REVISE EDEXCEL GCSE

Science

REVISION GUIDE
Higher
Series Consultant: Harry Smith Authors: Penny Johnson, Sue Kearsey,
Series Editor: Penny Johnson Damian Riddle

THE REVISE EDEXCEL SERIES

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A01_SCIH_REV_GCSE_2615_PRE.indd 1 7/6/12 08:33:16

 Contents
BIOLOGY
3 Classification
4 Vertebrates and invertebrates
5 Species
6 Binomial classification
7 Reasons for variety
8 Evolution
9 Genes
10 Explaining inheritance
11 Genetic disorders
12 Biology extended writing 1
13 Biology extended writing 2
14 Homeostasis
15 Sensitivity
16 Responding to stimuli
17 Hormones
18 Diabetes
19 Plant hormones
20 Uses of plant hormones
21 Biology extended writing 3
22 Effects of drugs
23 Effects of alcohol
24 Ethics and transplants
25 Pathogens and infection
26 Antiseptics and antibiotics
27 Interdependence and food webs
28 Parasites and mutualists
29 Pollution
30 Pollution indicators
31 The carbon cycle
32 The nitrogen cycle
33 Biology extended writing 4
34 Biology extended writing 5
CHEMISTRY
35 The early atmosphere
36 A changing atmosphere
37 Rocks and their formation
38 Limestone and its uses
39 Formulae and equations
40 Chemical reactions
41 Reactions of calcium compounds
42 Chemistry extended writing 1
43 Indigestion
44 Neutralisation
45 The importance of chlorine
46 The electrolysis of water
47 Ores
48 Oxidation and reduction
49 Recycling metals
50 Alloys
51 Chemistry extended writing 2
52 Chemistry extended writing 3
53 Crude oil
54 Crude oil fractions
55 Combustion
56 Incomplete combustion
57 Acid rain
58 Climate change
59 Biofuels
60 Choosing fuels
61 Alkanes and alkenes
62 Cracking
63 Polymerisation
A01_SCIH_REV_GCSE_2615_PRE.indd 2
64 Problems with polymers
65 Chemistry extended writing 4
66 Chemistry extended writing 5
PHYSICS
67 The Solar System
68 Reflection and refraction
69 Telescopes
70 Waves
71 Wave equations
72 Beyond the visible
73 The electromagnetic spectrum
74 Dangers and uses
75 Ionising radiation
76 Physics extended writing 1
77 The Universe
78 Exploring the Universe
79 Alien life?
80 Life cycles of stars
81 Theories about the Universe
82 Infrasound
83 Ultrasound
84 Seismic waves
85 Predicting earthquakes
86 Physics extended writing 2
87 Physics extended writing 3
88 Renewable resources
89 Non-renewable resources
90 Generating electricity
91 Transmitting electricity
92 Electrical power
93 Paying for electricity
94 Reducing energy use
95 Energy transfers
96 Efficiency
97 The Earth’s temperature
98 Physics extended writing 4
99 Physics extended writing 5
100 Practical work 1
101 Practical work 2
102 Final comments
103 Answers
110 Extended writing answers
A small bit of small print
Target grade ranges are quoted in this book for
some of the questions. Students targeting this
grade range should be aiming to get most of the
marks available. Students targeting a higher grade
should be aiming to get all of the marks available.
Edexcel publishes Sample Assessment Material and
the Specification on its website. This is the official
content and this book should be used in conjunction
with it. The questions in Now try this have been
written to help you practise every topic in the book.
Remember: the real exam questions may not look
like this.
7/6/12 08:33:16
 BIOLOGY

Classification
Classification groups
Classification means grouping things by their features A mnemonic like this can
or characteristics. The more characteristics that are help you remember the
used to group similar organisms together, the more groups in the right order:
reliable is the classification. Keep Pond Clean Or
Small groups that are similar can be grouped into Frogs Get Sick.
larger groups. Kingdoms are the largest groups in
classifying organisms, and species are the smallest.
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Group of Group of Group of Group of Group of Group of Organisms that
similar similar similar similar similar similar have most
phyla classes orders families genera species characteristics
e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. in common
Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Canidae Canis e.g. Canis lupus
(dog family) (domesticated dog)

