ProcessDesign PDF

Chapter 9
Engineering Economic Analysis
1
Basic Premise and Definitions
Basic premise: Money when invested earns money. (Therefore,
earning $1 today is better than earning $1 next year because
I can invest the dollar I earn today and have more than $1
next year.)
Definitions:
• P – Principal, Present Value or Present Worth (of an investment)
• Fn – Future Value or Future Worth (of an investment)
• n – Years (or other time unit) between P and F
• i – Interest or Earnings Rate (based on time interval of n)
• Compounding – computing the future worth of a present
amount of money
• Discounting – computing the present worth of a future amount
of money
2
Simple Interest
• Simple Interest – Annual Basis
– Interest paid on principal P in any year = P*i
– After n years total interest paid = P*i*n
– After n years the total investment is worth = P(1+in)
– What is the weakness (drawback, logical problem) of
simple interest from the point of view of the investor?
A smart investor will earn interest on earned
interest if the earned interest remains invested!
3
Compound Interest
At time 0 we have P
At the end of Year 1, we have F1 = P (1 + i )
At the end of Year 2, we have F2 = P (1 + i )2,
which is more than P(1+2i).
At the end of Year n, we have Fn = P (1 + i )n,

which is a lot more than P(1+in) as n gets large!
4
Compound Interest (more detail of the math)
5
Example
How much would I need to invest at 8 % p.a. to
yield $5000 in 10 years? (Note: p.a. means per
annum or interest earned per year.)
From before Fn = P (1 + i )n , so P = Fn / (1 + i )n .
i  0.08
n  10
F10  5000
5000
P 10
 $2316
1  0.08 
6
What if a different time basis is used for
compound interest calculations?
For example “Your investment will pay 6 % p.a.,
compounded monthly.”
• In this case the nominal annual interest rate is 6%.
• If the compounding period is monthly, the actual
monthly rate is 6%/12 or 0.5%, and the actual
annual rate will higher than 6%.
(continued on next slide with example)
7
Different time basis for interest (continued).
Definitions:
• inom = nominal annual interest rate
• m = number of compounding periods per year
(4 for quarterly, 12 for monthly, 365 for daily)
• r = actual interest rate per compounding period = inom/m
• ieff = effective annual interest rate
Consider the result after 1 year
m
 inom 

F1  P 1  ieff   P 1 


m 
m
 inom 
ieff  1   1
 m 
8
Example
• I invest $1000 at 10 % p.a. compounded monthly.
How much do I have in 1 year, 10 years?
m 12
 inom   0.10 
F1  P  1    1000  1    $1104.71
 m   12 
12
 0.10 
ieff  1    1  0.1047
 12 
 
10
F10  P 1  ieff  $2707.04
For comparison:
• If the rate was 10 % p.a. compounded annually, the
results would be F1=$1100.00 and F10=$2593.74.
• At 10% simple interest, F1=$1100 and F10=$2000. 9
How good does compounding get?
• As m increases, ieff increases.
• In the limit, as m goes to infinity, you could earn
continuously compounded interest! No one actually
pays or earns this, and it’s really not that much
better than monthly compounding.
• ieff (continuous) = e inom – 1 (see derivation Turton p. 241)
For example if i = 10% p.a.,
m ieff
12 10.471 %
365 10.515 %
∞ 10.517 %
10
Cash Flow Diagram (CFD)
A cash flow diagram is a graphical representation of the timing
and magnitude of investments.
– The x‐axis is time and y‐axis is magnitude
– Both positive and negative investments are possible.
– To determine the direction (sign) of cash flows, you must
define the perspective or system being considered.
– For a chemical plant, the most common positive
investment is sales revenue, and negative investments
include all aspects of the cost of manufacturing.
– For a parent company, with respect to a particular
venture, negative investments include the FCI and working
capital, and positive investments are the returned
depreciation allowance and net profit after taxes.
11
Consider a Discrete Cash Flow Diagram
• Discrete refers to individual CFDs that are plotted
• Example: I borrow $20 K for a car and repay as a
$400 monthly payment for 5 years.
Bank perspective $20,000 My perspective
$400
123 60
12 3 60
$400
$20,000
12
Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram
In a cumulative CFD, each vertical line is the
algebraic sum of the value on the left and the
most recent input or output. The illustration
below indicates an initial negative investment
followed by 13 positive investments.
13
Compounding and Discounting
• If interest or earnings rates are significant (i.e., not
near zero), an accurate calculation of the effect of
each cash flow requires that you account for the
time value of money. This can be done by
computing the value of all cash flows at the same
point in time and then comparing them.
• Compounding – computing the future worth of a
present amount of money (moving the cash flow
forward in time)
• Discounting – computing the present worth of a
future amount of money (moving the cash flow
backward in time)
14
The Step‐by‐Step Method
• If time increments and/or cash flows vary as time
progresses, each cash flow must be evaluated
separately. Choose the time at which you want to
compare and move each cash flow to that time using
the correct earnings rate for each time increment.
• For each amount and each step,
F = P (1 + i ) or P = F/(1 + i)
(See Example 9.13a in Turton or on pdf)
• A spreadsheet can be used to do equivalent
calculations year by year.
(See separate Excel file Example 9.13a)
15
Equivalence Formulae for “Simple” Cases
16
Note this about the annuity equations
Discrete CFD for an annuity
1 2 3 n
• An annuity is a uniform series of equally spaced, equal
value cash flows of magnitude A.
• Equations 9.11-9.14 apply when the first payment is at
the beginning of year 1 (or equivalently, at the end of
year 0), not at t = 0.
17
Example
• What will my car payment be if I borrow $20,000 for
and the interest rate on the 5‐year loan is 8% p.a.
compounded monthly? Which equation applies?
n=60
$20,000
18
Car payment example solution (Eq. 9.13)
mn 60
i  i  0.08  0.08 
1   1  
A 
m m 12  12 
 , 0 .08,60   60
 0.020276
P   i 
mn
 0.08 
1    1 1   1
 m  12 
A 
A  P ,0.08,60   20,000(0.020276)  $405.52
P 
interest paid  60(405.52)  20,000  $4331.20
19
Inflation
• Inflation reduces purchasing power. If you bury $F
now and retrieve it next year, you will still have $F,
but it might not buy as much bread or gasoline.
Three common ways to handle inflation when you are
evaluating a potential investment are:
• If the time increment of interest is short and/or the
rate of inflation will be near zero, ignore inflation.
• If your incoming revenue is likely to change in the
same direction and at the same rate as your cost of
manufacturing, assume the changes will cancel each
other and ignore inflation
Account for inflation by adjusting the
expected earning rate
• If f is the expected rate of inflation, the purchasing power
of $F in n years will be $F’
' F
F 
(1  f )n
• If the actual future value will be obtained by investing P at
rate i for n years, during which the inflation rate will be f,
then the inflation adjusted future value and the effective
earnings rate i ’ are:
n
' F (1  i )n
 1 i  ' n
F   P  P 1 f   P (1  i )
(1  f ) n
(1  f ) n
 
1 i
'
P = present value
i  1  i  f F = future value ignoring inflation
1 f F’ = inflation adjusted future value 21
What is depreciation?
• Physical => something doesn’t work the way it once did due
to wear and tear, corrosion, or aging effects.
• Functional => something works just like it always did, but
nobody wants it anymore. Examples?
• “Allocational” => systematic allocation of the cost of an asset
over its useful – i.e., to account for the capital investment a
new venture requires, a manufacturer might add a fraction
of FCI to the estimated cost of manufacturing each unit of
product. This is the idea behind Eq. 8.1, but it is usually not
legal or not advantageous for tax purposes.
• Legal => government agencies that are authorized to tax
corporate profits allow companies to subtract a fraction of
fixed capital investment from gross profits each year before
the tax is calculated.
Legally, what can be depreciated?
Property is depreciable if:
• It is used for business purposes to produce income.
• It has a useful life that is longer than one year.
• It is an asset that decays, gets used up, wears out,
becomes obsolete, or loses value to the owner from
natural causes.
Generally this includes all original items included in the
fixed capital investment of a manufacturing operation,
except land. It can later include replacement equipment
that meets the requirements stated above. Working
capital, rented equipment, and product held in inventory
cannot be depreciated.
What are expenses and why are they
“better” than depreciation?
Generally expenses are:
• Part of regular business operations.
• “Consumed” over a short period of time (< 1 year).
• Often recurring.
• Subtracted from sales revenues as they occur.
• Examples: labor, utilities, raw materials, insurance,…
If a cost meets the legal definition, why is it preferable
to treat it as an expense rather than an investment that
can be depreciated? (Hint: The answer involves the
time value of money.)
Depreciation Definitions
• Salvage Value, S
• Value of FCIL at end of project (L => excluding land)
• Usually assumed to be zero. If equipment is
depreciated to zero, but later sold, the price received
is taxable as income or as a capital gain.
• Life of Equipment, n
• n is set by IRS (Actual useful life is usually longer.)
• Depreciable value is the amount that can be
depreciated over n years.
= FCIL – S
• Book value, BV at any time is the portion of the
original FCI that has not yet been depreciated.
25
Four Textbook Methods for Depreciation
• Straight Line Depreciation (easy to calculate and
sometimes used for internal calculations)
dSL = (FCIL – S)/n
• Two complicated historical methods that the federal
Internal Revenue Service (IRS) no longer recognizes.
‐ Sum of Years Digits (SOYD)
‐ Double Declining Balance (DDB)
• Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)
‐ Currently accepted by the IRS
‐ Use MACRS in ChE 4310 unless you are told to use straight line
for a quick approximation.
26
Straight Line Depreciation
Cost of the asset, FCIL $900,000
Depreciable life, in years, n 5
Salvage value, S $70,000
900
dk dk BV 166
Year 800
($1,000) ($1000) ($1000) 700
166
0 900 600
Book Value
500
1 166 166 734 166
400
2 166 332 568 300 166
3 166 498 402 200
166
4 166 664 236 100 Salvage value = 70
5 166 830 70 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System
• MACRS is an accelerated depreciation schedule that was
developed by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (with
input from a lot of corporate lobbyists and accountants).
• “Recovery periods” are allowed over which various types
of assets can be fully depreciated. These are generally
less than the actual useful life of the equipment.
• Salvage value is assumed to be 0, but if fully depreciated
assets are sold later, the proceeds are taxable income.
• A table of annual depreciation percentages is used, and it
allows quicker “write‐off” than straight line depreciation
over the same total number of years.
• Chemical manufacturing equipment is usually depreciated
under the 5‐year MACRS schedule.
MACRS Percentage Rate
(* means the schedule shifts from an accelerated rate to straight line depreciation)
Recovery 3‐year 5‐year 7‐year 10‐year 15‐year 20‐year
Year class class class class class class
1 33.33 20.00 14.29 10.00 5.00 3.750
2 44.45 32.00 24.49 18.00 9.50 7.219
3 14.81* 19.20 17.49 14.40 8.55 6.677
4 7.41 11.52* 12.49 11.52 7.70 6.177
5 11.52 8.93* 9.22 6.93 5.713
6 5.76 8.92 7.37 6.23 5.285
7 8.93 6.55* 5.90* 4.888
8 4.46 6.55 5.90 4.522
9 6.56 5.91 4.462*
10 6.55 5.90 4.461
11 3.28 5.91 4.462
12‐15 5.90 4.461
16 2.95 4.461
17‐20 4.462
21 2.231
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
(current) US federal corporate tax rates
Applied to gross profit after depreciation.
Individual state taxes add 0 to 10% to these rates.
Over But not over Tax is Of amount over
$0 $50,000 15% $0
50,000 75,000 $7,500 + 25% 50,000
75,000 100,000 13,750 + 34% 75,000
100,000 335,000 22,250 + 39% 100,000
335,000 10,000,000 113,900 + 34% 335,000
10,000,000 15,000,000 3,400,000 + 35% 10,000,000
15,000,000 18,333,333 5,150,000 + 38% 15,000,000
18,333,333 ____ 35% 0
Review of key cash flow equations
• Gross profit before depreciation = R ‐ COMd
• Depreciation (dk ) = (FCI – L) * d (with d as fraction, %/100%)
• Gross profit after depreciation = (R – COMd ‐ dk)
• Income Tax = (R – COMd ‐ dk) * t (with t as fraction, %/100%)
• Net Profit after Taxes = (R – COMd –dk)(1 – t)
• After Tax Cash Flow, ATCF = (R – COMd – dk)(1 – t) + dk

• At the end of the process life, working capital and salvage value
are added into ATCF also. Working capital is not taxable, but
salvage value is taxed if it was assumed to be zero. (For simplicity,
we will treat non‐zero salvage value as revenue in the last year of operation.)
Information Resources –
Online Chemical Property Databases:
1. SciFinder Scholar (restricted to CU campus or VPN access) “world's most
comprehensive and authoritative source of references, substances and reactions in
chemistry and related sciences”
2. Web of Science (restricted access – CU ID) “Citation focused database of high‐quality,
multidisciplinary scientific information”
3. PubChem "... organized as three linked databases ... PubChem Substance, PubChem
Compound, and PubChem BioAssay."
4. ChemSpider "ChemSpider is a free chemical structure database providing fast text and
structure search access to over 26 million structures from hundreds of data sources."
5. NIST Chemistry WebBook "...provides thermochemical, thermophysical, and ion
energetics data compiled by NIST under the Standard Reference Data Program."
6. eMolecules "eMolecules discovers sources of chemical data by searching the Internet,
and receives submissions from data providers such as chemical suppliers and academic
research institutions."
7. ChemExper "This database contains chemicals with their physical characteristics.
Everybody can submit chemical information and retrieve information with a Web
browser."
8. Wikipedia “Public assembled database of chemical and process information”
9. IUPAC‐NIST Solubility Database "Data compiled and evaluated by IUPAC (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)"
SciFinder Scholar (ACS)
CH3OH
CH4O
methanol
https://www.cas.org/sfbrochure/scifinder_brochure_01.html
SciFinder Scholar (ACS)
Explore Substances
Reactions
Commercial Sources
Regulatory Info.
Experimental Properties
Web of Science
Web of Science
NIST Chemistry WebBook
NIST Chemistry WebBook
ChemSpider
10. NIST Chemical Kinetics Database "A compilation of kinetics data on gas‐phase
reactions"
11. NMRShiftDB "... a NMR database (web database) for organic structures and their
nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr) spectra. It allows for spectrum prediction (13C, 1H
and other nuclei) as well as for searching spectra, structures and other properties. Last
not least, it features peer‐reviewed submission of datasets by its users."
12. Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase "Experimental and
computational thermochemical data for a selected set of 1420 gas‐phase atoms and
molecules. Tools for comparing experimental and computational ideal‐gas
thermochemical properties."
13. Organic Syntheses "... Each procedure is written in considerably more detail as
compared to typical experimental procedures in other journals, and each reaction and
all characterization data has been carefully "checked" for reproducibility in the
laboratory of a member of the Board of Editors."
14. WebReactions "When a synthetic chemist thinks of a reaction, he envisions first the
making and breaking of bonds at the reaction center as the defining nature of the
reaction. Subsequently he considers the effects of surrounding groups, i.e., on rate,
hindrance, or resistance to change under the reaction conditions. The WebReactions
program mirrors this approach for indexing reaction entries in any database."
15. Spectral Database for Organic Compounds "SDBS is an integrated spectral database

system for organic compounds,which includes 6 different types of spectra under a
directory of the compounds"
16. Electronic Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis "This online edition is more
than a Major Reference Work, as it combines the complete text of the Encyclopedia
with the sophistication of a Database including all the chemical reactions and
structures!"
17. CrystalEye "The aim of the CrystalEye project is to aggregate crystallography from web
resources, and to provide methods to easily browse, search, and to keep up to date
with the latest published information."
18. mylims.org "mylims.org allows anybody to store and process NMR spectra on‐line. By
default all your spectra are only accessible to yourself but you may decide to share your
spectra with a group of people or to anybody."
19. ChemSynthesis "ChemSynthesis is a freely accessible database of chemicals. This
website contains substances with their synthesis references and physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point and density. There are currently more than 40,000
compounds and more than 45,000 synthesis references in the database."
20. Spectra Online "The Spectra Online database is a collection of public domain and other
data generously contributed from various sources."
21. ChemWiki "... a collaborative approach toward chemistry education where an Open

Access textbook environment is constantly being written and re‐written partly by
students and partly by faculty members resulting in a free Chemistry textbook to
supplement conventional paper‐based books."
22. Electronic Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis "This online edition is more
than a Major Reference Work, as it combines the complete text of the Encyclopedia
with the sophistication of a Database including all the chemical reactions and
structures!"
23. CrystalEye "The aim of the CrystalEye project is to aggregate crystallography from web
resources, and to provide methods to easily browse, search, and to keep up to date
with the latest published information."
24. mylims.org "mylims.org allows anybody to store and process NMR spectra on‐line. By
default all your spectra are only accessible to yourself but you may decide to share your
spectra with a group of people or to anybody."
25. ChemSynthesis "ChemSynthesis is a freely accessible database of chemicals. This
website contains substances with their synthesis references and physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point and density. There are currently more than 40,000
compounds and more than 45,000 synthesis references in the database."
21. Spectra Online "The Spectra Online database is a collection of public domain and other
data generously contributed from various sources."
22. FTIRSearch.com "... dedicated to providing analytical chemists with on‐line access to
high quality FTIR and Raman spectral libraries."
23. Crystallography Open Database "Open‐access collection of crystal structures of organic,
inorganic, metal‐organic compounds and minerals, excluding biopolymers"
24. MatWeb "MatWeb's searchable database of material properties includes data sheets of
thermoplastic and thermoset polymers such as ABS, nylon, polycarbonate, polyester,
polyethylene and polypropylene; metals such as aluminum, cobalt, copper, lead,
magnesium, nickel, steel, superalloys, titanium and zinc alloys; ceramics; plus
semiconductors, fibers, and other engineering materials."
25. MassBank "... the first public repository of mass spectral data for sharing them among
scientific research community. MassBank data are useful for the chemical identification
and structure elucidation of chemical comounds detected by mass spectrometry."
26. RRuff "... creating a complete set of high quality spectral data from well characterized
minerals. Our collected data provides a standard for mineralogists, geoscientists,
gemologists and the general public for the identification of minerals both on earth and
for planetary exploration. ..."
27. MolPort "... 9 million different chemical compounds ready to order on one internet
resource ..”
List partially assembled by R. Apodaca.
Information Resources –
Books and Journals
Clemson Library Resources (http://www.clemson.edu/library/)
1. Find Information>more …>E‐Journals
2. E‐Books (http://www.clemson.edu/library/allsubjects/ebooks.html)
• Knovel Science and Technology Collection
– DIPPR Thermodynamic/Transport Property Data
– Yaw’s Thermodynamic Data
• Springer eReference Works
• EBSCO eBook Collection:
– Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook
• Reference Sources by Subject> ChBE
3. Library Reference Resources:
• Vapor‐liquid equilibrium data collection / J. Gmehling, U. Onken. :
Gmehling, Jürgen,; Cooper Reference: LIB USE ONLY; QD503 .G59
Chemical Process Diagrams
• 4 Levels of Process Diagrams
Ease of – Process Concept Diagram (PCD)
Understanding
– Block Flow Diagram (BFD)
– Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
Complexity – Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
• Chemical engineers routinely use BFDs, PFDs
and PIDs.
1
Process Concept Diagram
Process Concept Diagram for a Toluene Hydrodealkylation Process
2
Turton et al., 2012
Block Flow Process Diagram
A block flow diagram (BFD) is a simplified drawing of an overall
process in which major equipment, processes, or unit operations
are represented by blocks.
Block Flow
Diagram for the
Production of
Benzene
3
Turton et al., 2012
Block Flow Diagram (BFD)
Block Flow Diagram of
a Petroleum Refinery
(www.cieng.com,
accessed 8‐28‐13)
• Useful when the basic concepts of the process are unclear.
• Show plant operation without going through the process details.
4
Block Flow Diagram (BFD)
• Changes can be made with little wasted engineering effort.
• Process utility flows and non‐essential instrumentation are normally not shown.
• Basis for the material and energy balances.
Block Flow Plant Diagram
of a Coal to Higher
Alcohol Fuels Process
(Turton, 2012)
5
Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is a simplified schematic description of a
process and includes:
• Basic equipment and piping needed to understand the process
• Temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and duties that define normal
operation
• Establishes material and energy balances and process conditions
• Provides information to other disciplines involved in the design work
• Provides a basis for equipment data sheets, line sizing, modes of control,
instrument data sheets, and P&ID's
• Serves as a basis for other system sketches, diagrams and engineering
documentation
– Temperature and pressure
– Operating and design conditions
– Materials selection
– Line sizing
– Safety and isolation
– Control and non‐control instrumentation
6
• Process flow is generally left to right.
• Arrange PFD to allow room for revisions.
• Limit detail to a level corresponding to the project status.
Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the production of benzene via the hydrodealkylation of toluene. (Turton et al., 2012) 7

Fig. 1.5 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the production of benzene via the hydrodealkylation of toluene. (Turton et al., 2012) 8

Common PFD Symbols: Piping, Pumps and Valves
9
Common PFD Symbols: Heat Exchangers,
Separators, Towers and Tanks
10
Common PFD Symbols: Valves and Regulators
Common Valve Types
Flow control:
Globe, Needle, Ball,
Butterfly?
Solids/Slurries:
Pinch, Diaphragm
On/Off control :
Ball, Butterfly, Gate
Large size:
Butterfly, Gate
11
Common PFD Symbols: Valve Conditions
DOE‐HDBK‐1016, Jan. 1993, Doe Fundamentals Handbook
Engineering Symbology, Prints, And Drawings 12
Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment
Process Equipment General Labeling Format XX‐YZZ A/B:
XX are the identification letters for the equipment classification
• C ‐ Compressor or Turbine
• E ‐ Heat Exchanger
• H ‐ Fired Heater
• P ‐ Pump
• R ‐ Reactor
• T ‐ Tower
• TK ‐ Storage Tank
• V ‐ Vessel
Y designates an area within the plant
ZZ are the number designation for each equipment item
A/B identifies parallel units or backup units not shown on a PFD
13
Utility Stream Abbreviations
Ips Low‐Pressure Steam: 3‐5 barg (sat)*
mps Medium‐Pressure Steam: 10‐15 barg (sat)*
hps High‐Pressure Steam: 40‐50 barg (sat)*
htm Heat Transfer Media (Organic): to 400 °C
Cooling Water: From Cooling Tower 30°C Returned at Less
cw
than 45 °C
wr River Water: From River 25°C Returned at Less than 35°C
rw Refrigerated Water: In at 5 °C Returned at Less than 15 °C
rb Refrigerated Brine: In at ‐45°C Returned at Less than 0 °C
cs Chemical Wastewater with High COD
ss Sanitary Wastewater with High BOD, etc.
el Electric Heat (Specify 220,440, 660V Service)
bfw Boiler Feed Water
ng Natural Gas
fg Fuel Gas
fo Fuel Oil
fw Fire Water
14
Typical data provided on a PFD material balance table:
• Stream Number • Vapor Fraction
• Temperature (°C) • Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/h)
• Pressure (bar) • Component Molecular Weight
• Total Mass Flow Rate (kg/h) • Total Volumetric Flow (m3/h)
• Total Mole Flow Rate (kmol/h) • Stream Density or Specific Gravity
Option data provided on a PFD material balance table:
• Thermodynamic Data: K‐values, Stream Enthalpy, etc.
• Significant Physical Properties: Viscosity, Heat Capacity, etc.
• Volumetric Flow Rates (m3/h)
• Component Mole Fractions
• Component Mass Fractions
15
PFD Stream Table
16
• The order for components should be from lowest to highest
molecular weight (from top to bottom of material balance). If a
component is not present on a sheet (even if it is on others), it can
be deleted from the material balance.
• Stream numbers should increase from left to right on the material
balance. Identical numbers and descriptions should be maintained
on any stream shown on more than one sheet.
• Utility flows are usually not shown in the material balance table.
• Batch processes should use batch quantities and step times in the
material balance table and diagram notes for simple processes.
• If the PFD becomes cluttered, a separate document should be
considered.
• Legend is shown on only the first PFD and is referred to on
subsequent sheets.
• Symbols for equipment are standard P & ID symbols or simplified
versions.
17
Equipment Information
Equipment Summary
Vessel V-101 V-102
Temperature (ºC) 55 38
Pressure (bar) 2.0 24
Orientation Horizontal Vertical
MOC CS CS
Size
Height/Length (m) 5.9 3.5
Diameter (m) 1.9 1.1

Internals s.p. (splash plate)
18
Turton et al., 2012
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (PID)
19
Turton et al., 2012
• Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), also known as a
mechanical flow diagrams (MFDs), are mechanical schematic
drawings of a process system or facility.
• They are a detailed graphic description of the process flow,
showing ALL piping, equipment, and instrument details.
• P&IDs show the name and design features of the process
equipment, including temperatures, pressures, flow rates,
duties, metallurgy, line sizes and equipment specifications.
• Used to guide detailed engineering design and construction of
process plants.
• P&ID's are the principal form of communication between those
who design the plant and those who own and operate it.
• It is important that P&ID's be complete and clear.
20
Layout Rules of Thumb
• No scale (it is only a schematic)
• When possible, show flow from left to right across page
• Number process equipment and stream from left to right
• Important process streams are heavy dark lines
• Less important streams (utilities and instrumentation) are
lightweight lines
• Horizontal process lines ‘break’ vertical process lines
  
• Process lines break instrumentation lines
  
• Pumps along bottom
• Tanks and vessels above pumps
21
Instrument and Controller Symbols
Common process instruments: thermocouples, pressure
gauges, flow meters, level sensors, etc.
22
ISA(5.1) Letter Codes for Process Instrumentation
First letter Succeeding letters

Symbol
Process, Measured, Readout or Passive
Modifier Output Function Modifier
or Initiating Variable Function
A Analyses Alarm
B Burner, Combustion User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
C Conductivity, User’s choice Controller
D Density, User’s choice Differential
E Voltage Element, Sensor
F Flow Rate Fraction
Sight glass, Viewing
G User’s choice
device
H Hand High
I Current (electrical) Indicator
J Power Scan
Time rate of
K Time, Time schedule Control Station
change
L Level Light (pilot/operation) Low

23
ISA(5.1) Letter Codes for Process Instrumentation
First letter Succeeding letters
Symbol Process, Measured, Readout or Passive
Modifier Output Function Modifier
or Initiating Variable Function
Middle,
M Moisture, User’s choice Momentary
Intermediate
N User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
O User’s choice Orifice, Restriction
P Pressure, Vacuum Test/Sample point
Q Quantity, Event Integrate, Total
R Radiation, Ratio Recorder
S Speed, Frequency Safety Switch
T Temperature Transmitter
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
V Viscosity, Vibration Valve/Damper
W Weight, Force Well
X Unclassified x-axis Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
Y Event, State or Presence y-axis Relay, Compute
Z Position, Dimension z-axis Driver, Actuator

24
Fermentation Process, PID Example
25
Polymer Process, PID Example
26
Polyester Production, PID Example
27
Polyester Production, PID Example
What are the items circled?

