Brans-Dicke cosmology and dynamical dark energy

Author: Daniel Santos Serrano.

Facultat de Fı́sica, Universitat de Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.∗

Advisor: Joan Solà Peracaula

Abstract: Nowadays, the origin of the Higgs potential is still unknown. In this work we summa-
rize a fundamental way to obtain it through a generalized Brans-Dicke theory. Adding an additional
scalar field to the theory and under some conditions, a parametrical Higgs potential will appear nat-
urally from this theory. Finally, in the late time cosmical evolution, we will find that it mimics an
evolving dynamical dark energy.

I. INTRODUCTION coordinate frame in which the body is not accelerating.

According to Newton’s point of view, there exists an
absolut and privileged frame to which all inertial frames
are refered. The concept of an absolut space was over-
throwed by the Michelson-Morley’s expermient.
In XIX-century’eighties, Mach proposed the so-called
Mach’s principle:
The inertial of any system is the result of its interaction
with the rest of the Universe.
Albert Einstein was the person who elevated this
statement to a principle and he tried to incorporate it as
a consequence of General Relativity Theory, but finally
it was not fit in it.
Lastly, in 1961, R.H. Dicke and C. Brans discussed the
point of view of Mach and they developed a theory of
gravity in which this principle was included.
In order to understand the implications of such a
theory, they argued: These ideas have found a limited
expression in general relativity, but it must be admitted
that, although in general relativity spatial geometries
are affected by mass distributions, the geometry is not
uniquely specified by the distribution. It has not yet been
possible to specify boundary conditions on the field equa-
tions of general relativity which would bring the theory
into accord with Mach’s principle.[...] It is necessary to
remark that, according to the ideas of Mach, the inertial
forces observed locally in an accelerated laboratory may
be interpreted as gravitational effects having their origin
in distant matter accelerated relative to the laboratory.[1]
According to Mach’s principle, the gravitational force of
the Sun must be compensated by the gravitational force
of the rest of the Universe (here we are interpreting the
inercial reaction experienced in a laboratory accelerated
relative to the distant matter of the Universe as a grav-
itational force acting on a fixed laboratory due to the
presence of distant accelerated matter). Let ms be the
mass of the sun and r the distance between the test body
and the sun. Then, a = Gms /r2 and using the Mach’s
principle and dimensional arguments, the acceleration in
terms of the interaction with the rest of the Universe
should be a ∼ ms Rc2 /M r2 , where M is the mass of the
Universe and R the radius of the boundary of the visi-
ble Universe. Dividing the two accelerations we obtain
GM/Rc2 ∼ 1 [1].
This relation suggest that either M/R should be fixed or
the local value of G is not constant and is determined by
the matter distribution of the Universe about the point
considered. Brans and Dicke developed a theory consid-
ering the second option.
The theory is fully supported by the weak principle of
equivalence, but does not follow the strong principle of
equivalence because it suggests that gravity is purely a
consequence of the geometry of the space-time and can
not contain an interaction with another field.[3]
B. Accepting G as a scalar field
Let us consider the simplest generally covariant field
equation for a scalar field[3]:

φ = 4πλ(TM )µµ ,
A. Motivation of Brans-Dicke Theory
where φ = ∂ρ ∂ ρ φ is an invariant d’Alembertian, λ is a
One of the main facts in this theory is that G (the coupling constant and (TM )µν is the energy-momentum
gravitational constant) is not locally constant and this is tensor of the matter of the Universe.
a consequence of Mach’s principle. According to General Relativity, we must remember
µν
Let us consider a test body falling towards the sun and a that ∇µ TM = 0. We know that General Relativity is
in accordance with most of the current observations.
This implies that a new theory of gravitation should not
differ too much from it.
∗ Electronic address: dani_prat_10@hotmail.com
Brans-Dicke cosmology and dynamical dark energy Daniel Santos Serrano

We can estimate the average value of φ by computing we get:

the potencial of a gas sphere. We will assume its density
1 8π µν
as the cosmic mass density and the radius as the apparent Rµν − g µν R = [T + Tφµν ]. (1)
radius of the Universe (hence, we take ρ ∼ 10−29 cmg 2 φ M
3 and