The five kingdoms of organisms

Animalia (animals) Plantae (plants)
• multicellular (body made of • multicellular
many cells) • have cell walls
• have no cell walls • have chlorophyll
• no chlorophyll in cells • feed autotrophically (make own food)
• feed heterotrophically
Protoctista
(eat other organisms)
• mostly unicellular (body is
Fungi a single cell)
• multicellular • nucleus in cell
• have cell walls Prokaryotae (mostly bacteria)
• no chlorophyll • unicellular
• feed saprophytically (digest food • no nucleus in cell
outside the body)

nucleus
Viruses are not classified in a kingdom. 1. Paramecium is a
Explain why. target microscopic pond
organism. Identify which
They are not classified because D-C kingdom it belongs in and explain your
most scientists think that viruses are answer. (2 marks)
not living organisms. This is because: 2. The common frog and viper (snake) are
• They have to use other cells to target grouped in the phylum Chordata. The viper
reproduce. and chameleon are grouped in the class
• They show no other life processes
D-B Reptilia. Identify whether the frog or the
chameleon shares more characteristics with
(for example, growth). the viper. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Vertebrates and invertebrates

The phylum Chordata contains animals
that have a supporting rod running the
length of their body. Many animals in the
Chordata are vertebrates (animals with
backbones).
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. Make sure
that you say ‘backbone’ rather than ‘spinal cord’,
which is the nervous tissue inside the backbone.
Students have struggled with this
topic in recent exams – be prepared!

Vertebrate groups
Scientists sort vertebrates into five main groups.
oxygen absorbtion reproduction
inside blue area: use gills inside pink area: young born
inside green area: use lungs live (viviparous)
(note: young amphibians use gills, outside pink area: lay eggs
but adult amphibians use lungs) (oviparous)

thermoregulation
inside purple area: control
fertilisation own body temperature
inside yellow area: (homeotherm)
inside female's body outside purple area: body
(internal) temperature varies with
outside yellow area: environment temperature
outside female's body (poikilotherm)
(external)

Organisms that
Bats and birds are vertebrates with wings, but they are classified in live in similar ways
different vertebrate groups. Use these examples to help explain why it is often have similar
sometimes difficult to classify vertebrates. characteristics as a
Bats and birds both have wings and can fly, so if you only result of adaptation
looked at these characteristics you would put them in the same to their environment.
vertebrate group. Both bats and birds absorb oxygen through It can be easy
their lungs and they are homeothermic. But other characteristics to confuse these
show that they are very different and should be classified in characteristics with
different groups. Bats are mammals because they give birth to those shared as a
live young. Birds have feathers and lay hard-shelled eggs (this is result of evolution.
called oviparous).

1. Birds and reptiles belong to two different classes of vertebrates.

target
(a) Give two key characteristics that the birds and reptiles share. (2 marks)
D-C (b) Give one characteristic that is used to separate the reptile and bird classes. (1 mark)
2. Sharks and dolphins are marine predators that
target look similar. Sharks are classified as fish and
dolphins as mammals. Explain why they are
C-A not classified in the same class even though
dolphin shark
they look similar. (3 marks)
4

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 BIOLOGY

Species
Defining ‘species’ Problem 1: Some species reproduce
or by
asexually from parts of their body
A species is a group of organisms that can dividing in two. If we do not see two
breed with each other and produce fertile cannot
organisms breeding together we
offspring. cie s.
be sure if they are the same spe
A few species can interbreed (breed with
other species) to produce hybrid offspring,
closely
but often these hybrids are sterile (cannot Problem 2: Some organisms from
produce offspring). related species can interbreed and
fertile.
produce hybrid offspring that are

Constructing and using keys

A key based on obvious characteristics can help identify
different species. This is a key for some big cats.
1 Has no spots? go to 2 To construct a key,
Has a spotted coat? go to 4 start by separating
2 Has stripes? tiger the organisms into
Has no stripes? groups using obvious
go to 3
characteristics.
3 Has ring of dark fur round nose and mouth? puma Continue separating
Has no ring of dark fur? lion each group into
4 Has simple spots of same size all over? cheetah smaller groups by their
Has rosettes (patterns of spots)? go to 5 characteristics until you
have only one organism
5 Rosettes have small dots inside? jaguar in each group.
Rosettes have no dots inside? leopard

Explain how scientists share and validate new discoveries.

They write a paper and send it to a scientific journal. The paper is checked first
by other scientists to see that it is good enough to publish. This is called a peer
review. They could also present their discovery to other scientists at a conference.
When other scientists hear about the discovery, they will check it by repeating the
experiments. If they get the same results, then the discovery is validated.