28
Special PIDs
• Chemical • Environmental
– Utility Flow Diagrams (UFD) − Pollution Control Diagrams
show boilers, cooling towers, heat show scrubbers, incinerators, and
transfer fluid heaters, refrigeration/ wastewater treatment systems
brine coolers, and air compressors • Civil/Structural
• Materials − Structural Steel
− Material Selection Diagrams − Excavation Drawings
• Piping − Foundation Drawings
– Piping Plan Drawings − Piling Drawings
– Isometric Pipe Diagrams • Mechanical
– Underground Piping − Fabricator Vessel Drawings
• Control Systems − Exchanger Drawings
– Loop Drawings − Air Cooler Drawings
– Wiring Diagrams − Pump Detail Drawings
– Logic Drawings − Tray Drawings
• Electrical • Construction
– Wiring Diagrams − Lift Plans
– Duct Bank
29
Material Selection Diagram
Billingham et al., “Corrosion and Materials Selection Issues in Carbon Capture Plants”, 2013 30
Actual Equipment Layout
Issues that determine the physical layout of equipment:
• Safety: Minimize the likelihood and severity of accidents.
• Operational convenience: Can you see instruments, get to valves?
• Maintenance: Can you pull tubes, get lifting equipment in place?
• Economics: What is the least expensive way, given restrictions above?
Section of Plot Plan Section of Elevation Diagram

31
Turton et al., 2012
Scale Models and Virtual Plants
• Physical models were once used for
review (e.g., refinery model ‐ Kunkle,
2013).
• Now virtual models (3‐D plant
diagrams) are used for review.
• Purpose of 3‐D Models
– Basis for construction drawings
– Early training of personnel
– Identify errors such as:
• Piping clashes, misaligned piping
• Equipment not easily accessed
• Sample points not easily reached
by operators
Software: KOMPAS‐3D v.10 (2013) 32
Isometric Pipe Diagrams
• Drawing that shows pipe lengths, fittings, instrument connections,
and elevation changes.
• Derived from 3‐D Models based on a Plot Plan.
• Match Line Numbers between P&IDs and Isometrics
33
www.fluor.com (accessed 8‐28‐13)
Isometric, Plan and Elevation Presentations of a
Piping System
The isometric view (lower left) clearly shows the piping arrangement. The plan view
(upper right) fails to show the bypass loop and valve; thus, a supplementary elevation
view is needed.
34
www.wermacs.org, accessed 8/20/15
How to read a Piping Isometric Diagram?
• Pipe in an isometric view is always drawn by a single line. This
single line is the centerline of the pipe and indicates the pipe
dimensions.
• The image below shows a orthographic view of a butt welded
pipe with three different pipe lengths.
• The red lines show the pipe, the black dots are the butt welds
and A, B & C are the dimensions of front to center line and
center line to center line.
35
3‐D Pipe Diagrams
36
(accessed 8‐28‐13)
Work Flow for PIDs
(Fluor Example, fluor.com)
Issued Internal to Fluor
Issued to Client
“In‐house” Review
Revision Designator P&ID's
A, B, C, ... Internal distribution
0 (Zero) "For Client Approval" (FCA)
1, 2, 3, … "Approved For Design" (AFD) or “Issued for Construction" (IFC)
lA, 2B, … For internal distribution after initial external issue. 37
IdeaPFDPIDIsometricsWorking Plant
38
www.fluor.com (accessed 8‐28‐13)
Summary
• Three principal diagrams (BFD, PFD, and P&ID) are used to
convey increasingly specific technical information about a
process.
• It is important to adhere to common standards for these
diagrams to avoid confusion
• Information on equipment layout is most clearly conveyed
through a 3‐D plant layout (isometric) diagram.
39
Handouts for Class
• ISA letter codes (from Word file)
• PID symbol slides
• PFD equipment labeling slides
• Isometric (3‐D) drawing – follows
• Fig. 1.5 ‐ Turton
40
Double Block and Bleed Valve
Assembly
41
www.pinstopin.com
Relief Valve/Rupture Disk
• Used to safely relieve pressure from lines and
vessels when it exceeds a predetermined limit.
• Pressure gauge is important! Helps indicate
small (pin hole) leaks in rupture disk.
3" Relief valve
PI
Rupture Disk
2"
42
43
Draw a P&ID diagram for the section
outlined in red.
44
Hierarchy of Process Design
1. Batch, continuous, or semi‐batch process?
• Production rates
• Unique process/plant requirements
2. Define process inputs and outputs.
• Feed, product and waste streams
3. Identify needed process recycle streams.
• Incomplete conversion in reactors
• Incomplete chemical separation
4. Identify and design required separation processes.
• Product purity requirements
• Waste stream treatment
5. Reduce process energy demands.
• Heat integration
• Heat recovery 1
D. A. Bruce and C. H. Gooding, 2015
Batch or continuous process,
how do we decide?
• Batch → sequen al fill and empty, start and stop;

Individual steps operate in unsteady state (at any
particular point process variables change with time).
• Continuous → a string of connected steps, each
operating in a more or less steady state condition
(generally, process variables are “constant”).
• Semi‐batch → some steps are batch; some are
continuous; buffer tanks between sections.
2
Batch Processes
Fermenters , St. James's Gate Brewery
Waste Water Treatment Bioreactor Pharmaceutical/Chemical Batch Reactor
3
Continuous Processes
M&M Candy Factory
Motiva Enterprises, Port Arthur Petroleum Refinery
(600,000 bbl/d capacity, largest in US)
Vehicle Exhaust Treatment System 4
Guinness Brewery PFD
St. James's Gate, Dublin
5
Is this a continuous or batch process? Check PFD annotation.
Batch vs. Continuous
Factors in the Decision
• Size → Production Rate
• Scale Up Requirements
• Safety
• Reaction Rate Extremes
• Fouling and Plugging
• Operational Flexibility
6
Batch vs. Continuous
Factors in the Decision
• Control Issues
• Processing Efficiency
• Operating and Maintenance Labor
• Quality and Accountability
• Product Flexibility
• Capital Investment and Operating Cost
7
Size → Production rate
• Consider a production rate of 1 million lb/yr
Assume ~90% utilization rate for the plant.
1 million lb/yr ÷ 8000 hr/yr ≈ 125 lb/hr ≈ 17 gal/hr
For reference: the average bathroom shower head delivers
2.5 gl/min (150 gal/hr) of water
• Reactors
→ 1250 lb/batch if 10 hr turnaround
→ 170 gal CSTR if 10 hr nominal residence time
→ 20 ft3 PFR (D, L, mixing, kinetics?)
8
Size → Production rate
Basis:
1 million lb/yr ÷ 8000 hr/yr ≈ 125 lb/hr ≈ 17 gal/hr
• Distillation (vapor velocity ~ 3 ft/s)
→ 1 ft diameter if boilup = 500 lb/hr
• Pipe flow (liquid velocity ~ 6 ft/s)
→ 1/8‐inch schedule 40 pipe is too big!
• Economy of scale (six‐tenth rule, (capacity)0.6 = cost)
< 1 million lb/yr is usually batch
> 10 million lb/yr is usually continuous
9
Scale Up Requirements
• Critical issues include:
– Reaction (rate limited or equilibrium?)
– Mass transfer (mixing, interfacial area)
– Heat transfer (mixing, surface area)
– Safety
• Batch might scale directly from lab data.
• Continuous rarely scales directly from lab.
– Requires a quantitative model or data from continuous
equipment of similar geometry.
10
Safety
• Batch operations require more frequent handling
and cleaning, which can increase worker exposure to
chemicals.
• Batch operators can tolerate more demanding
hazard protections if they are required only
occasionally.
• Batch operations typically require more safety
training because operators must learn more
variations and conditions.
11
Reaction Rate Extremes
• The long times required by very slow reactions are
better accommodated by batch processing (e.g.,
fermenters)
12
http://www.gea‐ps.com, accessed 2014
• Catalyst requirements can
dictate the type of equipment
(e.g., packed bed reactor,
catalytic cracker).
Example: In a crude
oil cracking unit (see
figures), oil is contacted
with hot zeolite powder
catalyst in a fluidized
bed reactor. Within
minutes, the catalyst is
completely covered in
coke (charcoal) and is
inactive. The catalyst
must be regenerated by
burning away the
carbon material. 13
www.catalysis‐ed.org.uk, accessed 2014
• Very fast reactions might require large surface‐to‐
volume ratio for heat exchange, which is easiest in a
tubular, continuous flow reactor (e.g., Fischer‐
Tropsch reactors).
• Very fast, adiabatic reactions work well in
continuous, tubular flow or tank reactors. Liquids
usually require mixing, gases often don’t.
14
Fouling and Plugging
• Batch operations allow more ways to handle difficult
solutions and solids that tend to foul or plug.
• Batch operations provide more options and
opportunities for cleaning .
• If plugging and high fouling rates cannot be designed
out of a continuous process, they can cause costly
shutdowns and possibly safety problems.
15
Fouled catalyst screen (Maverick Inspections) Tubular reactor fouling
Cleaning Fouled Tubes
• Several devices exist for cleaning small diameter
fouled tubes.
rotating shaft
16
conco.com (left) and goodway.com (right)
Cleaning Fouled Tubes
• When chemical treatments are ineffective, large
vessels must be cleaned by manual hydro blasting or
automatic hydro blasting machines.
17
precidose.com
Operational Flexibility
• Batches more easily accommodate changes in
operating conditions and multiple uses of the same
equipment.
• Designing a lot of operational flexibility into a
continuous process will usually increase capital
investment and reduce operating efficiency.
18
Control Issues
• The operational flexibility and multiple use
advantages of batch processes usually require more
sophisticated controls that cost more and require a
higher level of technical support.
• Continuous process are often better understood and
subject to fewer anomalous conditions. Thus, the
controls are simpler and more easily tuned.
However, large highly‐integrated plants (e.g., oil
refinery) can be more difficult to control/operate.
Control Room: Chevron's

Pascagoula Refinery, KY
(30,000 barrels of oil a day)
19
Processing Efficiency
• Batch equipment is usually not optimized for one
particular purpose. Often designed for the most
extreme case (materials, size, etc.) where it might be
used.
• Each step of a continuous processes can be optimized
for a specific purpose at specific conditions. This can
reduce capital expense and operating costs.
• Energy integration and recycle of unused raw
materials may not be not feasible in batch operations
due to time offsets.
20
Operating and Maintenance Labor
• Batch processes typically require more attention
from operators and more variations and non‐ideal
steps that lead to more frequent maintenance
requirements.
• Continuous processes are easier to optimize and
automate, which allows leaner operating crews and
fewer maintenance interventions.
• Continuous operations can reduce training
requirements because there are fewer variations to
learn.
21
Quality and Accountability
• Day tanks provide flexibility in continuous
operations and reduce losses if customer
requirements allow blending and reworks.
• When products are subject to stringent regulatory
requirements (pharmaceuticals and food),
individual batches are more easily verified, certified,
and isolated if necessary.
22
Product Flexibility
• Batch equipment can provide the flexibility to make
multiple products with significantly different reaction
and separation requirements.
• Multiple product capability can increase utilization of
capital investment and allow the company to
respond better to changing markets and seasonal
conditions.
• Continuous processes can be designed to swing
between closely related products and to operate
over a range of conditions if the product
requirements are not too different. “Campaigning” is
a common strategy.
23
Capital Investment
and Operating Costs
To compare batch and continuous options
correctly you need to:
‐ Predict future market conditions (operating costs,
market demand, and product value).
‐ Design and optimize both alternatives.
‐ Compare the profitability of each using net present
value (NPV) or discounted cash flow rate of return
(DCFROR).
24
References (Batch vs. Continuous)
Turton, et al., Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of
Chemical Processes, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 2012.
Gorsek, A. and P. Glavic, “Design of batch versus
continuous processes,” Trans IChemE, Part A, Chem
Eng Res Des, Part I vol 75(1997), pp 709‐717; Part II
vol 75 (1997), pp 718‐723; Part III vol 78(2000), pp
231‐244.
25
• Heat recovery 1
Feed Purity and Trace Components
When to Remove Impurities?
First, identify where the separation of impurities from
products/reactants will be easiest.
Purify the feed:
• If catalyst poisoning will occur (e.g., remove sulfur)
• If impurities react to form difficult‐to‐separate or hazardous
products
• If impurities are present in large quantities (>20%)
• If impurities adversely affect materials of construction selection
(i.e., higher cost materials required)
2
Feed Purity and Trace Components
When to Remove Impurities?
Do not purify the feed (in most cases):
• If impurities are present in small amounts (<10%) and do not
react to form by‐products
• If the separation of impurities is difficult (e.g., forms an
azeotrope with the feed)
• If the impurities are inert and are more easily separated from
products
3
Factors Affecting Process Inputs
• Nature of reaction/separation process
– Process scale (e.g., high or low flow rates)
– Gas, liquid or solid phases present
– Feed stock delivery method
– Thermal control considerations (e.g., freezing point, boiling
point, and decomposition temperature)
– Inherent safety of chemical feed material
• Shock sensitive reagents
– Na and Pb azides (car air bags)
– nitrated organics ‐ picrates, lead styphnate (bullet primer), organic peroxides
• Water/oxygen reactivity
– pyrophoric materials ‐ alkali metals, powdered metals, t‐butyl lithium,
triethylborane
– ethers, especially THF, can form shock sensitive peroxides
– methyl isocyanate (Bhopal disaster), sodium sulfide, etc.
• Toxicity/carcinogenicity
– carbon monoxide, chlorine gas, phosgene, methyl mercury, etc.
4
• Nature of reaction/separation process
– Stability of feeds and products
• Shear sensitive materials (e.g., latex emulsions, starch rich foods,
biomolecules and cells)
• Light sensitivity
• Reactive reactants/products (e.g., cyclopentadiene dimerization)
• Stabilizers are often added to prevent feed/product degradation
(e.g., dibutylhydroxy toluene (BHT) is a common antioxidant added
to solvents to prevent explosive peroxides from forming).
Energetics of cyclopentadiene dimerization

∆Hº = -18.4 kcal/mole ∆H‡ = +15 kcal/mole
∆Sº = -34 cal/ ºK mole ∆S‡ = -32 cal/ ºK mole
∆Gº = -8.3 kcal/mole ∆G‡ = +24.5 kcal/mole
5
• Use of inert feed material (e.g., non‐reactive solvents –
water, nitrogen or other inert gas) are sometimes
added for safety
– eliminate explosion or flammability concerns
– help control highly endothermic/exothermic reactions (i.e.,
used as a thermal sink/source).
6
Material Transport Issues
Gases
◦ Easily transported, but higher cost compressors are required
◦ Material containment is straightforward
◦ Easily mixed (no mechanical stirring required)
Liquids
◦ Easily transported using moderate cost pumps
◦ Material containment is straightforward
◦ Easily mixed with other components (mechanical processes)
7
Material Transport Issues
Solids
locks for solid addition
◦ Easily transported using conveyors, blowers or as
a slurry
◦ Material containment can be difficult
◦ Plugging of process lines a major concern
◦ Mixing possible but more difficult and slow
(mechanical mixers)
◦ Special valves required
Mixed phases (solid‐liquid, liquid‐gas, solid‐gas)
◦ Difficult to transport (pump cavitation, settling of
solids, etc.)
◦ Difficult to mix (requires significant mechanical Coal combustion reactor.
agitation)
8
• Select raw materials and chemical reactions to avoid, or reduce,
the handling and storage of hazardous and toxic chemicals – i.e.,
Green Chemistry.
Example: Ethylene Glycol (EG) Production
• Both reactions are highly exothermic.
• Oxygen requires special handling.
(www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JkHB1hV7Hw)
• Ethylene oxide reacts aggressively
with water (i.e., storage tank hazard)
and can undergo violent
polymerization reactions if exposed
to heat and appropriate catalyst
(copper or iron oxide).
9
Alternatives to the two‐step EG process
Alternate Process 1: Use chlorine and caustic in a single
reaction step, to avoid the formation of the ethylene oxide
intermediate:
OH OH
H2C CH2 + Cl2 + 2 NaOH(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
H2C CH2
(storage of chlorine gas a hazard)
Alternate Process 2: As ethylene‐oxide is formed, react it with
carbon dioxide to form ethylene‐carbonate, a much less active
intermediate that can be stored safely and hydrolyzed, to form
the desired ethylene‐glycol product:
10
• Species are sometimes added in non‐stoichiometric amounts to drive
an equilibrium process to completion or prevent the formation of
byproducts.
Example: Consider using excess ethylene in vinyl chloride (C2H3Cl) production.
Overall Reaction: C2H4 + Cl2 → C2H3Cl + HCl
Chlorination of ethane: C2H4 + Cl2 ⇄ C2H4Cl2
11
• Heat recovery 12
Recycle Streams
• Recycle unreacted reagents back to reactor inlets.
Example: Vinyl chloride production from ethylene and chlorine gases.
13
Recycle Streams
• Recycle catalysts/solvents needed for chemical
reactions.
Indirect (anthraquinone) route for H2O2 production:
R=ethyl or amyl (see below)
recycle
anthraquinone H2O2 removed via
distillation using a
glass‐lined tower with
plastic packing
14
Recycle Streams
• Recycle solvents used for chemical separation.
Carbon Capture:
ethanolamine (MEA,
H2NCH2CH2OH) process for
the capture and underground
storage of CO2 emissions
from fossil fuel combustion at
power plants.
amine recycle loop
15
Recycle Streams
• Recycle utility streams used for heat transfer (e.g.,
water for process steam or heating oils)
Geothermal
Heating/Cooling
www.waterfurnace.com,
accessed 9‐12‐13
16
Factors Affecting Separation Schemes
• Determine the chemical and physical properties of species
needing to be separated.
− Phase (s, l, g)
− Hazards (check MSDS, flash point, corrosiveness)
− Reactivity and thermal stability
− Vapor‐Liquid, Liquid‐Liquid, Solid‐Liquid Equilibria
− Density
− Melting, boiling and/or softening point
− Surface tension
− Viscosity
− Molecular Characteristics:
◦ Molecular size or radius of gyration
◦ Chirality (important for pesticides and pharmaceuticals)
◦ Polarity
◦ Ionic character
18
• Scale of production.
− Small scale (batch, slower processes are acceptable)
− Large scale (continuous processes are more cost effective)
19
Determine the order in which chemicals should be
separated. Some points to consider:
– Remove hazardous or highly corrosive chemicals early
• Limit the number of process units exposed to these chemicals,
which enhances safety and reduces capital costs for downstream
equipment
– Remove highly volatile gases early
• Mixed phase flow is more difficult to deal with
– Remove components in largest amount early
• This will reduce the size of downstream units – lowering capital
and utility costs
20
For reversible reactions, it is possible to drive the reaction toward
the formation of products by selectively removing all or some of the
products.
− Reactive distillation
− Membrane reactor
− Reactive crystallization
Example: Manufacture of ethyl‐acetate using reactive distillation.
Conventional reaction processes involve the reaction proceeding to an acceptable
or limiting conversion, then all products are sent to be purified using appropriate
separation processes, and unreacted species are recycled back to the reactor.
21
Reactive Distillation
Methyl Acetate Production
methyl
acetate
acetic acid
methanol
Boiling Point
Acetic acid = 118 °C
Methanol = 65 °C
Methyl acetate = 57 °C
Water = 100 °C
H2 O
22
Heat Integration and Heat recovery
The development of a heat integrated plant can
significantly reduce operating and capital costs for a
process and can help reduce the overall environmental
impact of the plant.
• Save fuel/costs
• Generate electricity and mechanical work
• Sell heat and electricity
• Reduce cooling needs/costs
• Reduce capital investment costs
• Increase production (if additional capacity exists)
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
24
Waste Heat Recovery
• A poorly optimized
process with no
integration is shown to the
left.
• Heat integration allows
waste heat to be recycled
and used in other
processes
– Reduces utility costs
– Lowers CO2 emissions
– Reduces capital costs for
heat and cooling equipment
25
www.alfalaval.com/waste‐heat‐recovery
Local Heat Integration
• Excess process
heat is used to
lower plant utility
expenses.
26
Direct Process Heat Integration:
In/Out Heat Exchangers
• Feed/effluent or in‐and‐out heat exchangers
are different names for the same concept:
preheating of an ingoing stream of a unit
operation using heat from the outgoing stream.
Commonly used with:
• Reactors
• Absorption/stripping systems
• Leaching tanks
• Distillation columns
• Evaporation systems
27
Heat Integration Between Reactors
• Steam Reforming: CH4 + H2O ⇌ CO + 3H2
Temperature: 900 °C, ΔH295K = −206 kJ/mol (exothermic)
• Fischer‐Tropsch (F‐T) Reaction: (2n + 1)H2 + nCO → CnH(2n+2) + nH2O
Temperature: 250 °C, highly exothermic reactions
Heat
• Water cools the combined Integration
system.
• The highly exothermic F‐T
process converts coolant water Syngas
to steam.
• The steam from the coolant F‐T
Steam Reactor Steam
side of the F‐T reactor is used Reformer Drum
as feed to the reformer. Hydrocarbon Steam
• Excess heat from the reformer Products
(diesel fuel)
is removed by the cooler diesel Fresh
products from the F‐T reactor. Water
This heat is later used in Steam
distillation towers used to
purify the diesel product. Saturated
Water
Methane
28
Fischer‐Tropsch Reactor
Sasol "slurry" Reactor - Fischer-Tropsch Gasification. (source,

CSFB Global Oil & Gas Conf., 2005, Enrico Ganter, Sasol Limited)
Heat integration is essential for Fischer‐Tropsch
processes of this scale. 29
Indirect Process Heat Integration:
Hot Oil Loops
• Indirect process heat integration differs from direct process
heat integration in that an intermediate circuit is used for
transferring heat between the two process streams.
• The transfer medium (water or thermal oil) absorbs heat in one
part of the plant and releases it in another.
– Dowtherm (Dow Chemical Co.) and Therminol (Eastman Chemical
Co.) ‐ hydrocarbon and silicon based heat transfer fluids
• This approach is used when:
– Direct contact between heat source and heat sink is not allowed ‐
intermediate circuit is a safety barrier enabling leaks to be detected
in the loop, preventing the process fluids from mixing.
– Long distances need to be covered.
– Flexibility and reduced interdependence is required.
– Equipping the intermediate circuit with standby coolers and heaters
makes it easier to disconnect a unit operation for maintenance,
avoiding interdependence between plants.
– One heat sink requires multiple heat sources.
30
Excess Heat to Electrical Power
• Many plants generate their own electricity by
directing part of the steam from a process‐heat
boiler to a turbine.
• For plants where heat recovery offers the
opportunity to increase electricity generation, the
new possible power output may be greater than
needed in the plant. In this is the case, it may be
possible to sell the surplus to neighboring plants or
to the public utility power grid.
31
Excess Heat to Offsite Power/Heat
• Excess process heat is
sent offsite in several
forms:
– Steam
– Hot oil
– Electrical Power
• Energy is sent to other
industrial complexes or
to civilian systems
– District heating involves
distributing heat generated
in a centralized location for
residential and commercial
heating requirements, such
as space heating and water
heating (e.g., distributed
heating systems in
Norway).
32
Process Conditions
• What processing conditions (temperature and
pressure) are required for reaction and separation
processes?
• What process utilities are available/needed?
– Heating
– Cooling
– Waste treatment
• What materials of construction (MOC) are required?
• Cost?
• Iterate on the above!
1
Heuristics for Temperature and Pressure
Temperature
< 40 °C > 250 °C > 400 °C
Special Materials
Requires Requires Fired
of Construction
Refrigeration Heater
(MOC)
Pressure
< 1 atm >10 atm
Requires Vacuum Thick Vessel/Pipe Walls
(high cost $)
2
Process Cooling Methods
• Process Cooling Systems
– Once‐through cooling (open loop)
– Wet tower cooling (closed loop)
– Dry cooling (air cooling)
3
Alstom.com
Process Cooling: Methods and Issues
4
Air Cooled Condensers (ACC)
5
http://www.gea‐heatexchangers.com
Selection of Process Cooling Technology
• Water availability and regulations are most important in determining the preferred
cooling method
• Economically, water costs are third most important
• Open and Closed Loop Cooling require access to water 6
• Air Cooled Condensers (ACC) (less efficient) do not need water
Cost Comparison of Closed Loop and
Air Cooled Condensers
7
Refrigeration Systems
• T < 40 °C Refrigeration Systems
• Use as much cooling water as possible!
• Operating Costs (Turton, Table 8.3)
– Cooling Water (30‐40 °C): $0.35 / GJ
– Refrigerated Water (5‐15 °C): $4.43 / GJ
8
Cooling Water Cost
9
Water and Sewar Costs
BLACK & VEATCH 2012/2013 “50 LARGEST
CITIES WATER/WASTEWATER RATE SURVEY”
Utility Costs (U.S. in 2013) Commercial Industrial

Water/Sewar Usage (gal/month) 100,000 10,000,000
Water Cost ($/gal) 0.00399 0.00355
Sewar Cost ($/gal) 0.00548 0.00525 10
Industrial Scale Water and Sewar Costs in the U.S.
Note: table lists $52,520 per month for 10,000,000 gallons of

11
sewar waste in 2013 (plot doesn’t mention the x 1000 factor!)
Refrigerant Cost
12
High Process Temperatures
• 400 °C > T > 250 °C
– Requires ultra‐high pressure steam (> 600 psig steam)
– Molten salt loop (nitrate salts to 550 °C, chlorides to 1100 °C)
– Dowtherm (Dow, up to 400 °C, biphenyl and diphenyl oxide)
– Therminol (Eastman, up to 385 °C, terphenyl/quaterphenyl)
– Fired heaters ( up to 1250 °C, are very expensive)
• Heat Exchanger = $ 1.70 x 105
• Fired Heater = $ 1.81 x 106
• T > 400 °C
– Material of construction issues (high cost)
• e.g., stainless steel instead of carbon steel
13
– Fired heaters often required
Fired Process Heaters/Furnaces
• Direct process heaters
often use natural gas or
liquid fuels to heat process
fluids and generate steam.
14
Limits for Steam Heating
Low Pressure Steam: < 50 psig
Medium Pressure Steam: 50 – 250 psig
High Pressure Steam: 250‐600 psig Tc,H2O=374 °C
Ultra‐High Pressure Steam: > 600 psig 15
Pressure
• Vacuum
– Slightly higher cost due to stiffening rings
– Large equipment
– Air leaks
• High Pressure
– Thick walls = high cost ($)
– H2 embrittlement
– Safety
16
Vacuum Steam Jet Ejector
Advantages
• Low capital cost
• No moving parts.
• Simple construction
• Good corrosion resistance
• Reliability (low maintenance cost)
http://www.tlv.com/global/TI/steam‐theory/principal‐
• High vacuum performance applications‐for‐steam.html (accessed 9/15/13)
(low torr pressures)
Disadvantages
• Moderately high utilities cost 17
Minimum and Maximum Pressure
Collapse was caused by reduced pressure in the vessel. How?
18
Materials of Construction
• Metals: widely used, easy to fabricate equipment and pipe, have high
strength, and are resistance to fracture.
• Glasses: considered too prone to fracture for large‐scale plant equipment,
highly resistant to corrosion, except by fluorides and strong bases.
• Ceramics: stable at very high temperatures, generally very resistant to
chemical attack, but difficult to fabricate and usually brittle.
• Polymers: inexpensive, some are resistant to chemical attack strength and
temperature stability are increased.
• Linings and coatings: Many chemical resistant materials are not suitable for large
equipment – for example, they are difficult to form into a desired shape, aren’t
easily joined with other process units (e.g., can’t be welded), are mechanically
unstable (brittle or soft), or are too expensive. However, the desired chemical or
thermal resistance of these materials can be incorporated into a variety of process
units by coating them on another material, such as carbon steel. Examples are
glass‐lined piping and vessels; polymer‐coated gaskets, o‐rings, pipes and vessels.
19
Criteria for Materials Selection
Many factors influence material choice, but safety issues trump all others.
• Strength
– Be able to withstand pressure gradients
– Ease of fabrication
– Ductility, weldability, castability. Metals are ideal.
• Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
– A sudden blow, rapid change in temperature, or a continuously
applied stress can cause a brittle material to fail catastrophically, i.e.
fracture.
• Tendency to form Sparks
– For example, brass tools are sometimes supplied to maintenance
personnel working on steel vessels
• Corrosion and chemical resistance, including oxidation resistance
• Chemical compatibility
• Temperature stability
• Cost! 20
Construction Material Cost Ratio
21
Material of Construction: Metals
Widely used, easy to fabricate equipment and pipe,
have high strength, and are resistance to fracture.
• Carbon steel ($, poor chemical resistance)
• Stainless steel ($$, improved hardness, chemical
resistance, strength, cryogenic toughness)
– Type 304, 316 (austenitic), also contain Mo
– Type 440 (martensitic)
• Nickel alloys ($$$, improved acid resistance)
– Monel, Hastelloy C
• Titanium ($$$, excellent acid and good halogen azom.com
resistance)
• Tantalum ($$$$$, excellent acid/halogen
resistance)
22
Materials of Construction
Maximum allowable stresses for materials of construction as a
function of operating temperature (Data from Turton, Perry)
• Carbon steel, < 400 °C

• Stainless steel, < 600 °C
Minimum Wall Thickness
PR
t  CA
SE  0.6P
• Wall thickness (t, meters)
• Design pressure (P, bar)
• Vessel radius (R, meters)
• Design stress (S, max allowable working pressure, bar) ‐ this is
a function of material and temperature
• Weld efficiency(E, a value of ~ 0.9)
• Corrosion allowance (CA, 0.00315 to 0.00625 meters)
Minimum Wall Thickness
• Example, a 36 inch Diameter Vessel with a CA of ¼ in.
made of carbon steel (CS) with S = 13,700 psi
Pressure (P, Thickness

t/CA
bar) (t,m)
1 0.0069 1.09
4 0.0085 1.34
10 0.0118 1.86
• As P > 10 then t >CA

Material of Construction
1 m Diameter Vessel made of SA285 - Grade A Carbon Steel
10.0
CS @ 500 oC
Thickness of Vessel Wall, m
1.0
0.1 CS < 300 oC
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Operating Pressure, bar
From Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes, Fourth Edition, by Richard Turton, Richard C. Bailie, Wallace B. Whiting, Joseph Shaeiwitz, and Debangsu Bhattacharyya
(ISBN-13: 978-0-13-261812-0) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 26
Utility Design Criteria (Fluor, 1993)
27
Conclusions
The utility trends outlined below can be used to
optimize the operating costs of chemical plants.
• T < 4 °C – Refrigeration, non‐water based
• T < 40 °C – Refrigeration combined with water cooling
• T > 250 °C – Fired heater or furnace
• T > 400 °C – Materials of construction issues
• P < 1 atm – Vacuum and large equipment
• P > 10 atm – Higher costs
Operating Conditions: Summary
Wall Thickness Increases
10 atm
Requires Requires Requires
Refriger‐ Fired Special
ation Heater M.O.C.
1 atm
40 °C 250 °C 400 °C

Vacuum – Large Equipment
Types of Solid Particles
www.iqsdirectory.com 1
Basic Components of A Pneumatic
Conveying System
www.bme.au 2
Solids Handling Equipment
3
Flexible Screw Conveyors
www.flexicon.com 4
Solids Delivery Rotary Valve
www.rotodisc.com 5
Venturi Feeder/Eductor
www.kilburnengg.com
6
Solids Handling Valves
Pinch Valve Knife Gate Valve
www.solidsonline.com
Gate Valves
• Very common.
• Fluid direction does not change.
• Diameter through which the process fluid passes is essentially equal to
that of the pipe.
Pinch Valves
• The tube is pinched to close by mechanical or hydraulic means.
• Fluid direction does not change.
• Valves are full bore and have linear action, i.e., they can be used for both
shut‐off and control applications.
• Pressure/temperature are limited by the properties of the sleeve material.
• Minimal pressure drop when opened fully
www.dustcollectorhq.com 7
Air Blowers
• Rotary Lobe Blowers
– Positive displacement device.
– Often a tri‐lobe model in
used to reduce pulsations in
air flow.
• Turbo Blowers
– High efficiency
valentineengineers.com
Dilute Phase Dilute
Flexible Positive‐ Phase Tubular
Conveyor Characteristics Screw Pressure Vacuum Cable
Conveyors Pneumatic Pneumatic Conveyors
Conveyors Conveyors
Short distances ✔ ✔ ✔
Medium distances ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Long distances ✔ ✔ ✔
Low initial cost ✔
Lowest energy consumption ✔ ✔
Indirect conveyor routing required ✔ ✔
Flexible conveyor routing required ✔ ✔
Simplest installation ✔
Multiple material sources ✔ ✔ ✔
Multiple material destinations ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Mobile units ✔ ✔
Evacuation of material from
✔ ✔ ✔
conveying system
No separation of blends ✔ ✔
Convey directly from barrel ✔
Materials that pack, cake or smear ✔
Heat‐sensitive material ✔ ✔
High temperature material ✔ ✔
Ultra‐high temperature
✔
destination
Contamination‐sensitive material ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Hazardous material ✔ ✔ ✔
www.flexicon.com 9
Pneumatic Conveying of Solids
Note the large radius bends
in pipes containing solids.
Why not have sharper
bends?
10
Pneumatic Conveying
• Pneumatic conveying is the movement of solids
through pipes and vessels using a gas (often air or
nitrogen) as the motive force.
• It differs from hydraulic or slurry conveying in that
the gas expands continuously along the pipe length.
• The flow regime within the pipe depends greatly on
the ratio of solids to gas and the particle
characteristics.
11
Advantages of Pneumatic Conveying
for Moving Bulk Solids
• Limit exposure of hazardous product to the environment
• Transport over relatively long distances
• Excellent for multiple sources and destinations
• Safely transport material that is air or moisture sensitive
• Compared to mechanical conveyors, relative ease in
system routing, especially elevation changes
• Interfaces well with trucks, railcars, ships
• High reliability with comparatively few moving parts
12
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Conveying
• Pipe/component wear
• Limited conveying distances (a few thousand feet) ‐ difficult
to overcome gas expansion issue!
• Not well suited for larger, higher‐density particles
• Particle Specific Issues:
– Granules: Increased granule damage at higher gas
velocities.
– Plastic pellets: High velocities create dust and streamers
– Abrasive materials: Severe wear of pipes and components
13
Erosion Due To Particle Flow
www.pelletroncorp.com 14
Influence of Fluid Velocity on Erosive
Wear of Pipe Bends (sand example)
Wear rate ∝ vn, n = 2 to 6 (typically 3)
15
Cocurrent Gas‐Solids Flow in Horizontal Pipes
www.ppimt.com.cn 16
Gas‐Solid Flow Characteristics
www.pelletroncorp.com 17
Pneumatic Conveying of Solids
• Stokes' Law states that the terminal velocity of a
particle falling through a fluid is determined by the
particle density, diameter, shape, and fluid
properties, such as density and viscosity.
• In pneumatic conveying terms, a flowing gas will
drag particles with it above a gas velocity that is
characteristic of the solid particle and gas physical
properties ‐ this characteristic gas velocity is known
as the saltation velocity.
• Particles traveling above the saltation velocity are
suspended in stream flow with the gas – i.e., they are
entrained in the gas stream.
18
Stoke’s Law
• For smooth, non‐interacting particles of identical size, Fd (N) is the
frictional force or Stokes' drag acting on the particle‐fluid interface
under laminar flow conditions, μ is the dynamic viscosity (kg /m∙s),
r is the radius of the spherical object (m), and v is the particle's
velocity (m/s).
Fd  6rv
• For a sphere falling at it’s terminal or settling velocity (vs), the gravitational force
(Fg) arising from the difference of the weight and buoyancy of the falling sphere is
defined as:
Fg 
4
3
  p   f  g r 3
where ρp and ρf are the mass density of the sphere and fluid (kg/m3), respectively,

and g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
• When the drag and gravitational forces are equal (i.e., Fd = Fg), the settling or
terminal velocity of the particle equals:
2   p  f  2
vs  gr
9 
• Particle movement is vertically downwards if ρp > ρf, upwards if ρp < ρf. 19
Saltation
• When the gas velocity is slowly decreased during dilute phase
conveying, material will begin to deposit or “salt out” at the
bottom of horizontal sections of the conveying system.
• Saltation is loading dependent – typically the higher the loading,
the higher the saltation velocity
• No single correlation predicts saltation across all gas and particle
parameters
• For plastic pellet systems, Rizk’s equation has been found to work
well
• Fine particle systems tend to have cohesion and so, although it
seems somewhat counterintuitive, saltation velocity will increase
as a function of particle size. This effect is well described by the
equation of Matsumoto (1977).
Saltation Equation - Rizk

