N.B.: In some grammars, including K, the prospective is not distinguished from the
perfective.
29. Emphatic form i.sDm=f / i.ir=f sDm [also called ‘second tense’]
(K 309-320; ČG 26-27; N 23; J 2.3.2 (1))
Forms: the emphatic form is characterized by the prefix , i. before the verbal stem, and
the same prefix is encountered in the periphrastic variant i.ir=f sDm. Besides this pure LE
form one still finds remnants of the ME imperfective sDm=f (characterized by gemination)
with the same emphasizing function.
Function: The emphatic form is used to stress an adverbial element in a sentence. In
the translation this can be expressed by means of a “cleft sentence” (e.g. i.sdm=f pA rmT m pA
pr, “it was in the house that he heard the man”). A special case is formed by the stressing of
the agent in constructions of the type in + substantive / ntf i.sDm=f which always has future
temporal reference (“he will hear”). [Others believe the sDm=f in this construction is a pro-
spective.] In principle, however, the emphatic form is neutral with respect to time.
Conversion:
1) temporal: the construction wn i.sDm=f is possible, but seldom occurs. This form re-
fers explicitly to the past.
2) negative: by means of bn the nexus between the emphatic form and the stressed ad-
verbial element is negated (“it was not in the house that he heard the man”). When
the auxiliary verb tm is used (i.ir=f tm sDm), then the negation extends only to the
verbal action (“it was in the house that the man did not hear”).
3) circumstantial: iw i.sDm=f creates a subordinate clause or relative clause with an em-
phasized adverbial element.
4) relative: nty i.sDm=f forms a relative clause with a stressed adverbial element.
20
30. Passive sDm(.w)=f
(K 295-298; ČG 16; N 15.2; J 2.3.2 (4), 3.5.1)
Forms: The passive is sometimes marked by the morpheme .w or .y after the verbal
stem, but usually it must be identified from the context. Besides sDm(.w)=f, there is a peri-
phrastic variant, ir(.w)=f sDm.
Function: This conjugation pattern can be regarded as the passive counterpart of the
perfective, and therefore usually has past temporal reference. The passive occurs relatively
seldom in LE; it is more usual to make a clause passive by means of the suffix pronoun =tw,
“one”. The passive is a main clause pattern.
Conversion: There are no known examples of temporal conversion. Both bw and bn
can be used for the negation of the passive. The circumstantial converter iw before the pas-
sive creates a passive pluperfect (“after he had been heard”). Relative conversion by means
of nty does not occur; instead the passive participle could be used (37).
31. sDm.t=f
The LE sDm.t=f is the descendant of the ME sDm.t=f (terminative). This form is characterized
by the morpheme .t, which is often written to indicate that there is no question of pho-
netic reduction. The sDm.t=f can be used in two ways, as described below.
21
31.2 (SAa) i.ir.t=f sDm
(K 333; ČG 33-34; N 18.2; J 2.3.2 (2))
Forms: The element i.ir.t is the LE descendant of ME r iri.t. The preposition r is
therefore concealed behind the spelling . As a result of the reduction of this preposition to
the status of a verbal prefix, the preposition/conjunction SAa (-r) began to be used
to make explicit the sense “until” which was originally expressed by r. There are therefore
two patterns with the same meaning. i.ir.t=f sDm and SAa i.ir.t=f sDm The unit SAa i.ir.t is
sometimes spelled ; this spelling reflects the pronunciation /šat/.
Function: This conjugation pattern is the equivalent of ME r sDm.t “until he hears”.
It is a subordinate clause pattern which can precede the main clause or follow it. The latter
possibility is the more usual.
This form does not allow of any conversion.
32. sDm.y.t=f
(K 332; ČG 20.9; N 18.2)
This form only occurs in the construction bw sDm.y.t=f. The characteristic morpheme is ,
.y.t. There is no known periphrastic variant of this pattern.
The rare construction bw sDm.y.t=f is the passive counterpart of bw sDm.t=f / ir.t=f
sDm (31.1); the correct translation is therefore “he is not yet heard.”
The possibilities for conversion are identical to those of bw sDm.t=f / ir.t=f sDm.
33. Imperative
(K 266-272; ČG 24; N 21; J 2.2.2)
Forms: The imperative is formed by the root of the verb, sometimes preceded by the op-
tional prefix ‘ , i. . Gender and number of the person addressed can be expressed by the
addition of (feminine) and (plural). These additions are purely graphic. Occasionally the
plural of the imperative is marked by the suffix , which is presumably identical with the
dependent pronoun 1 pl. c.
For the verb iwi, “to come’, an imperative derived from a different root was used,
mi, “come!” Similarly for rdi, “to give”, imi, “give!”