1. Explain the meaning of these 2. Construct a key to identify these four animals. (4 marks)
target words:
D-B (a) fertile
(b) hybrid
(c) species. (3 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Binomial classification
Every species has a unique binomial name, Binomial names are useful because
for example the African lion is Panthera leo. • other people know exactly which species
you mean
Panthera leo
• you can see from the genus which
genus name: species name: species are very closely related
shared with very unique to
similar species African lion • it helps us identify which environments
contain the fewest species (low
The leopard ( Panthera pardus ) and the tiger (Panthera biodiversity) that are most at risk of
tigris ) are closely related to the lion so have the extinction and need the most protection
same genus name. The cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) and and conservation.
snow leopard (Uncia uncia) are NOT closely related to
the lion, so are placed in different genera.

Classification complications
Classifying an organism within a particular species may not be easy.
characteristics of hybrid duck
pochard head shape and white tail flash
from ferruginous duck parent

coloured eye and

pale flank from
pochard parent

This hybrid is fertile and could breed

with either species or with another
characteristics of hybrid. This results in individuals with
ferruginous duck a range of characteristics.
Dogs show a wide range
of variation but all belong Duck species will occasionally interbreed to
to one species. produce individuals with a range of characteristics.

The European herring gull and lesser East Siberian

herring gull Birula’s gull
black-backed gull rarely interbreed,
even where they nest together. So American
we say they are different species. herring Heuglin’s gull
But they are the ends of a ring gull
species of gulls that surrounds the
North Pole. Neighbouring ‘species’
of gulls in the ring interbreed Siberian lesser
black-backed gull
frequently, producing a continuous
range of characteristics from one
European lesser black-
end of the ring to the other. backed gull
herring gull

1. Look at the artwork of the hybrid duck above.

target (a) Suggest why, on first sight, this might be classified as a new species. (2 marks)
D-A (b) Give two reasons why it is not classified as a separate species.
(c) Explain why it is difficult to classify some duck species as separate species.
(2 marks)
(2 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Reasons for variety

Different species are adapted to living in different environments. Organisms that live in
extreme environments need special adaptations.
Deep-sea hydrothermal vent organisms Polar organisms
Environment Adaptations Environment Adaptations
little light no eyes white snow and ice white fur for camouflage
extremely hot water sense organs that very cold in winter to reduce the amount of heat leaving
detect dangerously the body organisms may have:
high temperatures • thick fur
acidic water, at high soft parts • extra fat below skin
pressure and full of strengthened by iron • bulky body
minerals scales • small ears
low oxygen haemoglobin to help slippery ice wide feet with rough soles to help
concentration in water take oxygen from water grip the ice

Types of variation
Discontinuous variation that is
Characteristics controlled by genes (genetic
An acquired characteristic is one
variation), e.g. blood group, gender. changed by the environment.
racteristic
Continuous variation is where a cha
ween
50 varies gradually and continuously bet
% of population

40 extremes, e.g. height or weight.

bell shape,
30
A normal distribution curve has a
iation lies
20
showing that the most common var
individuals
10 between two extremes, with fewer
to eac h
0
O A B AB having variations that are near
Human blood group extreme.

Describe the type of variation shown in this graph, and explain why
Number of individuals

it shows an acquired characteristic. 6

5
The graph shows continuous variation in height between 4
4 cm and 8 cm. This bell shape is called a normal distribution 3
curve, which shows that the most common height is 2
between 5 and 6 cm, and that the frequency of each height 1
group decreases from the most common group to the 0
extremes of the range. Height is an acquired characteristic 2 4 6 8
Length of longest finger (cm)
because it is affected by differences in the environment.

1. Arctic foxes have thick fur and are white in winter. Explain how these characteristics
target are adaptations to its environment. (2 marks)
D-B 2. Write your own definitions for these terms: (a) discontinuous variation
(b) acquired characteristic (c) normal distribution curve. (3 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Evolution
Natural selection
Individuals of a species show variation. This can Being ‘better adapted’ means
mean that some individuals will be better able to being better able to survive,
survive in their environment and produce more such as surviving the climate,
healthy offspring than others. This is natural competing more successfully
selection, where the environment (including climate for a limited amount of food, or
and other organisms) selects which individuals pass escaping from predation.
on their genes to the next generation.
Adults usually Some individuals have inherited Individuals with
produce more advantageous variations in advantageous More individuals
young than the characteristics that are better variations will pass will have these
environment can adapted to the environment. their genes on to advantageous
support when they These individuals will have a better their young. The variations in the
are adults chance of survival to adulthood. young may inherit next generation.
(overproduction). the advantageous
This produces a Individuals with variations that are variations.
'struggle for not as well adapted to the
existence' by the environment will be less likely to These individuals will
young. survive. not produce young.