1  vs 
  
Rizk’s equation


10  gD

where
μ is the phase ratio (kgs of solid/kg of gas)
vs is the saltation velocity
D is the pipe diameter
κ = 1.1dp + 2.5
δ = 1.44dp + 1.96
Note that the particle size, dp, must be in millimeters!!!
Basic Design Considerations for
Conveying Systems
• Number of sources and destinations?
– This is usually determined by plant conditions.
• Dense phase vs. dilute phase?
• Push vs. pull (leaf blower vs. vacuum cleaner)?
22
Flow Regimes For
Solids Handling
• Dilute Phase
– Dilute phase flow occurs when the gas velocity is higher
than the characteristic saltation velocity for a particular
solid material. The particles are suspended in the flowing
gas stream by gas‐to‐particle drag.
• Dense Phase
– Dense phase occurs when the gas velocity is lower than
the characteristic saltation velocity for a particular solid
material. The solids typically form pistons, where the wall‐
to‐piston friction is overcome by the pressure of the
flowing gas.
23
Dilute Phase Conveying System.
http://www.dynamicair.com/pdf/worldcement.pdf 24
Dense Phase Conveying System.
http://www.dynamicair.com/pdf/worldcement.pdf 25
Solids Handling Design Criteria
Low Press. Dilute Dense Phase Dense Phase
System Dilute Phase
Phase (Dune Flow) (Slug Flow)
Rotary Lobe Lobe Blower or
Gas Mover Fan Compressor
Blower Compressor
Pressure Range ± 0.75 psi ± 7 psi 15 ‐ 60 psi 30 ‐ 150 psi
Pressure Drop 0.25 – 0.5 psi 1 – 10 psi 5 – 30 psi 7 – 50 psi
Saturation Vacuum: 10 ‐ 30 Vacuum: 3 ‐ 5

0.35 – 0.75 0.1 – 0.35
(ft3 gas / lb solids) Pressure: 4.5 ‐ 13 Pressure: 1 – 3.5
Material Loading Vacuum: 0.45 – 1.3 Vacuum: 2.5 – 4.5
12 ‐ 45 45 ‐ 135
(lb solids / lb gas) Pressure: 1 ‐ 3 Pressure: 3.5 ‐ 13
Air Velocity
9,500 4,000 – 9,500 1,500 – 3,000 200 – 2,000
(ft/min)
Maximum
100 300 300 400
Capacity (tons/h)
Practical Distance Vacuum: 100 Vacuum: 100
3,000 8,000
Limits (ft) Pressure: 200 Pressure: 200
James Steel, “Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying” 26
Solids Handling
System Types
Key design issue is to
insure that the system
can handle the required
conveying rate to the
furthest destination!
27
Solids Handling System Types
System Type Advantages Disadvantages
• Inflexible at discharge.
• Flexible at pick‐up points. • Inefficient use of blower at
• Easy Dust Control. low pressure differential.
Vacuum • Handles heat sensitive • More costly; larger blower
materials. and piping required.
• Blower must be protected.
• Discharge to many use points
with ease. • Inflexible at material pick‐up
• Efficient use of blower at high points.
Pressure pressure differential. • Aftercooler required for heat
• No special filtration required sensitive materials.
to protect blower.
Combined • Flexible at pick‐ups and
discharges. • More costly than straight
Vacuum • Efficient over long distance on vacuum or pressure system.
Pressure the pressure side.
28
Solids Handling System Types
System Type Advantages Disadvantages
• More costly than straight
vacuum or pressure system.
• Allows for special atmospheres • Aftercooler usually required to
Closed Loop • Reduces emissions protect the blower
• Reduces operator exposure • Controls more complex;
startup usually requires bypass
of blowers
• More costly than straight
vacuum or pressure system
• Aftercooler usually required to
• Allows for special atmospheres
Inert or protect the blower.
required for quality or safety
• Controls more complex
Conditioned • Reduces emissions
• More equipment to supply
• Reduces operator exposure
Atmosphere and conserve specialty
• Reduces explosion hazards
atmosphere
• Suffocation hazard with inert
atmosphere.
29
Push vs. Pull Selection Guide
Number of Number of Vacuum or Pressure

Sources Destinations System?
1 1 either
1 Many Pressure preferred
Many 1 Vacuum preferred
Many Many either
30
Pneumatic Conveying Fundamentals
• In contrast to fluid flow with liquids, the conveying
gas expands along the length of the pipe, which
considerable effect on the design and operation
pneumatic conveying systems
• Contributions to pressure drop in a conveying
system
– Solids acceleration
– Head loss due to elevation change
– Bend or elbow or fitting loss
– Gas friction loss
– Solids friction loss
31
Dilute phase pressure drop
ΔPtotal = ΔPaccel + ΔPlift + ΔPbends + ΔPgas + ΔPsolids
Each component of pressure drop can have a significant impact

on conveying system performance.
Examples:
• Conveying of rubber – high solids friction
• Conveying of elastic materials – always accelerating
• Truck unloading – high lift component
• Tortuous conveying path – high bend pressure drop
Pressure drop due to air
 In this particular case, we use the
conventional friction factor
f g Lv
formulation we learned in fluid 2
mechanics
 If the conveying line is operated as
“air only”, then this number is Pair 
relatively easy to check with either a
gauge or hand held manometer near
2D
the blower.
 Note that the gas density needs to be
evaluated at each point in the pipe –
consequently, design calculations
usually are done by breaking the line
into many small pieces.
Pressure drop due to particle
acceleration
 The particles are required to
accelerate after being introduced into
the line – note that this is a one time
effect in the calculation
 Here v and ug are the particle and gas
velocities respectively
Pacc  v g u p
Pressure drop due to lift
 Standard treatment here as we would expect
Plift   p (1  )Hg

ε is the voidage and for dilute phase systems will
tend to be 0.99 or greater
Pressure drop due to bends
 Bends are quite common in
conveying systems and
numerous correlations have
been developed to calculate
bend pressure drop Pbend 
B(1  )  g v 2
 Note that when measuring 2D

pressure drop in the field, it
needs to be measured B is a bend factor usually taken
as being 0.5 for a long radius
several pipe diameters elbow
downstream of the exit of the
elbow to properly account for
particle reacceleration after
the bend.
Pressure drop due to solids friction
 The solids friction component
mirrors that of gas pressure loss
except for now we have a special
“solids friction factor”
 There are some existing
correlations for λZ both in the
 
Psolids  Z g
Lv 2
vertical and horizontal direction

 The friction factor can also be 2D
determined from either pilot plant
work or by careful analysis of a Note the impact of system
production plant loading on pressure drop!
Sizing Dilute Phase Pneumatic Systems Initial
Simple Cost Estimate for Blower
1. Estimate the bulk density (lb/ft3) of the solid material to be
transported.
2. Using the included plot (Dilute Phase Conveying Velocity),
calculate the required fluid velocity (ft/min) from the specified
particle size (particle diameter, in.) and bulk density (lb/ft3).
3. Compare the calculated fluid velocity from step 2 to that
shown in Table 18.1/Table 47‐1 for the specified material and
make appropriate adjustments to the listed value of required
volumetric gas flow rate (ft3/min).
4. Use chart of blowers cost as a function of gas flow rate to
determine final cost of blower system ($).
5. Adjust calculated blower price to current ($) using the
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index.
38
Dilute Phase Conveying Velocity
39
Dilute Phase
Conveying
Velocity
Pneumatic Conveying by Jacob Fruchtbaum

40
Purchased Cost of Blowers
CEPCI (2002) = 395.6
Peters, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, 2003.
41
42
FL values correspond to pressure losses in inches of water (“wg) at STP.
43
Friction Resistance
from Pipe Bends
1.5 DR Elbows 2.0 DR Elbows 2.5 DR Elbows
Bend Diameter Ratio = DR
Bending Ratio:
CLR / OD = DR
CLR ‐ Center Line Radius (in.)
O.D. ‐ Tube Outside Diameter (in.)
Example:
3" CLR / 3" OD = 1 DR
3.75" CLR / 3" OD = 1.25 DR
4.5" CLR / 3" OD = 1.5 DR
44
Material Conveying Calculations
1) Calculate the pounds of materials to be conveyed per minute (lbs/min).
2) Determine the weight (density) of the bulk solid material (lbs/ft3) – use Column B of included Table 47‐1 (or similar
table) if actual value is unknown. If your specific material is not listed, use values form a related material having
similar solid density.
3) Estimate the required air flow per lb of material using Column C of Table 47‐1 (ft3 of air per minute per lb of
material conveyed or CFM/lb).
4) Estimate the minimum conveying velocity (ft/min or FPM) using Column D in Table 47‐1.
5) Estimate the required suction pick‐up (inches of head of water at STP or “wg) using Column E in Table 47‐1.
6) Calculate the Total Minimum CFM of air required (Step 1 times Step 3).
7) Calculate the Actual CFM for specified duct. Using Table 47‐2, read across the line corresponding to the conveying
velocity (FPM) calculated in Step 4. Find the first CFM greater than the required CFM calculated in Step 6. Also,
record the duct size at the top of the column. Recognize that multiple ducts maybe needed if the rate of solid
material flow is too high.
8) Using the duct size identified in Step 7, record the friction loss value per 100 ft of duct from Table 47‐2.
9) Calculate the total equivalent length of straight horizontal supply duct by multiplying the length of straight vertical
duct by 2 and adding that value to the length of straight horizontal duct (use a factor of 1.5 for angled ducts).
10) Using Table 48‐1 calculate the factor for each type of bend in equivalent feet of horizontal duct per bend. Multiply
the bend factor by the number of each type of bend in the duct system. Sum all of the equivalent lengths to get the
total bend equivalent length of duct.
11) Calculate the total equivalent length of duct by adding the value from Steps 9 and 10.
12) Calculate pressure loss arising from friction (i.e., friction loss) by multiplying the friction loss value from Step 8 by
the total equivalent length of horizontal duct from Step 11 and diving by 100. This value is in inches of water gauge.
13) Using a 10% safety factor, calculate the total system pressure loss by adding the friction loss value from Step 12 to
the suction loss value from Step 5 and then multiplying that sum by 1.1.
www.spiralmfg.com 45
Worked Example:
In the following example, we will assume a requirement to convey 2,400 lbs/hr of “Wood Shavings, Heavy” through 200’ of
horizontal straight pipe. The Steps in this example correspond to the Steps in Figure 48‐1.
Step 1: Determine your materials conveying requirements from experience and future projections. Assumed to be 2,400 lbs/hr.
Convert pounds per hour to pounds per minute: 2,400 lbs/hr ÷ 60 = 40lbs/minute.
Step 2: Find your material type in column A, Table 47‐1. We chose Wood Shavings, Heavy. Reading across the row, determine
your material weight per cubic foot (lbs/ft3) from column B in Table 47‐ 1. We will use 15 lbs/ft3.
Step 3: Determine the CFM required to move 1 lb. of your material from column C, Table 47‐1. This equals 80 CFM.
Step 4: Determine the minimum conveying velocity from column D, Table 47‐1. This equals 5600 FPM.
Step 5: Determine the suction pickup from column E, Table 47‐1. This equals 3.0 ˝wg.
Step 6: Calculate the total minimum CFM requirement: Take (Step 2) times (Step 5). Our example equals 80 CFM/ lb. of material x
40 lbs/minute, which equals 3200 CFM minimum.
Steps 7 and 8 can be completed in one operation as follows: To determine the system static pressure requirements and duct size,
find your minimum conveying velocity (FPM) from Step 4. In the first column of Table 47‐2, find this velocity and read across the
row to the first CFM greater than or equal to (Step 6). This yields the new actual CFM for Step 7. The friction loss for Step 8 is
located in the same column. Now move up to the top of the column to get your duct size. In our example, reading across Table 47‐
2 from 5600 FPM to the first CFM greater than or equal to 3200 CFM yields a new actual CFM of 3696, a friction loss of 3.88 per
100 feet of duct, and a duct size of 11˝.
Step 9: Determine the equivalent feet of straight duct for horizontal and vertical pipe. We know 1’ of horizontal pipe equals 1’ of
equivalent straight duct, and 1’ of vertical pipe equals 2’ of equivalent straight duct. In our example, we have 200’ of equivalent
straight duct (there is no vertical duct in our example).
Step 10: Determine the equivalent feet of straight duct for all elbows. This equals 0 since there are no elbows in this example.
Step 11: Determine the total equivalent feet of straight duct by adding Steps 9 and 10. This equals 200’.
Step 12: Determine the system friction loss: divide Step 11 by 100, then times the Step 8 FR. Our example: ( 200 ÷100) x 3.88 =
7.76
Step 13: Calculate the total SP system loss with a 10% safety factor by adding Steps 5 and 12 (our total is 10.76) and multiplying
that sum by 1.1.
Our System fan minimum requirements equal: an 11” Fan inlet diameter with 11.84 “wg minimum at 3,696 CFM
(Spiral Manufacturing Co.) 46

Power Requirements for Pneumatic Conveying Systems
HP/ton=(pressure factor)(hp/T)(Sat.)
Sat. = (air ft3/min)/(lb solid/min)=air ft3/lb solid
hp/T = horsepower/(tons/hr of solid transferred)
Stoess, 1983 and Walas, 1988 47
Typical Blower Efficiencies (USEPA, 2010)
Nominal Blower Nominal Turndown
Blower Type
Efficiency (%) (% of rated flow)
Positive displacement
40‐65 50
(variable speed)
Multi‐stage centrifugal
50‐70 60
(inlet throttled)
Multi‐stage centrifugal
60‐70 50
(variable speed)
Single‐stage centrifugal,
integrally geared (with inlet
70‐80 45
guide vanes and variable
diffuser vanes)
Single‐stage centrifugal,
79‐80 50
gearless (high speed turbo)
48
Blower Types
49
References
• Jacob, Karl, “Introduction to Pneumatic Conveying of
Solids”, Dow Chemical Co. Webinar, accessed 2015.
50
1
Material Properties Affecting Blending
• Bulk Density • Particle Shape
• Angle of Repose • Cohesiveness
• Particle Size Distribution • Adhesiveness
• Material Composition • Agglomeration
• Surface Characteristics • Friability
• Moisture Content • Abrasiveness
• Thermal Stability • Explosiveness
• Flowability
2
Material Properties
• Angle of Repose: the angle formed between the
horizontal and sloping surface of a piled material,
which has been allowed to form naturally without
any conditioning.
• Flowability: the ease with which a bulk material
flows under the influence of gravity only. The
Coefficient of Friction of a powder is the tangent of
the angle of repose and is the measure for its
flowability.
• Friability: describes the degree to which a bulk
material is easily crumbled or pulverized.
3
Angle of Repose
• α = Angle of Internal Friction
β = Angle of Repose
• Solids storage bins are designed with conical
bottoms steeper than the angle of internal friction to
ensure that all solids flow out of them if they are not
fluidized. A typical angle of internal friction for a
non‐sticky material will generally exceed 65°.
4
Types of Solid‐Solid Mixing Equipment
Blenders or Mixers for Solid‐Solid Systems
• Tumbler Blenders : Double Cone Blender, V‐Blenders,
Octagonal Blender
• Convective Blender: Ribbon Blender, Paddle Blender, Vertical
Screw Blender
• Fluidization Blenders / Mixers: Plow Mixer, Double Paddle
Mixer (Forberg Mixer)
• The operation of the mixing equipment may be batch or
continuous depending upon the required production capacity,
product quality, pre‐ and post‐mixing equipment, type of
mixer, etc.
5
Quantifying the Degree of Mixing
• Degree of uniformity of mixed solid product is
attained from an analysis of spot samples
• s is the standard deviation of analysis of the fraction
of one power (xi) from N spot samples about the
system average value (xa) of the fraction of that
powder
 i1 i a
N
(x  x ) 2
s
N 1
6
Quantifying the Degree of Mixing
Mixing Index (Poole, 1964) or M is used to define the
extent of mixing:
s
M
s min
where smin is the minimum deviation observed for the
best mixed product. Mixing of solids is improved as M
approaches a value of 1.
7
Diffusion Blending
• Characterized by the small scale random motion of
solid particles.
• Blender movements increase the mobility of the
individual particles and thus promote diffusive
blending.
• Diffusion blending occurs where the particles are
distributed over a freshly developed interface. In the
absence of segregating effects, diffusive blending will
in time lead to a high degree of homogeneity.
• Most non‐impeller type mixers or tumbler blenders,
e.g., double cone blenders, V‐blenders, and turbula
mixers.
8
Diffusion Blending Equipment
• Double Cone Blender
• V‐Blenders
9
Diffusion Blending Equipment
• Octagonal Blender
• Turbula Mixers (Drunk Barrel)
– www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9EJ8YS7fmM
10
Diffusion Blenders
• Total volumetric capacity is the volume of the mixing vessel.
• Working volumetric capacity is the maximum recommended volume up to
which the material should be filled inside the blender to ensure homogenous
and efficient blending – often 30% to 70% of the total volumetric capacity.
• Example, the recommended fill‐up volume for a double cone blender is 50% to
60% of the total blender volume. Effect of blender fill up volume on blending
time of a production size double cone blender: 50% 10 min.
– 65% 14 min.
– 70% 18 min.
– 75% 24 min.
– 80% 40+ min.
11
Convection Blending
• Characterized by the large scale random motion of
solid particles.
• Groups of particles are rapidly moved from one
position to another due to the action of a rotating
agitator or to the cascading of material within a
tumbler blender.
• The blending of solids in ribbon blenders, paddle
blenders, vertical screw blenders, sigma mixers,
planetary mixers, and plow mixers is mainly a result
of convection mixing.
12
Convective Blenders
• Ribbon Blenders
• Paddle Blenders (single or double)
13
Convective Blenders
• Planetary Mixers
• Sigma Mixers
14
Shear Blending
• The development of slip planes or shearing strains
within a bed of material.
• Involves high intensity impacts, which split the bed
of material and help to disintegrate agglomerates or
overcome cohesion.
• Shear blending is very effective at producing small‐
scale uniformity generally on a localized basis.
• Blenders with high speed chopper blades and
intensifiers are examples of shear blending.
15
Shear Blenders
• Vertical Blenders
• Horizontal Blenders
16
Typical Blender Features
Typical Power Lump Jacket Ability to
Blender Typical speed
capacity required breaking vessel add liquid
Ribbon,
30‐28,000 L 15‐100 rpm High Good Yes Yes
Plow
Tumble 15‐5,000 L 5‐30 rpm Moderate Poor Difficult Difficult
In‐bin
750‐3,000 L 5‐30 rpm Moderate Poor Difficult Difficult
Tumbler
Planetary 30‐28,000 L 15‐100 rpm Moderate Good Yes Yes
0.03‐0.33 m/s
Fluidized 2,800‐85,000 L Low Poor Yes Yes
(0.1‐1 ft/s)
Tip & gt; 3 m/s
High shear 30‐10,000 L High Excellent Yes Yes
(600 ft/min)
Maynard, E., “Fundamentals of Bulk Solids Mixing and Blending”, Chem. Eng., 2013, 120(9), 66-71.
17
Blender Comparisons
Can handle
Range of Blending Easy to Gentle
Blender cohesive
materials time clean blending
materials
Ribbon,
Wide Yes Fast Moderate Moderate
Plow
With
Tumble Moderate Long Yes Yes
intensifier
In‐bin With
Moderate Long Yes Yes
Tumbler intensifier
Planetary Moderate Yes Moderate Moderate Yes
Fluidized Narrow No Fast Yes Moderate
High shear Moderate Yes Fast Moderate No
Maynard, E., “Fundamentals of Bulk Solids Mixing and Blending”, Chem. Eng., 2013, 120(9), 66-71.
18
Batch Mixing
Advantages of Batch Mixing
• Precise control of mix quality and composition.
• Batch traceability, e.g., pharmaceutical formulations, food products.
• Lower installed and operating costs for small to medium capacities
compared to continuous mixing.
• Flexibility of production.
• Control of mixing time.
• Pre‐mixing of minor ingredients is easily accomplished.
• Easy cleaning, lower cleaning costs when product changes are
frequent.
Disadvantages and Limitations of Batch Mixing
• Batch mixing is uneconomical when large quantities of material are to
be mixed.
• Batch mixing is more labor intensive compared to continuous mixing
19
1
Solids Handling ‐ Separations
• Solid‐gas Separation
– Cyclones
• Solid‐Liquid Separation
– Filtration
• Settling (sedimentation) tank/pond
• Bag filter
• Filter press
• Rotary drum vacuum filter
– Drying
– Centrifugation
• Solid‐Solid Separations
– Screeners
2
Cyclones – Separation of Solids from
Gases/Liquids
3
Sedimentation Tank
Sedimentation – the use of gravity to
separate solvents (especially water) from
solids or particles rendered settleable by
coagulation and flocculation.
Typical water sedimentation tanks:
(a) rectangular horizontal flow tank
(b) circular, radial‐flow tank
(c) hopper‐bottomed, upward flow tank
Tanks with mechanical sludge‐scraping
devices remove the wet sludge from the
bottom of the tank and any floating material
is skimmed from the surface by a blade
carried by the scraping mechanism.
In upward flow tanks, the main sludge
removal is from the top of the sludge blanket
4
Bag Filter
• Replaceable bags
• Can be used at low to moderately high pressures
5
Filter Press
• Used to separate solids from a slurry feed
mixture.
• Pressurized air or water are used to push the
slurry through the filterplate.
• Automated filter press
(www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7vump_1zw
A)
6
Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter
• Diatomaceous earth (silica) or perlite filter aids are
commonly used.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x74pP2I‐EDs
7
Solid Dryers
• Paper Making
– Rotary drum vacuum filter ‐ pulp solution (99% water) is
sprayed onto the Four‐drinier wire. The pulp coated wire
mesh then passes through a series of rollers, which
squeeze out water to create a fiber mat (still 50% water).
– To remove most of the remaining water, the sheet is
passed through a dryer section. Often, a large steam
heated dryer drum known as a Yankee is used to reduce
the water content to about 4%.
8
Rotary Dryer
• Rotary Dryers have many applications but are most commonly seen in the
mineral industry for drying sands, limestone, stones and soil, ores,
fertilizers, wood chips, coal, iron sulphate, filter cakes, sewage sludge, etc.
9
Centrifuges
• Horizontal Peeler Centrifuge
• Rotary / Mineral Filters
• Chemical Pusher Centrifuges
www.pharmaceutical‐int.com 10
Chemical Pusher Centrifuge
• Used to separate very fine solids from liquids with a lower
specific gravity.
– Centrifugal action from the rotating cylinder causes the solids to
sediment from the liquid.
– Settled solids are discharged from the centrifuge at a point vertically
higher than the liquid exit via a worm/screw element. The clarified
liquid exits the machine via an adjustable weir at the cylindrical end of
the bowl.
www.siebtechnik‐gmbh.de www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhS5vN4r5LA 11
Screeners
• Tumble Screeners
• Vibratory
Screeners
12
Crushers
• Crushers reduce coarse material to a desired size. The crushing process uses mechanical
energy and rubbing to fracture the material (often inorganic materials).
• The forces applied to rock fragments during crushing processes are:
– Compression force ‐ a slow application of force on the rock
– Impact Force – a short, sudden application of force
• All crushers generate dust! Crushers that primarily use impact forces produce large
amounts of fines and dust. Those that primarily use compression forces produce dust in
proportion to the stage of reduction: dust production increases progressively from first‐
to third‐stage crushing.
Types of Crushers: Six main categories of crushers used in minerals processing. Jaw,
gyratory, and cone crushers primarily use compression forces, while hammermills,
impact breakers, and roll crushers use impact forces.
13
Heat Transfer Equipment
• Heat Exchangers
– Double Pipe or Concentric Tube
– Shell and Tube
– Plate
– Air Cooled/Finned
– Spiral
– Helical coil
• Vessel Heating
– Steam/cooling water jackets
– Helical coils (internal and external)
1
Common Heat Transfer Media
2
Double Pipe Exchanger
Double Pipe heat
exchangers have
limited surface
area for heat
transfer but are
low cost and easy
to maintain.
3
Shell and Tube Exchangers
Single Pass Multi‐Pass
1. Shell 14. Support bracket
6. Fixed‐tube sheet (tube plate) 18. Tube
7. Channel (end‐box or header) 20. Pass partition
9. Branch (nozzle) 25. Test connection
10. Tie rod and spacer 26. Expansion bellows
4
11. Cross baffle or tube‐support plate
5
6
Common Heat Exchanger Configurations
Vapor Feed
Process flow to Column OVHD's
tower (vapor)
Cooling Water
Steam Outlet
Bottoms
Steam Product Cooling Water
Condensate Process flow from Inlet
tower (liquid) Uncondensed
OVHD's
Baffle
Kettle Reboiler
Condensed
OVHD's
Vapor Feed Uncondensed

Column OVHD's OVHD's
Cooling Water Cooling Wate

Inlet Outlet
Condensed
OVHD's
7
For systems with NO PHASE CHANGE, allocation of the fluid streams to the shell
or tubes is determined by:
• Corrosion – flow more corrosive fluids in the tubes. Reduces the cost of expensive
alloys or clad components for the shell.
• Fouling – fluids with a greater tendency to foul should flow in the tubes. The higher
allowable velocity in the tubes will reduce fouling, and the tubes are easier to clean.
• Fluid temperatures – If temperatures are high enough (> 400 °C) to require the use of
special alloys place the higher temperature fluid in the tubes. At moderate
temperatures (100 – 400 °C), placing the hotter fluid in the tubes will reduce the shell
surface temperature, lessen heat loss to the surroundings, and enhance safety.
• Operating pressures – the higher pressure stream should be on the tube‐side. High‐
pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high‐pressure shell.
• Pressure drop – the fluid with the lowest allowable pressure drop should be on the
tube‐side. For the same pressure drop, higher heat‐transfer coefficients will be obtained
on the tube‐side than the shell‐side.
• Viscosity – flow more viscous materials on the shell‐side
• Stream flow‐rates – allocate fluids with the lowest flow‐rate to the shell‐side. The
critical Reynolds number for turbulent flow in the shell is in the region of 200.
8
9
Plate Heat Exchanger
10
Large Plate Exchangers
• The Alfa‐Laval Packinox design is the
largest plate heat exchanger available
• Welded plate pack inserted into an even
larger pressure vessel.
• Combines the exceptional thermal and
hydraulic efficiency of modern plate
heat exchangers with the traditional
advantages of shell‐and‐tube units
under high temperatures and high
pressures.
Packinox® high efficiency heat

exchanger, being delivered to
the Total Refinery in Normandy
(18 m high, 15 tons) 11
Large Plate Exchangers
• Most large plate heat exchangers
include explosion‐formed metal plates
that are welded into a plate pack that
is then inserted into an even larger
pressure vessel.
• Figure – Packinox exchanger from Alfa‐
Laval under construction.
12
Air Cooled Exchangers
– Finned Exchangers
• Air Cooled
– Natural and forced convection
• Longitudinal Finned Exchangers
• Radial Finned Exchangers
13
Forced Air Finned Heat Exchanger
14
Brazed Aluminum Plate Finned Heat Exchangers
15
Spiral Heat Exchangers
• Made by rolling two long metal plates around a center core to form
two concentric spiral passages, one for each fluid.
• Plate edges are welded shut so that each fluid stays within its own
passage and there is no flow bypassing or intermixing. Spacing
within the passages is maintained by welded spacer studs although
some designs do not require them.
– High Thermal Efficiency (50‐100% greater than shell & tubes).
– Self‐Cleaning Passages (ideal for slurries, sludge, and media
with suspended solids or fibers)
– Countercurrent or Co‐current
– Small Footprint & Easy Access (Removable covers provide easy
access to interior heat transfer surfaces)
16
Helical Coil Exchanger
• Made by bending a tube
around a rigid cylinder
• Moderate Thermal
Efficiency (comparable to
shell & tubes).
• Self‐Cleaning Passages
(slurries acceptable)
• Often used within reactors,
crystallizers or other
process vessels to provide
heating/cooling.
• Low Cost, easy to
manufacure
17
Heat Exchanger Sizing
Heat Transfer Rate (Q):
Q  U o A o Tlm  m
 tsf H tsf  m
 tsf C p,tsf (t 2  t1 )
• Q = heat transferred per unit time, W
• Uo = overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside tube area, W/m2∙K
• Ao = heat‐transfer area based on outside tube area, m2
• Tlm = the log mean temperature difference, K (or °C).
Tlm 
 T1  T2 
T1
ln  
 T2 
18
Heat Exchanger Sizing
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients (U):
d o ln  o 
d
1 1 1  di  do  1 1 
      
