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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

Content Page

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1

DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS........................................................... 2


Pressure Control........................................................................................................ 3
Variable-Speed Constant Pressure Control..................................................... 3
Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control ................................. 5
Suction Throttling Constant Pressure Control ................................................ 7

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Discharge Throttling Constant Pressure Control............................................10
Blow-Off (Recycle) Constant Pressure Control .............................................12

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Flow Control............................................................................................................12

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Variable-Speed Constant Flow Control .........................................................12
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Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Flow Control .....................................14
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Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control ....................................................16
Discharge Throttling Constant Flow Control.................................................17
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Blow-Off Constant Flow Control ..................................................................17


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DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS....................................................18


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Surge Protection ......................................................................................................18


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Flow Systems................................................................................................20
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Surge Control on a Constant-Speed Compressor with Suction


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Throttling .....................................................................................................22
Variable-Speed Compressor Based on Delta Pressure and Flow ....................28
Variable-Speed Multisection Compressors ....................................................29
System Arrangements...............................................................................................34
Series............................................................................................................34
Parallel..........................................................................................................37
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................41
Valve Unloading.......................................................................................................41
Clearance Pockets ....................................................................................................44
Bypass Operation .....................................................................................................46

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS ......................47


Relief Valve (Stage) .................................................................................................47
Startup Bypass .........................................................................................................47
High Process Temperature........................................................................................48
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................49

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

Table of Figures Page

Figure 1. Variable-Speed Constant-Pressure Control System and


Characteristic Curves................................................................................. 4
Figure 2. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control System and
Characteristic Curves................................................................................. 6
Figure 3. Suction Throttling Constant-Pressure Control System and
Characteristic Curves................................................................................. 8
Figure 4. Discharge Throttling, Constant-Pressure Control System and
Characteristic Curves................................................................................11

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Figure 5. Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System and Characteristic
Curve .......................................................................................................13

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Figure 6. Alternate Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System

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Configuration ...........................................................................................14
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Figure 7. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant-Flow Control System and
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Characteristic Curves................................................................................15
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Figure 8. Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control System and Characteristic
Curve .......................................................................................................16
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Figure 9. Basic, Volume-Controlled, Anti-Surge System..........................................21


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Figure 10. Typical Capacity and Surge Control System and the Associated
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Performance Curve for a Constant-Speed Compressor with


Suction Throttling .................................................................................23
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Figure 11. Performance and Surge Lines with Changes in Ambient Conditions.........25
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Figure 12. Pressure-Compensated Surge Control System.........................................26


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Figure 13. Discharge Mass Flow Rate Measurement Compensated to Inlet


Volumetric Flow Rate............................................................................27
Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor Based on
Differential Pressure and Gas Flow Rate ................................................28
Figure 15. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Surge Control
Valve that Protects the Entire Compressor.............................................30
Figure 16. Performance Curves and Surge Line for Each Section of a
Multisection Compressor .......................................................................31
Figure 17. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with a Surge Control
Valve for Each Section ..........................................................................32
Figure 18. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Remotely
Operated Control on the First Section....................................................33

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Figure 19. Typical Surge Control System for Compressors in Series ........................35
Figure 20. Integrated Surge Control System for Compressors in Series....................36
Figure 21. Discharge Pressure Control of Constant-Speed Parallel
Compressors with Dissimilar Operating Characteristics..........................38
Figure 22. Control System that Uses the S-Criterion for Compressors in
Parallel Configuration ............................................................................40
Figure 23. Suction Valve Unloader..........................................................................42
Figure 24. Finger-Type Unloaders ...........................................................................43
Figure 25. Clearance Pockets...................................................................................45

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

INTRODUCTION

For the purposes of this module, a control system functions to maintain process variables within
their prescribed ranges. If a process variable approaches a value outside of its prescribed range
and that could result in damage to the monitored equipment, a protection system will function
either to restore the variable to an acceptable value or to shut down the equipment.

The control and protection systems that are used on dynamic and positive-displacement
compressors are different because the systems reflect the characteristics of the equipment. The
dynamic compressor control system must maintain the compressor flow rate and the discharge
pressure within prescribed limits. The protection system must prevent the compressor from

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operating under surge or stonewall conditions. Surge and stonewall are damaging conditions, and

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they are discussed in more detail later in this module.

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Unlike the control and protection systems of a dynamic compressor, a positive-displacement

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compressor cannot self-regulate capacity against a given discharge pressure; the compressor,

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because its characteristic is constant volume, will simply continue to displace gas until it receives a
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signal not to do so. As a result, various methods of changing the volume flow must be used.
Because each rotation or stroke of the compression elements will displace a given volume of flow
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in the discharge system, protection of all positive-displacement compressors requires a device to
limit discharge pressure. Because the volume of the discharge system is fixed, the discharge
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pressure will continue to rise.


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DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Dynamic compressor controls can vary from the very basic manual recycle control to elaborate
ratio controllers. In accordance with SAES-K-402, the control system must be adequate to
control the compressor at all specified operating conditions. The driver characteristics, the
process response, and the compressor operating range must be determined before the type of
controls are chosen. Control systems for dynamic compressors that are used at Saudi Aramco
facilities vary in their method of control. Control and protection systems for dynamic
compressors have fundamentally only two functions to accomplish:

• To provide stable control of the compressor at all of the required operating

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conditions that are specified on the data sheet.

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• To provide protection against operation in the surge area of the performance

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curve.
Anti-surge control is part of the compressor protection system that is discussed later in this

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module.
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Dynamic compressor control systems are designed to maintain a desired pressure to a process or a
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desired flow to a process. Where the process operation may result in variations in either or both
compressor flow and discharge pressure, manipulation of the compressor suction pressure may be
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required for upstream stability of the process. For example, on a variable speed controlled
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compressor, the governor would receive a compressor suction pressure signal that would initiate a
speed increase upon an increase of suction pressure. A speed increase would increase the
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compressor flow and probably the discharge pressure. The reverse would occur if the suction
pressure decreased and the speed also decreased.
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Multiple control systems may be applied to a system and selected through the use of an auto-
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selector control. An auto-selector controller receives inputs, such as flow, suction pressure and
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discharge pressure, from more than one sensor. The controller automatically selects, as the
controlled variable, the input variable that is closest to its desired limit value.

The head-capacity control methods (in order of decreasing efficiency) that are most commonly
used for pressure control and flow control are as follows:
• Speed control
• Adjustable inlet guide vanes (IGV) or adjustable diffuser vanes
• Suction throttling (STV)
• Discharge throttling (DTV)
• Blow-off
• Recycle

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Pressure Control

Pressure control is accomplished through modulation of a performance control element. Process


pressure is monitored, and a signal from a pressure transmitter is sent to the pressure controller.
The pressure controller adjusts the control element, which might be a guide vane positioner, a
suction or discharge control valve, or a rotational speed governor. The control element would
operate to maintain the process pressure at a setpoint value.