Evolution
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) suggested that if the environment changes, natural selection
will result in characteristics of a species changing gradually from generation to generation.
This change is called evolution. New evidence supports Darwin’s theory.
DNA 98% DNA 92%
similar similar
before antibiotic after DNA 98% DNA 92%
Increasing similar similar
before antibiotic after
antibiotic
Increasing
resitance in
antibiotic
bacterial
resitance in
population
bacterial
The antibiotic kills all but the most population Organisms that are more
resistant bacteria. So only these closely related share a greater
The antibiotic kills all to
butreproduce.
the most Organisms that
of are more
bacteria survive proportion similar DNA.
resistant bacteria. So only these closely related share a greater
bacteria survive to reproduce. proportion of similar DNA.

Explain how geographical isolation could result in the 1. Describe the difference
evolution of new species. target and link between natural
Some individuals get separated from the rest of D-B selection and evolution.
the population (e.g. on a different island). (4 marks)
Different conditions in the new place will select 2. Explain how a similarity
for different variations. target in DNA between species
Evolution by natural selection will change the C-A provides evidence for
evolution. (2 marks)
characteristics of the individuals in the new place.
Eventually the individuals in the new place may
change so much that they could not breed with
the rest of the species if they were together.
So they would be a new species.
8

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 BIOLOGY

Genes
Inside a cell There are two copies of each chromosome in
cell body cells – each copy has the same genes
in the same order along its length (except
chromosomes that determine sex).

A gene is a short piece of DNA at a

particular point on a chromosome – a gene
codes for a characteristic, e.g. eye colour.

A gene may come in different forms, called

Most cells contain a nucleus in alleles, that produce different variations of
which there are chromosomes. the characteristic, e.g. different eye colours.

Alleles
chromosomes of the same
type are the same size and
have the same genes in the Be careful not to confuse the
same order meanings of heterozygous and
different alleles of homozygous.
the same gene – the these genes have the same
person is heterozygous allele on both chromosomes Students have
– the person is homozygous struggled with this
for this gene
for these genes topic in recent exams – be prepared!

Genetic definitions
The gene for coat colour in rabbits has different alleles. The allele for brown colour (B) is
dominant over the allele for black colour (b). The table shows all the possible genotypes
and phenotypes for these alleles.
Genotype shows the alleles Phenotype means the
(forms of the genes) in characteristics that are
the individual. Remember Genotype Phenotype produced, including what
that each body cell has BB brown coat the individual looks like.
two genes for each
Bb brown coat The effect of the
characteristic – either two dominant allele will show
alleles that are the same or bb black coat when at least one copy is
two that are different. present in the genotype.
The effect of the recessive allele
stronger
A dominant allele is not bigger or will only show when two copies are
t because
than a recessive allele. It is dominan present in the genotype.
istic even
you see its effect on the character
if you only have one copy of it.

1. Distinguish between the terms chromosome, gene and allele. (3 marks)

target
D-B 2. A pea plant has a recessive allele for white flower colour and a dominant allele
for purple flower colour.
(a) Identify if the plant is homozygous or heterozygous for flower colour, and
explain your answer. (2 marks)
(b) State the phenotype of the plant for flower colour. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Explaining inheritance
Monohybrid inheritance
Sometimes a characteristic is controlled by a single gene. This is called monohybrid
inheritance. We can use a genetic diagram to help us understand how alleles are inherited.
Body cells contain two alleles for each gene. Both parent plants are heterozygous –
they have one allele for purple flower colour and one allele for white flower colour.
Purple colour
R r R r is dominant (R).
parent plants
White colour
pollen grains egg cells is recessive (r).
different possible Half the gametes
R r R r contain one allele.
gametes
The other half
possible contain the other
combinations allele.
genotype RR Rr Rr rr
phenotype

A Punnett square is a
different way of showing
Green seed pod (G) is dominant to yellow seed pod (g). the same information
Complete the Punnett square to show the possible offspring for about how genotype is
plants heterozygous for seed pod colour, and calculate the inherited and what effect
(a) ratio, (b) probability and (c) percentage of possible this has on the phenotype.
offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
parent genotype Gg
parent gametes G g Genetic diagrams and Punnett
parent G GG green Gg green squares only show possible
genotype Gg g Gg green gg yellow offspring, not the actual
offspring from these parents.
(a) Genotype 1 GG : 2 Gg : 1gg
Phenotype 3 green : 1 yellow
(b) Genotype 1/4 (1 out of 4) GG, 2/4 (1/2) Gg, and 1/4 gg
Phenotype 3/4 green and 1/4 yellow pods
Take great care to complete the square
(c) Genotype 25% GG, 50% Gg, 25% gg correctly. Make sure you use the right
Phenotype 75% green and 25% yellow letters.
Students have
struggled with questions
similar to this – be prepared!