U o h o h of 2k w d i  h i h if 
• Uo = overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside tube area, W/m2∙K
• ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2∙K
• hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2∙K
• hof = outside fouling coefficient, (fouling factor)‐1, W/m2∙K
• hif = inside fouling coefficient, W/m2∙K
• kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m2∙K
• di = tube inside diameter, m
• do = tube outside diameter, m
19
Fouling Coefficients and Factors
Fouling coefficients = (fouling factors)‐1
20
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
21
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
22
Rules of Thumb
• Properties of Materials
– Organics:
• Cp = 0.5 BTU/lb∙°F
• k = 0.08 BTU/ft∙h∙°F
• Heat Transfer
1. T on Cooling Water: 10 to 15 °C
2. Minimum Temperature Approach:
• 10 °C for liquids
• 15 °C for gases
3. Liquid‐Liquid Exchangers
• Tube Side Velocity: 3 to 6 ft/sec
• Shell Side Cross Flow Velocity: 120 ‐ 150 lb/sec∙ft2
• Shell Side Long Flow Velocity: 170 ‐ 210 lb/sec∙ft2
23
Calculating Shell Diameter:
• Nt = number of tubes
• Db = bundle diameter, m
• do = tube outside diameter, m
24
Guidelines for allowable pressure drop:
25
Steam Jacketed Vessels
• Types of jacketing:
– simple, no baffles (10 bar)
– agitation nozzles (10 bar)
– spiral baffle (10 bar)
– dimple jacket (20 bar, see figure)
– half‐pipe jacket (70 bar)
26
Agitated Tanks with Heat Transfer Jackets
For heat transfer between the jacket of a baffled tank and a process fluid,
the following equation for the Nusselt number applies:
where hj is the individual heat‐transfer coefficient between the jacket

surface and the process fluid, Dt is the inside tank diameter, Da is the
impeller diameter, N is impeller revolutions per minute, ρ is fluid density,
μ is bulk fluid viscosity, μw is fluid viscosity near the wall (at higher T) , and
Cp is average fluid heat capacity.
Constant/Ratio Common Value
α 0.76
β 0.66
γ 0.24
Da/Dt 1/3
Ht/Dt 1
Hi/Dt 1/3
Ht = tank height, Hi = height of the impeller 27
above the vessel bottom
Co‐Current vs Counter‐Current
• Temperature Distribution in a double‐pipe heat
exchanger.
28
Heat Exchanger Temperature Profiles
(single pass exchangers)
Temperature Temperature
Approach Cross
29
K. Thulukkanam, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, 2nd Ed.
Heat Exchanger Temperature Cross
(multi‐pass exchanger)
Temperature Cross!
Temperature cross is possible in a multi‐pass shell & tube exchanger but is undesirable
because of poor tube surface area utilization. 30
K. Thulukkanam, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, 2nd Ed.
Heat Exchanger Selection
Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers
Advantages Disadvantages
Widely known and understood - Less thermally efficient than other
most common type types of heat transfer equipment
Most versatile in terms of types of Subject to flow induced vibration,
service leading to equipment failure
Not well suited for temperature
Widest range of allowable design
cross conditions (multiple units in
pressures and temperatures
series must be used)
Rugged mechanical construction -
Stagnant (dead) zones on shell
can withstand more abuse
side lead to corrosion problems
(physical and process)
Subject to flow mal-distribution
especially with two phase inlet
streams
31
Compact Heat Exchangers (plate, spiral, etc.)
Narrower rage of allowable
Low initial purchase cost (plate type)
pressures and temperatures
Many different configurations are Subject to plugging/fouling due to
available (gasketed, semi-welded, very narrow flow path (especially
welded, spiral) with plate ex., not so with spiral)
High heat transfer coefficients (3 or
more times greater than for shell & Gasketed units require specialized
tube heat exchangers, due to much opening and closing procedures
higher wall shear stress)
Material of construction selection is
Reduced fouling due to the high
critical, wall thickness very thin
turbulence within the exchanger
(often less than 10 mm)
Cost varies significantly between
Require small footprint for installation
different design types.
and have small volume hold-up
32
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers

Attractive option for locations
where cooling water is scarce or High initial purchase cost
expensive to treat
Well suited for cooling high

temperature process streams
Require relatively large footprint
(above 80 °C when cooling water
should be avoided)
Low maintenance and operating Higher process outlet temperature

costs (typically 30-50% less than (5-10 °C above the ambient dry
cooling water) bulb temperature)
33
Pumps
• Pump ‐ a mechanical device used to cause a fluid to flow by adding energy
to the fluid.
• The addition of energy can manifest itself in several ways,
– an increase in kinetic energy (fluid velocity)
– an increase in potential energy (fluid elevation)
– an increase in internal energy (fluid temperature)
– an increase in pressure.
• Blower ‐ a mechanical device for "moving" a gas (increase in pressure
across the device is less than 1 atm).
• Fan ‐ a mechanical device for "moving" a gas (increase in pressure across
the device is less than 0.1 atm).
• Compressor – a mechanical device for significantly increasing the discharge
pressure of a gas (increase in pressure is usually greater than 1 atm).
• Typically, all of these devices are powered by electric (or compressed air
driven) motors.
1
Factors Impacting Pump Selection
Flow and Pressure requirements Fluid Properties
• Specific Flow Rate • Chemical compatibility
– Normal or optimum with pump material
– Maximum • Viscosity
– Minimum • Shear sensitivity
• Available/Desired Pressure • Temperature
– Fluid Inlet Pressure • Fluid particulate matter
– Discharge Pressure Required • Corrosive/Erosive property
– Fluid Vapor Pressure • Specific gravity
2
Pumps: Decision Tree
3
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pump – a rotating impeller imparts energy
to the liquid moving through the pump.
4
Positive Displacement Pumps
Gear pump – a
discrete volume of
fluid is trapped and
then discharged.
5
Pump Types
http://www.liquid-
dynamics.com/animations/pu
mps.htm
6
Pumps
7
Pumps
8
Pumps
9
Producing Vacuum
• Types
– Ejector
– Liquid (oil/water) Ring Vacuum Pump
– Dry Vacuum Pump (rotary screw, lobe)
• Design for
– Flow Rate at suction
– Air Leakage Rate
• Function of pressure and volume of vessel
• Cost
– Size factor = flow rate at suction
– Motor for pumps
Vacuum Pump pressure Ranges
RANGE PRESSURE
ROUGH (LOW) VACUUM 759 TO 1 x 10 ‐3 (mbar)
HIGH VACUUM 1 x 10 ‐3 TO 1 x 10 ‐8 (mbar)
ULTRA HIGH VACUUM LESS THAN 1 x 10 ‐8 (mbar)

Vacuum Pumps
12
Commonly used for large scale processes
Ejector: Steam or Liquid Jet
• Produces rough vacuum
• Commonly used to provides low pressures for
distillation columns
• Fluid (P ≥ Psat)
– Air
– Steam
• for suction pressure below 100 mbar absolute, more than one
ejector will be used, with condensers between the ejectors stages
– Water
• Collects particles in a gas stream (venturi scrubber)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XCkZQWj11o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yK4Mzv7ei0
Vacuum Tower: Two‐Stage Steam Jet Ejector
14
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU6KIfMqzvE
15
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump
• As the rotor spins, there is a partial filling and then partial emptying of each rotor
chamber with liquid during a revolution. This partial filling and emptying action leads to a
piston action within each set of rotor or impeller blades.
• Pump parts are assembled in such a way so as to allow gas in when the rotor chamber is
emptying of liquid and discharge gas once the compression has been completed.
• Liquid ring vacuum pumps typically use a liquid seal to achieve a vacuum. The most
widely used liquid is water – typically used once through and rejected to drain. Quite
often, a cooling water system is also in place so as to dissipate the heat produced during
operation.
http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2012/02/liquid-ring-vacuum-pumps-work/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n-rsfZ2SF_Y&index=15&list=PLHwlGYmbuspBJzjCTOPCL-bCe-7YuP_dC 16
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W0XhWtc3Kb4
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
• Applications
– Widely used in power plants, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, food manufacturing and
health sectors. Typical process applications include use in main steam condenser evacuation
systems, distillation columns, evaporative coolers, chemical reactors, laboratory analysis etc.
• Advantages of liquid ring vacuum pumps
– Easy maintenance
– One moving part, no metal‐to‐metal contact in the compression chamber, no internal
lubrication required
• Disadvantages of liquid ring vacuum pumps
– Environmental concerns with disposal of condensed liquid waste
– High power consumption, compared to other vacuum devices, for example steam ejectors.
– Pumps are usually oversized so as to cope with high liquid seal temperature, thus further
increasing energy consumption. It is quite common that An increase of liquid seal
temperature by just a few degrees Celsius can reduce LRVP capacity by as much as 20‐25%
and thus reduce the maximum vacuum achievable.
17
NPSH
• NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head
• There is pressure drop upon entering pump, before
mechanism that increases pressure
• If fluid is too close to vapor pressure at pump inlet, it
could flash upon entering pump
• Most pumps are designed to handle liquids and do not
behave well with vapor or vapor/liquid mixtures
18
NPSH
NPSHA = NPSH “available”= HA + HZ ‐ HF + HV – HVP
HA = absolute pressure at liquid supply surface
HZ = Head generated by the vertical distance between the liquid supply surface
and the centerline of the pump
• Positive when feed liquid level is above the pump (called static head)
• Negative when liquid level is below the pump (called suction lift)
HF = Friction losses (loss of head) in the suction piping
• Piping and fittings act as a restriction, working against liquid as it flows towards the
pump inlet.
HV = Velocity head at the pump suction port
• Small effect, often ignored
HVP = Absolute vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature
19
www.pumpschool.com
Head Generated by Liquid Supply
HZ = positive # HZ = negative # 20
Pump Performance Curve
• A mapping or graphing of the pump's ability to produce head
and flow
Performance
Curve
• Most pump
performance curves
slope downward from
Head
left to right
Pump Flow Rate

Shut-off Head
• Shut‐off Head is the maximum
pressure or head the pump can
produce
Head
• No flow is produced
Pump Flow Rate

• Maximum Flow is the
largest flow the pump can produce
• No Head is produced
Head
Maximum Flow
Pump Flow Rate

System Performance Curves
• A System Performance Curve is a mapping of
the head required to produce flow in a given
system
• System head comprises all friction loss the
fluid experiences while flowing through the
necessary pipe, fittings, and devices. The
vertical offset of this curve accounts for any
static head caused by inlet fluid height.
System Performance Curve
• The amount of
friction loss varies
with flow through
the system
Friction Loss
Head
Pump Flow Rate

System Performance Curves
Low friction loss, significant static lift
All friction loss,

no static lift
High friction loss, negative static lift
27
Operating Point
Operating
Point
Head
Pump Flow Rate

PUMP SELECTION
Valve Barely Open

Valve Partially Open
Valve Open
Head
Pump Flow Rate

NPSH
• NPSHA = Pinlet – Psat

NPSHR
• NPSHA = NPSH “available”
v
• NPSHR = NPSH “required”
– information supplied by pump manufacturer
30
NPSH
P v2
  gz  ef  Ws  0   Position(2)  Position(1)
 2
2fLv2
Pfr 
D
P2  P1 2fLv2
 gh  0
 D
2fLv2
P2  P1  gh 
D
2fLv 2
NPSH A  P2  Psat  P1  gh   Psat
D
31
NPSH
32fLv
2
NPSH A  P1  gh  2 5  Psat
D
of form
NPSH A  a  bv
2
NPSHA
a  P1  gh  Psat
32fL
b 2 5
D v
this is for turbulent flow
for laminar flow – straight line
with negative slope
32
Pump Curves
Brake horse power (BHP) = power supplied to the pump
33
Pump Curves
The pump curve describes the
relation between flowrate and
head for the actual pump.
Increasing the impeller diameter
or speed increases the head and
flow rate capacity ‐ and the pump
curve moves upwards.
The head capacity can be
increased by connecting two or
more pumps in series, or the flow
rate capacity can be increased by
connecting two or more pumps in
parallel.
Selection of Pump
A pump can be selected by combining the System Curve and the Pump Curve:
The operating point is where the system curve and the actual pump curve
intersect.
34
Pump Curves
Typical operating curves for a centrifugal pump (here for a depropanizer
reflux pump, courtesy of Gas Processors Suppliers Assoc.) 35
Centrifugal Pumps in Series
• Series two pumps
– Pump curve Ppump
– 2x head at
same flowrate one pump
v
36
Centrifugal Pumps in Parallel
• Parallel two pumps
– Pump curve Ppump
one pump
– 2x flowrate at
same head
v
37
Pumps in Series and Parallel
two pumps
• Which series
configuration
maximizes
Ppump 
flowrate?
 two pumps
– No general one pump parallel
result
v
38
Centrifugal – variable speed
Ppump
rpm 5
rpm 4
rpm 3
rpm 2
rpm 1
v
• rpm increases with number
• more expensive pump
• cost of “wasting” pressure across valve may be less than cost of pump
39
Positive Displacement vs Centrifugal
Pump Curves
40
References
• http://www.pumpfundamentals.com/tutorial3.htm
• http://www.ence‐pumps.ru/eng/
podbor_raschet_nasosov.php
• http://www.sampumps.com/PDFs/casestudy.pdf
• https://chemicaljobs.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/selectiono
fpumpsforprocessindustries.pdf
• http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mel241/mel241‐25.ppt
• http://dmprice.people.ysu.edu/CHEN%204887/Pump%20basi
cs1.ppt
• http://ocw.usu.edu/Biological_and_Irrigation_Engineering/Sp
rinkle___Trickle_Irrigation/6110__L11_Pumps_and_System_C
urves.pdf
41
Pump Selection Guide
Fernandez et al., Chem. Eng. Prog., pg. 52, 2002 42

Mixing Liquids and Gases
• Mixing processes use the kinetic energy of the fluids or the input of
mechanical energy to forcefully circulate materials of separate phases
so as to yield a random distribution of the components.
• Agitation involves the forceful circulation of a fluid by mechanical
means inside a vessel.
• A homogeneous mixture is one in which the separate molecules being
combined are interspersed (e.g., a mixture of gases or organic liquids)
• A heterogeneous mixture contains a random dispersion of materials
having distinguishable phases (e.g., iron filings in sulfur, glitter in paint).
1
Mixing Liquids and Gases
Example processes that use agitation:
• Blending of two miscible liquids, such as hydrogen peroxide and water.
• Dissolving solids in liquids, such as salt in water.
• Dispersing a gas in a liquid as fine bubbles, such as oxygen in a suspension
of microorganisms for waste‐treatment.
• Suspension of fine solid particle, such as metallic pigments in car paint.
• Agitation of a fluid to eliminate temperature gradients arising from poor
heat transfer or to increase heat transfer between the fluid and a heating
element in the vessel.
2
Fluid Mixing and Agitation
The mixing of two materials is enhanced by several factors :
• Low interfacial tension ‐ inhibits the formation of interfaces
• Similar densities ‐ prevents separation by stratification
induced by gravity and centrifugal fields
• Low viscosities ‐ promote fluidity and the penetration of one
fluid element into another.
• Materials that fulfill the above requirements mix almost
spontaneously (e.g ., gas mixing, alcohol‐water mixing).
However, the mixing of materials that do not meet all of
these criteria is not spontaneous and requires the addition of
external power, often in the form of agitation.
3
Fluid Mixing and Agitation
Agitation can promote mixing by:
• Mechanically increasing the interfacial area between
materials, which would otherwise be driven to a minimum by
interfacial tension
• Increasing fluid circulation via
– the generation of vorticity and convection currents
– viscosity reductions in shear‐thinning fluids
– breaking of yield stress for viscoplastic liquids
– viscosity reductions from fluid heating induced by viscous dissipation
• Recirculation of components that counters gravity and
centrifugally induced stratification.
• Introduction of heat energy via viscous dissipation that helps
to overcome unfavorable heats of solution for some mixtures.
4
Material Properties Affecting Mixing
• Viscosity
• Bulk Density
• Material Composition (ionic character, polarity, etc.)
• Surface Tension
• Thermal Stability
• Explosiveness
5
Static or Inline Mixers
Static mixers consist of a series of non‐moving mixing elements
arranged axially in a pipe or duct and are widely used in the process
industry for a large variety of mixing applications. The energy for
mixing is derived from the kinetic energy of the fluid stream. Hence
there is an increase in the pressure drop relative to that of empty
pipes.
Advantages to static mixers:
• No moving parts
• Simple construction
• Lower capital and operating costs
• Lower energy requirements
• Narrow residence time distributions
Disadvantages to static mixers:
• Increased pressure drop
• Fouling problems.
6
Static or Inline Mixers
Helical mixers are comprised of a series of mixing elements
with the leading edge of one element being perpendicular to
the trailing edge of the previous. Each mixing element is a
metal or polymeric ribbon with a 180 degree helical twist
that measures approximately one and a half pipe diameters
in length. These mixers can be used for laminar, transitional,
and turbulent flow applications and are suitable for most
blending and dispersion processes involving liquids and
gases. The mixing elements can be permanently mounted
inside a tube or removable so as to allow for frequent
cleaning and inspection.
High Efficiency Vortex (HEV) Mixers High Efficiency Vortex (HEV)
mixers consist of a series of baffles or tabs inclined relative to
one another and at an angle relative to the pipe axis. The mixer
elements are rotated by 90 degrees and arranged successively
in the pipe. This design can be used in all turbulent‐flow mixing
applications regardless of line shape or size, and has pressure
losses 75% less than conventional static mixers. Mixing is
achieved by controlled vortex structures generated by the
baffle geometry that requires a mixer
7
Impingement Mixers
Impingement mixers have two or
more fluid streams collide at extreme
velocities inside a mixing chamber.
• The resulting high speed collision creates
turbulence inside the mixing chamber,
this turbulence mixes the reactants.
• The momentum of the two fluids must
be matched for ideal mixing to occur!
• Example: isocyanate (iso) and polyol are
pumped under high pressure into a
mixing head to yield polyurethane
product.
J. Gillian, Chem. Eng. Comm., 2008, 195(12), 1553. 8
Impingement Mixers
Fluid A Fluid B
inlet inlet
Striation Thickness
(lower values indicate enhanced mixing)
A‐B Mixture
outlet
C. Fonte, Universidade do Porto, 2012 9
Impingement Mixers
• Optimum mixing of two
impinging fluids most often
occurs when the momentum Momentum
of white fluid
(or kinetic energy in some is higher than
cases) of the two streams that of black
fluid – poor
are equivalent – see figure. mixing
• Fluid jet velocity has a Equal fluid
significant impact on mixing momenta ‐
(higher NRe enhances grey
throughout
mixing). Fluids have greater indicates a
kinetic energy, yielding well mixed
system
higher energy impacts.
• Inlet jet diameter has only a Momentum
of black fluid
modest impact on mixing is higher than
that of white
fluid – poor
mixing C. Fonte, Chemical Engineering Journal 260 (2015) 316–330 10
Impingement Mixers
11
Agitation
Example: An agitated vessel equipped with 3 baffles and a
marine turbine. The baffles help to prevent bulk fluid vortexing.
12
Fluid Vortexing
13
Agitated Tanks: Typical Design Parameters
Design Rules of Thumb
Da 1

Dt 3
Ht
1
Dt
Hi 1

Dt 3
where
Da is the impeller diameter
Dt is the inside tank diameter
Ht is the height of the agitated tank
Hi is the height of the impeller above the vessel bottom.
14
Batch Mixing
Advantages of Batch Mixing
• Precise control of mix quality and composition.
• Batch traceability, e.g., pharmaceutical formulations, food products.
• Lower installed and operating costs for small to medium capacities
compared to continuous mixing.
• Flexibility of production.
• Control of mixing time.
• Pre‐mixing of minor ingredients is easily accomplished.
• Easy cleaning, lower cleaning costs when product changes are
frequent.
Disadvantages and Limitations of Batch Mixing
• Batch mixing is uneconomical when large quantities of material are to
be mixed.
• Batch mixing is more labor intensive compared to continuous mixing
15
Dynamic Mixers
Dynamic mixers consists of an impeller, mixer
shaft, support structure, gear or bearing
housing, and a motor.
• Though side‐entry and bottom‐entry mixers are
occasionally used, most mixers are top‐mounted
(shown to the left) with the motor and support housing
located above the fluid level.
• The motor power required for proper mixing can range
from less than 1 hp for small vessels containing low
viscosity fluids to more than 5000 hp when mixing
viscous fluids in large vessels.
• The extent to which fluid mixing occurs is controlled by
the design, size, location, and speed of rotation of the
impeller.
16
Marine and Pitched Blade impellers
Marine and Pitched Blade Impellers:
The marine impeller is the classical design
used for axial mixing. This design, often
pitched for downward pumping action,
provides a uniform discharge and is most
often used with low viscosity fluids. In most
cases, vessel baffling is required for the
optimal performance of this impeller design.
A similar design is the pitched blade impeller
This design produces axial flow and is well
marine impeller
suited for applications requiring high speeds pitched blade
to disperse liquid/solid mixtures in non‐ impeller
baffled vessels.
17
Rushton and Backswept Turbines
Curved and Straight Blade
Impellers:
The curved blade or backswept
turbine is used with highly viscous
mixtures where power consumption
is a concern or with liquid/brittle solid
mixtures.
The straight blade or Rushton turbine
is designed for gas/liquid applications
requiring high shear at high speeds.
Curved blade or
backswept turbine Frequently, these two designs Rushton turbine
produce radial fluid flow and require
vessel baffling to achieve optimum
performance.
18
Helical impellers
Helical Impellers:
Helical impellers are used in applications
involving highly viscous fluids. These
designs incorporate outer helical bands
with minimal vessel wall clearance to
achieve axial flow at low agitator speeds. In
order to further enhance the axial flow
patterns of non‐Newtonian fluids, an
additional inner helical flight with opposite
handedness is attached to the impeller
shaft (right). The inner flight produces
downward pumping action, while the outer
flight pumps in the upward direction.
19
Anchor Impeller
Anchor impeller:
The anchor impeller design is best suited
for mixing of high viscocity fluids. The
design produces radial flow at low
speeds. These types of impellers often
incorporate wipers that remove material
from the vessel walls during agitation,
which enhances heat transfer.
20
Impeller Selection
W. Himmelsbach, Chem. Eng., 2006, 113(4), 46‐53. 21
Agitator Design: Fluid Flow Properties
Several dimensionless variables are used to describe the transport
properties of fluids being mixed as well as the motor power required
for proper mixing.
Reynolds number (NRe) is commonly used to determine whether
laminar or turbulent flow exists in a system.
inertial forces Da2 N

N Re,mix  
viscous forces 
Da = impeller diameter, reference length
N = impeller revolutions per minute
Da∙N = agitator tip speed, reference velocity
ρ = fluid density
μ = fluid viscosity
22
Agitator Design: Fluid Flow Properties
The dimensionless Froude number (NFr) is used to describe the
extent to which vortexing can result from agitation by a rotating
impeller and is a measure of the ratio of inertial stress, which is
the flow of momentum created by bulk fluid motion, and
gravitational force per unit area acting on the fluid.
inertial force Da2 N

N Fr  
gravitational force g
Da = impeller diameter, reference length
N = impeller revolutions per minute
Da∙N = agitator tip speed, reference velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
23
Agitator Design – Power Requirements,
Turbulent Mixing
• The power number (NP) is a dimensionless number that is used to estimate
the energy required to rotate an impeller at a given speed and is analogous to
a friction factor.
• The dimensionless power number is proportional to the ratio of drag forces
acting per unit area of impeller surface and inertial stresses.
• In general, the Power Number for ungassed systems is related to the Reynolds
Number and the Froude Number (where c is a constant):
NP = c (NRe)x (NFr)y
• In a well‐baffled vessel (e.g., bioreactor), the gravitational forces are minimal,

and the Power Number for ungassed systems is related only to the Reynolds
Number:
NP = c (NRe)x
24
Laminar Flow Mixing
• Laminar flow (NRe < 10) mixing is often used with high viscosity systems
• Under laminar flow mixing conditions, the power number decreases linearly
with the logarithm of NRe. Thus, x = ‐1 and the power absorbed is a function
of the fluid viscosity:
Pa,laminar g c 1    The power number
NP   c N  c 2  is often obtained
N D 
3 5 Re
a  a
D N  from tables/plots
(see next slides)!
c
Pa, laminar  N 2 D3a
gc
Pa, laminar = external power to the agitator at laminar flow mixing conditions
NP = power number (unitless); μ = fluid viscosity; N = agitator RPM
Da = impeller diameter; gc = gravitational constant
25
Transition and Turbulent Flow Mixing
• For transition flow (10 < NRe < 10,000), NP is a complex function of NRe.
• For turbulent flow (10,000 < NRe), NP is a constant (independent of

NRe). Thus, x = 0, and the power absorbed is not a function of the fluid
viscosity.
Pa, turbulent g c
NP  c
N D 3 5
a
  N 3  D5a  
c
Pdelivered,turbulent
gc
Pdelivered 100
Pdesign  Pmotor 
 %efficiency 
26
Liquid‐Gas System Mixing
The power required to agitate a mixture of gas bubbles and liquid
using a flat blade impeller is described by the equation:
0.25 0.20
Pgassed  g   N Da4
2 
 0.10    
Pungassed  NVL   gB V 2 3 
 w L 
Bw = impeller blade width
VL = liquid volume
g = gas volumetric flow rate
Derived from oxygen absorption in water in vessels ranging in size from 10 to
51,000 L and for gas superficial velocities up to 5.3 cm/s.
(Hughmark, 1980) 27
Power Number (PN) vs. NRe for Turbines
28
Power Number (PN) vs. NRe for Helical Stirrers
Pg c
N P,Turbulent 
N 3D5a 29
Power Number (PN) vs. NRe for Anchor Stirrers
Pg c
N P,Turbulent 
N 3D5a 30
Power Number (PN) vs. NRe for Several Stirrers
Pg c
N P,Turbulent 
N 3 D5a
(1) propeller, pitch equaling diameter, without baffles; (2) propeller, s = d, four baffles; (3) propeller, s =2d,
without baffles; (4) propeller, s =2d, four baffles; (5) turbine impeller, six straight blades, without baffles; (6)
turbine impeller, six blades, four baffles; (7) turbine impeller, six curved blades, four baffles; (8) arrowhead
turbine, four baffles; (9) turbine impeller, inclined curved blades, four baffles; (10) two‐blade paddle, four
baffles; (11) turbine impeller, six blades, four baffles; (12) turbine impeller with stator ring; (13) paddle
without baffles (data of Miller and Mann); (14) paddle without baffles (data of White and Summerford). All
baffles are of width 0.1D [after Rushton, Costich, and Everett, Chem. Eng. Prog. 46(9), 467 (1950)].
31
Shape Factors for Use with Turbulent
Mixing Power Number Table
Shape Factor Ratio Description
Tank Diameter/Impeller
S1 T/D
Diameter
Height of Impeller above vessel
S2 Z/D
floor/Impeller Diameter
Length of impeller
S3 L/D
blade/Impeller Diameter
Impeller Diameter/Width of
S4 D/W
blade
S5 T/B Tank Diameter/Baffle width
Liquid depth in vessel/Impeller
S6 H/D
Diameter
S7 # Number of impeller blades
S8 degrees pitch/angle
S9 # Number of baffles
32
Calculation of Turbulent Mixing Power Number
Power Number
Impeller Type S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 PO = constant.
(NRe >10,000)
Propeller 3 0.75‐1.3 ND ND 10 2.7‐3.9 3 pitch=D 4 0.35
Propeller 3 0.75‐1.3 ND ND 10 2.7‐3.9 3 pitch=2D 4 0.9
Pitched blade
ND ND ND 8 12 ND 6 45 deg 4 1.5
turbine
Straight full
ND ND ND 8 12 ND 6 0 deg 4 3
blade turbine
Curved full
ND ND ND 8 ND ND ND 0 deg ND 2.7
blade turbine
Flat blade
3 0.75‐1.3 0.25 5 6 2.7‐3.9 6 0 deg 4 7
turbine
Flat blade
3 0.75‐1.3 0.25 5 10 2.7‐3.9 6 0 deg 4 6
turbine
Flat blade
3 0.75‐1.3 0.25 5 25 2.7‐3.9 6 0 deg 4 4
turbine
Flat paddle 3 0.75‐1.3 1 4 10 2.7‐3.9 2 0 deg 4 1.8
ND= No Data. 33
Rule of Thumb Power Ratios for Water
Agitation Power Ratio (Motor HP/1000 gals)
Mild 0.5‐1.0
Vigorous 2‐3
Intensive 4‐10
34
Example:
A 10,000 L vessel is equipped with a flat-blade impeller

(W/D=0.2, Bw = 0.5 cm) having a diameter of 1.0 m. Assume
the impeller will operate at 100 rpm.
a. What power is required to mix ungassed pure water?

b. What power is necessary if the water is gassed at a
volumetric flowrate of 4000 L/min?
c. What is the cost of the mixer for part b?
Solution:
a. What power is required to mix ungassed pure water?
 = 1 cP = 0.001 Pa·s = 0.001 N·s/m2 = 0.001 kg/s·m

 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3
N = 100 min-1·(1 min/60 s) = 1.67 s-1
N Re 
Da2 N


1000 kg / m 3
 1.0 m  2

1.67 s 1 
  0.001kg / s  m 
NRe = 1,670,000 … definitely turbulent
Power Number (PN) vs. NRe for Turbines
NP=4
37
Solution (cont’d):
From plot NP = c = 4
Power = cN3Da5
Power = (4)(1000 kg/m3)(1.67 s-1)3(1.0 m)5
Power = 18520 W
Power = 18520 W (1 hp/745.7 W) = 24.8 hp

b. What power is necessary if the water is gassed at a volumetric
flowrate of 4000 L/min?
0.25 0.20
Pgassed  g   N Da4
2 
 0.10    
Pungassed  NVL   gB V 2 3 
 w L 
 g   4000L / min 1min/ 60s 
   0.001
 NVL   
1.67s 1 10, 000L 
 
