Pillar Design

The Safety Factor (SF) is the pillar strength divided by the pillar load.

Safety Factor = Pillar Strength / Pillar Load

Sp
SF 
σp

Pillar Strength – is a function of both a size effect and a shape effect.

1. Size Effect
2. Shape Effect

Size Effect – The average strength decreases as specimen size increases.

Critical Size – The specimen size at which an increase in size does not cause a
decrease in strength.

1. Bieniawski found the critical size to be 5 feet for South African coals.
2. Pariseau and Hustrulid used 3 feet for US coals.

For a coal specimen less than the critical 36 inches, Gaddy found:

k  σc D

k  k factor (strength of a one inch cube)

σ c  uniaxial compressive strength of specimen (psi)
D  diameter or cube size (in.) of specimen

Critical Strength – The strength of a critical size specimen or the strength of the insitu
coal. For a critical size specimen, the critical strength is :

k σc D
σ1  
36 36

σ 1  Critical / InSitu Coal Strength

Shape Effect
Pillar strength increases as:
1. Pillar Width increases
2. Pillar Height decreases
3. Width/Height ratio increases

Pillar Strength Formulas:

1. Obert-Duvall
2. Holland-Gaddy
3. Salamon-Munro
4. Bieniawski
5. Mark-Bieniawski

Obert-Duvall Formula:

 w
Sp   1  0.778  0.222 
 h
S p  Pillar Strength
 1  InSitu/Critical Coal Strength
w  Pillar Width (Least Width)
h  Pillar Height

1. Derived for hard-rock

2. Valid for w/h ratios 0.25 - 4.0
3. Recommended Safety Factor
a. 2 for short term
b. 4 for long term
Holland-Gaddy Formula:

k w
Sp 
h
S p  Pillar Strength (psi)
k  Gaddy k factor from lab
w  Pillar Width (Least Width) (in)
h  Pillar Height (in)
1. Derived for coal
2. Valid for w/h ratios 2 - 8
3. Recommended Safety Factor
a. 1.8 – 2.2
b. 2 average

Salamon-Munro Formula:

w 0.46
Sp  1320 0.66
h
English Units :
Sp  Pillar Strength (psi)
w  Pillar Width (Least Width) (ft)
h  Pillar Height (ft)

w 0.46
Sp  7.2 0.66
h
Metric Units :
Sp  Pillar Strength (MPa)
w  Pillar Width (Least Width) (m)
h  Pillar Height (m)

1. Derived for coal

2. Valid for w/h ratios 1-10
3. Recommended Safety Factor
a. 1.31 – 1.88
b. 1.6 recommended
Bieniawski Formula (square pillars):

 w
Sp   1  0.64  0.36 
 h

Sp  Pillar Strength
 1  InSitu/Critical Coal Strength
 1  900 psi recommended
w  Pillar Width (Least Width)
h  Pillar Height

Mark-Bieniawski Formula (rectangular pillars):

 w w2 
Sp   1  0.64  0.54  .18 
 h lh 

Sp  Pillar Strength
 1  InSitu/Critical Coal Strength (900 psi)
w  Pillar Width (Least Width)
h  Pillar Height
l  Pillar Length

1. Derived for coal

2. Valid for w/h ratios up to 5
3. Recommended Safety Factor
a. 2 short term
b. 4 long term
Safety Barrier Pillar Formulas
1. For barrier pillar design
2. Rules-of-Thumb
3. Mine Inspector’s Formula
a. Ashley (1930) in PA
4. British Formula

PA Mine Inspector’s Barrier Pillar Formula:

Wbp  20  4h  0.1H

Wbp  Barrier Pillar Width (ft)

h  Pillar Height (ft)
H  Depth (ft)
British Barrier Pillar Formula:

Wbp  H  45
10

Wbp  Barrier Pillar Width (ft)

H  Depth (ft)

Stress Barrier Pillar Formulas

Peng’s Formula:
D  9.3 H
D  Extent of Stress Abutment (ft)
H  Depth (ft)

Mark’s Formula:
D.9  5 H

D.9  Extent of 90% of the Stress Abutment (ft)

H  Depth (ft)
InSitu Stress

sg o * 62.4 lb sg o * 9800 N
σi  ft 3 * H or m3 * H
2 2
144 in 1m
ft 2

σ i  InSitu Stress
sg o  Overburden Specific Gravity
H  Depth

for a specific gravity of 2.54 - 2.55

psi MPa
σ i  1.1 * H or 0.025 *H
ft m

Overburden Stress

(Problem – Overburden Stress) The rock mass over a mine has an average
specific gravity of 2.55. What is the stress in psi (pounds per square inch) that is
exerted per foot of depth?