R ∼ 1028 cm).This gives us: Taking the covariant derivative of (1) with respect to µ
and Gµν = Rµν − 21 g µν R having covariant derivative zero
M g (using covariant and conservative of matter), we get:
<φ> ∼ λ ∼ λρR2 ∼ λ1027 ,
R cm
1
(Rµν − g µν R)∂µ φ = 8π∇µ Tφµν . (2)
which is close to =1 g
1.35 × 1028 cm .
This is one of the 2
G
main motivations which led Brans and Dicke to replace Notice that, as mentioned before, we have incor-
G by 1/φ. porated from General Relativity that the covariant
With this in mind, we can start to build up the new the- derivative of energy momentum tensor of matter is 0.
ory. As Brans and Dicke argue: With the assumption
that only the gravitational ”constant” (or active gravi- Now, multiplying (2) by gνκ :
tational masses) vary with position, the laws of physics
1
(exclusive of gravitation) observed in a freely falling lab- (Rµκ − δ µκ R)∂µ φ = 8π∇µ (Tφ )µκ , (3)
oratory should be unaffected by the rest of the universe as 2
long as self-gravitational fields are negligible. The theory because ∇µ gνκ = 0.
should be constructed in such a way as to exhibit this ef-
fect. If the gravitational ”constant” is to vary, it should σ
Using the identity ∇κ ∇ν Vµ − ∇ν ∇κ Vµ = −Vσ Rµνκ ,
be a function of some scalar field variable. The contracted we can evaluate the first term as
metric tensor is a constant and devoid of interest. The
scalar curvature and the other scalars formed from the ∂µ φRνµ = ∂ν (φ) − (∂ν φ).
curvature tensor are also devoid of interest as they con- From the expression (3), we can construct the energy
tain gradients of the metric tensor components, and fall momentum tensor as a combination of terms involving
off more rapidly than r−1 from a mass source. Thus such two derivatives of one or two fields:
scalars are determined primarily by nearby mass distri-
butions rather than by distant matter. As the scalars (Tφ )µν = A(φ)∂ µ φ∂ν φ + B(φ)δνµ ∂ ρ φ∂ρ φ + C(φ)∂ν ∂ µ φ
of general relativity are not suitable, a new scalar field +D(φ)δνµ φ.
is introduced. The primary function of this field is the
determination of the local value of the gravitational con- Taking the covariant derivative with respect to µ, we
stant.[1] obtain:
∇µ (Tφ )µν = [A0 (φ) + B 0 (φ)]∂ µ φ∂ν φ∂µ φ + [A(φ) + D0 (φ)]
∂ν φφ + [A(φ) + 2B(φ) + C 0 (φ)]∂ν ∂ µ φ∂µ φ
II. BRANS-DICKE THEORY
+D(φ)∂ν (φ) + C(φ)(∂ν φ).
We can obtain the Brans-Dicke field equations taking Now, taking the trace of (1),
into account the Brans-Dicke action, which is actually a
modification of the Einstein-Hilbert action introducing 8π
[R − 2R] = [(TM )µµ + (Tφ )µµ ] ⇒
an scalar field (working in canonical units c = ~ = 1): φ
8π φ
R=− [ + (A(φ) + 4B(φ))∂µ φ∂ µ φ +
φ 4πλ
√
Z
SBD = [φR + 16πL − ω(∂µ φ∂ µ φ/φ)] −gd4 x, +(C(φ) + 4D(φ))φ].
φ
Here, we have used that (TM )µµ = 4πλ and computing
where R is the scalar curvature, L is the matter La- the trace of the energy momentum tensor of φ we obtain
grangian (which also includes all non gravitational fields). (Tφ )µµ = (A(φ) + 4B(φ))∂µ φ∂ µ φ + (C(φ) + 4D(φ))φ.
We should notice that we have replace 1/G by φ. From
the variation of the metric tensor, its first order deriva- Replacing these values in (3) and comparing the
tive, and the variation of the scalar field φ and its first coefficients of ∂ν (φ), (∂ν φ), ∂ν φφ, ∂ µ φ∂µ φ∂ν φ and
order derivative, we will find the field equations. ∂ν ∂ µ φ∂ν φ, we get:
Instead of doing this computation, which implies the
use of the principle of least action (you can find an exam- 8πD(φ) = 1,
ple of this computations in [4] p.360-364), we are going 8πC(φ) = −1,
to obtain the field equation adding a scalar field to Ein- 8π(A(φ) + D0 (φ)) = − 4π 1
φ ( 4πλ + C(φ) + 4D(φ)),
stein’s equations.[3] 8π(A0 (φ) + B 0 (φ)) = − 4πφ (A(φ) + 4B(φ)),
Including an energy momentum tensor for the φ field, A(φ) + 2B(φ) + C 0 (φ) = 0.