1. A heterozygous rabbit with a brown coat was bred with a rabbit with a black coat
target (homozygous recessive). The four baby rabbits were all black.
C-A (a) Use a diagram to calculate the predicted outcome of this cross. (3 marks)
(b) Comment on the difference between this and the actual outcome. (2 marks)
10

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 BIOLOGY

Genetic disorders
Some genes have faulty alleles that cause health problems. These are genetic disorders.

Sickle cell disease Cystic fibrosis

Caused by having two copies of a
recessive allele for the haemoglobin gene,
which causes red blood cells to become
sickle-shaped. People with the disease:
• become short of breath and tire easily
• have painful joints if red blood cells get
stuck in capillaries
• have reduced blood flow if red blood
cells block a blood vessel, which may
cause damage to body tissues, heart
attack, stroke or even death.
Caused by having two copies of a
recessive allele for a cell membrane
protein. This makes the mucus that
lines tubes in the lungs and other
parts of the body much thicker and
stickier than normal. This can:
• increase the risk of lung infections
• prevent enzymes getting into the
digestive system to break down
food, which can lead to weight
loss.

Family pedigrees
A family pedigree is a diagram that shows the inheritance of a characteristic in a family.
Pedigree analysis can help us predict the chance that someone has inherited a particular allele.
Ethan inherited his alleles from Arun and Beth. But they don't have the disease, so they must
both be carriers (have one copy of the faulty allele).
Arun Beth
Key
male, runny mucus
Three
generations are Cal Diane Ethan Gill Harry male, cystic fibrosis
shown in this
pedigree. Arun and female, runny mucus
Beth are the
oldest generation. Ian Jo Laurie Mia female, cystic fibrosis

Ethan and Mia must have two copies of the recessive allele, as they have the disease.

Evaluating risks
We can use pedigrees to evaluate the risk of inheriting a disease. In the pedigree above,
Laurie’s parents must both be carriers of the CF allele. So Laurie may be a carrier or
homozygous for the non-CF allele. If there is no history of CF in her partner’s family, the
chance that he is a carrier is small. So the risk of any of their children inheriting CF is
very small.

1. People with cystic fibrosis need 2. After a pedigree analysis, some people
target frequent doses of antibiotics for lung target have their DNA tested for the allele
D-A infections. Explain why. (4 marks) C-A they are worried about. Describe
the limitations of pedigree analysis
compared with DNA testing. (3 marks)

11

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 BIOLOGY

Biology extended writing 1

To answer an extended writing question successfully you need to:
✓ Use your scientific knowledge to answer the question
✓ Organise your answer so that it is logical and well ordered
✓ Use full sentences in your writing and make sure that your spelling, punctuation
and grammar are correct.

Scientists do not always agree on the best way to classify organisms. One thing they do agree on is that
animals can be described as vertebrates or invertebrates, depending on whether they have a backbone or
not. Vertebrates can then be divided up again into different classes.
Describe how scientists have divided vertebrates into different groups. (6 marks)

Sample answer 1
Lots of animals are vertebrates. This includes mammals, birds, reptiles and fish. But all
these types of vertebrate are different – for example, mammals are warm-blooded, but
reptiles are cold-blooded. Also, mammals usually give birth to living babies, but other
vertebrates usually lay eggs.

This is a basic answer, although there are some good parts to it. It mentions several
types of vertebrate, and includes two ways in which they have been classified. However,
it doesn’t give very much detail. Also, it does not always use the correct scientific
terms, such as homeotherm and poikilotherm. To improve this answer, more could be said
about the way in which the organism takes in oxygen, or how its eggs are fertilised.

Sample answer 2
Scientists classify vertebrates by the methods used to reproduce, to get oxygen and
to control their body temperature. Most vertebrates reproduce by laying eggs, but
most mammals give birth to live young. Vertebrates get their oxygen through either
lungs or gills. Vertebrates that live in water – like fish – have gills, but other vertebrates
all have lungs. Mammals and birds can both control their own body temperature – they
are homeotherms. Other vertebrates, like reptiles and fish are poikilotherms. But there
are exceptions. For example, the duck-billed platypus is a mammal but it lays eggs.

This is an excellent answer. It covers the three main ways in which scientists have
classified vertebrates. It is also good because it includes an example to show that
classification does not always work.

1. Explain how the binomial system of classification helps us to classify organisms accurately
and how classification helps to conserve the biodiversity of animal life. (6 marks)

12

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 BIOLOGY

Biology extended writing 2

David and Emily are a couple. They are both heterozygous for cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder. They
decide they would like to start a family and go to their doctor to ask advice.
Discuss how the doctor would use genetics to help David and Emily make decisions about having
children. (6 marks)

Sample answer 1
David and Emily both carry the cystic fibrosis gene – they are both Cc. If they have a
child, there is a chance that it would have cystic fibrosis. The doctor might tell them not
to have a child if it is going to be ill.