weight of substance
Specific gravity 
weight of water
weight of substance  Specific gravity * weight of water
 2.55 * 62.4 (lb/ft 3 )
 159 (lb/ft 3 )

weight of overburden
overburden stress 
acting area
159 (lb/ft 3 )

144 (in 2 /ft 2 )
 1.1 psi/ft of depth

overburden stress  1.1 psi/ft of depth

0.006895 MPa/psi
 1.1 psi/ft of depth *
.3048 m/ft
 0.025 MPa/m of depth
Pillar Load
1. Tributary Area
2. Abutment

Tributary Area – is the total area of roof that each pillar is supporting. It is the area of
the pillar plus half the area of the entries on every side.

wp
Pillar Area = wp * l p
we lp Tributary Area = (wp + we ) * (lp + wc)

wp+we Tributary Area - Pillar Area

wc Recovery Ratio =
Tributary Area
(wp + we ) * (lp + wc) - (wp * lp)
l p + wc

Recovery Ratio =
(wp + we ) * (lp + wc)

Insitu Stress = 1.1 (psi/ft) * H

Pillar Area
Tributary Area Insitu Stress
Pillar Stress =
1 - Tributary Area
Plan View
Tributary Area
Pillar Stress = Insitu Stress *
Pillar Area
Surface (wp + we ) * (lp + wc)
Pillar Stress = 1.1 (psi/ft) * H *
Tributary (wp * lp)
Area
H
Load

we wp h

Cross Section View

Recovery Ratio / Extraction Ratio (e) – The volume of mineral mined from a deposit
divided by the total volume of mineral in the deposit prior to mining.

((w p  w e ) * (l p  w c ))  (w p * l p )
e
(w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )
(w p * l p )
e  1
(w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )

w p  Pillar Width
w e  Entry Width
l p  Pillar Length
w c  Crosscut Width
For a Square Pillar (wp = lp) and equal width entries and crosscuts (we = wc):

(w p  w e ) 2  (w p ) 2
e
(w p  w e ) 2

(w p ) 2
e  1
(w p  w e ) 2

The Tributary Area Stress – is the pillar stress due to supporting the tributary area of
overburden. It is equal to the overburden stress (or insitu stress) times the ratio of
tributary area to pillar area.

σi (w  w e ) * (l p  w c )
σp   σi p
1 e (w p * l p )

σ p  Pillar Stress w p  Pillar Width

σ i  InSitu Stress w e  Entry Width
e  Extraction Ratio l p  Pillar Length
w c  Crosscut Width

Allowable Recover Factor – The recovery factor that puts the pillar stress up to the
allowable limit (with or without safety factor).
σ σ  σi
σ p  i therefore e allowed  p-allowed
1 e σ p-allowed
σ p  Pillar Stress
σ i  InSitu Stress
e  Extraction Ratio
e allowed  Allowable Extraction Ratio
σ p-allowed  Alowable Pillar Stress
Allowable Recover Factor with Safety Factor:

σ p-allowed  σ i Sp
e allowed  and σ p-allowed 
σ p-allowed SF
therefore
SF * σ i Sp
e allowed  1  and SF  (1  e)
Sp σi

Sp  Pillar Strength
SF  Safety Factor

Pillar Abutment Load

Abutment Load - The weight that had been carried by the panel coal is shifted to the
surrounding support coal. This is known as Abutment Load

Abutment Angle Concept:

H tan B P/2

L S - Side Abutment Load LS

H

B- Abutment Angle B
Mined out P

Supercritical Subcritical

Abutment Load
1. Magnitude
2. Distribution
Critical Width:
Wc  2 * H tan β

Wc  Width of critical panel at that depth

H  Depth
β  Abutment Angle

Abutment Load Magnitude - (SuperCritical):

L s  H 2 tanβ ρ 2

L s  Side Abutment Load - SuperCritical

H  Depth
β  Abutment Angle
ρ  Overburden Density

Abutment Load Magnitude - (SubCritical):

 HP  P2 
L ss     *ρ
 2  8 * tanβ  
L ss  Side Abutment Load - SubCritical
H  Depth
P  Panel Width
β  Abutment Angle
ρ  Overburden Density
Abutment Load Distribution:

3L s
s
2
= (D-x)
f D3

LA LB LBP

W
Ds = 9.3 H
Pillar A Pillar B Barrier pillar

Abutment Zone Width

D  9.3 H
D  Abutment Zone Width (ft)
H  Depth (ft)

Abutment Zone - Stress Distribution

 3L 
σ a   3s D - x 
2

D 
 a  Abutment Stress
L s  Side Abutment Load
D  Abutment Zone Width (ft)
x  Distance from Panel Edge (ft)