2
 N Da4
2  1.67s 1.0m 
1 4
   12.2
 gB V 2 3 
   
2/3
 w L  9.81m / s 2  0.005m  10m3
Solution (cont’d):
Pgassed 0.25 0.20

 0.10  0.001 12.2   0.341
Pungassed
Powergassed = 0.341 × 18520 W = 6315 W
= 8.5 hp
c. Mixer Cost = (4,500$/kW)*(6.315kW)=$28,418
(Plot from Turton) 41
Agitator Design – Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer characteristics of a vessel equipped with heating sources
and a rotating impeller can be described by the dimensionless Nusselt
number (NNu).
• The Nusselt number is a function of the heat transfer coefficient (h) for
convective heat transfer from the heating element, the impeller diameter
(Da), and the thermal conductivity (k) of the fluid being heated.
• The Nusselt number can also be defined as a function of the Reynolds
number and the Prandtl number, where the Prandtl number (NPr)
describes the relative thickness of the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers and is the ratio of momentum and thermal diffusivities.
hDa CP 
N Nu  N Pr 
k k
42
Heat Transfer in Agitated Tanks
Agitated Tanks with Heat Transfer Jackets
For heat transfer between the jacket of a baffled tank and a process fluid, the
following equation for the Nusselt number applies:
  0.33 
h j Dt      D N 
2
 Cp     
N Nu   N     k 
0.33
  
a
N 
  
Re,mix Pr
k  w      w
where hj is the individual heat‐transfer
coefficient between the jacket surface Constant Common Value
and the process fluid.  0.76
 0.66
 0.24
43
Heat Transfer in Agitated Tanks
Agitated Tanks with Heat Transfer Coils
When cooling or heating fluids in a cylindrical tank equipped with
baffles, helical heat transfer coil, and turbine impellar, the following
equation applies [Oldshue]:
Common
Constant
Value
a 0.17
b 0.24
c 0.10
d 0.50
e 0.67
f 0.37
hc = individual heat‐transfer coef. for the coil‐process fluid surface
Dc = the outside coil diameter
Dt = the inside tank diameter
μw = the viscosity of the fluid at the surface of the heat‐transfer coils
44
Overall Column Design Goals
• Maximize separation
• Minimize manufacturing and installation cost
• Minimize energy operating cost
• Minimize maintenance cost
• Provide operating flexibility
• Recognize the relationship between solvent flow and the
required number of stages, column diameter , capital
(equipment) cost, and operating (energy and solvent) cost
L↑ D↑ N↓ Opera ng Cost↑ Capital Cost↓
How to find L and Lmin for Absorption?
• Assume L = 1.5 ∙ Lmin
– This is from economic analysis of real world
distillation towers.
• How to find Lmin? At the minimum liquid flow
rate for absorption (see red line) the outlet liquid
stream is at a maximum concentration (xi,out,max).
– Material Balance (assume L, V are constant):
yi,in V  x i,in L min  yi,out V  x i,out,max L min
– Equilibrium relationship:
yi,in
x i,out,max 
Ki
– Solving for Lmin:
V  yi,in  yi,out 
L min 
 yi,in 
  x i,in 
 Ki 
Absorption/Stripping – Mass Transfer Approach
Rigourous Mass Transfer Approach to Design – Dilute (<5%) Systems
V
z yi ,in
dyi
z  HTU  NTU   dz   y
i  y i  1  y i 
* 2
0
K y aA C yi ,out
where z = tower height
Ky = overall gas‐phase mass transfer coefficient
a = interfacial area per unit volume
Ac = tower cross‐sectional area
yi = vapor phase mole fraction of component i at position zi in the tower
yi* = vapor composition that would be in equilibrium with a liquid having
composition xi at position zi in the tower
• HTU is the height of a transfer unit
V
HTU  H OG 
K y aA C
• NTU is the number of transfer units
yi ,in
dyi
NTU  N OG   y
i  y i  1  y i 
* 2
yi ,out
Rigourous Mass Transfer Approach to Design – Concentrated Systems

V
Yi ,in
dYi
z  HTU  NTU 
Ky aA C 
Yi ,out  Yi  Yi 
*
where solute free basis parameters are defined as:
yi
Yi  V  V(1  yi ) N i  K y ( Yi  Yi* )
1  yi
• HTU is the height of a transfer unit
V
HTU  H OG 
K y aA C
• NTU is the number of transfer units
Yi ,in
dYi
NTU  N OG   Yi  Yi* 
Yi ,out
Shortcut Method (for Dilute Systems)– constant Ki, constant L/V
 V   A   yi,in  mx i,out 
z  tower height  H OG N OG 
 K aA   A  1   y  mx 
ln
 y C  i,out i,in 
L y
where Ai  and K i,average  m  i  equilibrium constant
KiV xi


1  ln  L

  1  mV y i ,in  y i ,out  mV 
 
N OG
 1  mV  
 L 
y i ,out  y i ,out  L 

N OG 
y i ,out  y i ,in
y  y   y 
 y i ,in   y i ,out  y i ,out 
yi  yi LM 
i i LM
i ,in
 y i ,in  y i ,in  
ln  
 y i ,out  y i ,out  

Absorption/Stripping
Equilibrium Stage Approach
Shortcut Equilibrium Stage Method – constant Ki, constant L/V
z  tower height  HETP  N
ln  A  ln  S 
HETP  H OG  H OG
 A 1   S  1
 
 A 
 A-1 
 
N eq.stages  N OG  A   N  S  1
ln  A  ln  S 
OG
Kremser Method
Shortcut Equilibrium Stage Approach
• Assumes constant absorption factor
• Equilibrium constant (Ki) value is constant
• Flow rates of the vapor and liquid
streams (V and L) do not change
appreciably
• Only accurate for separation processes
involving process streams with low solute
concentrations (i.e., dilute systems).
• Absorption/Stripping factor
L 1
Ai  
Ki V Si
• Recovery fraction
1,i y1,i V1
i  
N 1,i y N 1,i VN 1
– Stage 1 = top stage
– Stage N = bottom stage
– N+1 = Vapor inlet to bottom of tower
Kremser Method
Shortcut Equilibrium Stage Approach
• Absorption
 yin  mx out   yin  mx in   A  1  1 
ln   ln    
y  mx in   y out  mx in   A  A 
N Abs   out  
ln  A  ln  A 
• Stripping
 mx in  yout   mx in  yin   S  1  1 
ln   ln    
mx out  yin   mx out  yin   S  S 
NStr    
ln  S  ln  S 
yi
K i,average  m   equilibrium constant
xi
Choice Between Plates and Packing
• Use a detailed cost analysis for the two types
• Qualitative analysis:
– Cost (packing is 2‐3 times more expensive than trays)
– Flow rate/ column diameter (packed for Dcol < 1 m)
– Multiple diameters (trays)
– Fouling (trays, except moveable valve type, or
structured packing)
– Capable of handling wide ranges of liquid rates (valve
trays, bubble caps)
– Liquid dispersion difficulties
– Extent of foaming (trays)
– Ease of cleaning (sieve trays)
– Inter stage cooling requirements (trays)
– Column weight (trays)
Packing or Trays
10
Column Internals: Pressure Effects
Operating Pressure Recommended Internals

Structured packings, followed by
random packing; consider trays if
Vacuum (< 1 atm, absolute pressure) fouling cannot be mitigated or if
ineffective packing wetting may be a
problem
Wide range of trays or packing may be
used, with primary considerations
Medium Pressure (1 to 4 atm)
being fouling, corrosion, foaming, and
cost
High performance trays unless pressure
drop is a prime concern (in cryogenic
High Pressure (above 4 atm)
separations, for example) where
structured packing is attractive
C. Branahan, Rules of Thumb in Chemical Engineering
Column Design Issues
• Liquid distributor design and installation
• High velocity vapor inlets and reboilers returns; vapor
distribution
• Entrainment
• Flashing feed inlet design
• Packing size criteria (pressure drop as well as capacity)
• Pressure drop
• Liquid feed distributor for high liquid load applications
• Pressure drop on tray and its effect on downcomer backup
• Efficient liquid distribution on tray
• Potential compromise between reduced efficiency and
additional stages offered by increased capacity
Tray Designs
• Enhance vapor‐liquid mixing
• Maintain optimum vapor
flow
• Maintain optimum liquid
depth
• Minimize pressure drop
• Prevent fouling
Tray Type Sieve Valve Bubble‐Cap

Relative cost 1.0 1.2 2.0
Pressure drop Lowest Intermediate Highest
Efficiency Lowest Highest Highest
Vapor capacity Highest Highest Typical Lowest
turndown ratio 2 4 5
Operating Ranges – Vapor vs. Liquid Flow Rates
• Foaming
• Entrainment
• Flooding
• Weeping/dumping
• Downcomer flooding
16
Seider et al., Product and Process Design Principles: Synthesis, Analysis and Design, 3rd Ed., ISBN: 978‐0‐470‐04895‐5
Distillation Column Design
• Maximize separation
• Minimize energy operating cost
• Minimize maintenance cost
• Provide operating flexibility
• Minimize manufacturing and
installation cost
• Recognize the relationship between reflux rate and the required
number of stages, column diameter , capital (equipment) cost, and
operating (energy and solvent) cost
R↑ D↑ N↓ Opera ng Cost↑ Capital Cost↓
Distillation Column Design
• FUG shortcut method
– only use for relatively ideal systems
– NEVER use for azeotropic or highly non‐ideal systems
• McCabe‐Thiele (graphical method, CMO)
• Rigorous Methods (often using Aspen, etc.)
• Vapor‐Liquid Equilibrium Data Always Needed!
– Experimental VLE data preferred
– Check for azeotropes!
– Thermodynamic models
• Activity Coefficient Models: NRTL, UNIQUAC or UNIFAC for non‐
ideal systems (e.g., azeotropic)
• Equations of State: Peng‐Robinson, SRK for relatively ideal
mixtures of organics 2
Distillation: Phase Equilibria
Vapor‐Liquid phase • Distillation lines proceed from a
equilibria for ternary temperature maximum to a
mixture of nitrogen, argon temperature minimum.
and oxygen. • If multiple arrows point towards a
corner, this species can be separated in
pure form as an overhead fraction ‐ (N2).
• If multiple arrows point away from a
corner, this species can be recovered in
pure form as a bottom fraction – (O2).
• If one arrow points toward the corner
and another one away from that corner,
this component cannot be recovered in
pure form – (Ar).
3
Phase equilibria for ternary
mixture of benzene, • Distillation lines proceed from
cyclohexane and heptane. a temperature maximum to a
temperature minimum.
• Open circles denote
azeotropic points.
Benzene‐Cyclohexane Txy, Aspen, NRTL‐RK
81.0
80.5
80.0
Temperature, °C
79.5
79.0
78.5
78.0
77.5
77.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Benzene, x,y data
4
Phase Equilibria
Examples
Shaded areas
indicate the
presence of two
liquid phases.
5
Minimum boiling azeotrope – arrows point toward an open circle
Maximum boiling azeotrope – arrows point away from an open circle 6
FUG Shortcut Method
• Simple method for binary system distillation tower design.
• For system with relatively ideal VLE phase behavior.
• Do NOT use for azeotropic systems!
• Use light‐key and heavy‐key to design a multicomponent tower.
• Fenske – minimum number of stages 0.5
 K A,dist K A,bot 
 ( x A ,C x B,C ) Dist  d A d B   A,B,avg     and
ln  K K
 ln    B,dist B,bot 
 ( x A , R x B , R ) Bot  bA bB 
N min   y
ln( A , B,avg ) ln( A , B,avg ) K-Value or K A,dist  A,dist
x A,dist
• Underwood – minimum reflux
L L
R     1.2  
 x LK , D  x  D  D min
    LK , HK   HK , D 
x  F 
L  x HK , F
  
LK , F
 
 D  min  LK,HK F  1 Common values 1.05‐1.6
• use 1.1 for high αLK‐HK
• use 1.5 for αLK‐HK close to 1 7
Lek, Chem. Eng. 2004
FUG Shortcut Method
• Gilliland – Number of stages (N) at operating
conditions (L/V)
1
0.8
(N‐Nmin)/(N+1)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(L/D ‐ L/Dmin)/(L/D +1)
N  N min  1  54.4  X   X  1  ( L / D)  ( L / D) min

 1  exp     0.5  X
N 1  11  117 . 2  X   X  ( L / D)  1 8
Optimum Feed Plate Location at Finite Reflux (NF)
Fenske Equation
• For relatively ideal systems
• Assume the relative feed plate location is constant as the reflux changes from
total reflux conditions to finite reflux conditions.
  x LK,D  
   
 HK,D Dist 
x
N F,min

NF ln  
 z LK,F  
N min N     ln  (FR LK ) Dist 
  z HK,F    (1  (FR ) ) 
N F,min    HK Bot 
ln  LK  HK ln  LK  HK
Kirkbride Equation
• For less ideal separation processes
• Find the ratio of the number of rectifying stages (NR) to the number of stripping
stages (NS)
• NR + NS + 1 = N = total number of stages
0.206
N R  z HK , F   B 
2
 x LK , B
  
 x
  
  D 
N S  z LK , F  HK , D 
  9
Choice Between Plates and Packing
• Use a detailed cost analysis
• Qualitative analysis:
– Cost (packing is 2‐3 times more expensive than trays)
– Flow rate/ column diameter (packed for Dcol < 1 m)
– Rect. and Strip. sections different diameters (use trays)
– Fouling (trays easier to clean, fouling more an issue with
moveable valve trays and structured packing)
– Capable of handling wide ranges of liquid rates (valve
and bubble cap trays)
– Liquid dispersion difficulties
– Foaming (trays preferred for high foaming)
– Ease of cleaning (sieve trays easiest to clean)
– Inter stage cooling requirements (trays)
Selecting Tower Packing
Capacity Pressure
Device Flexibility Efficiency Cost Notes‡
Liquid Vapor drop
Packing
1st‐generation random 3 2 2 3 2 5 a
2nd‐generation random 3 3 2 3‐4 3 5 a
3rd‐generation random 4 4 2 4 4 3 a, d
4th‐generation random 5 5 2 4 5 3 a, d
Structured 5 5 2 5 5 2 a, d
Grid 5 5 2 5 5 3 a
Trays
Valve 4 4 4 2‐3 4 3 b
Valve, caged 4 4 5 2 4 2‐3
Valve, fixed 4 4 3 3 4 3
Sieve 4 4 3 3‐4 4 3‐4 b
Dual flow 4 4 1 3‐4 4 3 c
Film 2 3‐4 3 4 3‐4 2 d
Bubble cap 3 3 5 2 3 2
Baffle (shed) 5 3 1 5 2‐3 4
Notes: † 5 = excellent; 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = fair; 1 = poor
‡ a: Flexibility is normally limited by the liquid distribution system. ; b: Most common types of 11
tray. ; c: Sieve plate with no downcomer. ; d: Suitable for vacuum service.
Column Internals: Pressure Effects
Operating Pressure Recommended Internals
Structured packings, followed by
random packing; consider trays if
Vacuum (< 1 atm, absolute pressure) fouling cannot be mitigated or if
ineffective packing wetting may be a
problem
Wide range of trays or packing may
be used, with primary considerations
Medium Pressure (1 to 4 atm)
being fouling, corrosion, foaming, and
cost
High performance trays unless
pressure drop is a prime concern (in
High Pressure (above 4 atm)
cryogenic separations, for example)
where structured packing is attractive
Column Design Issues
• Liquid distributor design and installation
• High velocity vapor inlets and reboilers returns; vapor
distribution
• Entrainment
• Flashing feed inlet design
• Packing size criteria (pressure drop as well as capacity)
• Pressure drop
• Liquid feed distributor for high liquid load applications
• Pressure drop on tray and its effect on downcomer backup
• Efficient liquid distribution on tray
• Potential compromise between reduced efficiency and
additional stages offered by increased capacity
Trayed Distillation Column Internals
Trays – horizontal plates
which supports the vapor‐
liquid mixtures and serve
as equilibrium stages.
Downcomers – openings in
trays which allows liquid to
flow down the column.
Weir – a vertical plate or
“dam” at the downcomer
to provide a given vapor‐
liquid mixture depth on
the tray.
Tray Types
Sieve tray
• Simple, cheap, easy to clean
• Good for feeds that contain suspended solids
• Poor turndown performance (low efficiency when operated below designed flow
rate); prone to “weeping”
Tray Types
Valve tray Bubble cap tray
• Some valves close when vapor velocity drops, • Excellent contact between vapor and liquid
keeping vapor flow rate constant • Risers around holes prevent weeping
• Better turndown performance • Good performance at high and low liquid
• Slightly more expensive, and harder to clean flow rates
than sieve tray • Expensive, and very hard to clean
• Rarely used anymore
Tray Designs
• Enhance vapor‐liquid mixing
• Maintain optimum vapor
flow
• Maintain optimum liquid
depth
• Minimize pressure drop
• Prevent fouling
Tray Type Sieve Valve Bubble‐Cap

Relative cost 1.0 1.2 2.0
Pressure drop Lowest Intermediate Highest
Efficiency Lowest Highest Highest
Vapor capacity Highest Highest Typical Lowest
turndown ratio 2 4 5
Operating Ranges – Vapor vs. Liquid Flow Rates
• Foaming
• Entrainment
• Flooding
• Weeping/dumping
• Downcomer flooding
What to Avoid in the Column–
Flooding, Weeping and Foaming
• Flooding occurs at high vapor flow rates – excessive

entrainment of liquid overcomes the downcomer
capacity and the column floods – or large liquid flow
rates.
• Weeping occurs at low vapor flow rates – liquid

flows or pulses back through the tray vapor
openings.
• Foaming occurs when the components form a stable
foam – efficiency of the column drops and the
column may flood.
Overall Efficiency
• The overall efficiency is defined as
Eo = Nequil /Nactual
• The vapor flow rate affects the column operating
parameters including entrainment, flooding, weeping and
the flow regime; thus, in many systems, the overall
efficiency is a strong function of vapor flow rate
Emperical Tray Efficiency Estimation
O’Connell Correlation for Overall Column Efficiency:
•Based on data collected from actual columns.
•Based on bubble cap trays and is conservative for sieve and valve trays.
E 0  0.492   L  
0.245
 10%
αLK‐HK = relative volatility at average column conditions of key components
µL = molar average liquid viscosity of feed evaluated at average temperature of
column, mNs/m2 21
Seader, Separation Process Principles, 2011.
Multi‐pass Trays
Two-pass Tray
Additional passes are chosen

to prevent excessive loading
of the downcomers.
22
Seader, Separation Process Principles, 2011.
Column Diameter
•Column diameter is a function of the tray type, tray spacing, as
well as the liquid and vapor flow rates in the tower.
•Often the region of the column with the highest liquid and vapor
flow rates is used to size the tower cross‐sectional area, and the
column diameter is often constant, but it can vary in tower with
highly variable vapor and liquid flows.
•The minimum column diameter for trayed columns is typically
0.75 m; packed columns are normally 0.1 to 3 m in diameter.
•The operating vapor velocity, and hence actual column diameter,
is specified as a fraction of the flooding vapor velocity – typically
0.65 to 0.90.
Rough Relationship of Tower Diameter
to Reboiler Duty
Reboiler Duty, million Btu/h
Situation
(D = Tower diameter, ft)
Pressure distillation 0.5 D2
Atmospheric pressure
0.3 D2
distillation
Vacuum distillation 0.15 D2
24
Column Diameter
Fair’s Method – Capacity Factor
Column diameter can be determined using the procedure developed by Souders
and Brown.
0.5
Step 1) Determine the unitless flow parameter (FLG): L  V 
FLG   
 n
 V  L 
P   yi  MWi 
V   i 1  , for an ideal gas
RT
where L and V are the liquid and vapor flow rates in lb/s (or kg/s) and ρL and ρV
are the densities of the liquid and vapor in lb/ft3 (or kg/m3).
Step 2) Estimated tray spacing (select 18 to 24 in. for larger diameter towers).
Step 3) Using the modified general pressure drop curves (English and metric unit
curves attached) or Kister‐Haas correlation, the selected tray spacing, and the
flow parameter (FLG), find the Souders‐Brown coefficient (CSB, units of ft/s or
m/s) at flood conditions.
Capacity Factor: Souder‐Brown Coefficient (CSB)
0 .5
L  V 
 
V   L 
26
Capacity Factor: Souder‐Brown Coefficient (CSB)
Capacity factor for flooding of sieve trays (from Fair, 1958).
CSB Factor: Kister‐Haas Correlation
• Assume appropriate values for following parameters (based on system
requirements) for preliminary diameter calculation.
– dH = hole diameter in plate, inches (¼ to ½ inch)
– S = tray spacing, inches (18 – 24 inches)
– hct = Clear liquid height at the transition from the froth to spray regime,
(inches)
• Reasonable Values: dH = 1/4 in., S = 18 in., h ct = 2 in.

0.125 0.1 .5
 d L 
2
 L   S 
CSB  0.144  H
    

 L  
 V   ct 
h
where CSB = Sauders‐Brown coefficient (ft/s)
σL = liquid surface tension of mixture (dyne/cm)
ρL = liquid density (lb/ft3)
ρV = vapor density (lb/ft3)
28
Fair’s Method – Column Diameter
Step 4) Determine vapor velocity (or superficial gas velocity) at flood
conditions (vSF, flood):
0.5
  L   L  V 
0.2
vSF,flood  Csb CFF    

  
20  V 
vSF = vapor velocity at flood conditions (m/s or ft/s)
Csb = Souders‐Brown capacity factor at flood conditions (m/s or ft/s)
σL = liquid surface tension of mixture (dyne/cm)
CFF = 1.0 for non‐foaming systems and CFF < 1.0 for foaming systems.
http://facstaff.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/distill7.html#diam
Step 5) Calculate the tower cross‐sectional area (AS) required for
operation at flood conditions:
V
AS,flood 
V vSF
where AS = cross‐sectional area at flood conditions (m2 or ft2)
V = vapor mass flow rate (kg/s or lbs/s)
ρV = vapor density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)
vSF = superficial gas velocity at flooding conditions (m/s or ft/s)
Step 6) Calculate the tower cross‐sectional area required for operation
at the design/specified flooding fraction (FF):
AS,tflood
AS,tray 
FF
The design flooding fraction (FF) is commonly 0.8 (80% of flood) for
most new units. The value should never be higher the 0.95.
30
Step 7) Calculate the cross‐sectional area of the tower (AS,tower):
AS,tower  AS,tray  AS,dc

where AS,dc is the cross‐sectional area occupied by the downcomer(s) in
square meters. The value of AS,dc can be approximated as 15% of the
tray cross‐sectional area (AS,tray).
0.5
Step 8) Find the tower diameter (Dtower):  4AS,tower 
D tower  
  
where AS,tower is in square meters and Dtower is in meters.
31
Packed Towers
32
Random and Structured Packing
Packed Column Diameter
Estimate of Packed Column Diameter:
(for structured or random)
DT   K V  V  K L  L 
0.5
where DT = tower diameter (m)
νL , νV = liquid or vapor volume rate (m3/s)
ρL , ρV = liquid or vapor density (kg/m3)
KL , KL = liquid or vapor packing constant, see
figures (right) and packing factors on
next slide
Packing Material Packing factor, FPX
Packing Factors Glitsch Gempak_ 4A

Glitsch Gempak 3A
Metal
Metal
32
21
Glitsch Gempak 2A Metal 16
(1/ft) Glitsch Gempak 1.5A
Glitsch Gempak 1A
Metal
Metal
12
9
Glitsch Gempak 0.5A Metal 6
Koch‐Glitsch Grid EF‐25A Metal 10
Koch‐Glitsch Grid EF‐25AP Plastic 18
Jaeger Max‐pak Metal 12
Koch Flexeramic #28 Ceramic 40
Koch Flexigrid #3 Metal 10
Koch Felxigrid #2 Metal 4
Koch Flexipac #1 Metal 30
Montz‐Pak B1‐300 Metal 33
Montz‐Pak B1‐250 Metal 20
Koch‐Glitch/Norton Intalox 1T Metal 20

Sulzer/Nutter Snap Grid #3 Metal 9
Rombopak 6M Metal 18
Sulzer Mellapak 500Y Metal 34
Sulzer Mellapak 250Y Plastic 22
Sulzer Mellapak 500X Metal 25
Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate
Patent WO 2012015952 A2
Distillation Tower Rules‐of‐Thumb
• Tower operating pressure is determined most often by the temperature of the
available cooling medium in the condenser or by the maximum allowable reboiler
temperature.
• Tower Sequencing
– Easiest separation first – least trays and reflux
– When neither relative volatility nor feed concentrations vary widely, remove
components one by one as overhead products.
– When the adjacent ordered components in the feed vary widely in relative volatility,
sequence the splits in order of decreasing volatility.
– When the concentration in the feed varies widely but the relative volatilities do not,
remove the components in the order of decreasing concentration in the feed.
• Economically optimum external reflux ratio is about 120% to 150% of the
minimum reflux ratio.
• The economically optimum number of stages is about 200% of the minimum
value.
• A safety factor of at least 10% above the number of stages by the best method is
advisable.
• Reflux Ratio (L/D) and Number of Trays (N) are inversely related!
• Higher energy costs favor increased numbers of trays!
Pilling, Chem. Eng. Prog., 2012.
• A safety factor of at least 25% about the reflux should be utilized for the
reflux pumps.
• Reflux drums are almost always horizontally mounted and designed for a
5 min holdup at half of the drum's capacity.
• For towers that are at least 3 ft (0.9 m) in diameter, 4 ft (1.2 m) should be
added to the top for vapor release and 6 ft (1.8 m) should be added to the
bottom to account for the liquid level and reboiler return.
• Limit tower heights to 175 ft (53 m) due to wind load and foundation
considerations.
• The Length/Diameter ratio of a tower should be no more than 30 and
preferably below 20.
• Tray spacing should be from 18 to 24 inches, with accessibility in mind
(Generally, for a tower diameter of 4 feet and above, the most common
tray spacing is 24 inches to allow easy access for maintenance. However,
for a tower diameter below 4 feet, a tray spacing of 18 inches is adequate
as the column wall can be reached from the manway.)
39
Packed Distillation Tower Rules‐of‐Thumb
• Packed towers almost always have lower pressure drop compared to tray
towers.
• Packing is often retrofitted into existing tray towers to increase capacity or
separation.
• For gas flow rates of 500 ft3/min (14.2 m3/min), use 1 in (2.5 cm) packing, for
gas flows of 2000 ft3/min (56.6 m3/min) or more, use 2 in (5 cm) packing.
• Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should usually be at least 15
• Due to the possibility of deformation, plastic packing should be limited to an
unsupported depth of 10‐15 ft (3‐4 m) while metal packing can withstand 20‐
25 ft (6‐7.6 m).
• Liquid distributor should be placed every 5‐10 tower diameters (along the
length) for pall rings and every 20 ft (6.5 m) for other types of random
packing.
• For redistribution, there should be 8‐12 streams per sq. foot of tower area for
towers larger than three feet in diameter. They should be even more
numerous in smaller towers.
• Packed columns should operate near 70% flooding. 40
Tray Distillation Tower Cost in 2002
CEPCI in 2002 = 395.6 41
Peters et al., Plant Design and Economics for ChE, 2003.
Packed Distillation Tower Cost in 2002
CEPCI in 2002 = 395.6 42
Peters et al., Plant Design and Economics for ChE, 2003.
Multicomponent Distillation
Separation of a three component feed into pure products
• Direct configuration
• Indirect configuration
• Three column configuration
• non‐sharp (sloppy
separation) column
• two columns performing
sharp separations
43
Petlyuk Columns (Improved Efficiency)
Petlyuk Columns
• Fewer heat exchangers
• Smaller footprint
• Lower utility cost
44
Sloppy Petlyuk (efficient)
Petlyuk Column BTX Example
Petlyuk column designs are ideal
when the intermediate boiling
component is a large fraction of
the feed.
45
Seider, fig_24_17
Petlyuk → Divided Wall (Most Eﬃcient)
46
N. Ramirez‐Corona, Chemical Engineering Research And Design, 2010, 88, 1405–1418
Divided Wall Column
(partitioned thermally coupled prefractionator)
Structured
Packing
Montz 47
Design
Divided Wall Column Internals
• Dividing wall may be welded in or

unfixed
Source:
Sulzer
Unfixed dividing wall is very advantageous and versatile.
Source. Montz
Constraints
• Wide range of boiling points among the components:
◦ Temperature difference between condenser and reboiler may be
high.
• Operating pressure:
◦ No different pressure steps for the required separation possible
• Column height:
◦ A dividing wall column is always higher than either of the two
alternative columns.
• Hydraulic imbalances:
◦ If the side stream components are too small, the hydraulics may
be unequal on each side.
Rule of thumb: The larger the side-stream flow

the better the dividing wall
Process Intensification:
Divided Wall Columns
Petlyuk AND divided wall columns:

• energy savings (10 – 30 %)
Divided wall columns:

• lower investment: column, piping, heat exchangers,
foundation….. (< 30 %)
• Reduced plot space (30 – 40 %)
• Reduced thermal stress for the components to be
separated (lower residence time)
Divided Wall Column BTX Example
51
Premkumar, Chemical Engineering Research And Design, 2009, 87, 47–60.
52
Techno‐Economics of Divided Wall Columns
53
Types of Reactors
1
Reactors for Heterogeneous (solid)
Catalysts
2
Reactor Design
• Kinetic information from experiments is essential!!!
• Most gas–solid reactions are heat transfer controlled.
• Most heterogeneous catalytic gas reactions are mass
transfer controlled.
• For slow reaction rates, prefer batch to continuous.
• Prefer continuous to semicontinuous to batch.
• Prefer plug (PFR) or laminar (LFR) flow reactors to
continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR).
3
Selection of Reactor Type
4
Fluid Reactor Selection
PFTR ‐ Plug Flow Tube Reactor
CFSTR – Continuous Flow
Stirred Tank Reactor
STR – Stirred tank Reactor
5
Pressure and Temperature Effects
Arrhenius Law:
k = reaction rate constant (units vary)
Ea A = frequency factor (units vary)

k  Ae RT Ea = activation energy (energy/mole)
R = ideal gas constant
T = absolute temperature (K or °R)
Volume of Activation:
 V ‡   k 2    V ‡ 
P2  P1 
ln k  ln k 0    P ln   
 RT   k1   RT 
• The rate constant (k) increases as the system pressure (P) increases if ΔV‡ < 0

• The rate constant (k) decreases as the system pressure (P) increases if ΔV‡ < 0
6
Reactor Residence Time
7
Mole Balance on Different Reactors
8
Reactors in Series
moles of A reacted up to point i
Xi 
moles of A fed to the first reactor
9
Selectivity and Yield
rD k D C A
S DU  
rU k U CA
Instantaneous Selectivity (for reactions A→Desired and A→Undesired)
describes the relative rate of formation of desired components to that
of undesired components – used to find operating parameters that
will optimize the formation of desired products.
• Activation energy effects: If ED > EU , run at higher temperatures,
whereas if ED < EU , run at lower temperatures.
• Concentration effects: If α > β run at high concentration of
reactants (A), whereas if α < β run at low concentrations.
 moles of desired product produced N D  N D0 FD  FD0

Overall Fractional Yield  Y D/A   or
moles of reactant consumed N A0  N A FA0  FA
10
Reactor Energy Balance
N N dÊ sys
Q  WS   Fi ,in H i ,in   Fi H i 
 
i 1 i 1 dt
Q = rate of heat flow to the system from the surroundings
Ws = rate of shaft work done by the system on the surrounding