22
Function: The imperative denotes a command. The subject is usually implicit, but
can be expressed explicitly by means of imperative-intensifiers. These intensifiers include:
1) the independent pronoun of the 2nd person. This is found principally with intransi-
tive verbs. The suffix tw, which is often found with imi, “give”, presumably has
nothing to do with the dependent pronoun 2 sing. c., but originated from (imi) di.tw
“cause to be given” (a causative imperative, see 35). This explains why imi.tw “give!”
is followed by a suffix pronoun in the case of a pronominal direct object.
2) the preposition n followed by a suffix pronoun of the 2nd person.
3) the preposition r followed by a suffix pronoun of the 2nd person.
Conversion of the imperative is not possible.
23
Conversion of the causative imperative is not possible.
37. Participle
(K 252-259; ČG 48-50; N 27; J 2.1.4 (5))
LE has two participles, namely active and passive. The distinction between perfective and
imperfective participles, which is characteristic of ME, has disappeared in LE.
Forms: Active and passive participles can be marked by the optional prefix , i.
To the passive participle an optional morpheme .y may be added; this morpheme is often
written as . Gender and number morphemes are absent with the participle. The active
participle has the periphrastic variant (i.)ir sDm. For the nominalization of the temporally
converted first present wn=f Hr sDm, the compound participle wn (Hr) sDm can be used.
Function: The participle is a verbal adjective, which implies that the participle can be
made into a substantive. As a substantive-equivalent, the participle can be determined by the
definite article. A special function of the participle is its role in the “participial statement”
(43.2).
The participle refers to the past or to the present.
Negation of the participle by the auxiliary verb tm, standard in ME, occurs only spo-
radically in LE and must be regarded as an archaism.
24
Another ME remnant is the addition of or in the case of a neutral implied antecedent
(“that which he has heard”). The LE relative form does not agree with its antecedent in gen-
der and number. The periphrastic variant of the relative form is (i.)ir=f sDm. As with partici-
ples, there is a compound relative form which serves to nominalize the temporally converted
first present, namely (i.) wn=f (Hr) sDm.
Function: The relative form is used to form a relative clause, the subject of which is
not identical to the antecedent. The relative form is the equivalent of an adjective, and can
thus be made into a substantive.
The relative form always refers to the past. By adding the relative form i.ir=f to an
independently used infinitive, the latter acquires past temporal reference (e.g. pA sDm i.ir=k pA
rmT, “the hearing which you did of the man”; the present equivalent is pAy=k sDm pA rmT,
“your hearing of the man”). As demonstrated by the example, the relative form follows im-
mediately upon the infinitive.
Negation of the relative form by means of tm no longer occurs in LE.
25
known cases, the complement of m-di in this position is formed by a suffix pronoun, not by
a substantive.
In ME an existential sentence is negated by placing nn in front of it. In LE literary
texts examples of the group nn wn are still found, but in non-literary LE the two words
have fused to form , mn. The negative existential sentence also lends itself to
the possessive construction with m-di, e.g. mn m-di=f pr, “he has no house”.
A second type of negative existential sentence is constructed with the help of the
negative bn followed by a substantive (defined or undefined) or an independent pronoun.
Affirmative and negative existential sentences can be combined with the circumstan-
tial converter iw and the relative converter nty.
26
2) , twy, “belongs to you” and , swy, “belongs to him”. These are
adjectives derived from the dependent pronoun. [Groll and others believe these are
forms of the independent pronoun (ČG 2.2)] Besides their predicative function (swy
pA pr, “the house belongs to him”), they can also be used attributively (pA pr swy,
“the house of him”) and substantively (pA swy, “that of his”).
Adjectival sentences allow of all conversion possibilities and can therefore be introduced by
wn, bn, iw, and nty.
27
topic-comment, but there are also examples of the reverse order -- for instance in the case of
the interrogative words, which always take the first position. If one of the members of a
nominal sentence is pronominal, it takes the form of an independent pronoun. Independent
pronouns are found only as first member, regardless of their pragmatic function (e.g. ntf pA
rmT, “he is the man”).
Several special subtypes of the nominal sentence are discussed in the following para-
graphs (43.1-3). These subtypes have in common that the order of the pragmatic constitu-
ents is always comment-topic.
It holds for all nominal sentences, including the subtypes, that they can be combined
with the converters wn, bn and iw. However, relative conversion with nty is not possible, ex-
cept in the case of the ‘participial statement’.