Variable-Speed Constant Pressure Control

The most efficient way to match the compressor characteristic to the required output is to change

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speed in accordance with the fan laws. This variable-speed operation is most easily accomplished

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through use of steam turbines, gas turbines, or variable-speed (frequency) electric motors as

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drivers for compressors. With such drivers, the speed can be manually controlled through
adjustment of the speed controller by an operator, or the speed adjustment can be made

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automatically through use of a pneumatic or electric controller that changes the speed in response

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to a pressure or flow signal. Because the only energy required by the process is provided by the
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compressor without the use of throttling devices, variable-speed control is the most efficient
method of control. The operating speed range of the driver must match or exceed the operating
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speed range of the compressor.
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Figure 1 shows a typical variable-speed constant-pressure control system for a steam turbine
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driven compressor, and it also shows the associated characteristic curves. The characteristic
curves shown in Figure 1 assume a constant inlet pressure (P1), inlet temperature (T1), and gas
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composition. Each curve shows the pressure at which the compressor supplies a certain volume
rate of flow (Q) for a given speed. If the compressor discharge pressure required by the process
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exceeds the maximum pressure the compressor can produce for a given speed, compressor surge
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will occur. The surge line on the graph indicates the limit of minimum flow.
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Figure 1. Variable-Speed Constant-Pressure Control System and Characteristic Curves

If the compressor is operating at the constant pressure point, Y (flow rate Qy), and if the process
requires a higher gas flow, the discharge pressure immediately falls and the operating point moves
to the right and downward along the characteristic curve for the given speed. The pressure
transmitter will sense the lowering pressure, and the pressure controller will send a control signal
to the turbine governor. The governor will increase the speed of the compressor (through an
increase in turbine speed), which results in an increase in the system pressure back to the pressure
setpoint. The new operating point would be located on the desired pressure line but further to the
right.

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If the process required less gas flow, the discharge pressure would begin to increase and the
control system would decrease the speed of the compressor (through a decrease in turbine speed)
until the pressure setpoint is restored. The flow could be reduced until point X was reached.
Point X is set at the minimum operating point before the surge line (surge control line). Anti-
surge controls, which are discussed later in this module, will prevent the operating point from
moving to the left of point X on each speed curve. If the process required a flow rate of only
point Z, the volume of gas (Qx - Qz) would have to be blown off or recycled. The operating
control would have to be shifted from variable-speed control to blow-off control, which is the
only control that is available when the process requires flows that are below the stable operating
range. Blow-off control is discussed later in this module.

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Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control

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Inlet guide vanes evenly distribute the inlet flow to the compressor stage impellers. Adjustable
inlet vanes are built into the inlet of the first stage, or succeeding stages of axial compressors, and

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they can be automatically or manually controlled through a linkage mechanism. Adjustable guide

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vanes are used for the control of axial and single-stage centrifugal compressors. Single-stage
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compressors frequently incorporate an axial inlet, and they do not require fixed guide vanes.
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Pre-rotation adjustable guide vanes pre-whirl the gas that enters the compressor stage in the
direction of rotation, which develops less head than at design. Between full open and maximum
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pre-whirl position, adjustable guide vanes provide some degree of reduced horsepower over the
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suction throttling valve.


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Counter-rotation adjustable guide vanes are used to extend the useful operating range of any
dynamic compressor. The range of operation is extended through a change of the angle of attack
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and the inlet gas velocity to the impeller blade. For the high flow region, the angle of attack is
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increased to eliminate flow separation and to effect an increase in the produced head of the
impeller or blade. The elimination of flow separation and an increase in the produced head will
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increase the capacity range of the impeller.

Adjustable inlet guide vanes are expensive, limited in effectiveness, and present many maintenance
and operational problems. At Saudi Aramco, centrifugal compressor adjustable inlet guide vanes
have proven to be mechanically unreliable in general services; therefore, prior to control selection,
the economics of inlet guide vanes must be considered because of their higher initial cost,
complex mechanism, maintenance, and requirement for frequent adjustment. Adjustable inlet
guide vanes should not be used on process centrifugal compressors, and they should never be
used in any sour gas service. Saudi Aramco primarily uses adjustable inlet guide vanes for axial
and single-stage centrifugal air compressors.

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Figure 2 shows a typical adjustable inlet guide vane constant pressure control system, and it also
shows the associated characteristic curves for a constant speed compressor.

Figure 2. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant


Pressure Control System and Characteristic Curves

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The control element is the compressor guide vane mechanism. The guide vanes are adjusted
through use of a positioning cylinder. This cylinder is operated by a servo-valve (SRV) that
receives a signal from the pressure controller.

If the compressor is operating at flow rate Qy and if the process requires an increase in flow, the
discharge pressure immediately falls, and the operating point moves to the right and downward
along the characteristic curve for the given inlet guide vane (IGV) position. The pressure
transmitter (PT) will sense the lowering pressure, and the pressure controller (PC) will send a
control signal to the SRV. The SRV will open the inlet guide vanes, which increases both the gas
flow through the compressor and the system pressure back to the pressure setpoint. The new
operating point would be located on the desired pressure line but further to the right (point W).

If the process required less gas flow, the discharge pressure would begin to increase and the
control system would close the inlet guide vanes, which decreases the gas flow through the
compressor until the pressure setpoint is reached. The flow could be reduced until point X was
reached. Point X is set at the minimum operating point before the surge line. Anti-surge
controls, which are discussed later in this module, will prevent the operating point from moving to
the left on each inlet guide vane position curve similar to point X. Like the variable-speed
constant pressure control, if the process required a flow rate of point Z, the volume of gas (Qx -
Qz) would have to be blown off or recycled. The operating control would have to be shifted from
adjustable inlet guide vane control to blow-off control.

Suction Throttling Constant Pressure Control

Suction throttling control, which is also known as intake throttling or capacity modulation
control, is usually used in situations in which the compressor is not equipped with inlet guide
vanes and is driven by a constant-speed drive. Suction throttling is more efficient than discharge
throttling by approximately 3 to 5%. This control is also applied in plant and instrument air
compressor systems when the demand for air is relatively constant. The system usually includes a
large air receiver, which allows large volume draws to affect major pressure changes in the
receiver pressure so that the air compressor can modulate the flow with relatively small pressure
variations.

Compressors with this type of control system have a single pressure-volume characteristic curve.
Figure 3 shows a typical suction throttling constant pressure control system, and it also shows the
associated characteristic curves for a constant-speed compressor.

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Figure 3. Suction Throttling Constant-Pressure Control System and Characteristic Curves

The suction throttle valve (STV) is normally included as part of the compressor package.
Starting the system, especially with a motor driver, with the suction throttle closed and the
discharge anti-surge vent valve open, will develop a vacuum on the inlet to the impellers.
Although this type of startup reduces the motor starting torque and the horsepower requirements,
it must be avoided. SAES-K-402 states that suction throttling must not result in subatmospheric
pressure and risk of air ingestion into the process streams. Starting torque is not critical with a
steam turbine driver, where the compressor package will be brought up to speed much slower.
The discharge anti-surge vent valve will still be open, however, for turbine startup.