This is a basic answer. It doesn’t use correct scientific words properly. A better answer
would show a calculation of the probability of having a child with cystic fibrosis. To
answer the question fully, more information should be given about the advice the doctor
might give.

Both parents carry one cystic fibrosis allele and one ‘normal’ allele. Their genotype is
Cc. The doctor may use a Punnett square to show them the probability of them having a
child with CF. In this case, the chance is 25% – if both parents pass on the CF allele to
the child. We can see this from the Punnett square.
The doctor will tell them that there is a 1 in 4 chance of them having a child with CF.
The doctor will explain what this means in terms of the risk of having a child with CF. He
can help them to decide whether to go ahead with having a child.

This is a very good answer. It shows the probability of the child inheriting CF. It could
be improved by drawing a Punnett square which will help explain how the calculation was
done.

1. Dora was investigating the heights of the people in her class. She Check carefully what the
measured the height of all 30 people in her class. She recorded the question is asking you
measurements in a tally chart. to do – in this case,
Height range 145– 150– 155– 160– 165– 170– 175– it’s to look at types of
(cm) 149 154 159 164 169 174 180 variation (genetic or
Number of people 1 2 7 10 6 3 1 environmental) and say
how they contribute to
Comment on the pattern in the data and explain how different types
the pattern in the data.
of variation may have produced this pattern of data. (6 marks)

13

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 BIOLOGY

Homeostasis
Homeostasis maintains some conditions inside the body at a constant level. Negative
feedback mechanisms respond to a change in a condition to help bring the condition back
to the normal level.

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation controls how much water is lost in urine, and so controls the amount of
water in the body.
Your body The brain detects change
gains water and causes more water to
be excreted in urine. lots of
from food too much watery urine
and drink. ! water in
normal normal
body
water water
content too little content
in body !
water in in body
Your body loses body The brain detects change
water when small amount of
and causes less water to concentrated
breathing out, in be excreted in urine.
sweat, and in urine. urine

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation keeps core body temperature steady at around 37 °C. This is important
because enzymes in the main organs are most active at this temperature.
body tempera- hypothalamus • vasodilation so more blood flows more heat
ture rises due to in brain near skin surface transferred to
hot environment detects rise • sweat glands release more sweat environment –
or exercise and causes onto skin surface to evaporate body
body • sebaceous glands produce oil that temperature
responses helps sweat spread out over skin falls

body tempera- hypothalamus • vasoconstriction so less blood flows less heat

ture falls due to detects fall near skin surface transferred to
cold environment and causes • sweat glands stop producing sweat environment –
body • body hairs raised by erector muscles body
responses in skin (causing 'goosebumps') temperature
rises

1. Explain why it is important for the (b) Describe and explain what effect
target
enzymes in our bodies that our internal this has on body temperature.
D-B temperature is fairly constant. (2 marks) (2 marks)
2. A pale-skinned person may look pink 3. Describe osmoregulation in terms of a
after exercise. target negative feedback system. (3 marks)
(a) Identify what causes this C-A
change. (1 mark)

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 BIOLOGY

Sensitivity
The human nervous system includes…
• the central nervous system – brain and spinal cord, Watch out! Don’t confuse
the spine, which is the bony
• the sense organs, such as the eyes and ears, which
structure in your back, with
contain receptors that can detect a change in the
the spinal cord, which is made
environment (called a stimulus) and produce an
of nerves. The spinal cord lies
electrical impulse,
inside the spine for protection.
• the nerves that join the central nervous system to
the sense organs and effector organs – these are
made up of bundles of nerve cells, or neurones.

Types of neurones
There are three main types of neurones. Sensory neurones carry impulses to the central
nervous system. Motor neurones carry impulses from the central nervous system to
effector organs. Relay neurones are found only in the central nervous system.
Sensory neurone Relay neurone
axon endings
cell body pass impulses
skin receptor cells direction to other neurones
of impulse

dendron fatty myelin

dendrites collect axon sheath
impulses from
receptor cells.

Explain how the structure of dendrons and axons is
related to their function of carrying nerve impulses.
ut nerves
You will get no marks for writing abo
ays use the
carrying messages. You should alw
term ‘nerve impulses’ instead.
The long dendron carries the nerve
impulse from receptor cells. The
long axon carries the nerve impulse
to other neurones. The fatty myelin
sheath insulates the neurone, so
that the electrical impulse is carried
quickly to the end of the axon.