Abutment Zone Load

3
 D-x 
R  1  
 D 

R  Percentage of Abutment Stress in first x feet

D  Abutment Zone Width
x  Distance from Panel Edge
Sample Test Question #19. (Pillar Stress) A horizontal coal seam is mined using
room-and-pillar methods. All entries and crosscuts are 6 m in width. The pillars are
10 m wide by 15 m long. The overburden is 300 m thick with a specific gravity of 2.7.
The average vertical stress on the pillars (KPa) is most nearly?

sg o * 9800 N
insitu stress (σ i )  m3 * H
2
1m
2.7 * 9800 N
σi  m 3 * 300
2
1m
 7.94 MPa

σi (w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )
σp   σi
1 e (w p * l p )
(10  6) * (15  6)
 7.94
(10 * l5)
 17,800 KPa

Sample Test Question #21. (Pillar Strength) Uniaxial strength tests of 1 m

cubical coal samples provide a compressive strength of 11 MPa for the proposed coal
mine in a 1.8 m thick seam with 10 m wide pillars. If the calculated pillar load is 5,000
KPa, what is the safety factor for the pillars using the Bieniawski Formula?

 w Pillar Strength
Sp   1  0.64  0.36  Safety Factor 
 h Pillar Stress
 10  Sp 29 MPa
 11 0.64  0.36   
 1.8  σp 5 MPa
 29 MPa  5.8
(Problem – Extraction Ratio) A 5 ft thick coal seam occurs 400 ft below the
surface. The rock overlying the coal is nearly horizontal and of such density that it
may be assumed that the vertical stress gradient is approximately 1.2 psi per foot of
depth. Laboratory tests on the coal indicate that its compressive strength is 3000 psi.
Assume that the laboratory strength data must be de-rated by a factor of 2 for use in
underground pillar design. Assuming a safety factor of 1.0, what is the maximum
extraction ratio that can be achieved during development?

psi σ p-allowed  σ i
σ i  1.2 *H e allowed 
ft σ p-allowed
psi 1500  480
σ i  1.2 * 400 ft 
ft 1500
σ i  480 psi  68 %

(Problem - Safety Factor) A coal mine’s entry and breakthrough centers are set
at 60 ft with 20 ft wide openings. The 6 ft coal seam lies 1000 ft below the surface and
the specific gravity of the overburden is 2.4. If the compressive strength of a 4 in cubic
coal specimen is 5000 psi, determine the safety factor for compressive failure of the
pillars?
1. (first use Holland-Gaddy)

sg o * 62.4 lb
σi  ft 3 * H
2
144 in (w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )
ft 2 σ p  σi
(w p * l p )
2.4 * 62.4 lb 3
 ft *1000 (40  20) * (40  20)
in 2  1040
144 (40 * 40)
ft 2
 1040 psi  2340 psi

k w Sp
k  σc D Sp  SF 
h σp
 5000 4 10000 40 * 12 3043 psi
 
 10000 psi 6 *12 2340 psi
 3043 psi  1.3

2. Now use Bieniawski

k σ D  w Sp
σ1   c Sp  σ1  0.64  0.36  SF 
36 36  h σp
5000 4  40  5067 psi
  1667 0.64  0.36  
36  6  2340 psi
 1667 psi  5067 psi  2.2
(Problem – Pillar Size) A lead-zinc mine is to be developed by a room-and-pillar
layout. The mine is located at a depth of 500 ft, the overlying rock has an average
specific gravity of 2.58, and the pillar rock was tested and found to have a uni-axial
compressive strength of 15,000 psi. What will be the safety factor with an extraction
ratio of 75%? With 30 ft wide entries, what will be the dimension of square pillars?

sg o * 62.4 lb
σi  ft 3 * H
2
144 in
ft 2 Sp
SF  (1  e)
2.58 * 62.4 lb σi
 ft 3 * 500
144 in
2 15000
 (1  .75)
ft 2 559
 559 psi  6.7

(w p * l p )
e  1
(w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )
(w p ) 2
for square pillars e  1 
(w p  w e ) 2
(w p ) 2
.75  1 
(w p  30) 2
by trial and error w p  30 ft
(Problem – Abutment Load ) The longwall panel is 650 ft wide and 800 ft deep. The
gateroad consists of 2 pillars on 90 ft centers and 120 ft crosscuts. Assume the
overburden weights 162 lb/ft3 and the abutment angle is 21, what is the abutment load
on the gateroad pillars in lbs/ft of gateroad?

First, we determine if the panel is super or sub-critical

Wc  2 * H tan β
 2 * 800 tan 21
 614 ft

Our panel is wider than the 614 ft, therefore it is supercritical.