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Brans-Dicke cosmology and dynamical dark energy Daniel Santos Serrano

Solving this system of equations, we obtain: Tµν contains in its diagonal the energy density and
1 −1 pressure, so has canonical dimenions 4. Hence r.h.s has
D(φ) = , C(φ) = , canonical dimension 2. As gµν is dimensionless, Λ should
8π 8π have canonical dimension 2, therefore ρΛ has canonical
+ω −ω
B(φ) = , A(φ) = , dimension 4.
8πφ 16πφ
where ω = λ1 − 23 . That is λ = 3+2ω 2
, and from this
value we obtain the two field equations of the Brans-Dicke B. Extenden Brans-Dicke action
Theory:
Let us consider an extended Brans-Dicke type action
8π
φ = (TM )µµ , proposed by Solà and Karimkhani in [6]:
3 + 2ω
1 8π ω √
Z
1 ω
Rµν − gµν R = (TM )µν + 2 (∂µ φ∂ν φ S = d4 x −g[ Rφ − ∂µ φ∂ µ φ + ηψ 2 φ + ξRψ 2
2 φ φ 2 2φ
1 1 1 1
− gµν ∂ρ φ∂ ρ φ) + (∂ν ∂µ φ − gµν φ). − ∂µ ψ∂ µ ψ + 2 Sµν ∂ µ ψ∂ ν ψ − V (ψ)] + Sm ,
2 φ 2 ψ
We can see that, if ω −→ ∞, then φ = constant and we where φ is the BD scalar field, ψ is a new scalar field, η
easily recover General Relativity Theory. As a final ob- is the coupling between the two scalar fields and ξ stands
servation, we can obtain these field equations by simply for the non-minimal coupling of the field ψ with the Ricci
applying Euler-Lagrange equations in order to minimize scalar (the two parameters are dimensionless). Let us em-
the action[5]: phasize that while BD scalar field, φ, couples to gravity in
the standard way, our new scalar field, ψ, couples to grav-
∂L ∂L ∂L ity non-minimally both non-derivately and derivately. In
− ∂κ + ∂κ ∂λ = 0,
∂g µν µν
∂(∂κ g ) ∂(∂λ ∂κ g µν ) addition, φ has canonical dimension 2. That is not a
∂L ∂L tipical canonical dimension for a scalar field, but we can
− ∇µ = 0. easily solve the problem by defining another scalar field
∂φ ∂(∂µ φ)
as φ = φ̄2 . We also include a new tensor

III. GENERALIZATION OF BRANS-DICKE
THEORY
In this section, we are going to include an additional
scalar field, ψ, which will eventually play the role of the
Higgs boson field. This field will be coupled with the
Ricci scalar, R, and with the BD scalar field, φ.
A. Previous background
In this section we will use canonical units. We say
that U has canonical dimension n in natural units if U
has dimensions of E n , where E is the energy.
With this agreement, φ has canonical dimension 2,
because [G]=E −2 and φ = 1/G (G= M~c2 , where MP is
P
the Planck mass).
θ
Sµν = ςRµν − gµν R.
2
For the special case θ = ς, the tensor Sµν becomes pro-
portional to the Einstein tensor Gµν .
We observe that this action, actually, is SBD (reescalat-
ing φ −→ 8πφ) adding a new scalar field ψ.
We have included a scalar potential V(ψ), unspecified
at this point. Our intention is to find a Higgs poten-
tial imposing the appropriated conditions. Any constant
contribution, such as ρΛ , can be absorbed as a part of
V(ψ).
As an historical note, Brans and Dicke didn’t consider a
contribution of ρΛ because in the time that BD theory
was developed, they thought that Λ = 0. More infor-
mation about the form of BD field equations with ρΛ
contribution can be found in [6]. Finally, Sm plays the
role of the matter Lagrangian.

Furthermore, we are going to consider that the

cosmological constant, Λ, has a non-vanishing value, and C. Equations of motion in the cosmological context
then, we should consider the traditionally associated
Λ In this section we are going to use the FLRW metric:
concept of vacuum energy density, ρΛ = 8πG . We
observe that ρΛ has canonical dimension 4 (this is the
reason why we associated this concept to an energy dr2
ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t)( + r2 dΩ2 ).
density, [L]=E −1 and [ρ]=[M][L3 ]=E −4 ). Let us argue 1 − kr2
why ρΛ has canonical dimension 4. Taking into account
the Einstein’s equation with cosmological constant: In this metric, a(t) is the scalar factor and we can
define the expansion rate or Hubble function as H = aȧ .
Gµν + gµν Λ = 8πGTµν . By using this metric, we are assuming the Cosmological