N
F
i 1
i,in H i,in  rate of energy  internal and flow work  added to the system by flow in
F
i 1
i,out H i,out  rate of energy  internal and flow work  leaving the system by flow out
dEˆ sys
 rate of accumulation of energy within the system (equals zero at steady state)
dt
11
Reactor Energy Balance
N
  F    H  H   F X H
 W dEˆ sys
Q S A,in i i,in i,out A,in Rxn,T 
i 1 dt
H i ,out  enthalpy of component i at a particular temperature and pressure (the conditions at the
outlet of the chosen reactor/system volume)
FB,in C B,in
 i  ratio of inlet molar flow rates (e.g.,  B   , note that all  i values are positive
FA ,in C A ,in
and that solvents should be included in this term)
H Rxn ,T = heat of reaction at temperature T (the conditions at the outlet of the chosen
reactor/system volume
12
Heat of Reaction
 
N
H Rxn ,T (at T)  H 
Rxn ,Tref (at TRe f )    i H i ,Tout  H i ,Tref
i 1
i  stoichiometric coefficient ratio
d b
(e.g.,  D  ,  B   ,  A  1 for aA + bB  cC + dD)
a a
N
d  c b
H 
Rxn ,Tref (at TRe f )   i H i ,Tref  H D,Tref  H C,Tref  H B,Tref  H A ,Tref
i 1 a a a
13
Estimating Capital Investment
Much of the material presented in these slides was collected from the sources below and from material developed by D. Bruce and
C. Gooding of Clemson University:
Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes, 4th Edition, by R. Turton, R. C. Bailie, W. B. Whiting, J. Shaeiwitz, and D.
Bhattacharyya, published by Pearson Education, Inc., 2012.
Product and Process Design Principles: Synthesis, Analysis and Design, 3rd Edition, by W. D. Seider, J. D. Seader, D. R. Lewin,
and S. Widagdo, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
1
Use of these copyrighted materials is in accordance with the fair use doctrine codified in section 107 of U.S. copyright law.
Generic Cost Estimate Classification Matrix
Experienced
% of Project Expected
Class of Purpose Person‐hours
Design Methodology Actual Cost as
Estimate of Estimate to Prepare
Completed % of Estimate
Estimate
screening or experience &
Class 5 0% to 2% 80 to 140 100
feasibility judgment
develop PFD,
concept study or estimate major
Class 4 3% to 15% 80 to 130 500
feasibility equipment by cost
correlations
budget more detailed layout,
Class 3 10% to 40% 85 to 125 1000
authorization cost correlations
all detailed drawings,
Class 2 30% to 70% definitive for bids 90 to 115 2000
cost correlations
firm supplier &
80% to ready for
Class 1 contractor bids from 95 to 110 5000
100% construction
drawings & specs
Relation Between Project Phases and
Expected Accuracy
3
FCI Estimates vs. Status of Engineering Deliverables
Status of Typical Cost Estimate Classification
Engineering Deliverables CLASS 5 CLASS 4 CLASS 3 CLASS 2 CLASS 1
S=started, P=partially complete,
C=complete 0% to 2% 3% to 15% 10% to 40% 30% to 70% 80% to 100%
Engineering Deliverables
Block Flow Diagrams S/P P/C C C C
Plot Plans S/P C C C
Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) P C C C
Utility Flow Diagrams (UFDs) S/P C C C
Piping & Instr. Diagrams (P&IDs) S/P C C C
Heat & Material Balances S/P C C C
Process Equipment List S/P C C C
Utility Equipment List S/P C C C
Electrical One‐Line Drawings S/P C C C
Specifications & Datasheets S P/C C C
Equipment Arrangement Drawings S C C C
Spare Parts Listings P P C
Mechanical Discipline Drawings S/P P/C C
Electrical Discipline Drawings S/P P/C C
Instrumentation/Control Drawings S/P P/C C
Civil/Structural/Site Drawings S/P P/C C
Types of Capital Cost Estimate
5. Order‐of‐Magnitude Estimate (Feasibility)
• + 40%, ‐ 20%
• BFD , Process Modification
4. Study Estimate / Major Equipment
• + 30%, ‐ 20%
• PFD , Cost Chart
3. Preliminary Design (Scope) Estimate
• + 25%, ‐ 15%
• PFD , vessel sketches , equip. diagrams
5
Types of Capital Cost Estimate cont.
2. Definitive (Project Control) Estimate
• + 15%, ‐ 7%
• PFD , P&ID, all vessel sketches, equip. diagrams,
preliminary isometrics
1. Detailed (Firm or Contractors) Estimate
• + 6%, ‐ 4%
• Everything included – ready to go to construction phase
• Estimate low so actual cost will be high (+)
• Estimate high so actual cost will be low (‐)
Why is +#% > ‐#%?
6
Estimating Purchased Equipment Costs
• Vendor quote
– Most accurate
‐ based on specific information
‐ requires significant engineering
• Use previous cost on similar equipment and scale for
time and size
– Reasonably accurate
‐ beware of large extrapolation
‐ beware of foreign currency
Increasing • Use cost estimating charts and scale for time
Accuracy
of Cost – Less accurate
Estimate – Convenient
7
Effect of Equipment Size on Cost
The simplest equation used commonly to correlate the
effect of equipment size on cost is the power law.
n
C a  Sa 
 
Cb  Sb  Cost Exponent
Cost Equipment size
The ratio form shown above is used when cost of a
particular equipment size is known. In general, the cost
equation is written as C = KSn , where K and n are
determined from tabulated values or fit to graphical data.
8
Effect of Equipment Size
• “Size or S” is the characteristic that correlates best with
purchased equipment cost (C); e.g., area of a heat
exchanger, power rating of a motor.
• If n = 1, cost scales linearly with size, and the equipment
is said to offer no “economy of scale.”
• For many types of process equipment n = 0.4 to 0.8
• Often n ~ 0.6, which has led to the (6/10)’s rule =>
Unless you have better data, assume that process
equipment has a cost exponent of n = 0.6, and use that
to estimate the effect on FCI of changing process size
(capacity, output, production rate).
0.6
Ca  Sa 
 
Cb  Sb  9
Example 1
A few months ago we paid $51,000 for a
stainless steel plate and frame heat exchanger
with a heat transfer area of 50 m2. What is
the likely cost now of a heat exchanger of the
same type with an area of 100 m2?
15
Example 1 ‐ Solution
n
C a  Sa 
n
 Sa 
  Ca  Cb 
Cb  Sb   Sb 
0.42
 100  Ca  $68, 000
51, 000  
 50 
100 m2 exchanger (~$68k) will not be twice as
expensive as the 50 m2 exchanger ($51k)
Economy of Scale! 16
Effect of Time
• All of the tables and figures on the previous slides specified a
value of a “cost index”.
• The cost of most things, including manufacturing equipment,
changes with time, usually going up => inflation.
• Inflation of various types of goods and services is tracked by
specific price or cost indexes. For consumer goods like groceries
the Consumer Price Index (CPI) reflects changes over time. For
various types of engineering equipment some common indexes
are:
– Engineering News‐Record Construction Index
– Marshall and Swift Process Industry Index (M&S)
– Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI or CE)
– Nelson‐Farrar Refinery Construction Index
17
Variation in Cost Indexes Over Time
18
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
19
Variation in CEPCI Index Over Time
20
Basis for the Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index
Components of Index Weighting of Component (%)
Equipment, Machinery and Supports:
(a) Fabricated Equipment 37
(b) Process Machinery 14
(c) Pipe, Valves, and Fittings 20
(d) Process Instruments and Controls 7
(e) Pumps and Compressors 7
(f) Electrical Equipment and Materials 5
(g) Structural Supports, Insulation, and Paint + 10
Total = 100 61% of total
Erection and Installation Labor 22
Buildings, Materials, and Labor 7
Engineering and Supervision 10
Total 100
The CEPCI is based on the cost of a representative assortment of process
21
equipment, related auxiliaries, and labor.
Compensating for Time Effects on Cost
 I2 
C2  C1  
 I1 
• A simple ratio of cost index values is used
• C = Cost of equipment
• I = Value of cost index
• 1 represents a known cost and the value of the index
at that time
• 2 represents the time for which a cost is needed
22
Example 2
• Cost of vessel in 1993 was 25,000, what is estimated
cost today?
 I2 
C2  C1  
 I1 
• In 1993 the CEPCI was 359
• Current CEPCI is 565
 I now   565 
Cnow  C1993    25, 000    $39,345
 I1993   359 
(round result to $39,000)
23
Example 3 ‐ Accounting for Time and Size
• Two heat exchangers, one bought in 1990 (A) and
the other in 1995 (B), were used for the same
service.
A B
Area = 70 m2 130 m2
Time = 1990 1995
Cost = 17 K 24 K
I (index) = 358 381
What is the cost of an 80 m2 heat exchanger today
(assume I2013 = 565)?
24
Example 3 ‐ Solution
• First Bring Costs to a Common Time (Jun 2013)
 565 
A  70 m 2
Ca (2013)  17, 000    $26,830
 358 
 565 
A  130 m 2 Ca (2013)  24, 000    $35,591
 381 
25
Example 3 ‐ Solution (cont’d)
C  KA n
26,830  K(70) n 35,591  K(130) n
ln(35,591)  ln(26,830)
n  0.4565
ln(130)  ln(70)
C 26,830
K n
 0.4565
 $3,858
A 70
C  3,858(80) 0.4565
 $28,518
26
Total Cost of Installed Equipment in a
Manufacturing Plant
• Purchased cost is usually f.o.b. (free on board). This
means the seller pays to have the equipment loaded
at a specified location, but the buyer pays the cost of
transporting the equipment to its final destination,
unloading it, and installing it in a process.
• Installed cost is the f.o.b. purchased cost plus all costs
associated with putting the equipment in its place,
connecting it to utilities and other equipment, and
making it ready to use. Installed cost can range from
2 to 10 times the purchased cost.
27
Lang Factor Approach to Estimating
Installed Cost
• A quick method that applies a single multiplier to convert the
sum of all purchased equipment costs to installed costs for an
entire process (total module). Typical Lang factors are:
• FLang = 4.0 for processes that involve primarily solids
= 4.3 for processes that involve solids and fluids
= 5.0 for processes that involve primarily fluids
n
C TM  F Lang C
i 1
pi
Purchased cost of all major equipment
Installed cost of
(pumps, vessels, separators, etc.)
total module (fixed
capital investment)
28
Actual installed cost of equipment:
subcategories
1. Direct Project Expenses
– Equipment (CP)
– Material for installation (CM)
– Labor for installation (CL)
2. Indirect Project Expenses
– Freight, insurance, and taxes (CFIT)
– Construction overhead (CO)
– Contractor engineering expenses (CE)
3. Contingency and Fee
– Contingency (CCont)
– Contractor fee (CFee)
4. Auxiliary Facilities
– Site development (CSite)
– Auxiliary buildings (CAux)
– Off‐sites and utilities (COff)
29
30
Seider et al., Product and Process Design Principles, 3rd ed., 2009.
Module Factor Approach
• A more detailed and accurate way of estimating
equipment costs and fixed capital investment.
• Data have been correlated on the purchase cost and
installation cost of individual types of equipment (direct
and indirect cost, auxiliaries, and contingencies and fees)
to yield individual equipment module factors. Pressure
rating and materials of construction are usually
accounted for separately.
• The resulting “bare module factors” are used to convert
the purchased cost of each type of equipment into an
installed cost for that equipment.
• Individual installed costs are summed to get total FCI.
31
(illustrated below for a single type of equipment)
CBM  C p FBM
o Bare Module Factor
Purchased Equipment Cost for carbon steel
Bare Module (CS) construction and rated for operation
Cost at 1 bar (normal atmospheric pressure)
FBM = B1 + (B2 FpFM) o
FBM  B1  B2
Fp = pressure factor (= 1 for 1 bar)
FM = material of construction factor (=1 for CS)
The purchased cost of this equipment made of another material
and for a different pressure would be
C p  C op Fp FM
32
Seider et al., Product and
Process Design Principles,
3rd ed., 2009.
B1 and B2 factors
for selected equipment
B1 B2
Heat exchangers
Tubular 1.63 1.66
Flat or spiral plate 0.96 1.21
Vertical process vessels 2.25 1.82

Horizontal process vessels 1.49 1.52
Centrifugal pumps 1.89 1.35
35
Seider et al., Product and Process
Design Principles, 3rd ed., 2009.
Pressure Factors for Carbon Steel Vessels
37
Pressure factors for selected equipment
log10Fp = C1 + C2log10P + C3(log10P)2
Notes: P is in barg (absolute pressure – 1 bar).
These data apply for pressures up to 100 barg.
Fp is always ≥ 1.0.
C1 C2 C3
Heat exchangers
Tubular 0.0388 ‐0.1127 0.08183
Flat or spiral plate 0 0 0
Process vessels see figure on previous slide
(Vertical & horizontal)
Centrifugal pumps ‐0.3935 0.3957 ‐0.0023
38
(illustrated below for a single type of equipment)
CBM  C p FBM
o Bare Module Factor
Purchased Equipment Cost for carbon steel
Bare Module (CS) construction and rated for operation
Cost at 1 bar (normal atmospheric pressure)
FBM = B1 + (B2 FpFM) o
FBM  B1  B2
Fp = pressure factor (= 1 for 1 bar)
FM = material of construction factor (=1 for CS)
The purchased cost of this equipment made of another material
and for a different pressure would be
C p  C op Fp FM
39
Module Factor Approach – Material Factors
40
41
42
Turton Table A.3 (abridged)
Selected material factor identification numbers
Carbon steel Stainless steel Nickel alloy

Heat exchangers
Tubular 1 5 7
Flat or spiral plate 13 15 16
Process vessels 18 20 22
(vertical & horizontal)
Centrifugal pumps 38 39 40
43
b
 A  A = heat exchanger surface
FM  a    area for heat transfer (ft2)
 
Seider et al., Product and Process
Design Principles, 3rd ed., 2009. 100
Illustrative Example
• Compare Costs for
Shell‐and‐tube heat exchanger in 2011 with an area
of 100 m2 for
• Carbon Steel at 1 bar
• Carbon Steel at 100 bar
• Stainless Steel at 1 bar
• Stainless Steel at 100 bar
47
Effect of Materials of Construction and Pressure
on Bare Module Cost (all costs in $1000)
Cp  CpoFpFm Fp = 2.73, Fm = 1.383
P MOC o Cp o CBM
Cp CBM
1 bar CS 36.6 36.6 120.7 120.7
1 bar SS 36.6 99.9 120.7 225.8
100 bar CS 36.6 50.6 120.7 143.8
100 bar SS 36.6 138.2 120.7 289.3

48
Total‐Module Costs
• If used properly the bare module factor FBM accounts
for all direct and indirect costs associated with
installing manufacturing equipment.
• To account for the construction contractor’s fee and
contingencies (unforeseen events) we usually add 3%
and 15% of CBM, respectively, to the bare module cost
and get the total module cost.
CTM  1.18  CBM

all equip
49
Auxiliaries and Grass‐Roots Costs
• If a new process is added at an existing site where all
of the auxiliaries such as utilities, roads, and buildings
are in place, then CTM should cover the total cost.
This is the estimate of FCI.
• If you start with nothing but a piece of land, the
auxiliaries listed in slide 31 must be added. These
costs do not depend on pressure ratings or MOC. If
you don’t have specific cost estimates for these
items, estimate the added cost 50% of C0BM.
Grass‐roots cost = CGR = CTM + 0.5  C0BM
50
Auxiliary Utility Cost Estimates
The table below provides a cost estimate for the FCI allocation for
specific utilities added to a plant site.
(Note: 1 ton of refrigeration is a heat removal rate of 12,000 Btu/hr).
Calloc = CBM
51
1. Direct Project Expenses
Purchased Equipment (CP) = C0P
Materials (CM) = C M   M C0P
Labor (CL) = C L   L  C0P  C M 
Total Direct Cost = C DE  C0P  C M  C L  C0P 1   M 1   L 
52
2. Indirect Project Expenses
Freight, ins., taxes (CFIT) = C FIT   FIT  C P  C M 
0
Overhead (CO) = CO  OC L  O  LC0P 1   M 

Engineering (CE) = C E   E  C0P  C M    EC0P 1   M 
Total Inderect Cost (CIDE)=
CIDE  C FIT  CO  C E  C0P 1   M   FIT  O  L   E 
Bare Module Cost (CBM) =
CBM  CIDE  CDE  C0P 1   M 1   L   FIT   O  L   E 
53
3. Contingency and Fee
Contingency (CCont) = CCont  Cont C0BM
Contractor Fee (CFee) = C Fee   FeeC0BM
Total Module (CTM) = CTM  C0BM  CCont  C Fee

CTM  C0P 1   M 1   L   FIT  O  L   E 1  Cont   Fee 
54
Bare‐Module and Total‐Module Costs
• BM – Previously Covered
• TM – Includes Contingency and Fees at 15% and
3% of BM
CTM  1.18  CBM

all equip
55
Location Matters
Capital investment required for a project depends
somewhat on where in the world you put it.
CTM,corrected =
FISF∙Σ(CTM)
56
Grass‐Roots Costs
• GR – grass‐roots cost includes costs for auxiliary
facilities
CGR  0.50  o
C BM  CTM
all equip
• Use base BM costs in GR cost (1 atm and CS) since
auxiliary facilities should not depend on pressure
or M.O.C.
57
Cost estimation software
• Professional design engineers often have access to
software packages that help them design and
estimate the cost of specific types of equipment.
• CAPCOST
– Calculates costs based on input
– CEPCI – use current value of 565 or latest from
Chemical Engineering
– Program automatically assigns equipment numbers
• Aspen Cost Estimation
58
Closing thoughts on FCI estimation
• Before fixed capital investment can be estimated,
specifications for the required manufacturing equipment
must be determined.
• Size and material of construction are always required.
• Pressure and temperature ratings are also required.
• Costs change over time!
• Installed cost is much higher than purchased cost.
• To develop the most accurate cost estimates, use properly all
details that are available to you.
• THIMK and don’t make careless mistakes of omission or
commission!
59
Time Value of Money
1
Definitions
• P – Principal, Present Value or Present Worth (of an investment)
• Fn – Future Value or Future Worth (of an investment)
• n – Years (or other time unit) between P and F
• i – Interest Rate (based on time interval of n) per anum
Basic premise: money when invested earns money
(i.e., $1 today is worth more than $1 in the future)
2
Definitions
Compounding: the future worth of a present amount of
money
Discounting: the present worth of a future amount of
money
3
Interest
• Simple Interest – Annual Basis
– Interest paid in any year = Pis
• Pis – Fraction of investment paid as interest per year
– After n years total interest paid = Pisn
– Total investment is worth = P + Pisn
– Total investment after 1 year (n = 1) = P (1+is)
– What is the drawback of simple interest?
We can earn interest on earned interest
4
Interest
• Compound Interest
At time 0 we have P
At the end of Year 1, we have F1 = P (1 + i )
At the end of Year 2, we have F2 = P (1 + i )2
At the end of Year n, we have Fn = P (1 + i )n

or P = Fn / (1 + i )n
5
Compound Interest
6
Turton et al., Prentice Hall, 2012
Time Value of Money
7
Example
• How much would I need to invest at 8 % p.a.
to yield $5000 in 10 years?
i  0.08
n  10
F10  5000
5000
P  $2315.97
1  0.08 10
8
What if the Interest Rate Changes
with Time?
n
Fn  P  (1  i j )  P 1  i1 1  i2  ....... 1  in 
j 1
9
Different Time Basis for Interest
Calculations
• Relates to statement “Your loan is 6 % p.a.,
compounded monthly”
• Define actual interest rate per compounding period
as r
• inom = Nominal annual interest rate
• m = Number of compounding periods per year (12)
10
Different Time Basis for Interest
Calculations cont.
ieff = effective annual interest rate
inom
r
m
• Look at conditions after 1 year
m
 inom 
 
F1  P 1  ieff  P  1 


m 
m
 inom 
ieff   1   1
 m 
11
Example
• I invest $1000 at 10 % p.a. compounded monthly.
How much do I have in 1 year, 10 years?
m 12
 inom   0.10 
F1  P  1    1000  1    $1104.71
 m   12 
12
 0.10 
ieff  1    1  0.1047
 12 
 
10
F10  P 1  ieff  $2707.04
12
Example cont.
• As m decreases ieff increases
• Is there a limit as m goes to infinity
• Yes – continuously compounded interest
• Derivation – pp. 265‐266
• ieff (continuous) = e inom – 1
13
Cash Flow Diagram (CFD)
• Represent timings and approximate magnitude of
investment on a CFD
– x‐axis is time and y‐axis is magnitude
– both positive and negative investments are possible.
• In order to determine direction (sign) of cash flows,
we must define what system is being considered.
14
Consider a Discrete Cash Flow Diagram
• Discrete refers to individual CFDs that are plotted
• Example: I borrow $20 K for a car and repay as a
$400 monthly payment for 5 years.
For Bank $20,000 For Me
$400
123 60
12 3 60
$400
$20,000
15
Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram
Cumulative CFD
16
Annuities
1 2 3 n
Uniform series of equally spaced, equal value cash flows
Note: The first payment is at the beginning of year 1 not
at t = 0
17
Annuities
• What is future value Fn?
n 1 n 2
Fn  A 1  i   A 1  i   ..... A
• Geometric progression
 1  i n  1 
Fn  Sn  A  
 i 
18
Discount Factors
• Just a shorthand symbol for a formula in i and n
F P  1
P   , i, n  
1  i  n
F  1  i n
P   1 
 P  F  , i, n   F  
F   1  i  
n
 
P 
 A  P   , i, n  
1  i  n
1
A  i 1  i 
n
19
Discount Factors
 F  1  i n
1
 , i, n  
A  i
P  1
 , i, n  
 F  1  i n
therefore
 1  i   1
n
P
 , i, n  
A  i 1  i n
20
Calculations with Cash Flow Diagrams
$5,000
$2,000
$1,000
4 7
0 1 3
$3,000
• Invest 5K, 1K, 2K at end of Years 0, 1, 3, and take 3K at end of
Year 4
• Note that annuity payments are all at the end of the year
21
Example 1
• How much in account at end of Year 7 if i = 8%
p.a.?
F7  5,000 1  0.08   1000 1  0.08   2000 1  0.08 

7 6 4
3000 1  0.08 
3
F7  $9097.84
• What would investment be at Year 0 to get this
amount at Year 7?
9097.84
P  5308.50
1.08  7
22
Example 2
• What should my annual monthly car payment be if
interest rate is 8% p.a. compounded monthly?
$20,000
23
Example 2 (cont’d)
• Compare at n = 60
  0.08 60 
 1    1
12 
F60  A     73.47 A
 0.08 
 12 
 
 0.08 60 
F60  20,000  1     29,796.90
 12  
Interest paid =
73.47 A  29,796.90  0 $4,331.80
A  $405.53
24
• Another method
mn 60
i  i  0.08  0.08 
1   1  
A m m 12  12 
 ,0 .08,60   60
 0.020276
P   i 
mn
 0.08 
 1    1 1   1
 m  12 
A 
A  P ,0.08,60   20,000(0.020276)  $405.52
P 
interest paid  60(405.52)  20,000  $4331.20
25
Example 3
• You buy a house where you finance $200 K at 6%
p.a. interest, compounded monthly. What is your
monthly payment, and how much interest do you
pay over the lifetime of the loan for a 15‐year and
a 30‐year mortgage in current dollars?
26
mn
i  i 
1  
A i (1  i ) n
m m
 
P (1  i )  1 
n
i 
mn
1    1
 m
15 - year mortgage m  12, n  15
30 - year mortgage m  12, n  30
27
• For 15‐year mortgage
– $1687.71/month
– total of $303,788 paid
– $103,788 interest
• For 30‐year mortgage
– $1199.10/month
– total of $431,676 paid
– $231,676 interest
28
Example 4
• You invest $5000/year (the maximum, for now) in
a Roth IRA, starting at age 25 for 40 years.
Assuming a return of 8% p.a., how much will you
have at age 65 in future dollars?
29
F (1  i )  1
n

A i
40
F (1  0.08)  1

A 0.08
F
 259.06
A
A  5000
F  $1,295,283
30
Example 5
• Repeat the previous calculation, assuming that you
do not start investing until age 35 or age 45.
F (1  i ) n  1

A i
F (1  0.08) n  1

A 0.08
A  5000
F
if n  30  113.28 F  $566,400
A
F
if n  20  45.76 F  $228,800
A 31
Chapter 8 ‐ Estimation of
Manufacturing Costs
Capital Costs or Capital Investment
Fixed Capital
portion of the total fixed capital that is invested in fixed assets to build
the physical process itself, that stay in the business almost permanently,
or at the very least, for more than one accounting period.
– land, buildings, machinery, vehicles and equipment, patents, incidental
expenses
Working Capital
represents funds required to operate the plant due to delays in payment
and maintenance of inventories
– the money available to fill the tanks (solvents, catalysts, industrial
and configured consumer products) and meet the initial payroll and
expenses
Startup Cost
Cost of Manufacturing (COM)
Usually divided into three categories (examples to follow):
COM = DMC + FMC + GE
• Direct Manufacturing Costs (DMC)
– Strongly correlated with the design production rate. Some
are directly proportional to the actual production rate.
• Fixed Manufacturing Costs (FMC)
– Closely associated with the particular manufacturing
process, but are not strongly dependent on the production
rate.
• General Expenses (GE) or “overhead”
– Administrative and management costs of the company to
which each manufacturing operation must contribute.
Direct Manufacturing Costs
costs that vary with production rate
• Raw Materials (CRM) • Maintenance and
• Waste Treatment (CWT) Repairs
• Utilities (CUT) • Operating Supplies
• Operating Labor (COL) • Laboratory Charges
• Patents and Royalties
• Supervisory and Clerical
Labor
Fixed Manufacturing Costs
related to design production rate but don’t vary with actual rate
• Depreciation
• Property Taxes; Risk and Liability Insurance
• Plant Overhead Costs (payroll & benefits, accounting,
safety, medical, cafeteria, custodial, recreation, etc.)
General Expenses
costs not directly related to manufacturing
• Sales and Marketing
• Research and Development
• Company Level Administration (CEO, VPs, HR)
Manufacturing Costs ‐ examples
• Maintenance and repairs
– 2 – 10 % Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
– Proportional to size of plant
• Supervisory and clerical labor
– 10 – 25 % Cost of Labor (COL)
– Proportional to op. lab
• Depreciation
– some % of FCI (often near 10% FCI)
Using the mid-point values from Turton Table 8.2 is a non-biased

way of estimating the cost of manufacturing (COM) but actual
COM may be quite different depending on the plant and industry
sector. 6
Costs Estimated Directly from Details of
the Engineered Manufacturing Process
• Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
– Total Module Cost (CTM) – for addition at an existing facility
– Grassroots Cost (CGR) – for a new facility on green field site
• Cost of Raw Materials (CRM)
• Cost of Utilities (CUT)
• Cost of Waste Treatment (CWT)
• Cost of Labor (COL)
(More details to follow on CRM, CUT, CWT, and COL and then we will
examine how these and FCI are used to estimate other costs.)
7
Cost of Raw Materials, CRM
• CRM is determined from the process flow rates
– need process flow diagram & stream table => design case
– apply stream factor = % of time operating per year
– actual process rate will vary day to day
• Cost estimates (ultimate values from seller quotations)
US International Trade Commission: http://dataweb.usitc.gov/
Energy Information Agency: http://www.eia.gov/
Websites for commercial sales: www.alibaba.com
Chicago Mercantile Exchange: www.cmegroup.com
• Investigate cost trends over time if possible.
• Add 10‐15% for shipping if not included already.
Utilities Cost – Fuel and Electricity, CUT
• Fuel for fired heaters, furnaces, kilns, etc.
– PFD rates and stream factor give process energy
requirement (energy balance), but total flow of fuel
depends on efficiency, typically 70‐90%
– Fuel costs – see www.eia.gov web site, Chicago
Mercantile Exchange
• Electricity for pumps and compressors
– theory w/o efficiency gives fluid power (kW)
– shaft power – fluid power/pump efficiency
– PFD usually gives shaft power
– power to motor – shaft power/motor efficiency
– typical cost is $0.05 to $0.10/kWh
EIA.gov site is more current than Table 8.3 from Turton.
Cost of Fuel – Utility costs
10
(Data from Fall 2013, from Fall 2015)
Price summary (historical and forecast)
2012 2013 2014 2015
WTI Crude Oila 94.58
94.12 97.91 97.72
$ per barrel 44.60
Brent Crude Oil 101.67
111.65 108.64 104.42
$ per barrel 58.57
Gasolineb 3.38
3.63 3.51 3.45
$ per gallon 2.23
Dieselc 3.80
3.97 3.92 3.85
$ per gallon 2.50
Heating Oild 3.65
3.79 3.78 3.79
$ per gallon 2.65
Natural Gasd 11.13
10.69 10.31 11.09
$ per thousand ft3 10.35
Electricityd 12.69
11.88 12.12 12.48
¢ per kWh 12.55
aWest Texas Intermediate. bAverage regular pump price. cOn‐highway retail. dU.S. Residential
average. Note: Italics indicate forecast. Source: Short‐Term Energy Outlook , EIA.gov 11
Steam is often used to distribute energy
Note: Modern supercritical power plants provide steam at
about 250 bar (3675 psi) and 580◦C (1075◦F )
12
Utilities ‐ Steam
• Pressure Levels*
– Low (30 – 90 psi)
– Medium (150 – 250 psi)
– High (525 – 680 psi)
• Available saturated but sometimes superheated
• Large chemical complexes generate high‐pressure
steam and use excess pressure to generate electricity.
• Steam can also be used as a drive medium for
compressors and pumps
– Thermodynamic efficiency
– Drive efficiency
*These are the standard conditions used for the processes in the textbook – in
reality, lp, mp, and hps levels will differ somewhat between plants.
Utilities ‐ Condensate Return and
Boiler Feed Water
Steam
Process
Condensate returned to
* Just use Steam Costs
steam generating systems
If Steam is Lost in the Process
gas and steam
use steam cost + boiler
feed water (bfw)
since condensate is not
returned
stripping steam
15
Steam Generated in Process
(waste heat boilers)
Steam
Process
BFW
* take credit for steam generation – unless steam is lost
in process
How does a closed cycle cooling
water system work?
make‐up water & anti‐fouling chemicals
Cooling Tower
evaporation &
entrainment
loss
~30 °C Process ≤45 °C

HEX
purge (blowdown)
Utilities ‐ Cooling Water (cw)
• Make‐up based on T (40 – 30 °C) !
• Should charge cw based on energy used
• Does not matter (much) if cw returned at 40 °C or 45
°C – same energy
• 45 °C is absolute max for cw return – due to fouling
Utilities – Refrigerated Water
Ideal work depends on refrigeration temperature
Approximate
Cost ($/GJ)
CW = 0.4
RW @
‐10 C = 4
‐20 C = 8
‐50 C = 13
19
Waste Treatment Costs, CWT
• Trash can be hauled to a landfill for
~ $50/tonne = $0.05/kg
• Wastewater that contains < 1 mass % non‐toxic
chemicals can be treated like domestic sewage for
$1 to 2/m3 = $0.001 to 0.002/kg
• The cost of treating hazardous wastes varies a lot
depending on what it is, but will likely be
$1 to 2/kg
These estimates can be used to see what waste
minimization actually saves. Beyond that, green or
sustainable engineering is about personal, professional,
and corporate ethics. 20
Waste Water Treatment Cost
(Greenville, SC)
Monthly Volume Charges**