Next, we calculate the total abutment load:

L s  H 2 tan β ρ/2 
 800 2 tan 21162 / 2 
 19,899,000 lb / ft of gateroad

Then, we calculate the width of the abutment zone:

D  9.3 H
 9.3 800
 263 ft

Finally, we calculate the percentage of load & the load in the gateroad width (180
ft):
3
 D-x
R  1  
 D 
3
 263 - 180 
 1  
 263 
 0.969

Gateroad Load  19,899,000 * 0.969

 19,274,000 lb / ft of gateroad
 Stone Pillar Design
The Stone Pillar Design is Applicable to:
1) Eastern and Midwest
2) Limestone
3) Room & Pillar
4) Flat Lying

Stability
1) Regional Stability – pillar supports the overburden
2) Local Stability – stable pillar ribs

Pillar Database
1) 10 States
2) 34 Mines
3) 94 Locations

Pillar Database:

Average Minimum Maximum

Dimension
(ft) (ft) (ft)
Pillar Width 43.0 15 70.5
Pillar Height 36.5 15.8 124.6
W/H Ratio 1.41 0.29 3.52
Depth 385 75 2200

Pillar Failures
1) Isolated Pillars
2) Failed when Benched
a. Angular Discontinuities
b. Weak Beds

Rib Spalling
1) Rib Spalling – Initiates with pillar stress at 11–12% of UCS
2) Lower Limit of Spalling

Limit of Database Experience

1) W/H Ratio > 0.25
2) Pillar Stress < 25% of UCS
Discontinuity: Weak Beds:

Pillar Size is dictated by 2 requirements:

1) Pillar strength must be sufficient to support the overburden load
2) Pillar load should not result in unstable ribs that pose hazard to mine operations

Pillar Strength Determination

1) Use classic pillar strength equation: rock strength, width, height
2) Account for large angular discontinuities
3) Effect of weak bands not included – special case

w 0.30
S  0.92  UCS  LDF  0.59
h
Large Discontinuity Factor (LDF)
1) If there are Large Discontinuities (joints or slips), then the Orientation and
Spacing of the discontinuities which extend from the roof to floor of the pillar
must be considered

LDF  1  DDF * FF 
Where:
DDF is the Discontinuity Dip Factor (taken from a table), and
FF is the discontinuity Frequency Factor

The Joint Frequency is the Pillar Width divided by the Discontinuity spacing, (joints per
pillar).
Discontinuity Dip Factor (DDF):

Frequency Factor (FF)

Design Database:

Active 
layouts

Abandoned 
layouts

Single failed pillar ‐ overloaded

Single failed pillar – angular discontinuity
Design Chart:

Example Design:
1) 40 x 40 ft pillars
2) 80 x 80 ft centers
a. (40 ft entries)
3) 28 ft High – Benching to 56 ft
4) UCS = 20,000 psi
5) Depth = 300 ft

Pillar Stress:
(w p  w e ) * (l p  w c )
σ p  σi
(w p * l p )
(40  40) * (40  40)
 1.1(300)
(40 * 40)
 1320 psi

Width to Height Ratio

1) Development
a. w/h = 40/28 = 1.43
2) Benched
a. w/h = 40/56 = 0.71
Pillar Strength:
1) Development
w 0.30
S  0.92  UCS  LDF  0.59
h
400.30
 0.92  20,000  1  0.59
28
 7791 psi
2) Benched
w 0.30
S  0.92  UCS  LDF 
h 0.59
400.30
 0.92  20,000  1  0.59
56
 5176 psi

Safety Factor:
1) Development
7791
SF   5.9
1320
2) Benched
5176
SF   3.9
1320

Design Chart:
Design Analysis
1) Development:
a. GOOD: SF = 5.9, w/h = 1.43
2) Benched
a. POOR: SF = 3.9, w/h = 0.71
b. Pillar is Too Slender

Joint Example
1) If there is a major Joint system:
a. 30 ft spacing
b. 60° dip
40
F  1.33
30
Discontinuity Dip Factor (DDF):

Frequency Factor (FF):

Large Discontinuity Factor

1) Development
LDF  1  DDF  FF
 1  0.24  0.67 
 0.839
2) Benched
LDF  1  DDF  FF
 1  0.70  0.67 
 0.531
Pillar Strength:
1) Development
w 0.30
S  0.92  UCS  LDF 
h 0.59
400.30
 0.92  20,000  0.839  0.59
28
 6538 psi

Safety Factor:
1) Development
SF  5.9  0.839  5.0
2) Benched
SF  3.9 * 0.531  2.1

Design Chart:

Design Analysis
1) Development:
a. GOOD: SF = 5.0, w/h = 1.43
2) Benched
a. POOR: SF = 2.1, w/h = 0.71
b. Pillar is Too Slender, and Weak