1. Compare the roles of sensory, motor 2. Explain how the structure of a

target target
and relay neurones in the nervous sensory neurone is related to its
D-C system. (3 marks) C-A function. (2 marks)

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 BIOLOGY

Responding to stimuli
Some parts of the skin are more sensitive than others. This can be tested by touching
different parts of the skin with two points and finding out how far apart the points have to
be so that they can be detected as two points instead of just one.
Synapses (1) Electrical nerve (2) Electrical impulse
impulse reaches end causes chemical
The point where two of axon. neurotransmitter to
neurones meet is called be released into gap
a synapse. There is a between neurones.
small gap between the synapse
neurones. The electrical
nerve impulse cannot (3) Neurotransmitter
cross this gap, and the impulse is causes new electrical
carried by neurotransmitters. impulse in next
neurone.

The reflex arc

A reflex arc is the simplest neurone pathway from a
receptor cell to an effector organ.

The diagram shows a reflex arc.

(a) Identify structures A, B and C in the diagram. A
spinal
(b) Explain how this reflex helps survival. cord

(a) A: sensory neurone, B: relay neurone, C: C

motor neurone. B
biceps muscle
(b) The small number of neurones in the reflex
arc makes the response very fast, so you will heat receptor
in the skin
quickly move your hand away from the flame.
This helps survival because it reduces
the risk of being burnt.

The knee-jerk reflex arc contains
only two neurones, but most
contain at least three neurones.
Make sure you follow the command word. For example,
here, it asks you to ‘explain’. This means that you will
often need to use the word ‘because’ in your answer.
Students have struggled with questions
similar to this – be prepared!

target
1. Explain why the nervous system target
2. Explain how a reflex arc allows us to
includes chemical neurotransmitters. detect a stimulus and then respond.
D-B (2 marks) C-A (3 marks)

16

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 BIOLOGY

Hormones
Hormones are ‘chemical messengers’. They are
produced by endocrine glands and released
into the blood. They travel around the body in Nerves and hormones both
the blood until they reach their target organs. help us to respond to changes
The hormone then causes the target organ to in the environment and in our
respond, e.g. by releasing another chemical. bodies. Remember: nerve
impulses are electrical signals
Different hormones have different target organs
in neurones, hormones are
and cause different responses.
chemicals carried in the blood.

Blood glucose regulation

Blood glucose regulation is another example ydrate)
Watch out! Glycogen (the carboh
of homeostasis. It is controlled by two similar,
and glucagon (the hormone) look
hormones: insulin and glucagon. in an
but you must use the right word
answer to get the marks.

pancreas pancreas insulin causes

detects rise in increases muscle and liver
blood glucose blood glucose secretion of cells to remove
concentration concentration insulin and glucose from blood glucose
rises, e.g. decreases blood and store it concentration falls
after meal secretion of as glycogen
normal blood glucagon normal blood
glucose range glucose range

blood glucose glucagon causes

concentration falls, pancreas detects pancreas decreases liver cells to blood glucose
e.g. after exercise fall in blood secretion of insulin convert concentration
glucose and increases glycogen to rises
concentration secretion of glucose and
glucagon release it into
the blood

1. Name the endocrine gland that secretes (a) There is a rise in blood glucose
target glucagon, and the target organ that the concentration. (2 marks)
E-D hormone affects. (2 marks) (b) There is a fall in blood glucose
concentration. (2 marks)
2. For each of the following, suggest
target 3. The control of blood glucose
two possible reasons why they have target concentration is an example of negative
D-B happened.
C-A feedback. Explain why. (2 marks)

17

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 BIOLOGY

Diabetes
A person who cannot control their blood glucose
concentration properly has a condition known as diabetes. Glucose is used by
There are two main types of diabetes. cells during exercise, so
less insulin is needed
Type 1 diabetes then. The more sugar
People with Type 1 diabetes do not produce any insulin in their there is in a meal, the
pancreas and so have to inject insulin into subcutaneous fat (the more glucose enters
fat just below the skin). They have to work out the right amount the blood and the more
of insulin to inject so that blood glucose concentration is kept insulin is needed.
within safe limits.

Type 2 diabetes BMI and Type 2 diabetes

People with Type 2 diabetes make Body mass index (BMI) is calculated using
insulin, but their liver and muscle cells this equation:
have become resistant to it (they don’t weight in kilograms
respond to it properly). Most people BMI = __________________
(height in metres)2
with Type 2 diabetes control their blood
People who have a BMI over 30 are said
glucose concentration by:
to be obese. Obesity is linked with many
• eating foods that contain less sugar health problems, including Type 2 diabetes.
• exercising.