Effective Date
Base Fee*
Residential*** Commercial***
3-01-11 $9.40 $4.79 $4.55
3-01-12 $9.80 $4.96 $4.71
3-01-13 $10.20 $5.18 $4.92
3-01-14 $10.60 $5.39 $5.12
3-01-15 $11.00 $5.61 $5.33
* Applies to both residential and commercial accounts.
** Charge per 1,000 gallons of metered water.
*** Commercial customers receive a 5% reduction in volume charges
since they generally use the same amount of water throughout the
year. These accounts are not eligible for the Six-Month Savings
Program.
21
Industrial Costs Based on COD
(Data based on MetroCouncil.org Pricing‐ Minnesota)
Waste Water Treatment Cost = (a one time fee of $2,500 per
300 gal/day capacity requirement) + ($0.19 per lb of total
suspended solids or TSS) + ($0.09 per lb of COD)
The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) can be estimated from the
concentration of oxidizable compound in the sample, based on
its stoichiometric reaction with oxygen to yield CO2 (assume all C
goes to CO2) and H2O (assume all H goes to H2O), using the
following formulas:
Oxidation Reaction: CaHbOc + (a + b/4 ‐ c/2) O2 ‐‐> aCO2 + (b/2)

H2O
22
COD (chemical oxygen demand) = (CO * FW) * (MWO2 / MWOrg) * (MRO2toOrg)
COD = Chemical oxygen demand (g/day)
CO = Concentration of organic in waste water (g/l),
FW = Waste water flow rate (l/day),
MWO2 = Oxygen molecular weight (32 g/mol),
MWOrg = Weight average molecular weight of all organic contaminants (g/mol)
MRO2toOrg = Ratio of moles of oxygen to moles of oxidizable compound ((a + b/4 ‐ c/2) – note, use
the weight average MR for the waste stream)
For example, if one liter of waste water contains 1g of phenol and 1 g of cyclohexane and
flows at 300 liters/day:
C6H5OH + 7O2 → 6CO2 + 3H2O MW = 94 g/mol
C6H12 + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O MW = 84 g/mol
COD = (2∙300)∙(32/(94∙0.5 + 84∙0.5)∙(7∙0.5+9∙0.5) = 1726 g O2/day = 3.8 lb O2/day
Cost for waste water = $2,500 in yr 1 + ((3.8 lb/ day ∙ $0.08/day)∙365 days∙0.8 utilization
of plant) = $2,500 + 88.8 = $2,589 in yr 1 + ($89/yr in yrs 2‐10 assuming no increase in
cost)
23
Operating Labor Requirements
24
Seider et al., ISBN: 978‐0‐470‐04895‐5
(Turton correlated more specific data to get:)
2 0.5
N OL  (6.29  31.7P  0.23N np )
NOL = the number of operators required per shift
P = solid processing steps
Nnp = fluid processing steps – compression, heating,
cooling, mixing, separation, reaction, etc.
CAUTION: Turton acknowledges that his equation was based on
data from plants with few if any solids processing steps. The middle
term gives high estimates if P = 1 or 2 and ridiculous answers if P >2.
Most solids processing steps require 1 to 4 operators per unit. Use
judgment and/or ask someone with experience if possible.
Ulrich and Vasudevan (2004) provide operator
estimates for specific types of equipment; e.g.,
equipment type operators/unit/shift
conveyor 0.1
cooling tower 0.6
boiler & electric turbine 2
incinerator 1.3
electric motor or pump 0
This table should be more accurate than the two previous
slides.
26
Estimating Labor Costs, COL
Assuming each operator is out 5 wks/yr for vacation,
holiday, or sick leave, each operator actually works
(47 work weeks/yr)(5 eight‐hr shifts/wk)
= 235 shifts/yr/operator
Total shifts per year for 24 hr/7 day/52 week operation,
= (365)(3 shifts per day) = 1095 shifts/year
1095/235 = 4.7 operators needed to cover each position
The cost of labor varies with location and skill level.
In the US, the cost of wages plus benefits for
manufacturing labor averages $20 to $40/hr. 27
Operating Labor
• How many operators are required to achieve one
operator per shift for an entire year?
Shifts worked per year per operator =
(49 work weeks/yr)(5 eight hr shifts/operator/wk)
= 245 shifts/year/operator
Total shifts per year =
(365)(3 shifts per day) = 1095 shifts/year
1095/245 = 4.5 operators (per required shift operator)
Many plants close for maintenance 1‐4 weeks per year!
Thus, the required shifts per year may be less. 28
Operating Labor – Acetone Facility
Equipment Number of Nnp

Compressors 0 0
Exchangers 8 8
Fired Heaters 1 1
Pumps 5 ‐
Reactors 1 1
Towers 3 3
Vessels 4 ‐
Total 13
Operating Labor – Acetone Facility
• Number of Required Operators per Shift
NOL = [6.29 + (31.7)(P)2 + (0.23)(Nnp)]0.5
NOL = [6.29 + (31.7)(0)2 + (0.23)(13)]0.5 = 3.05
• What is the annual Operating Labor Cost?
Total Operators = (3.05)(4.5) = 13.75  14
Salary = $59,580/yr (2010 Gulf‐Coast average)
COL = ($59,580)(14) = $834k/yr
30
Estimates of “Other” Manufacturing Costs
– 2 – 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
– 10 – 25 % of Cost of Manufacturing Labor (COL)
• Distribution and sales
– 2 – 20 % of total Cost of Manufacturing (COM)
Table 8.2 from Turton shows an estimated range for each additional
item of DMC, FMC, and GE. The equation at the bottom of the table
and its equivalent on the next slide are based on the mid-point value of
each estimated range. Before using these estimates, always study
the table and consider whether you have better information on any
particular cost item. Actual COM can be quite different depending on
the type of process and industry sector.
31
Direct Manufacturing Costs (Turton)
32
33
Putting it all together
Cost of Manufacturing or COM is usually divided into three
categories:
DMC = Direct Manufacturing Costs
FMC = Fixed Manufacturing Costs
GE = General Expenses or “overhead”
• Four parts of DMC (CRM, CUT, COL, and CWT) usually dominate COM.
• Other items in DMC, FMC, and GE can be estimated individually if
time and data are sufficient, but preliminary estimates are usually
made based on correlations established between these items and
FCI.
Overall Cost of Manufacturing (COMd)
COM d  0.180FCI  2.73COL  1.23  C UT  C WT  CRM 
• COMd is the estimated cost of manufacturing without
depreciation. This quantity is used commonly to represent the
cost of producing a particular product.
• FCI appears in the estimating equation because maintenance,
repairs, property taxes, and other costs are based on the FCI.
• Some people add to COMd an additional fraction of FCI to account
for the fact that the cost of each unit of product made should
include a portion of the fixed capital investment required to build
the process.
• We will account for capital investment and depreciation in a
different way later.
35
COM (with depreciation – don’t use!):
COM  0.280FCI  2.73COL  1.23  C UT  C WT  CRM 

with depreciation as 10% of FCI
COMd (without depreciation):
COM without depreciation – use this since depreciation
is calculated more accurately by other means
(See in Chapter 9 in Turton)
36
Summary
• The cost of manufacturing a product, COMd, can be divided
into direct costs, indirect costs, and general expenses
(overhead).
• An estimate of COMd can be made from estimates of fixed
capital investment (FCI) and the cost of raw materials (CRM),
operating labor (COL), utilities (CUT), and waste treatment
(CWT).
• To estimate these five essential items you must have a
preliminary process flow diagram and a stream table (mass
and energy entering and leaving the process).
• Depreciation is not included in the estimation equation
developed here, but will be accounted for later.
• The most common cause of large errors in estimating FCI
or COMd is not inaccurate data or faulty correlations. It is
omission of significant costs due to oversight.
Depreciation
1
Quick Review
Fixed Capital ($)
Initial investment in fixed assets to build the physical process and required
auxiliaries. Often the cost of any land purchased in not included in FC.
Working Capital ($)
Reserve funds required to operate the process during periods when revenues
are delayed or cash flow is negative. Ideally the WC balance averages a
constant, positive value.
Gross Profit before Depreciation ($/yr)
Before depreciation is taken into account, gross profit is calculated as sales
revenue minus the cost of manufacturing over a common period of time. For
most purposes these statistics are compiled and reported on an annual basis.
Total Capital Investment ($)
TCI = Fixed Capital + Working Capital + Land
TCI  FCI L  Land  WC

What is depreciation?
• Physical => something doesn’t work the way it once did due
to wear and tear, corrosion, or aging effects.
• Functional => something works just like it always did, but
nobody wants it anymore. Examples?
• “Allocational” => systematic allocation of an asset’s cost over
its useful or depreciable life – i.e., to account for the capital
investment a new venture requires, a fraction of FCI is added
to the estimated cost of manufacturing each unit of product.
This is for internal use only by the manufacturer. It is not
legal for tax purposes.
• Legal => government agencies that are authorized to tax
corporate profits allow companies to subtract a fraction of
fixed capital investment from gross profits before the tax is
calculated.
Types of Property
Tangible property: can be seen, touched, and felt.
• Real property: land, buildings, and things growing on, built
upon, constructed on, or attached to the land
• Personal property: equipment, furnishings, vehicles, office
machinery, and anything that is tangible excluding real
property
Intangible property: has value but cannot be directly
seen or touched, examples include patents,
copyrights, and trademarks, trade names, and
franchises.
Newnan et al., Oxford University Press, 2011
Property and Depreciation
•Almost all tangible property can be
depreciated except land, factory inventory,
containers considered as inventory, and leased
property.
•Tangible property used in both business and
personal activities can be depreciated, but only
in proportion to the use for business purposes.
•Intangible property can generally be
depreciated.
Legally, what can be depreciated?
Property is depreciable if:
• It is used for business purposes to produce income.
• It has a useful life that is longer than one year.
• It is an asset that decays, gets used up, wears out,
becomes obsolete, or loses value to the owner from
natural causes.
Generally this includes all original items included in the
fixed capital investment of a manufacturing operation,
except land. It can later include replacement equipment
that meets the requirements stated above. Working
capital, rented equipment, and product held in inventory
cannot be depreciated.
What are expenses and why are they
“better” than depreciation?
Generally expenses are:
• Part of regular business operations.
• “Consumed” over a short period of time (< 1 year).
• Often recurring.
• Subtracted from sales revenues as they occur.
• Examples: labor, utilities, raw materials, insurance,…
If a cost meets the legal definition, why is it preferable
to treat it as an expense rather than an investment that
can be depreciated?
Definitions
• Salvage Value, S
– Value of FCIL at end of project
– Often = 0
• Life of Equipment
– n is set by IRS
• Not related to actual equipment life
• Total Capital for Depreciation
– FCIL ‐ S
8
4 Basic Methods for Depreciation
• Straight Line
• Sum of Years Digits (SOYD)
• Double Declining Balance (DDB)
• Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System
(MACRS)
9
Depreciation Calculation Fundamentals
k
BVk  Cost basis  dj
j1
BVk = Book value at the end of time k B
Cost basis = amount being depreciated Total
Depreciation
Book Value
including the asset’s purchase price and
Charges
any other costs necessary to make the
asset “ready to use” = FCIL for an entire Curve values depend
plant/process On depreciation method
dj = Depreciation deduction in year j
Salvage value
 dj = Accumulated depreciation charges S
from time 1 to k Depreciable Life
Historical Depreciation Methods
Straight‐line (SL) where
dk = Depreciation charge in
 FCI L  S 
dSL
k   year k
 n  FCIL = Fixed capital
Sum‐of‐the‐years’‐digits (SOYD) investment (excluding
land)
 n  1  k  FCI L  S  BVk = Book value at end of
dSOYD
k 
1
n  n  1 any year = FCIL‐Σ dk
2 S = Salvage value after n
Double declining balance (DDB) years
n = Number of years over
2 2  k 1 

which depreciation is
d DDB
k   BVk 1    FCI L  dj
n n  taken
 j1  SOYD = Sum of years’ digits
= n(n+1)/2
Straight Line Depreciation
Cost of the asset, FCIL $900,000
dk dk BV 900
166
Year 800
($1,000) ($1000) ($1000)
700
166
0 900 600
Book Value
1 166 166 734 500 166
400
2 166 332 568 300 166
3 166 498 402 200
166
4 166 664 236 100 Salvage value
5 166 830 70 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
Sum of Years Digits (SOYD) Depreciation
Cost of the asset, B $900,000
dt dt BV 900
Year 800
($1,000) ($1000) ($1000) 700
277
0 $900.00 600
Book Value
1 $276.67 $276.67 623.33 500 221
400
2 221.33 498.00 402.00 166
300
3 166.00 664.00 236.00 111
200
4 110.67 774.67 125.33 100 Salvage value 55
5 55.33 830.00 70.00 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
Double Declining Balance (DDB) Depreciation
Cost of the asset, B $900,000
dt dt BV 900
Year 800
($1,000) ($1000) ($1000) 360
700
0 900.00 600
Book Value
1 360.00 360.00 540.00 500 216
2 216.00 576.00 324.00 400
3 129.60 705.60 194.40 300 130

200 78
4 77.76 783.36 116.64 Salvage value
100 47
5 46.66 830.02 69.98 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
Comparison of Depreciation Methods
Amount of Depreciation
400
Amount of Depreciation (1000 x $)
350 Double Declining
300 SOYD
Straight Line
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
15
Depreciated Asset Value
1000
900 Double Declining
800 SOYD
Asset Value (1000 x $)
700 Straight Line

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
16
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System
(MACRS)
• MACRS is an accelerated depreciation schedule that was
developed by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (with
input from a lot of corporate lobbyists and accountants).
• “Recovery periods” are allowed over which various
types of assets can be fully depreciated. These are
generally less than the actual useful life of the
equipment.
• Salvage value is assumed to be 0, but if fully depreciated
assets are sold later, the proceeds are taxable.
• A table of annual depreciation percentages is used, and
it allows quicker “write‐off” than straight line
depreciation over the same total number of years.
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery
System (MACRS)
• General Depreciation System (GDS)
• Based on declining balance with switch to straight‐line
depreciation
• Alternative Depreciation System (ADS)
• ADS provides a longer recovery period and uses straight‐line
depreciation
• ADS must be used for
• Tangible property used primarily outside the United States
• Property that is tax exempt or financed by tax‐exempt bonds
• Farming property placed in service when uniform capitalization rules are
not applied
• ADS may be elected for an asset, it is not possible to switch
back to the GDS.
Procedures in Applying
MACRS‐GDS Depreciation
1. Determine if a property is eligible for depreciation
2. Determine the asset’s cost basis (FCIL)
• Cost to obtain and place the asset in service fit for use
• For real property, the basis may include certain fees and
charges, such as legal and recording fees, abstract fees, survey
charges, transfer taxes, title insurance, …
3. Determine the property class and recovery period
• Use property class given in problem
• Match asset name with MACRS‐GDS property classes
definition
• Use ADR class life to determine property class
MACRS GDS Property Classes
Property Class Personal Property (all property except real estate)
3‐Year Property • Special handling devices for food and beverage manufacture
• Special tools for the manufacture of finished plastic products,
fabricated metal products, and motor vehicles
• Property with ADR class life of 4 years or less
5‐Year Property • Automobiles and trucks (The depreciation for automobiles is
limited to $2960 the first tax year, $4700 the second year, $2850
the third year, and 1675 per year in subsequent years.)
• Aircraft (of non‐air‐transport companies)
• Equipment used in research and experimentation
• Computers
• Petroleum drilling equipment
• Property with ADR class life of more than 4 years and less than 10
years
7‐Year Property • All other property not assigned to another class
• Office furniture, fixtures, and equipment
• Property with ADR class life of 10 years or more and less than 16
years
MACRS GDS Property Classes
Property Class Personal Property (all property except real estate)
10‐Year • Assets used in petroleum refining and certain food products
Property • Vessels and water transportation equipment
years
15‐Year • Telephone distribution plants
Property • Municipal sewage treatment plants
years
20‐Year • Municipal sewers
Property • Property with ADR class life of 25 years or more
Property Class Real Property (real estate)
27.5 Year Residential rental property (does not include hotels and motels)
39 Years Nonresidential real property
Example Class Lives and
MACRS Property Classes
IRS Class Life MACRS Property
Asset Asset Description (Years) Class (years)
Class ADR GDS ADS
00.11 Office furniture, fixtures, and equipment 10 7 10
00.12 Information Systems: computer/peripheral 6 5 6
00.22 Automobiles, taxis 3 5 5
00.241 Light general‐purpose trucks 4 5 5
00.25 Railroad cars and locomotives 15 7 15
00.40 Industrial steam and electric distribution 22 15 22
01.21 Cattle, breeding or dairy 7 5 7
13.00 Offshore drilling assets 7.5 5 7.5
13.30 Petroleum refining assets 16 10 16
15.00 Construction assets 6 5 6
Example Class Lives and
MACRS Property Classes
IRS Class Life MACRS Property
Asset Asset Description (Years) Class (years)
Class ADR GDS ADS
21.10 Manufacture of grain and grain mill products 17 10 17
22.2 Manufacture of yarn, thread, and woven fabric 11 7 11
24.10 Cutting of timber 6 5 6
32.20 Manufacture of cement 20 15 20
37.11 Manufacture of motor vehicles 12 7 12
48.11 Telephone communications assets 24 15 24
48.2 Radio and television broadcasting equipment 6 5 6
49.12 Electric utility nuclear production plant 20 15 20
49.13 Electric utility steam production plant 28 20 28
49.23 Natural gas production plant 14 7 14
50.00 Municipal wastewater treatment plant 24 15 24
80.00 Theme and amusement park assets 12.5 7 12.5
Applying MACRS‐GDS Depreciation
d k  FCI L  rk
where
dk = Depreciation charge in year t
FCIL = Cost basis = Fixed capital investment (excluding land)
rk = Appropriate MACRS percentage rate
MACRS GDS Percentage Rate
Recovery 3‐year 5‐year 7‐year 10‐year 15‐year 20‐year
Year class class class class class class
1 33.33 20.00 14.29 10.00 5.00 3.750
2 44.45 32.00 24.49 18.00 9.50 7.219
3 14.81* 19.20 17.49 14.40 8.55 6.677
4 7.41 11.52* 12.49 11.52 7.70 6.177
5 11.52 8.93* 9.22 6.93 5.713
6 5.76 8.92 7.37 6.23 5.285
7 8.93 6.55* 5.90* 4.888
8 4.46 6.55 5.90 4.522
9 6.56 5.91 4.462*
10 6.55 5.90 4.461
11 3.28 5.91 4.462
12‐15 5.90 4.461
16 2.95 4.461
17‐20 4.462
21 2.231
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Calculation of MACRS GDS Depreciation
10‐yr equipment lifetime, 7‐year property class
B=$150,000 and S=$30,000
MACRS
Year MACRS % MACRS Calculation Depreciation, dt Book Value
0 $150,000
1 14.29% ($150000)(14.29%) $21,435 128,565
2 24.49% (150000)(24.49%) 36,735 91,830
3 17.49% (150000)(17.49%) 26,235 65,595
4 12.49% (150000)(12.49%) 18,735 46,860
5 8.93% (150000)(8.93%) 13,395 33,465
6 8.92% (150000)(8.92%) 13,380 20,085
7 8.93% (150000)(8.93%) 13,395 6,690
8 4.46% (150000)(4.46%) 6,690 0
150000
125000
100000
Book Value
SL
75000
SOYD
50000
25000
MACRS
DDB
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Year
US federal corporate tax rates
are applied to gross profit after depreciation.
Individual state taxes add 0 to 10% to these rates.
Over But not over Tax is Of amount over
$0 $50,000 15% $0
50,000 75,000 $7,500 + 25% 50,000
75,000 100,000 13,750 + 34% 75,000
100,000 335,000 22,250 + 39% 100,000
335,000 10,000,000 113,900 + 34% 335,000
10,000,000 15,000,000 3,400,000 + 35% 10,000,000
15,000,000 18,333,333 5,150,000 + 38% 15,000,000
18,333,333 ____ 35% 0
Review of key cash flow equations
• Gross profit before depreciation = R ‐ COMd
• Depreciation (dk ) = (FCI – L) * d (with d as fraction, %/100%)
• Gross profit after depreciation = (R – COMd ‐ dk)
• Income Tax = (R – COMd ‐ dk) * t (with t as fraction, %/100%)
• Net Profit after Taxes = (R – COMd –dk)(1 – t)
• After Tax Cash Flow = (R – COMd – dk)(1 – t) + dk

• At the end of the process life, working capital and salvage value
are added also. Working capital is not taxable, but salvage value
will be taxed as a capital gain if it was assumed to be zero.
Additional Material
30
Excel Spreadsheet, Depreciation Functions
Excel Functions Purpose

SLN(cost, salvage, Returns the straight-line depreciation of an asset for
life) one period.
DDB(cost, salvage, Returns the depreciation of an asset for a specified
life, period, [factor]) period using the double-declining balance method
or some other method specified.
SYD(cost, salvage, Returns the sum-of-years' digits depreciation of an
life, period) asset for a specified period.
VDB(cost, salvage, Returns the depreciation of an asset for any period
life, start_period, specified, including partial periods, using the
end_period, [factor], double-declining balance method or some other
[no_switch]) method specified. VDB stands for variable declining
balance.
Depreciation and Asset Disposal
When a depreciable asset is disposed of, and the market value is
different than the book value, the difference must be treated as:
• Depreciation recapture (ordinary gains): Depreciation recapture
occurs when an asset is sold for more than its current book
value, but less than the original cost basis.
• Losses: A loss occurs when an asset is sold for less than its
current book value.
• Capital gains: Capital gain occur when an asset is sold for more
than its original cost basis. Capital gains may be taxed at lower
rate than ordinary gains.
Depreciation and Asset Disposal
14000 14000 14000
12000 12000 12000

$4000
Capital
10000
$2000 10000 10000
Gain
8000 Depreciation
8000 8000
$5000
Recapture 6000 $3000
6000 6000 Depreci
Loss
4000 4000 4000 ation
2000 2000 2000
Recapt
ure
0 0 0
Cost Market Book Cost Market Book Cost Market Book
Basis Value Value Basis Value Value Basis Value Value
Depreciation and Asset Disposal Example
3‐year property class, B=$10000
MACRS
Year MACRS % Depreciation, dk Book Value Market Value
0 $10,000
1 33.33% $3,333 6,667
2 44.45% 4,445 2,222
3 14.81% 1,481 741
4 7.41% 741 0
5 0 0 0 X
a) If market value = $7000, the recaptured depreciation = $7000

b) If market value = $0, no recaptured depreciation or loss
c) If market value = -$2000, there is a loss of $2000
MACRS
1) Year MACRS % Depreciation, dt Book Value Market Value
0 $10,000
1 33.33% $3,333 6,667
2 44.45% (1/2)4,445=2,222.5 4,444.5 $2500
Market Value – Book Value = $2500 – 4444.5 = ‐

1944.5 (Loss)
MACRS
2) Year MACRS % Depreciation, dt Book Value Market Value
0 $10,000
1 33.33% $3,333 6,667
2 44.45% 4,445 2,222
3 14.81% (1/2)1,481=740.5 1,481.5 $2500
Market Value – Book Value = $2500 – 1481.5 = 1018.5

(Recaptured Depreciation)
3) B=10,000, S=5000, N=5
SL Depreciation,
Year dt Book Value Market Value
0 $10,000
1 $1000 9,000
2 1000 8,000
3 1000 7,000 $4000
Market Value – Book Value = $4000 – 7000 = -3000

(Loss)
Depreciation and Competitiveness
• Depreciation is part of determining corporate income taxes
• What can be depreciated? How fast? All linked to a firm’s after‐
tax profits and competitiveness
• Depreciation rules and regulations can be crafted to impact on
total revenue received, to increase capital investment, and to
improve employment rates
• In 1981 and 1986, tax code was changed to allow depreciation
over shorter periods, and to give capital investments full
depreciation
• In 2002, tax code was changed by the Job Creation and Worker
Assistance Act to allow additional first year’s depreciation
• In 2009, American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided
incentives to stimulate the economy
Depreciation Methods
Pre‐1981 historical methods:
• Straight‐line (SL)
• Sum‐of‐the‐years’‐digits (SOYD)
• Declining balance (DB)
• required estimates of useful life and salvage value
1981‐1986 method:
• Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS)
• Property class lives were created
• Salvage value was ignored
• Shorter recovery periods were used
1986‐present:
• Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)
• Number of property classes was expanded
• Half‐year convention for the first and final years
Taxation, Cash Flow, Inflation
1
Taxation, Cash Flow, and Profit
• Expenses = COMd + dk
• Income Tax = (R – COMd ‐ dk)t
• After Tax (net)Profit =
(R – COMd –dk)(1 – t)
• After Tax Cash Flow =
(R – COMd – dk)(1 – t) + dk (+ other cash flows)
• Other cash flows might include working capital return,
salvage value, etc.
• Recall:
• COMd = cost ($) of manufacturing minus depreciation
• R = $ in revenue
• dk = $ in equipment depreciation
• t = tax rate (a fraction)
2
Inflation
• $ Net Worth Now vs. $ Next Year
CEPCI  j  n   1  f  CEPCI  j 
n
• f = average inflation rate between years j and n
(for chemical/petroleum plants!)
3
Inflation
• Example
CEPCI 1993  359

CEPCI 2003  402
402
1  f 
10

359
0.1
 402 
f    1  0.0114 or 1.14%
 359 
4
Inflation
• What was the inflation rate from 2003 to 2011
for chemical plant construction? Assume the
CEPCI was 600 in 2011 and 402 in 2003.
8 600
(1  f )   1.4925
402
f  1.49250.125  1  0.0513
5.13%
5
Inflation
• Effect of inflation on interest rates
f affects the purchasing power of the $
• Look at the purchasing power of future worth (F’),
' F
F 
(1  f )n
• If this future worth was obtained by investing at a rate i,
then the inflation adjusted interest rate (i ’) is given by
n
' F (1  i )n
 1 i  ' n
F   P  P 1 f   P (1  i )
(1  f ) n
(1  f ) n
 
' 1 i F = future worth, $
i  1  i  f P = present value, $
1 f
6
Profitability Analysis
1
Should we invest
Net profit
Income taxes
after taxes
Gross profit after
in the Nova Cost of Manufacturing
depreciation
Depreciation
allowance
not including
Venture or not? depreciation Gross profit before

depreciation
Sales Revenue Manufacturing Operations
After tax
Pioneer must spend or set cash flow
from Nova
aside: Working Capital
Venture
• FCI operations
• Working capital N
o Manufacturing fixed
v capital investment
a (installed process
Pioneer should get back: equipment)
V
• Annual net profit after e Non‐manufacturing
fixed capital
Land n
taxes t investment
(infrastructure, etc.)
u
• Annual depreciation Other Ventures r
e
allowance
• Possible salvage value Personal $ Pioneer Bond Sale
• Working capital Bank Loan Enterprises Stock Issue

• Land for another use Loan & Bond Stock
Repayments Venture Capital Dividends 2
Cash Flows for a New Project
Before actually doing any of what is shown below, estimate all of
the cash flows and evaluate the potential profitability.
1. Purchase land
2. Build plant (0.5‐3 years, depending on size)
3. Plant start‐up – put in working capital
4. Operate for N years, producing product and bringing in
revenue
a. N is the time over which profitability analysis is performed.
b. N is based on market analysis and/or best conservative guess, usually no more
than 10 years.
5. Depreciate capital over early years using MACRS (in U.S.)
6. After N years, recover working capital, land, and salvage value.
3
Project life
Land
Plant start-up WC
Salvage
Depreciation period
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Land
FCIL
Cumulative Cash
Flow Diagram
Work. Cap.
Low revenue in 1st year
after start-up
4
Non‐discounted Profitability Criteria
3 Bases for Profitability
• Time
• Cash
• Interest Rate
5
Time Criterion
Payback Period = PBP
PBP = time required after start‐up for the sum of
annual after tax cash flows to equal the fixed
capital investment, not including land (FCIL)
6
Cash Criterion
Cumulative Cash Position or CCP,
CCP = cash value at the end of project life
Because CCP depends on the size of the project, it is
better to use the Cumulative Cash Ratio, CCR.
Sum of all Positive Cash Flows CCP
CCR   1
Sum of all Negative Cash Flows Land  WC  FCI L
7
Interest Rate Criterion
• Rate of Return on Investment, ROROI, or simply Return on
Investment, ROI
• Treats the FCIL put into the project like a savings account.
• The net profit (not the After Tax Cash Flow or ATCF) is treated
as the annual interest paid back to the account. Over the
operating life of the project,
Average Annual Net Profit