28
43.3. ‘Cleft sentence’
A ‘cleft sentence’ is a nominal sentence, the first member of which is formed by an inde-
pendent pronoun or a substantive, while the second member is a defined relative clause (that
is, a participle, relative form or nty-conversion, preceded by a definite article or a demonstra-
tive, see 48; the article agrees in gender and number with the first member). The cleft sen-
tence equates the first member with the implied antecedent of the relative clause in the se-
cond member. In ‘cleft sentences’ the first member is always emphasized. Several examples:
pA rmT pA ii, “the man is the one who came”; pA rmT pA sDm=i “the man is the one I heard”; pA
rmT pA di=i n=f pA pr, “the man is the one to whom I gave the house”; pA rmT nty bwpw=i di n=f
pA pr, “the man is the one to whom I did not give the house”. In this manner, any sentence
element can be emphasized, regardless of its grammatical function. The only restriction is
that for emphasizing of the subject of a transitive verb a separate construction is used, name-
ly the ‘participial statement’ (43.2), which can be regarded as a special form of the cleft sen-
tence.
29
2) is. The answer to the question introduced by this particle is expected to be “no”. If
a negation follows is, then the expected answer is “yes”.
3) isiw. This particle introduces rhetorical questions, to which the answer “no” is
expected. If a negation follows istw, then the answer is expected to be “yes”.
The interrogative particles can be combined with all verbal and non-verbal sentence types
which are semantically eligible. Interrogative particles precede the temporal converter wn and
the negative converter bn. For semantic reasons, they cannot be combined with the circum-
stantial converter iw and the relative converter nty.
30
1) imi. In non-literary LE this auxiliary verb is found only in the imperative m.
It is a component of the negative imperative (34) and of the negative causative im-
perative (36).
2) tm. Function: negates the independent uses of the infinitive (16); the sequen-
tial (20); the conjunctive (23); the non-initial prospective (28); the emphatic form (for
verbal negation, see 29).
31
47. Object Clauses
(J 5.3.2 (2))
There are two sorts of object clauses. The first type occurs after the causative verb rdi, “to
cause’. It is always verbal and is characterized by the use of the prospective (e.g. di=i sDm=f pA
rmT, “I caused that he hears the man”).
The second type occurs after verbs of perception (e.g. ptr, “to see”, gmi, “to find”,
rx, “to know”) and verbs of communication (e.g. hAb, “to write”, Dd, “to say”). Object claus-
es of this type can be introduced by the conjunctions , (r-)Dd and m-Dd, but the
use of these conjugations is not obligatory.
32
3) Relative forms - if the expected resumptive pronoun in the relative clause has ‘un-
bound’ status, that is to say, if it is a dependent pronoun. In practice this comes
down to the observation that resumption is omitted when the antecedent is the di-
rect object of the relative form (e.g. pA pr i.di=i n=k and not *pA pr i.di=i n=k sw*, “the
house which I gave you”) or an adverbial expression of time (e.g. pA hrw i.di=i pA pr,
“the day on which I gave the house”). The latter construction is rare. In all other cas-
es resumption is carried out by the suffix pronoun, which has a bound status and is
therefore retained.
4) Nty - if the expected resumptive pronoun is a pronominal preformative directly fol-
lowing nty (e.g. pA rmT nty m pA pr and not *pA rmT nty sw m pA pr*, “the man who is
in the house”; pA rmT nty bn sw m pA pr, “the man who is not in the house”; pA rmT
nty Hr sDm=i, “the man who hears me”; pA rmT nty iw=f r sDm=i, “the man who will
hear me”).
If a clause is made relative by means of iw, resumption is always present.
33
The following clause can be introduced by an optional iw. If the following clause
contains a first present, this changes into the construction iw=f (Hr) sDm, which in form cor-
responds to the sequential.
51. Functions of iw
(N 38.1)
In the preceding paragraphs, the numerous uses of the particle iw have repeatedly drawn
our attention. From a functional point of view, it is perhaps better to speak of the diverse
particles iw, each of which has its own usage. In this paragraph the usages are summarized
briefly.
1) Future iw. This particle is found as a conjugation base in the third future (21). By
analogy, it also figures in adverbial clauses indicating direction, which often have a
connotation of futurity (42).
2) Sequential iw. This particle forms the conjugation base of the sequential (20). Some-
times it is found before other conjugation patterns as a marker of parataxis (“and”).
It is not always so simple to distinguish sequential iw from circumstantial iw.
3) Circumstantial iw. The circumstantial converter iw (13) changes main clauses into
temporally subordinate clauses (46) or into relative clauses with undefined anteced-
ent (48).
4) Connective iw. This optional particle connects a word group in frontal extraposition
with the following clause (49). In addition, it is an element of the compound particles
34
xr-iw (12), nty-iw (13) and in-iw (44), as well as the compound conjunctions ir-iw and
wnn-iw (46).
All these iw particles take suffix pronouns.
35