Use the graph to evaluate the correlation between obesity The risk of
and Type 2 diabetes. developing Type 2
100 diabetes increases
% who develop Type 2

Men as BMI increases. It

75 Women Sample sizes increases faster for
diabetes

50 men: 51 529 women than for men.

women: 114 281
25 The large sample
sizes and the smooth
0 curves suggest
<22 <23 23 – 24 – 25 – 27 – 29 – 31 – 33 – 35�
23.9 24.9 26.9 28.9 30.9 32.9 34.9 that this is a strong
Body mass index (kg/m2) correlation.

target 1. Tom is 1.8 m tall and weighs 100 kg. target 3. Many health professionals advise that
Calculate his BMI and say whether or weight control is needed to prevent
D-C not he is obese. (3 marks) B-A* a huge increase in cases of diabetes
over the next decade or two. Evaluate
2. Explain why exercise is recommended this advice. (4 marks)
target for people with diabetes. (3 marks)
D-B
18

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 BIOLOGY

Plant hormones
Tropisms Plant hormones
A tropism is a plant’s response to a Plant hormones or plant growth substances
stimulus (a change in the environment) by are chemicals that cause changes in plants.
growing. A positive tropism is when the • Auxins make cells grow longer.
plant grows towards the stimulus. • Gibberellins can make plant shoots
• Plant shoots show positive grow longer. They also control when
phototropism because they grow seeds germinate.
towards light.
• Plant roots show positive gravitropism
because they grow downwards
– towards the pull of gravity.
(Gravitropism is also called geotropism.) You should describe the effect of light on auxin,
and how this affects cell elongation, not just link
the direction of light to the curvature of the shoot.
Students have struggled with this
Auxins and tropisms topic in recent exams – be prepared!

Auxins are affected by light

and cause phototropism in auxin is produced auxins move to shaded shaded side of shoot
in cells near the top part of shoot
shoots. In a shoot, where auxins
of a shoot cause cell
light is coming from
elongation
one side:
light

lit side
of shoot

The graph shows the results of an investigation on the effect of gibberellin on shoot growth. Describe the
trends shown by the graph, and comment on how reliable these results are.

80
Growth increases with increasing
Average growth (cm)

gibberellin up to a maximum of
60 about 1 microgram. Beyond this,
Each point is an
adding more gibberellin has
40 average from 10
no effect. As each point is an
plants measured.
20 average of 10 plants, this helps
to average out random variation
0 in the shoots and makes the
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Amount of gibberellin (micrograms) results more reliable.

2. Explain the advantage of

target 1. Explain how auxin helps a shoot to grow target
towards light shining from one side. gravitropism to plant roots.
D-C (3 marks) C-A (2 marks)
19

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 BIOLOGY

Uses of plant hormones

We use plant hormones to control the way plants grow.

Selective weedkillers

narrow-leaved
crop plant
broad-leaved selective weedkiller kills broad-leaved
weed plant plants but not narrow-leaved plants

Weed plants compete with crop plants The crop plants get more water and
for water and minerals from the soil. minerals, and so grow better.

Rooting powder Seedless fruit

Gardeners take cuttings (small pieces) Hormones sprayed on to flowers can
of plants to grow into new plants. They stop seeds developing in the fruits.
dip the stalk end of the cutting into They can also make the fruit grow larger.
rooting powder. This contains auxins Many people prefer large seedless fruit,
that cause the stalk to produce roots so they are worth more money.
quickly. This helps the cuttings grow
well into fully developed plants.

Fruit ripening

The graph shows the effect of a plant The graph shows that tomato fruits get softer
hormone sprayed on tomato fruits after after they are picked, but that those sprayed
picking. Describe what the graph shows, with hormone stay firmer for longer than those
and explain how a hormone like this can be that are not sprayed. Spraying tomatoes will
useful to farmers. keep them firmer for longer during transport,
very
firm
so that they will be ripe at the right moment for
Firmness (relative scale)

no homone selling.
with homone
For
There are other possible answers.
ps the
example, you could say that it sto
ing tran sport.
fruit getting squashed dur
t
when homone What matters here is an answer tha
use ful to us.
added shows how the hormone is
worth
This often links to the fruits being
very
soft 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
more money when they are sold.
Days

1. Explain why selective 2. Ripe bananas give off a gas called ethene. Pears
target target stored next to ripe bananas ripen more quickly
weedkillers are useful.
D-B (2 marks) C-A than pears stored next to unripe bananas.
Explain why. (2 marks)
20

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