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Brans-Dicke cosmology and dynamical dark energy Daniel Santos Serrano

Principle (it is we are assuming that the Universe is D. Determination of the Higgs potential
isotropic and homogeneous on a large scale). Further-
more, we shall focus on the spatially-flat case, k=0. Using the above ansatz will show that the Uni-
verse during such stationary EoS periods (p=constant,
Taking the variational derivatives of the previous w=constant) is characterized by an effective potential
action with respect to the metric and the two scalar which takes the Higgs potential form under appropiate
fields we obtain the field equations[6]. Then, using the conditions. Introducing the ansatz in (6) we get a con-
flat FLRW metric we obtain the specific equations of sistency relation:
motion in the cosmological context:
γ −2
ω φ̇2 1 ηψ12 t2α = [ωγ( + 3p − 1) + 3p(1 − 2p)]t2α
1 t . (10)
3H 2 φ + 3H φ̇ − + ηψ 2 φ − ψ̇ 2 − V (ψ) + 6ξH 2 ψ 2 2
2 φ 2
2
If η is nonvanishing, we infer that α = −1.
2 ψ̇ ψ̇ 2 ψ̇ ψ̈ Now, putting the ansatz in (4) and (5) and insterting
+12ξH ψ̇ψ − 9θH 2 − 6(θ − ς)Ḣ 2 + 6(θ − ς)H 2
ψ ψ ψ α = −1 we find two explicit expressions for the potential:
ψ̇ 3
−6(θ − ς)H = 0, (4)
ψ3 1
dV V = (ψ12 t21 [6ξp(p − 2) − ] − 9p2 θ)t−4
ψ̈ + 3H ψ̇ − 12ξ Ḣψ − 24ξ Ḣ 2 ψ + + 6(2θ − ς)H 2 2
dψ φ1 ω
+ γ (3p(γ + p) − γ 2 + ηψ12 t21 )tγ−2 , (11)
ψ̈ ψ̇ 2 ψ̇ ψ̇ t1 2
( 2 − 3 ) + 18(2θ − ς)H 3 2 + 6(7θ − 5ς)H Ḣ 2
ψ ψ ψ ψ φ1 2ηψ12 t21 γ−2
V =− γ( t
ψ̈ ψ̇ 2 t1 γ − 2
+6(θ − ς)Ḣ( − ) − 2ηφψ = 0, (5)
ψ2 ψ3 1 ψ 2 t2
− [ 1 1 (12ξp(1 − 2p) − 3p + 2) + 9σp]t−4 , (12)
φ̈ ω φ̇2 φ̇ 2 2
2
3Ḣ + 6H − ω + 2
− 3Hω + ηψ 2 = 0. (6)
φ 2φ φ where σ = (3θ − 2ς)p − (2θ − ς)p2 − (θ − ς). As an
We should observe that the general solution of this observation, when deriving the second equation we find
dV
system of non-linear differential equations is rather com- dψ = f (t), with f (t) known. This expression can be
plicated. In order to give a solution, we are going to focus
R ˙
integrated as V = f (t)(ψ)dt, using the chain rule. For
our attention in the regime of scalar field and matter or simplicity we set the integration constant to zero.
radiation dominance.
For example, we can derive the behaviour of a(t) in the The above two forms of the potential lead to two
case of matter dominance. In this regime, p = 31 ρ. options. The first option is that tγ−2 and t−4 have the
Through Friedman’s equations from General Relativity, same power, so γ = −2. This option would imply that
we infer that ρm = ρ0m a−3 . In the case of flat space and φ(t) ∼ t−2 , hence G(t) ∼ t2 . This option is obviously not
2
matter dominance, ȧa2 = H 2 = 8πG 3 ρ, hence, solving this
seen in the observations. Second option is to treat tγ−2
2
equation, a(t) ∼ t 3 . An analogous argument for radia- and t−4 as two independent powers. In this case, the
1 corresponding coefficients of (11) and (12) should match.
tion gives us a(t) ∼ t 2 .
From these we obtain two consistency conditions:
This led us to propose thefollowing ansatz:
p 6σ − 12pθ
H= , (7) ψ1 t21 = , (13)
t 12ξ + 1
t 2ηγ 2 2
ψ(t) = ψ1 ( )α , (8) − ψ t = 6p(γ + p) − ωγ 2 . (14)
t1 γ−2 1 1
t
φ(t) = φ1 ( )γ . (9) In order to derive the effective potential, we consider
t1
(11) and (12) under the above consistency conditions.
Here p, α and γ are dimensionless parameters and ψ1 and Finally, we obtain:
φ1 are the values of the scalar fields at some reference
time t = t1 . Foremost, we should observe that |γ| should
be small because we have no evidence that G, which is 2ηφ1 t γ 2 Υ
V =− ( ) ψ + 4 4 ψ4
the inverse of φ(t), has changed substantially in time. γ − 2 t1 ψ1 t1
We define the equation of state (EoS) parameter w = ρp 2ηφ1 2 Υ
and through the local conservation law ρ̇ + 3H(ρ + p) = 0 '− ψ + 4 4 ψ4 , (15)
γ−2 ψ1 t 1
we can characterize EoS value:
3
ρ̇ 2 where Υ = 12ξ+1 {12pξ[p3 (ς − 2θ) + p2 (5θ − 4ς)
w = −1 − = −1 + . +p(5ς − 6θ) + 2(θ − ς)] − p2 (θ + ς) + p(2ς − θ) + (θ − ς)}.
3Hρ 3p