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Suction throttling should be used when compressor flow and/or discharge pressure may vary as
required by the process. The suction throttling valve may receive actuation signals from the flow
sensing device, from discharge pressure, or from suction pressure upstream of the suction
throttling valve.

If the compressor process is equipped with a recycle system, the suction throttle valve is located
upstream of both the suction knockout drum and the anti-surge recycle return line. The preferred
location of the recycle return line is upstream of the knockout drum. Such a location ensures
good mixing of the recycle stream with the main suction stream prior to reaching the compressor.
The preferred location of the suction throttle valve is close to the compressor suction.

When electric motors are used as constant speed drivers, the centrifugal compressor is normally
controlled through use of a suction throttling valve. Butterfly valves are typically used as suction
throttling valves because they minimize flow disturbance. Throttling the suction results in a
slightly lower suction pressure than the pressure for which the machine is designed and, therefore,
a higher total head is required if the discharge pressure must remain constant. The increase in
total head can be matched to the compressor head-capacity curve, i.e., higher head at reduced
flow. In throttling the inlet, the density of the gas is reduced, which results in a matching of the
required weight flow to the compressor inlet-volume capabilities at other points on the
head/capacity curve.

In the control system that is shown in Figure 3, the value of pressure is sensed by the pressure
transmitter (PT). The pressure transmitter converts this signal to a signal that is proportional to
the process pressure, and it sends a signal to the pressure controller (PC). The pressure controller
amplifies the transmitter signal and sends a modified signal to the control element. Depending on
system requirements, the controller may require additional correction factors, which are called
reset and rate. The control element is a suction throttle valve (STV) that reduces the flow of gas
into the compressor.

If the compressor is operating at point W on its unthrottled characteristic curve and if there is a
reduction in the process flow requirements, the pressure would increase to Y1 on the unthrottled
characteristic curve. The increase in pressure would be sensed by the pressure transmitter, and a
control signal would be sent by the pressure controller to the STV to modulate the valve. By
throttling across the STV, the inlet pressure can be reduced, and, although the compressor is
operating at the pressure ratio and volume of point Y1, the discharge pressure and volume flow to
the process will be equivalent to point Y. To further explain the operation, the following
example, which assumes that the STV is fully open, should be considered:

P3
Qw = 100%, = 2.0
P1w

P3 1
Qy1 = 80%, Y = 2.1
P1

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Inlet pressure P1 = 14.7 psia = P2 (No throttling)


Desired P3 = 29.4 psia

The compressor pressure ratio with 80% flow is 2.10. At (P3/P1)Y1, the pressure ratio is 2.10.
To maintain the discharge pressure of 29.4 psia, the inlet pressure (P2) must be reduced to 14.0
psia (29.4/2.10). The volume to the compressor Y1 (at pressure P2) is 80%, but the equivalent
volume Y (at pressure P1) is less than the ratio of 80% x (14.0/14.7), or 76.3%, which is the
actual volume at pressure P1 that is delivered to the process.

Anti-surge controls, which are discussed later in this module, will prevent the operating point
from moving to the left past point X. Like the variable-speed constant-pressure control, if the
process required a flow rate of point Z, the excess flow would need to be blown off or recycled.

Discharge Throttling Constant Pressure Control

Discharge pressure throttling for constant pressure is less efficient than suction throttling;
however, it may be more economical from the standpoint of requiring a smaller throttling valve
and flanges. The discharge throttling valve is located downstream of the anti-surge recycle supply
line. If a main discharge aftercooler is used to cool the recycle gas, then the throttle valve is
located downstream of this cooler, which may be a considerable distance from the compressor. If
the recycle gas has a dedicated cooler, then the throttle valve can be located upstream of the
aftercooler.

As with suction throttling, only one pressure-volume characteristic curve is associated with
discharge throttling for a constant-speed compressor. Figure 4 shows a typical discharge
throttling constant pressure control system and the associated characteristic curves for a constant-
speed compressor. Pressure control is maintained by throttling the actual compressor discharge
pressure to the desired setpoint along the characteristic curve. Discharge throttling requires more
power than suction throttling for the same flow. For example, if the process requires 80% flow
with discharge throttling, the compressor must operate at Y1, and the gas must be throttled to the
desired pressure. A comparison of this scenario with suction throttling shows that the compressor
would operate at W1 with a lower pressure ratio. The actual inlet volume to the compressor
would be higher with suction throttling, but the weight flow to the process is the same. Because
the pressure ratio is lower with suction throttling than with the same conditions with discharge
throttling, the horsepower that is required for suction throttling would be lower. The example
shows that the advantage of suction throttling depends on the shape of the dynamic compressor
curve. The steeper the curve, the greater the advantage. If the characteristic curve is a flat,
horizontal line, there is no advantage to suction throttling.

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Figure 4. Discharge Throttling, Constant-Pressure


Control System and Characteristic Curves

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Blow-Off (Recycle) Constant Pressure Control

Blow-off constant-pressure control is the least efficient method of control, and it is used to extend
control range with only the more efficient control methods. As previously shown in Figure 4, if
only blow-off control is used, the compressor would always operate at point W, regardless of the
process requirements. The difference in flow between the process requirements and QW would
have to be blown off, and all of the work expended on the extra flow would be wasted. For flows
that are less than the surge limit, blow-off (recycle) control must be used. This type of control is
typically used as a protection device only, and, in particular, it is used for anti-surge control.

Flow Control

Flow control can be accomplished with the same head-capacity control methods as pressure
control. In a flow control system, a flow transmitter (FT) senses the process flow, converts the
signal to a signal proportional to the process flow, and sends the signal to the flow controller
(FC). The flow controller amplifies the transmitter signal and sends a modified signal to the
control element.

Variable-Speed Constant Flow Control

Figure 5 shows a typical variable-speed constant-flow control system, and it also shows the
associated characteristic curve. The characteristic curve is highlighted with the constant flow
requirements. If the compressor is operating at point Y and the head required increases, the
operating point will move up and left along the specific speed characteristic curve as the flow
decreases. The flow transmitter will sense the decrease in flow, and the flow controller will send
a proportional signal to the turbine governor. The governor will increase the speed of the
compressor (through an increase in turbine speed), and it will increase the system flow back to the
flow setpoint at the higher resistance. The new operating point, Y1, would be located on the
desired flow line but at a higher pressure. The opposite reaction will occur if process resistance
decreases with subsequent flow increase: the compressor speed will be reduced. Any desired
flow may be chosen and controlled within the shaded area of the curve. If the compressor has a
flow-oriented anti-surge control system, the flow transmitter and controller that are used for
system control can be the same as what is used in the anti-surge system. Once the system
operating requirements fall within or to the left of the surge line, the anti-surge protection system
takes over and flow control of the process is lost. If flow control were required in the area that is
located to the left of the surge line, separate flow transmitters and controllers would be required:
one flow transmitter and controller to serve the process control and the other flow transmitter and
control to serve the anti-surge system.

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Figure 5. Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System and Characteristic Curve

An alternate variable-speed constant-flow control system configuration is shown in Figure 6. In


this arrangement, the flow element (FE) is located at the compressor suction. The operation of
this system is identical to the operation on the control system that was previously shown in Figure
5.

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Figure 6. Alternate Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System Configuration

Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Flow Control

Figure 7 shows two, typical, adjustable, inlet guide vane, constant-flow control systems and it also
shows the associated characteristic curves for a constant-speed compressor. One control system
measures flow on the discharge of the compressor, and the other control system measures flow on
the compressor inlet.

The control element is the compressor guide vane mechanism. The guide vanes are adjusted
through the use of a positioning cylinder. This cylinder is operated by a servo-valve (SRV) that
receives a signal from the flow controller.

If the compressor is operating at point Y and if the process resistance decreases, the flow will
begin to increase, and the operating point moves to the right and downward along the
characteristic curve for the given inlet guide vane position. The flow transmitter will sense the
increase in flow, and it will send a signal proportional to this increase to the controller. The flow
controller will then send a control signal that is to the SRV. The SRV will reposition the inlet
guide vanes to a greater pre-rotation vane angle, which decreases gas flow through the
compressor back to the desired flow setpoint. The new operating point, Y1, would be located on
the desired flow line but at a lower pressure. The desired flow setpoint can be anywhere to the
right and below the surge line. Like the other control systems that are discussed in this module,
operation in the surge region is controlled through the use of the anti-surge control system.

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Figure 7. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant-Flow


Control System and Characteristic Curves

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Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control

Suction throttling constant flow control operates very similarly to the suction throttling constant
pressure control. Figure 8 shows a typical suction throttling constant flow control system, and it
also shows the associated characteristic curve.

If the compressor is operating at point W on its unthrottled characteristic curve and if there is a
reduction in the head required, the flow would increase to Y1 on the unthrottled characteristic
curve. The increase in flow would be sensed by the flow transmitter, which would send a
corresponding signal to the flow controller, which would then send the required control signal to
the STV to modulate the valve. The STV will modulate until the desired flow, Y, is reached.
The pressure ratio at the compressor flanges for points W and Y is equal because the compressor
suction pressure (after the throttle valve) is reduced to satisfy the flow setpoint.

Figure 8. Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control System and Characteristic Curve

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Discharge Throttling Constant Flow Control

Constant flow control can be accomplished with discharge throttling; however, as with the
discharge throttling constant pressure control system, it is less efficient and it requires more
power for the same flow than suction throttling. In Figure 8, if the compressor is operating at
point W and if a reduction in process resistance occurs, the flow will increase toward Y1 until the
process resistance is matched. The control system senses the increase in flow, and it modulates
the discharge valve to reduce flow and force the compressor’s operating point back up along the
characteristic curve to point W. With discharge throttling, the compressor will operate at a
maximum power level, regardless of the process resistance.

Blow-Off Constant Flow Control

As with blow-off constant pressure control, blow-off constant flow control is only used to extend
the operating range and as anti-surge protection for the more efficient control methods. In Figure
8, the compressor will always operate at point W with blow-off control. If the operating point for
the required flow is point Z, the flow QW - QZ will be blown off, and all the work done on the
excess flow will thereby be wasted.

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DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The purpose of a protection system, as it pertains to this module, is to prevent equipment from
operating under damaging conditions. When a monitored process variable approaches a value
that could cause damage to the equipment, the protection system takes action either to restore the
variable to an acceptable value or to shut down the affected equipment. One of the main
functions of a dynamic compressor protection system is to provide protection against operation in
the surge area of the performance curve. Compressor surge is a large pressure and flow
fluctuation that occurs when the compressor is operated at a higher pressure ratio than the design
maximum. Surge typically occurs below 50% to 70% of the rated flow through the compressor,
however, the surge limit can be reached from a stable operating point through a reduction in flow,
a reduction in gas density, a decrease in suction pressure, or an increase in discharge pressure. An
anti-surge system senses conditions approaching surge, and it maintains the compressor pressure
ratio below the surge limit by recycling some of the discharge flow to the compressor suction.
Because of the heat that is generated by compression, a method of cooling the recycled gas flow
must be used to prevent overheating of the compressor.

In addition to preventing compressor surge, dynamic compressor protection systems may include
controls to prevent stonewall. For a constant speed compressor with fixed suction conditions, a
decrease in process resistance or an increase in gas density will cause the operating point to move
along the performance curve to the right, eventually reaching a point of maximum flow and
minimum head. Beyond this point, a further reduction in the process resistance or an increase in
gas density will not increase the flow rate. This point is referred to as the choke point or
stonewall. Stonewall is not particularly damaging to single-stage centrifugal compressors, but it
can affect the rotors and blades of multi-stage centrifugal and axial compressors. To maintain a
suitable process resistance and to prevent compressor stonewall, an anti-choke controller may be
used to operate an anti-choke control valve. An anti-choke controller is not usually required
because most process systems provide sufficient resistance to prevent choke.

Dynamic compressor protection systems vary subtly across the variety of available compressor
types. Anti-surge protection control systems may utilize a pressure control system, a flow control
system, or a combination of both pressure and flow.

Surge Protection

Every centrifugal or axial compressor has (at a given rotational speed and at given inlet
conditions) a characteristic combination of maximum head and minimum flow beyond which it
will surge. Prevention of this damaging phenomenon is one of the most important tasks of a
dynamic compressor control and protection system.

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The purpose of the surge system is to prevent the low velocity gas (low flow) from entering the
compressor. Surging is an operating condition that is caused by stall in the compressor’s impeller,
stator, or diffusers. Stall is described as flow separation that results from low gas velocities.
When a compressor experiences stall, the energy that is produced by the compressor (head)
decreases. The result is backflow through the compressor from the process, which is known as
surge. The following are some of the many harmful effects of surge that can damage the
compressor:

• Rapidly rising temperature


• Flow fluctuations
• Pressure fluctuations
• Speed fluctuations
• Excessive thrust

Surge can be severely damaging to a compressor and can even cause catastrophic failure.
Protection systems are installed that will trip the compressor and cause an emergency shutdown if
any of these effects are detected. The function of the surge system is to continuously monitor the
compressor operating point and to open the surge control valve before the compressor surges.
Surge control is effected through use of the following methods:

• An increase in the throughput flow.


• A decrease in the required head.
• An increase in the compressor speed.

All three methods will cause the operating point to move down and/or to the right of the
operating curve, away from the surge control line. Because surge conditions can be defined by
inlet pressure, discharge pressure, inlet temperature, speed, compressibility, and molecular
weights, surge control systems can monitor a variety of variables to determine whether a
compressor surge condition is imminent. Typical surge control systems use flow, pressure,
differential pressure, density, differential temperature, and motor power, or combinations of these
parameters.