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Brans-Dicke cosmology and dynamical dark energy Daniel Santos Serrano

The approximate relation on the second equality works
as long as |γ| is very small (indeed |γ| < −3
∼ 10 [7]). As
we can see, both coeficients are constant. Equation (15)
can be interpreted as a Higgs type potential:
We propose the ansatz φ = φ0 a− , normalizing a0 =
1. Substituting it in (18) and taking into account that
|| must be small, we find an approximate ΛCDM form
3H 2 = G(t0 )(ρ0m a−3+ + ρΛ (H)), where[8]

µ2 2 λ 4 3ν ω
V = ψ + ψ , µ2 <0, λ>0. (16) ρΛ (H) = ρΛ + H 2 , ν = (1 + ). (19)
2 4 G(t0 ) 6
Then, we must require the coefficient of ψ 2 to be neg-
ative. The effective value of the Planck mass squared is It stands for an effective DDE, which is induced by
MP2 = 1/8πG, so MP2 ∼ φ(t) ∼ φ1 and we conclude φ1 is the BD field (which evolves very slowly with the power
positive, so η must be negative (taking into account that  ∼ ν ∼ 10−3 [9]). We can observe an anomalous matter
|γ|<<1). conservation law ρm = ρ0m a−3+ caused by an effective
Combining the consistency conditions (10) and (14) we interaction of matter with DDE.
find that, at fixed p, parameters γ and ω are actually not
independent: γ 2 (1+ω)−γ(1+p)−2p = 0, whose solution IV. CONCLUSIONS
is
r s r Our study shows that is possible to connect particle
1+p 2p (1 + p)2 2p physics with a gravitation theory in terms of general-
γ= ± 1+ '± . (17) ized Brans-Dicke (BD) theories. These theories predict
2ω ω 8pω ω
a slow variation of the gravitational Newton’s coupling G.
We should observe that, in general, ω  O(1) because we
should not depart too much from GR, so the aproxima- In contrast to GR, BD- theories allow to motivate
tion is correct in our cases (p=1/2 represent cosmological the precise structure of the Higgs potential provided the
states in the radiation-dominated epoch and p=2/3 in the Higgs field is appropriately coupled to gravity and to
matter-dominated epoch). the BD-field. In addition, in this formulation the Higgs
Furthermore, inserting γ 2 ω = 2p from the last equation vacuum energy does not mix up with the cosmological
on the r.h.s of (14) leads us to the condition ηγ > 0 vacuum energy and therefore does not contribute to the
for p > 1/3, so it follows that in our cases γ must be cosmological constant problem.
negative. Hence, the final solution for γ is the negative
one. DDE also can provide clues in order to validate
As a final observation, ω → ∞ if and only if γ → 0 this theory, for example measuring a small anomaly
and this implies G=const, and we recover GR. in the matter conservation law and detecting a slowly
varying cosmological term. Current hints exist of this
possibility [9].

E. Dynamical dark energy (DDE)

Acknowledgments
At late time, as α = −1, the scalar field ψ → 0, so
V → 0. Thus, the matter component becomes relevant
and we can replace V from Eq. (4) for ρm + ρΛ . Since I wish to thank my advisor Dr. Joan Solà for giving
ψ → 0, we obtain[8] me the theoretical background to do this work and for his
support, and my good friends Gonzalo Velasco, Daniel
φ̇ ω φ̇2 ρm + ρΛ del Pozo and Iker Garcı́a for helping me correcting my
3H 2 + 3H − 2
= . (18) mispellings.
φ 2φ φ

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appear in Int. J. of Mod. Phys. D, 2018).
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