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The most dependable and widely used method of surge control is an increase in the throughput of
the compressor by opening the surge control valve. The surge control valve is essentially a bypass
valve that either recycles gas around the compressor or blows the excess gas off to the
atmosphere. Opening the surge control valve will reduce the process system resistance and allow
the compressor to operate at a flow rate high enough to that will prevent surge; however, because
bypassing or venting of the gas wastes power, surge flow should be determined as accurately as
possible to avoid unnecessary bypassing or venting while maintaining safe compressor operation.
The surge control setpoint is usually 5 to 10% from the actual surge line.

Flow Systems

A basic, volume-controlled, anti-surge system for compressors with constant speed drivers and
constant inlet conditions is shown in Figure 9. The flow transmitter (FT) senses the process flow
through use of an orifice or venturi that serves as the primary flow element (FE). The FT
produces a signal that is proportional to the process flow, and it sends the signal to the surge
controller (SC).

The surge controller compares the transmitted signal to its setpoint signal. If the setpoint signal is
exceeded, the surge controller sends a signal to the surge control valve (SCV). The SCV releases
the pressure buildup at the discharge of the compressor in response to the demands of the surge
controller. The discharge of the SCV is directed to a flare on an open suction compressor, and
back to the compressor suction through a cooler, or, for air compressors, to the atmosphere
through a silencer.

As flow decreases to less than the minimum volume setpoint, a signal from the surge controller
will cause the surge control valve to modulate to keep a minimum volume flowing through the
compressor.

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Figure 9. Basic, Volume-Controlled, Anti-Surge System

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Surge Control on a Constant-Speed Compressor with Suction Throttling

A typical compressor installation is a plant and instrument air compressor that is driven by a
constant-speed electric motor. The compressor is required to maintain a constant pressure in the
discharge piping header. Figure 10 shows a typical capacity and surge control system, and it also
shows the associated performance curve for a constant speed compressor with suction-throttling.
In this scenario, the pressure transmitter (PT) and the pressure controller (PC) maintain a constant
discharge pressure by throttling the suction valve. A flow transmitter (FT) and a surge controller
(SC) are used to measure the gas flow through the compressor. The operation of the system is
identical to the operation of the suction-throttling, constant-pressure control system that was
previously discussed. As system demand decreases, the suction throttle valve will throttle close,
which decreases flow through the compressor. The decrease in flow through the compressor is
sensed by means of the inlet flow transmitter. As the compressor gas flow approaches the surge
control point, the surge controller will modulate the surge control valve and vent the excess gas
flow. As a result of the venting (or recycle), the discharge pressure will decrease due to the
throttling of the suction throttle valve. The PC will signal the suction throttle valve to open
slightly in order to maintain the system pressure. The pressure and the surge controller react
independently from each other, but they will seek a balance of maintaining system pressure while
maintaining minimum compressor gas flow.

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Figure 10. Typical Capacity and Surge Control System and the Associated
Performance Curve for a Constant-Speed Compressor with Suction Throttling

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Constant speed dictates that the compressor will always follow the performance curve. A point
can be selected on the performance curve at a predetermined distance from the surge curve at
which the surge control valve will modulate and prevent compressor flow from decreasing past
that point. The surge control point will be the setpoint for the surge controller.

As discussed in previous modules, the performance and surge curves are not single lines, but they
will move with inlet (ambient) pressure, temperature, and molecular weight, as shown in Figure
11. The air compressor for the compressor map that is shown in Figure 11 must provide 220 psig
to the discharge header with the mass air flow delivered at the controlled pressure varying with
the suction pressure and temperature (assuming constant molecular weight). The suction pressure
will vary with the throttling of the inlet throttle valve. Temperature will vary with the change
from summer to winter or with changes in the installation facility ambient temperature. The
operation of the compressor will change from performance curve to performance curve with the
pressure and temperature changes. Each performance curve will have its own surge curve or
surge point for a single-speed machine. The point of convergence of the surge curves is shown in
Figure 11 as the “expected surge” line.

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Figure 11. Performance and Surge Lines with Changes in Ambient Conditions

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Surge control systems can be designed to use compressor discharge pressure to compensate for
the changes in the surge point. Figure 12 shows a pressure-compensated surge control system.

Figure 12. Pressure-Compensated Surge Control System

This surge control system operates in the same manner as the surge control system that was
shown previously in Figure 10 with the exception of the pressure compensation. The surge
control system summer (Σ) performs calculations through use of the inlet flow (which will vary
with changes in inlet conditions) and the discharge pressure (which is a constant for a pressure
control system). A ratio relay (R) is used to set the pressure signal gain and bias. The surge
control system summer provides a compensated measured variable (inlet flow) to the surge
controller to compensate for the different inlet conditions.

Another option to compensate for the changes in the surge point is through use of suction flow
rate, temperature, and pressure sensors to provide the necessary values to calculate the actual
cubic feet per minute flow rate that enters the compressor. Calculation of the actual cubic feet
per minute is typically performed when the compressed gas molecular weight is fairly constant. If
the compressed gas molecular weight varies significantly, a density transmitter, which is located
on the compressor inlet, is used to compensate the surge control system for changes in inlet
conditions. A density transmitter is a pressure transmitter configured to translate a pressure signal
for density.

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Because of the following reasons, flow measurement in the discharge of the compressor is often
preferable to flow measurement at the compressor suction:

• The pressure gradient in the suction is too small to achieve a reliable flow signal.
• Flowmeter permanent pressure loss is not as objectionable in the discharge header.
• The inlet pipe diameter is so large that the required straight run of piping that is
needed for accurate flow measurement would not be practicable.
• A discharge flow measurement is already required for process reasons.

Compressor discharge flow rate must be corrected for inlet conditions for use in the surge control
system, which is shown in Figure 13. The configuration in Figure 13 is based on the measurement
of mass flow in the discharge and the fact that mass flow into the compressor equals mass flow
out of the compressor. The discharge flow is compensated to mass flow, and the mass flow is
compensated to inlet volumetric conditions.

Figure 13. Discharge Mass Flow Rate Measurement


Compensated to Inlet Volumetric Flow Rate

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Variable-Speed Compressor Based on Delta Pressure and Flow

Figure 14 shows a typical configuration for a surge control system on a variable-speed


compressor that is based on the pressure difference across the compressor and the gas flow rate.
This system can be designed for constant flow or constant pressure control for normal operation.
The speed transmitter (XT) and the flow transmitter (FT) or the high pressure side (discharge)
signal of the differential pressure transmitter (DPT) can be used as setpoint to the variable-speed
controller (XIC). For the surge system, the FT provides the measured variable. The
compensated compressor pressure signal is provided by the DPT. Together, FT and DPT define
the operating point or the input to the surge controller. As the operating point approaches the
surge control point, the surge controller will open the surge control valve to maintain the required
protection flow through the compressor.

Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor


Based on Differential Pressure and Gas Flow Rate

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Variable-Speed Multisection Compressors

Centrifugal compressors that use multiple sections that are equipped with an interstage cooler
capable of accommodating gas removal or addition between the sections can be described as two
separate compressors that perform different duties but that are driven by a single shaft. Each
section of the compressor has its own set of performance curves and its own surge line. Figure 15
shows a basic, multisection, variable-speed compressor with an anti-surge valve that protects the
entire compressor. The system that is shown in Figure 15 is only suitable if the process gas does
not contain any constituents that will condense at compressor section 1 discharge conditions. If
the process gas contains constituents that will condense at compressor section 1 discharge
conditions, condensate will be drained from the intercooler, and the molecular weight to the
second section will change. In this case, a separate surge protection system must be used for each
compressor section.

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Figure 15. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with


Surge Control Valve that Protects the Entire Compressor

Figure 16 shows the performance curve and surge line for each section of the compressor. The
operation of this surge control system is identical to the surge control for a variable-speed
compressor based on delta pressure and flow, with the exception that the differential pressure is
measured across the two sections.

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Figure 16. Performance Curves and Surge Line


for Each Section of a Multisection Compressor

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Multisection compressor anti-surge control systems are typically designed for compatibility of the
sections at 100% speed. Because the sections are different, manipulation of the speed to
accommodate changes in one section will affect the other section and possibly place that section
in a surge condition. Surge control on multisection compressors must be more stringent than
surge control of a single section compressor. Frequently, a separate surge control system is
required on each section to protect that section from surge, as shown in Figure 17.

The surge control system for each section of the compressor operates like the surge control for a
variable-speed compressor based on delta pressure and flow, but each section’s surge control
system operates independently to prevent a surge condition in each section.

Figure 17. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor


with a Surge Control Valve for Each Section

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The mismatch in pumping capacities among the compressor sections at lower speeds will
occasionally result in a surge condition in the first compressor section during compressor startup.
During startup, the first section will not have reached the design pressure ratio, and the density of
the gas that enters the second section will be less than the density for which the section is
designed. Although the second stage is pumping the expected volumetric flow, it is not pumping
away the expected mass flow rate. For this reason, volumetric flow through the first section is
less than expected, which results in a surge condition. If the surge in the first section is severe
enough to cause damage, a remotely operated valve (H) can be installed in a recycle around the
first section, as shown in Figure 18. During a startup, the remotely operated control valve is
opened to recycle the first section gas back to the suction. A recycle cooler cools the recycled
gas to prevent overheating in the first section. When the compressor is up to speed, the remotely
operated control valve is gradually closed, and it is then left closed during normal operation. In
multistage compressors that have a surge control valve for each section, the surge controller for
the first compressor section may have a manual function mode, which would eliminate the need
for a separate remotely operated control valve.

Figure 18. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor


with Remotely Operated Control on the First Section

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It is good engineering practice to require that all automatic anti-surge control systems be
equipped with a manual override.

System Arrangements

Multiple compressor systems are assembled with either series- or parallel-connected dynamic
compressors. Compressors that are connected in series provide the higher pressures that are
required in some petrochemical applications. Compressors that are connected in parallel provide
higher flow rates at the same pressure, and the configuration provides greater rangeability and
reliability.

The number of variables to be considered increases dramatically with the number of compressors
in the configuration. As previously mentioned in this module, compressor control and protection
systems for single compressors have two objectives: to provide stable control of the compressor
at all required operating conditions and to provide protection against operation in the surge area
of the performance curve. Multiple compressor systems have two more objectives: to balance
the load among dissimilar compressors and to safely start up and shut down the compressors.

Series

Several surge control system designs are available for compressors that are installed in series.
One design calls for a complete surge control system for each compressor or compressor section,
as shown in Figure 19. This system uses a constant pressure controller that senses the final
discharge header pressure and that controls the suction throttle valve to maintain capacity control.
The surge control system on the first compressor uses the discharge flow rate, the pressure, and
the temperature for a mass flow and discharge pressure system. The surge controller
measurement is a compensated flow signal, and the setpoint is a biased discharge pressure signal.
The first surge control valve releases to flare or recycles through a cooler (not shown) back to the
compressor suction. The second compressor surge control system uses an inlet flow and the
differential pressure across the compressor as variables to the surge controller. When the second
compressor surge control system actuates, the discharge from the second compressor is recycled
back to the compressor suction. Typical installations have the recycle line installed after the gas
cooler (not shown) and the return line connected upstream of the suction knockout drum (not
shown). This arrangement allows the gas and compressor temperature to be maintained by means
of a single heat exchanger. In some cases, a separate recycle heat exchanger (not shown) is used.
Each surge controller operates independently of the other; however, the action of each surge
controller will directly affect the operation of the other surge control system because the
parameters that are measured on the compressor systems are affected by each compressor’s
operation.

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Figure 19. Typical Surge Control System for Compressors in Series

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To minimize conflicting control problems, an integrated surge control system is used. Figure 20
shows a typical integrated surge control system for two compressors in series. Like the control
system that was shown in Figure 19, both compressors have an independent surge control system.
Both compressors that are shown in Figure 20 use compressor differential pressure and inlet flow
as process variables for the surge control system. Conflicting interaction between the two surge
control systems is minimized through transmission of the changes in output of any one surge
controller to the other surge controller. Each surge controller uses this information to protect its
own compressor (or section) from surge.

Figure 20. Integrated Surge Control System for Compressors in Series

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Parallel

When two or more centrifugal compressors operate in parallel and discharge into a common
header line, a method of controlling each compressor independently must be provided. Parallel
compressors should have identical characteristics, but the compressors that are purchased with the
same specification data usually will not have identical characteristics. Individual compressor
operating characteristics vary due to manufacturing and assembly tolerances, which would have
some effect on their individual performance; therefore, parallel operation should have a single
discharge pressure sensor in the common header and a flow sensing device for each compressor.
A single controller would receive the common pressure signal and the individual compressor flow
signals, and it would provide an output signal that would actuate the specific control element for
each compressor. Figure 21 shows a basic pressure control system for constant-speed
compressors that are arranged in parallel.

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Figure 21. Discharge Pressure Control of Constant-Speed


Parallel Compressors with Dissimilar Operating Characteristics

The most effective parallel compressor operating strategy is to simultaneously load and unload the
compressors equally as required. Simultaneous, equal loading and unloading will improve the
efficiency and rangeability of the parallel compressor configuration. In some installations, the
control system should be set up so that the compressors in the parallel system will sequentially
load and unload. When the control system is set up for sequential loading/unloading, the least
efficient compressor should be loaded last and unloaded first. The control system for
compressors in a parallel configuration should unload the compressors so that all compressors in
the parallel system will reach their control lines simultaneously.

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The surge control system for compressors that operate in parallel is more complex than the
system for compressors that operate in series. When two or more centrifugal compressors
operate in parallel, the greatest surge protection and efficiency results from all compressors
operating equidistant from their respective surge control lines. The compressor and
instrumentation industries have adopted a criterion to measure the angular distance between the
operating point and the surge control line. The criterion is known as the “S-Criterion.” The S
value is a dimensionless number that is relative. The absolute value of the number has, therefore,
no meaning; however, compressors that have the same S number will be operating equidistantly
from their respective surge lines. A surge control system that causes all of the S numbers to be
equal will, therefore, ensure that all compressors simultaneously approach the surge control line.

The S-Criterion can be calculated through use of the following equation:

∆pc + b
S=
∆po
Where:
∆pc = The differential pressure across the compressor

b = The surge margin

∆po = The differential pressure across the flow element

The S-Criterion will be less than 1 when the operating point is safely away from surge, and it will
be equal to 1 when the operating point is on the surge line control line. Figure 22 shows a parallel
compressor configuration with suction pressure control, load sharing control based on the
deviation of the compressor operating point from the surge control line (S - 1), and anti-surge
control. The anti-surge controllers calculate the S value for the compressors, and they monitor
the compressor parameters to detect the approach to surge condition. The two load-sharing
controllers, one for each compressor, perform a calculation to ensure that all compressors will
simultaneously reach their surge lines.

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Figure 22. Control System that Uses the


S-Criterion for Compressors in Parallel Configuration

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POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unlike centrifugal compressors, positive-displacement compressors cannot self-regulate capacity


against a given discharge pressure. A positive-displacement compressor will simply keep
displacing gas until indication is received to control it otherwise. Capacity control for positive-
displacement compressors is usually accomplished in steps, either automatically or manually,
through the use of suction valve unloaders, clearance pockets or slider valves, or a bypass valve.
These basic control system options for positive-displacement compressors are used to maintain
constant suction pressure, constant discharge pressure, or a desired flow rate through the
compressor.

The control systems that are selected for use are dependent upon the operating requirements of
the compressor. Suction valve unloading, which is the most commonly used, loads or unloads
cylinders. Clearance pockets are commonly used for small capacity adjustment of cylinders with
no power change; however, when clearance pockets are used, they reduce cylinder efficiency.
Bypass valves are useful in placing a compressor under load during a process system startup or
shutdown; however, because the energy of compression is wasted, bypass valves do not provide
an efficient method for loading or unloading a compressor. Bypass valves may be used in
conjunction with unloaders or clearance pockets to exactly obtain the desired capacity values.
Variable-speed control is not a preferred method for positive-displacement process compressors
because the use of variable-speed control may result in problems with valve design and rod
reversal. Variable-speed control for positive-displacement compressors will not be discussed in
this module.

Valve Unloading

Suction valve unloaders, as shown in Figure 23, are the most commonly used capacity control
device. An unloader holds the cylinder suction valve open during the suction and compression
piston strokes; so, suction gas is only pushed back and forth in the cylinder. The cylinder
continues to take in gas normally; however, instead of completing the normal cycle of
compression and discharge, the cylinder will simply pump the gas, still at suction pressure, back
into the suction chamber via the open pathway. No gas is discharged to the process.
Additionally, because there is no occurrence of compression, virtually no horsepower is consumed
other than through passageway losses.

Direct, manual operation of unloaders may be satisfactory for simple one- or two- cylinder
services in which the process does not require automatic control and in which sufficient time for
operation is available. When automatic control is required, the unloader is fitted with a piston or
diaphragm. A signal from a control device (either the air or the gas being processed) depresses
the diaphragm. The diaphragm is connected to fingers that open the suction valve.

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Figure 23. Suction Valve Unloader

All valve unloader types can be manually operated, or they can be actuated through use of a
pneumatic cylinder. When pneumatically actuated, these devices can be designed to load or
unload upon either application on removal of air pressure. The advantages of pneumatic
operation are the ability to remotely control the capacity of the compressor or even to automate
the control.

In applications that use cylinder lubrication, the unloaders are usually timed to prevent excessive
accumulation of lube oil in the cylinder. On double-acting cylinders, for example, after
approximately 30 minutes of operation, the head-end unloader will briefly close, and the crank-
end unloader will briefly open to drain excessive oil.

Finger-type unloaders are shown in Figure 24. There are three types of pneumatically operated
finger-type unloaders: (a) direct-acting (air-to-unload); (b) reverse-acting or fail-safe (air-to-load),
which automatically unloads the compressor in the event of control air failure; and (c) manual
operation.

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The finger-type unloaders consist of a series of small fingers that are housed in the valve crab
assembly and that are actuated through use of a push rod from an outside actuator. To unload the
valve, the fingers are lowered so that they depress the valve-sealing components and hold the
valve in the open position. The pathway between the cylinder bore and the gas passage is through
these open suction valves. Finger-type unloaders will typically be mounted on each suction valve
so that the flow area of the unloaded pathway is maximized. Also, because the fingers simply
hold open the existing suction valves, no special valve design is required. Actuation of finger-type
unloaders can be manual (through the use of a handwheel and screw or lever arrangement to
lower the fingers) or automatic (through the use of a small air cylinder on the top of the unloader
stem).

Figure 24. Finger-Type Unloaders

One of the major problems that is associated with finger-type unloaders is the potential for
damaging the valve-sealing elements with the fingers. The force that is generated by
pneumatically actuated fingers, as they are driven down against the valve-sealing components, can
contribute to premature valve failure.

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In accordance with SAES-K-403 and in order to minimize maintenance and to increase valve life,
reduced unloader pressure settings will be used whenever possible. Pressure settings must be
compatible with the ESD system set pressure, which is determined by the minimum acceptable
system pressure that is required for safe plant operation. Pressure settings must also provide
sufficient receiver storage capacity to allow startup of the standby compressor. Unloader controls
must be set to maintain a 100 kPa (ga; 15 psig) pressure differential from loading to unloading. If
air is used to operate the unloader, external operators with a vent chamber between the diaphragm
and the vent packing are mandatory for flammable gas service.

Manufacturers’ standard automatic control may be either on/off or step unloading. On/off control
is acceptable for small process air or gas compressors in intermittent service, but the driver must
be sized for frequent on-load starting. Automatic or manual step unloading may be accomplished
through the use of either suction valve unloaders, clearance pockets, or a combination of both.
Five-step unloading must provide capacities of 100 percent, 75 percent, 50 percent, 25 percent,
and 0 percent; three-step unloading must provide capacities of 100 percent, 50 percent, and 0
percent; and two-step unloading must provide capacities of 100 percent and 0 percent. If a
cylinder is unloaded to 0 percent, special precautions must be taken to prevent overheating in the
cylinder.

In general, suction valve unloading is an excellent method to control capacity. The devices are
simple and easy to maintain and operate. Suction valve unloaders are efficient, and they are very
good for startup unloading so that starting torque requirements are extremely low.

Clearance Pockets

Clearance pockets, which are shown in Figure 25, are pockets or reservoirs that are attached to
the cylinders. For reduced capacity operation, the clearance pocket valve is opened, and the
cylinder capacity is reduced by the effect of this added clearance on the volumetric efficiency. The
gas is compressed into the pockets on the compression stroke, and the gas expands into the
cylinder on the suction stroke to reduce the intake of additional gas. Clearance pockets provide
an additional volume to the fixed clearance volume of a cylinder. This additional volume reduces
the amount of gas that is introduced during the suction stroke of the piston. The reduction of the
amount of gas that is introduced results in a reduced capacity of the compressor.

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Figure 25. Clearance Pockets

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The gas in the volume at the end of the compression stroke is at the elevated discharge pressure.
During the suction stroke of the piston, the volume expands in the cylinder to a pressure that is
lower than the suction pressure to the particular cylinder. The expansion volume is constant for
any cylinder with a constant stroke length; therefore, if additional volume of high-pressure
clearance gas is available due to the clearance pocket, the pressure level of the expanded gas at
the end of the suction stroke will be higher. Higher pressure results in less suction pressure gas
being introduced into the cylinder and in a reduction in the compressor capacity.

The cylinder volume increased by the clearance pockets does not have an effect on the power that
is required for the compression stroke. The cylinder pressure at the beginning and end of the
compression stroke is the same, and the stroke volume remains unchanged. Clearance pockets
are usually of a fixed volume, and they are sized to reduce flow precisely to a predetermined level.
Typically, the use of multiple fixed-volume clearance pockets that allow for numerous reduced-
capacity steps of control are used.

In accordance with SAES-K-403, fixed-volume clearance pockets that allow the capacity to be
reduced through an increase of the clearance volume of the cylinders may be manually or
automatically operated. Variable volume pockets must not be used.

Bypass Operation

A bypass valve system places a bypass valve in a line from the compressor discharge back to the
compressor suction to route some or all of the compressor discharge to the suction. A bypass
valve may be used as the sole means of control, but it is usually employed in combination with
other control methods. The bypass valve controls capacity by directing the compressed gas back
to the compressor’s suction. Directing the compressed gas back to the compressor suction is
accomplished by piping from the compressor’s discharge line, through a control valve, back to the
compressor’s suction line. To reduce the flow to process, the bypass valve is opened, and the
excess flow is diverted back to the compressor’s suction. In addition to being simple, this system
also has the advantage of being infinitely controllable (within the limitation of the size of the
bypass line).

Use of the bypass valve for continuous capacity control requires that the bypass gas stream be
provided with a cooler to remove the heat of compression prior to returning to the suction. The
use of a bypass valve across the compressor is not as power-efficient as is the use of cylinder
unloading.

The most practical application for the bypass line is for small degrees of fine capacity control or
for limited duration start-up unloading, where a simple loop around the compressor can be
opened for a short period of time to relieve the initial compression load.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Typical positive-displacement compressor protection systems consist of relief valves, startup


bypass valves, and high process temperature indication and control. Individually or combined,
these protection devices help to ensure safe and reliable operation of the compressor system.

Relief Valve (Stage)

A relief valve (PZV) is an automatic pressure-relieving device that is actuated by the static
pressure upstream of the valve. When the static pressure upstream of the PZV exceeds its
allowable value by a specified amount, the PZV actuates to relieve the pressure. Conventional
PZVs are the most common, and they open fully when actuated. Pilot-operated PZVs are less
common, and they modulate when actuated.

In accordance with SAES-J-600, PZV(s) must be provided for positive-displacement compressors


where the pressure at a closed discharge can exceed safe limits. For positive-displacement
compressors, interstage PZVs, as well as discharge PZVs, must be provided. The pressure
setpoint must exceed the rated discharge pressure by 10 percent or 175 kPa (ga), whichever is
greater. For reciprocating compressors, a greater differential than 10 percent may be required due
to pressure surges. Interstage PZVs must be set at or above the compressor’s settling-out
pressure to avoid lifting at shutdown. In addition, the PZV capacity must equal compressor’s
capacity, and it must discharge to a safe area or flare and not to the compressor suction.

The relative setting of the relief valves in each stage of a typical three-stage reciprocating
compressor is basically the same. The stage discharge piping and components are protected from
overpressurization by the PZV, which is set at approximately 10% above the stage discharge
pressure.

Startup Bypass

In most instances, a reciprocating compressor must be unloaded for startup. Practically all
reciprocating compressors must be unloaded to some degree before starting so that the driver
torque that is available during acceleration is not exceeded. The need for an unloaded startup is
required because starting a positive-displacement compressor fully loaded can have a 3:1 peak-to-
mean torque ratio. This peak torque requirement, coupled with breakaway friction, means that
the driver now must have as much as a 350 percent starting torque capability. Typical motors are
designed to have only 40 to 60 percent starting torque capability.

Both manual and automatic compressor startup unloading is used. Common methods of
unloading during startup include discharge venting, discharge to suction bypass, and cylinder
unloading.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

High Process Temperature

In accordance with 31-SAMSS-002, the high temperature shutdown device is required to safely
shut down the compressor. At a minimum, a high temperature shutdown device must be installed
in the final stage discharge gas stream, and a high temperature shutdown device must be installed
downstream of the aftercooler. Additional high temperature shutdown devices may be installed
for high lube oil temperature. On some compressors, a temperature switch may be unsuitable due
to high vibration levels at or near the cylinder head. Thermocouples or RTDs should be used as a
means of temperature measurement.

API-618 specifies that the maximum discharge temperature of 300°F can be exceeded for
compressors with non-lubricated cylinders. Temperature control for non-lubricated compressors
must comply with the requirements of 31-SAMSS-002. Note that SAES-K-403 requires that
compressors used in hydrogen service limit discharge temperature to 275°F (135°C).

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Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Operation Of Compressor
Control And Protection Systems

GLOSSARY

aftercooler Heat exchanger for cooling air or gas discharged from compressors.
Aftercoolers also provide a means of removing moisture from
compressed air and gases.

actual capacity Quantity of gas actually compressed and under actual pressure and
temperature conditions.

clearance pocket An auxiliary volume that may be opened to the clearance space to
increase the clearance, usually temporarily, to reduce the volumetric
efficiency and, therefore, actual capacity of the compressor.

guide vane A stationary element, which may be adjustable, that directs the gas to
the inlet of a compressor impeller or blade.

intercooler Heat exchanger for removing the heat of compression between stages
of a compressor.

modulation Manipulation of one variable (the manipulated variable) in order to


control another variable (the control variable).

performance curve A plot of expected operating characteristics, such as head or discharge


pressure versus inlet capacity.

stonewall A point of maximum flow and minimum head or discharge pressure on


a dynamic compressor operating curve and beyond which a reduction
in process resistance will not increase gas flow rate.

surge limit The volume flow below which dynamic compressor operation
becomes unstable.

throttling Manipulating a variable to a higher or lower value.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 49

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