ROROI 
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI L )
8
Sum of all Positive Cash Flows CCP
CCR   1
Sum of all Negative Cash Flows Land  WC  FCI L
Land
CCP
Plant start‐up WC
Salvage
Payback period, PBP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Land Land
WC
FCIL
Average Annual Net Profit Slope of line 1
FCIL ROROI   
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI L ) FCI L n
WC
9
Before actually doing any of what is shown below, estimate all of
the cash flows and evaluate the potential profitability.
1. Purchase land
2. Build plant (0.5‐3 years, depending on size)
3. Plant start‐up – put in working capital
4. Operate for N years, producing product and bringing in
revenue
a. N is the time over which profitability analysis is performed.
b. N is based on market analysis and/or best conservative guess, usually
no more than 10 years.
5. Depreciate capital over early years using MACRS (in U.S.)
6. After N years, recover working capital, land, and salvage value.
7. AND if N > a few years, you must account for the time value
of money in your analysis of profitability.
10
Discounted Profitability Criteria
• Capital projects that have an expected life of more
than a few years should be evaluated on the basis of
discounted profitability criteria to account for the
time value of money.
• Management establishes the “minimum acceptable
rate of return” (MARR), which is also commonly
called the “hurdle rate” and the “cost of capital.”
• All capital investments and after tax cash flows are
discounted back to time zero to determine their
“present value”. The MARR is used as the earnings
or interest rate in these calculations.
11
Discounted Profitability Analysis
Time Criterion
Discounted Payback Period, DPBP
DPBP = time required after start‐up for the sum
of after tax cash flows to equal the fixed
capital investment, not including land
(FCIL), with all cash flows discounted back
to time zero using the MARR.
12
Cash Criteria
Discounted Cumulative Cash Position,
DCCP = Net Present Value, NPV
Discounted Cumulative Cash Ratio,
DCCR = Present Value Ratio, PVR
These are calculated exactly as they were before except all cash
flows are discounted back to time zero using the MARR.
NPV = Cumulative discounted cash position at the end of the project
Present Value of all Positive Cash Flows
PVR =
Present Value of all Negative Cash Flows
13
Interest Rate Criterion
• With discounting, the ROROI becomes the
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return, DCFROR.
• The DCFROR is the value of the earnings rate
for which the Net Present Value, NPV, is zero.
• Usually an iterative approach is needed to find
the DCFROR because i, the interest rate you
are trying to determine, is not explicit in the
discounting equations.
14
The next two slides show the results of a
profitability analysis for an example project.
Non‐discounted techniques are used first
and then discounted techniques.
(Note that capital investments in column 2 are shown in parentheses,
indicating that they are negative numbers. In Year 12, returned capital
is shown as a positive value. These are common conventions.)
15
Example 1: Non‐discounted Analysis
Non‐discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Land, M$ FCI, M$ WC, M$ R, M$/y COMd, M$/y Taxes,% Salvage,M$
10.0 150.0 30.0 75.0 30.0 45.0 10.0
Year Investment MACRS depreciation FCI ‐ S(dk) R COMd ATCF CF CumCF

end M$ % M$ M$ M$ M$ M$ M$ M$
0 (10.00) ‐10.00 ‐10.00
1 (90.00) ‐90.00 ‐100.00
2 (90.00) ‐90.00 ‐190.00
3 0.00 20.00 30.00 120.00 75.0 30.0 38.25 38.25 ‐151.75
4 0.00 32.00 48.00 72.00 75.0 30.0 46.35 46.35 ‐105.40
5 0.00 19.20 28.80 43.20 75.0 30.0 37.71 37.71 ‐67.69
6 0.00 11.52 17.28 25.92 75.0 30.0 32.53 32.53 ‐35.16
7 0.00 11.52 17.28 8.64 75.0 30.0 32.53 32.53 ‐2.64
8 0.00 5.76 8.64 0.00 75.0 30.0 28.64 28.64 26.00
9 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 24.75 50.75
10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 24.75 75.50
11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 24.75 100.25
12 40.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 85.0 30.0 30.25 70.25 170.50
320.50
Payback period (PBP), years 3.85 time after startup til CumCF equals land+working cap ( ‐$40M)
Cum cash position (CCP), M$ 170.50 value of Cumulative Cash Flow at end of project
Cum cash ratio (CCR) 1.90 (sum of positive cash flows)/(‐ sum of negative cash flows)
Rate of return on investment, % 11.4 average annual net profit / FCI
16
Profitability Analysis
Discrete cash flows
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
Million $
0.00
-20.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-40.00
-60.00
-80.00
-100.00
End of Project Year
Cumulative Cash Flow

200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
Million $
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-50.00
-100.00
-150.00
-200.00
-250.00 17
End of Project Year
Example 1: Discounted Analysis
Discounted Cash Flow Analysis ‐ cash flows discounted to time zero
Land, M$ FCI, M$ WC, M$ R, M$/y COMd, M$/y Taxes,% MARR,% salvage,$M
10.0 150.0 30.0 75.0 30.0 45.0 10.00 10.0
cumulative
values are
<‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ discrete values don't need to be discounted ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐> discounted !!
Year Investment MACRS depreciation FCI ‐ S(dk) R COMd ATCF CF CumCF
end M$ % M$ M$ M$ M$ M$ M$ M$
0 (10.00) ‐10.00 ‐10.00
1 (90.00) ‐81.82 ‐91.82
2 (90.00) ‐74.38 ‐166.20
3 0.00 20.00 30.00 120.00 75.0 30.0 38.25 28.74 ‐137.46
4 0.00 32.00 48.00 72.00 75.0 30.0 46.35 31.66 ‐105.80
5 0.00 19.20 28.80 43.20 75.0 30.0 37.71 23.41 ‐82.39
6 0.00 11.52 17.28 25.92 75.0 30.0 32.53 18.36 ‐64.03
7 0.00 11.52 17.28 8.64 75.0 30.0 32.53 16.69 ‐47.34
8 0.00 5.76 8.64 0.00 75.0 30.0 28.64 13.36 ‐33.98
9 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 10.50 ‐23.48
10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 9.54 ‐13.94
11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.0 30.0 24.75 8.67 ‐5.26
12 40.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 85.0 30.0 30.25 22.38 17.12
320.50
Payback period (DPBP), years 5.94 time after startup til DiscCumCF = disc (land+WC) or ‐34.79
Net Present Value (NPV), M$ 17.12 value of CumCF at end of project discounted back to time 0
Present Value Ratio (PVR) 1.10 (PV of positive cash flows)/(‐ PV of negative cash flows)
Disc rate of return (DCFROR), % 12.1 value of i that gives zero for NPV (i.e., zero disc CumCF)
18
Influence of the Discount Rate
• Non-discounted analysis says the project breaks even in 7 years.
• With a MARR of 10%, the project has a small positive NPV.
• The DCFROR is 12.1% (with i =12.1%, NPV=0).
• This project would be abandoned if the MARR were 20%.
19
Example (all figures in millions of $)
Land = 10
Fixed Cap. Inv. ‐ Land, FCIL = 150 (year 1 = 90 and year 2 = 60)
Working Cap., WC = 30
Revenue, R = 75
COMd = 30
Taxation, t = 45%
Salvage, S = 10
Depreciation = MACRS over 5 years
Project life, n = 10 years after start‐up
20
Time Basis
PBP Discounted Payback Period, DPBP
DPBP = time required, after start‐up, to recover the
fixed capital investment, FCIL, required for
the project, with all cash flows discounted
back to time zero.
21
Interest Basis
ROROI Discounted Cash Flow Rate of
Return, DCFROR
DCFROR = interest or discount rate for which the
NPV of the project is equal to zero.
22
23
Example 2: Depreciation Different
End of (R-COMd-dk)(1-t)+dk Cash CF Disc CF Disc CF

Investment dk FCIL-dk R COMd
year, k flow
0 (10) - 150.00 - - - (10) (10) (10) (10)
1 (90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (100) (81.82) (91.82)
2 (60)+(30)=(90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (190) (74.38) (166.20)
3 - 30.00 120.00 75 30 38.25 38.25 (151.75) 28.74 (137.46)
4 - 48.00 72.00 75 30 46.35 46.35 (105.40) 31.66 (103.80)
5 - 28.80 43.20 75 30 37.71 37.71 (67.69) 23.41 (82.39)
6 - 17.28 23.92 75 30 32.53 32.53 (35.16) 18.36 (64.03)
7 - 17.28 8.64 75 30 32.53 32.53 (2.64) 16.69 (47.34)
8 - 8.64 0.00 75 30 28.64 28.64 26.00 13.36 (33.98)
9 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 50.75 10.50 (23.48)
10 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 75.50 9.54 (13.94)
11 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 100.25 8.67 (5.26)
12 10+30=40 - 0.00 85 30 30.25 70.25 170.50 22.38 17.12
24
25
Comparison of Alternative Investments
• Both junior‐level engineers and those in senior‐level
management positions make decisions on alternative
investments. As you take on more responsibility, the amount
of money involved in these decisions will increase.
• Various techniques are available to guide decisions on
alternative investments. All methods account for the time
value of money unless the time horizon is very short.
• The usual trade‐off is that equipment that requires higher
capital investment will either produce more profit, last longer,
or be cheaper to operate.
• The methods shown in the examples below are based on
maximizing profitability, but engineers must never lose sight
of their ethical responsibilities to employees, customers, and
society in general.
26
Maximum Net Present Value
When comparing alternatives with equal equipment
or project life, maximize the net present value.
Example: The following alternative projects are available, but
only one can be funded. For each alternative, FCI would be
committed at t=0, construction time would be one year, and
the operating life would be 12 years. The MARR is 10%.
Alternative Initial Investment Annual After Tax Cash Flow

starting in Year 2
Project A $23,000,000 $4,600,000
Project B $11,000,000 $2,500,000
27
Maximum Net Present Value
Alternative Initial Investment Annual After Tax Cash Flow
starting in Year 2
Project A $23,000,000 $4,600,000
Project B $11,000,000 $2,500,000
Project A (all $ are millions)
NPV = ‐$23.0 + $4.6(P/A,0.10,12)(P/F,0.10,1)
= ‐$23.0 + $4.6(6.8137)(0.9091) = $5.49
Project B (all $ are millions)
NPV = ‐$11.0 + $2.5(P/A,0.10,12)(P/F,0.10,1)
NPV = ‐$11.0 + $2.5(6.8137)(0.9091) = $4.49
28
Comparing Several Large Projects
When comparing projects with large capital investments,
the question becomes what criterion should we use to
discriminate between alternatives?
Consider the following example (figures are in $millions)
Initial Investment NPV DCFROR
Project A $ 60 11.9 14.3%
Project B $120 15.2 12.9%
Project C $100 15.9 13.3%
The capital limit for this year is $120 million so we may
only choose A or B or C. Which is best?
29
Start with lowest capital investment – Project A – NPV is positive so
this is a viable investment.
Compare incremental investment in going from Project A to Project C
(the next largest investment case)
D investment = $100 – $60 = $40
D cash flow = $12 ‐ $10 = $2 for year 1
= $20 – $12 = $8 for years 2 – 10
NPV = ‐40 + 2(P/F, 0.1, 1) + 8(P/A, 0.1, 9)(P/F, 0.1, 1) = $3.7 DDCFROR
= 11.9%
Because the incremental investment has a +ve DNPV – Project C is
better than Project A.
30
Basically what we have just compared is the following:

Case 1 – Invest $60 in Project A and $40 at a rate of 10%
Case 2 – Invest $100 in Project C
Since C is better than A, we now compare C with the next largest investment –
Project B  investment = $120 – $100 = $20
 cash flow = $22 - $12 = $10 for year 1
= $22 – $20 = $2 for years 2 – 10
NPV = -20 + 10(P/F, 0.1, 1) + 2(P/A, 0.1, 9)(P/F, 0.1, 1) = -$0.4
For the incremental investment C to B, DCFROR = 9.4% < MARR
This means it is better to invest the extra $20 million somewhere else and
presumably earn 10% or greater.
Of these three alternatives, Project C is the best.
31
When comparing mutually exclusive projects the
appropriate criterion is to choose the project
with the highest net present value (NPV) or the
least negative NPV if all NPV<0 but you must
choose one (e.g., some environmental and
safety projects). This will ensure that every
dollar invested will yield earnings that exceed
the MARR or come as close as possible
(assuming cost and earnings projections are
accurate).
32
Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives
Here we consider equipment alternatives for a vital
service – this means that one of the alternatives must
be purchased and operated.
• Common trade‐offs:
– High capital investment but lasts longer (e.g., better
corrosion resistance) or is cheaper to operate
– Low capital investment but does not last as long or is
more expensive to operate
• When comparing equipment with equal lives, a
simple NPV comparison is appropriate.
33
Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives –
Equal Equipment Lives
Example
The following equipment alternatives are suggested
for an overhead condenser. The service lives for the
two alternatives are expected to be the same (12
years) and the internal rate of return for such
comparisons is set at 10% pa.
Alternative Initial Investment Yearly Operating Cost
A -Air-cooled Condenser $23,000 $1,500
B - Water-cooled Condenser $12,000 $3,000
34
Alternative Initial Investment Yearly Operating Cost
A - Air-cooled Condenser $23,000 $1,500
B - Water-cooled Condenser $12,000 $3,000
Alternative A
NPV = ‐23,000 – 1,500(P/A, 0.10, 12) = ‐$33,200
Alternative B
NPV = ‐12,000 – 3,000(P/A, 0.10, 12) = ‐$32,400
35
Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives –
Unequal Equipment Lives
When the service lives for alternative equipment
choices are different then NPV cannot be used.
There are three methods to evaluate alternative
equipment with unequal lives:
• Capitalized Cost Method
• Common Denominator Method
• Equivalent Annual Operating Cost Method (EAOC)
The ranking of alternatives does not depend on
which method is chosen. So just choose one of
them – Capitalized Cost or EAOC 36
with Unequal Equipment Lives
Capitalized Cost Method:
Equipment (No Operating Costs)   Ceq  Seq  1  i neq 
CC Eq  Seq   
1  i   1 
n eq

37
with Unequal Equipment Lives
Capitalized Cost Method:
Only Operating Expenses
A op
CCOp 
i
38
Capitalized Cost Method
Equipment and Operating Expenses
  Ceq  Seq  1  i n eq  A
CCTotal  Seq     op
 
n eq
 1  i 1  i
 
39
Capitalized Cost Method
Capitalized Cost Ignoring Inflation:
  Ceq  Seq  1  i neq  A
1  i  eq  1  i
n

Capitalized Cost Including Inflation:
i  i  f  interest - inflation
  Ceq  Seq  1  i neq  A

   1  i
n eq
 1  i
40
Equivalent Annual Operating Cost (EAOC)
The EAOC converts the capital investment to an
equivalent annuity and adds in operating costs.
The annuity can be viewed as payments on a loan
used to purchase the equipment at interest rate i.
EAOC = (Capital Cost) (A/P, i, neq) +
Yearly Operating Costs
i(1  i) n
EAOC  (CC)  Y OC
(1  i) n  1
EAOC is a cost, not a positive revenue stream, so
choose the alternative with the smallest EAOC 41
with Unequal Lives of Service
In you have to replace equipment periodically and the service
life of the alternatives is different, a simple NPV comparison
does not work. Example: Two pumps are being considered for
a corrosive service. The yearly operating costs include utility
and maintenance costs. Using the data below and an 8% cost
of capital (or internal hurdle rate), determine which pump is
the better alternative.
Alternatives: Capital Yearly operating Estimated

similar pumps of Investment cost equipment life,
different material years
A – carbon steel $ 8,000 $ 1,800 4
B – stainless steel $16,000 $ 1,600 7
42
EAOC example continued
Alternative: similar Capital Yearly operating Estimated
pumps of different Investment cost equipment life,
material years
A – carbon steel $ 8,000 $ 1,800 4
B – stainless steel $16,000 $ 1,600 7
0.08(1.08)4
EAOC A  8,000 4
 1,800  $4, 220 per year
1.08  1
0.08(1.08)7
EAOCB  16,000 7
 1,600  $4,670 per year
1.08  1
43
Summary of most common methods
• Quick evaluation of profitability on short projects (< 3yrs): compare the non‐
discounted PBP or ROI to company requirements.
• More accurate analysis on larger projects with a longer time horizon (> 3yrs),
determine the NPV using the MARR set by management or determine the
DCFROR (i.e., for NPV = 0) and compare it to the MARR.
• Compare mutually exclusive alternatives with equal project lifetimes: use the
MARR as the cost of capital and calculate the NPV of each alternative.
– For profitable projects, choose the alternative with the highest NPV.
– For necessary projects that have no profit attached, choose the
alternative with the least negative NPV.
• To compare alternatives with unequal lifetimes, calculate the equivalent
annualized operating cost of each and choose the one with the lowest EAOC.
• The methods of profitability analysis and alternative comparison presented
in these notes are used widely. Other methods can be applied in specific
situations, but we will not cover those due to time constraints.
44
Retrofitting Operations – Incremental Analysis
(non‐discounted)
Non‐discounted methods
Rate of Return on Incremental Investment (ROROII)
Incremental Yearly Savings

ROROII 
Incremental Investment
Incremental Payback period (IPBP)
Incremental Investment
IPBP 
Increemntal Yearly Savings
45
Retrofitting Operations – Incremental
Analysis (non‐discounted)
Example
The following insulations are being considered for the heating loop to an
endothermic reactor. If a non‐discounted rate of return of 15% (equivalent
to a IPBP = 1/0.15 = 6.67 yrs) is set as the hurdle rate for improvement
projects such as this, which alternative is best? Note that alternative 1 is
the do‐nothing option – compare all the others to this one (base case).
Alternative Type of Project Cost Yearly Savings
Insulation (PC) (YS)
1 None 0 0
2 B – 1” thick $3,000 $1,400
3 B – 2” thick $5,000 $1,900
4 A – 1” thick $6,000 $2,000
5 A – 2” thick $9,700 $2,400
46
Example (cont’d)
Option # - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 1
2-1 $1,400/$3,000 = 0.47 (47%) $3,000/$1,400 = 2.1
3-1 $1,900/$5,000 = 0.38 (38%) $5,000/$1,900= 2.6
4-1 $2,000/$6,000 = 0.33 (33%) $6,000/$2,000 = 3.0
5-1 $2,400/$9,700 = 0.25 (25%) $9,700/$2,400 = 4.0
Choose the option with the lowest cost that meets the
profitability criterion – Option 2. Then compare the option
with the next highest capital investment using this as the
base case.
47
Example 10.10 (cont’d)
Option 3 - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 2
3-2 (1,900-1400)/(5,000-3,000) $2,000/$500 = 4
= 0.25 (25%)
The profitability criterion is met for the additional investment that Option 3
requires compared to Option 2. So, Option 2 is discarded and Option 3
becomes the new base case. Next compare other options to Option 2.
48
Example 10.10 (cont’d)
Option # - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 3
4-3 (2,000-1,900)/(6,000-5,000) $1,000/$100 = 10
= 0.1 (10%)
5-3 (2,400-1,900)/(9,700-5,000) $4,700/$500 = 9.4
= 0.106 (10.6%)
Since neither of the incremental investments in going from Option 3 to

Options 4 or 5 meet the profitability criterion – Option 3 is the best.
Note that decisions may be made using either 15% or 6.67 yrs as the
profitability criterion.
49
(discounted)
Discounted Methods
Determine the incremental NPV or EAOC for each
option (compared to the do-nothing alternative) and
choose the alternative with the highest NPV or Lowest
EAOC (highest negative value).
We will not use these methods in ChE 431.
50
(discounted)
Example revisited using a project life of 5 years and a discounted hurdle
rate of 10% pa
Option # - Option 1 INPV = -PC +(P/A, i, n)YS

2-1 = - 3,000 + [(1.1)5-1]/[(.1)(1.1)5](1,400) = $2,307
3-1 = -5,000+(3.79)(1900) = $2,201
4-1 = -6,000+(3.79)(2,000) = $1,580
5-1 = -9,700+(3.79)(2,400) = -$ 604
Because Option 2 has the highest NPV with respect to the do-nothing
Option 1, Option 2 is best.
51
(discounted)
Example revisited using a project life of 5 years and a discounted hurdle
rate of 10% pa
Option # - Option 1 EAOC = PC(A/P, i, n) - YS

2-1 = (3,000) [(.1)(1.1)5]/[(1.1)5-1] - 1,400 = -$ 609
3-1 = (5,000)(0.2638) - 1,900 = - $ 581
4-1 = (6,000)(0.2638) - 2,000 = - $ 417
5-1 = (9,700)(0.2638) - 2,400 = $ 158
Because Option 2 has the most negative EAOC with respect to the do
nothing Option 1, Option 2 is best. This result is exactly the same as
obtained with the INPV analysis.
52
Process Optimization
1
Optimization
• At what different levels can companies do
optimization?
– Corporate Business (Strategic Planning)
• Suppliers
• Buyers (markets)
– Local Business Unit (Plant)
– Process Group
2
Optimization
• What can be optimized?
– Profits
– Liabilities (corporate and personal protection)
– Public perception
– Environmental protection
– Energy use, energy source (renewable, reliable, lower cost)
– Equipment operating conditions
– Equipment use (limit equipment downtime)
3
Example 1 – Design Optimization
A process will operate at 230oC. What type and how
much insulation should be used?
• Trade‐offs?
• Constraints?
• Objective function? Maximize or minimize?
• Search method?
4
Design Optimization
• Example: There is a trade‐off between the cost of insulation
and the energy savings derived from using thicker insulation.
5
Example 2 – Operational Optimization
A product stream must be cooled, but it fouls the heat
exchanger surfaces, requiring periodic shutdown for
cleaning. How often should we shut down and clean?
• Tradeoffs?
• Constraints?
• Alternatives to frequent cleaning?
• Objective function? Maximize or minimize?
• Sketch how pertinent calculated data would look.
6
Example 3 ‐ Design Optimization
• Example: Optimum reflux ratio in a distillation tower (capital
vs. operating costs).
7
Example 4 – Coal to Natural Gas Conversion at
Power generation Facilities
• Considerations
– Economic
– Fuel availability
– Environmental
– Regulatory
– Public perception
8
Example 4 – Coal to Natural Gas Conversion at
Power generation Facilities
Investment, O&M and fuel costs of natural gas and
coal‐fired power generation (2008)
www.eia.gov
9
Chapter 15 - Heat Exchange
Networks
Outline
• Heat Integration
• Design Procedure for MUMNE
• Temperature interval diagram
• Cascade diagram
• Temperature‐Enthalpy diagram
• Minimum number of exchangers
• Design above and below pinch
Heat Integration
• Heat exchange networks
• It saves money to match streams rather
than pay to heat one and pay to cool
another
Heat Integration
• There is a rigorous methodology
• We will learn MUMNE (Minimum Utility,
Minimum Number of Exchangers) method
• Not necessarily (and unlikely to be)
economic optimum
Design Procedure
1. Complete energy balance on all streams to determine
all temperatures, ṁCp values, and heat flows.
2. Choose minimum approach temperature. Typically,
this is between 5 °C and 20 °C, but any positive
number is valid.
3. Complete temperature interval diagram, where each
stream is drawn and labeled. The heat flow in each
interval is calculated.
4. Complete the cascade diagram. The energy excess or
deficit is calculated for each interval on the
temperature interval diagram.
Design Procedure
5. Find the minimum hot and cold utility requirements
and identify the pinch temperature.
6. Complete the composite temperature enthalpy
diagram. This is a T‐Q diagram for the entire process.
7. Determine the minimum number of heat exchangers
required above and below the pinch.
8. Design the heat exchanger network.
Minimum Approach Temperature
Example System
Example Problem
Stream Properties for Example Problems

Stream Tin Tout ṁCp Q
kW/°C kW
1 200 120 3 240
2 140 100 5 200
3 100 170 3 -210
4 110 190 2 -160
Net heat 70
flow
Example Problem
1. The value of Q might not be given in above table, or Q
is given and ṁCp is missing. These are calculated from
the energy balance. The sign convention is positive for
heat available from a stream and negative for heat
needed by a stream.
2. Choose the minimum approach temperature. For this
problem, it is 10 °C.
Example Problem
3. Draw and label the temperature interval diagram.
Label the intervals beginning with “A” for the highest
temperature interval. The heat flow for each interval
is calculated from, Q= ∑ṁCp∆T , where the sum is over
all streams existing in that interval.
Copyright - R. Turton and
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
Stream Properties for Example Problems

Stream Tin Tout ṁCp Q
kW/°C kW
1 200 120 3 240
2 140 100 5 200
3 100 170 3 -210
4 110 190 2 -160
Net heat 70
flow
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
4. Draw the cascade diagram. This represents the
cascade of heat flowing down from high to low
temperatures. Add utilities where needed. Label the
heat flows. The net utility flow should agree with the
net heat flow on the earlier table.
5. On the cascade diagram, there will be a location
where the heat‐flow cascade is not continuous. This
represents the pinch temperature.
Example Problem
At the pinch point, three rules must be obeyed in order to
achieve the minimum energy targets for a process:
• Heat must not be transferred across the pinch!
• There must be no external cooling above the pinch.
• There must be no external heating below the pinch.
Cascade Diagram
A
20
20
60
HU B
-80
C pinch T
60 130°-140°C
60
D
20
80
E 130
CU
50 - R. Turton and
Copyright
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
6. Construct the composite temperature enthalpy
diagram. This provides useful information, but it is not
required to solve the problem.
Example Problem
Hot Cold
interval T Q T Q
(°C) (kW) (°C) (kW)
E 100 90
D 110 50 100
C 120 100 110 30
B ? ? 130 130
A 180 380 ? ?
200 440 190 370
Example Problem
Hot Cold
interval T Q T Q
(°C) (kW) (°C) (kW)
E 100 90
D 110 50 100
C 120 100 110 30
B 140 260 130 130
A 180 380 170 330
200 440 190 370
Example Problem
In the table, the temperature shown is at the lower end of
the interval. The Q values are obtained by summing all
ṁCp∆T existing on the interval and adding it to the
previous interval. The temperature difference is for that
interval. The ṁCp value is the sum of all existing streams
on that interval.
Example Problem
The hot and cold stream lines are plotted, as shown on the
following figure. Clearly, there is a temperature cross, so the
cold stream line is shifted to the right until the minimum
approach temperature of 10 °C exists at one point. (It could
exist at more than one point by coincidence.) For this problem,
all Q values for the cold stream must be increased by 130 kW, as
shown in the figure. Note how the hot and cold utility
requirements are apparent from the diagram.
QH=60
200
180
160
T(°C)
140
10°C - minimum approach temp.
120
100
Qc=130
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Q(kW)
hot stream
cold stream
cold stream adjusted
Copyright
Composite T-Q- Diagram
R. Turton and
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
7. By representing the heat available in each stream and
from the utilities both above and below the pinch, the
minimum number of heat exchangers can be
determined. This identifies the minimum number, but
not necessarily the correct stream matches. The
correct number of heat exchangers is the number of
process streams + the number of utility streams – 1.
above pinch - 3 exchangers below pinch - 4 exchangers
HU 1 2
1
60 180 60 200
60 60 120 60 30 130
40
3 4 3 4 CU
120 120 90 40 130
each arrow identifies one heat exchanger,

total number of arrows is total number of hxs.,
but not necessarily the correct stream matches
numbers in boxes are energy in streams

numbers with arrows are energy transferred in
a heat exchanger

J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
7. Note that if a “direct match” is found, i.e.,
where sets of two streams match heat
flows exactly, one fewer exchanger may
appear to be possible. However, be careful,
the minimum approach temperature may
be violated.
Example Problem
8. Design the heat exchange network. There
may not be unique streams here. The
design is started at the pinch and you work
away from the pinch. Above the pinch, for
any streams that exist at the pinch, streams
can only be matched such that
 Cp  m
m  C pC
H
Example Problem
8. When dealing with streams away from the
pinch, this criterion is no longer needed.
Any streams can be matched as long as the
temperatures are valid. If the criterion at
the pinch appears impossible to satisfy,
streams can be split to satisfy the criterion.
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Example Problem
8. The same procedure is done below the pinch, except
that the criterion is
 pH  mC
mC  pC
9. Streams are matched and heat exchangers are added
until all required heat transfer is accomplished. The
entire network, both above and below the pinch, can
then be represented on one diagram.
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
In-class Example Problem
Stream Properties for In-class Example Problem

Stream Tin Tout 
m Cp
kg/s kJ/kg°C
1 250 100 1 1
2 280 120 2 2
3 100 200 1 2
4 120 230 1 5
In‐class Example Problem
Determine (minimum approach T = 20°C)
a. minimum hot and cold utility consumption
b. pinch temperatures
c. minimum number of heat exchangers
required above and below the pinch
d. design of heat exchange network above and
below the pinch
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Cascade Diagram
A
120
120
B
0
120
40 C
HU
-160
pinch T
D
60 120°-140°C
60
E 80
CU
20 - R. Turton and
Copyright
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
above pinch - 4 exchangers
1 2 HU
110 560 40
110 10 550 40
3 4
160 550
below pinch - 2 exchangers, if possible
1 2
40 80
40 80
3 CU
40 80
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
1 4
split
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
J. Shaeiwitz, 2008
Summary
• Heat Exchange Networks
• Well‐established procedure
• Not necessarily (and unlikely to be)
economic optimum but a very good
starting point
• Straight forward, but must be careful when
matching streams at pinch
• Different correct answers possible
Composite Curve – Cost Optimization
The energy requirement for a process is supplied via several utilities (e.g.
steam levels, refrigeration levels, hot oil circuit, furnace flue gas, etc.). The
objective is to maximize the use of lower-cost utilities and minimize the use of
the high-cost utilities. For example, it is preferable to use LP steam instead of
HP steam, and cooling water instead of refrigeration. Composite curves
provide overall energy targets but do not clearly indicate how much energy
needs to be supplied by different utility levels.
Typical ∆ Tmin for Process‐Utility Exchangers
Process-Utility ∆Tmin Comments
Steam - Process Good heat transfer coefficient for steam
10-20 °C
Stream condensing or evaporation.
Refrigeration -
3-5 °C Refrigeration is expensive.
Process Stream
Flue gas -
40 °C Low heat transfer coefficient for flue gas.
Process Stream
Flue gas - Steam
25-40 °C Good heat transfer coefficient for steam.
Generation
Flue gas - Air Gases on both sides (with low heat transfer
50 °C
(e.g. air reheat) coefficients).
Depends on whether or not CW is competing
Chilled Water -
15-20 °C against refrigeration. Summer/Winter
Process Stream
operations should be considered.
Optimizing Utilities for Distillation
FIRES AND
EXPLOSIONS
FUNDAMENTALS and DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
Harry J. Toups LSU Department of Chemical Engineering with significant

material from SACHE 2003 Workshop presentation by Ray French (ExxonMobil)
1/61
The Fire Triangle
• Fuels:
• Oxidizers • Liquids
• Liquids • gasoline, acetone, ether,
pentane
• Gases
• Oxygen, fluorine, • Solids
chlorine • plastics, wood dust,
• hydrogen peroxide, fibers, metal particles
nitric acid, perchloric • Gases
acid • acetylene, propane,
• Solids carbon monoxide,
• Metal peroxides, hydrogen
ammonium nitrate
 Ignition sources
 Sparks, flames, static
electricity, heat
Liquid Fuels – Definitions
• Flash Point
• Lowest temperature at which a flammable liquid
gives off enough vapor to form an ignitable
mixture with air
• Flammable Liquids (NFPA)

• Liquids with a flash point < 100°F
• Combustible Liquids (NFPA)

• Liquids with a flash point ≥ 100°F
• NFPA = National Fire Protection Association

Vapor Mixtures – Definitions
• Flammable / Explosive Limits
• Range of composition of material in air which will
burn
• UFL – Upper Flammable Limit
• LFL – Lower Flammable Limit
• HEL – Higher Explosive Limit SAME
• LEL – Lower Explosive Limit
• Measuring These Limits for Vapor-Air Mixtures

• Known concentrations are placed in a closed vessel
apparatus and then ignition is attempted
Flammability Relationships
CONCENTRATION OF FUEL
AUTO
IGNITION
FLAMMABLE REGION
FLAMMABLE REGION
MIST
FLASH POINT TEMPERATURE AIT

Flash Point From Vapor Pressure
• Most materials start to burn at 50% stoichiometric
• For heptane:
• C7H16 + 11 O2 = 7 CO2 + 8 H2O
• Air = 11/ 0.21 = 52.38 moles air /mole of C7H16 at
stoichiometric conditions
• At 50% stoichiometric, C7H16 vol. % ≅ 0.9%
• Experimental is 1.1%
• For 1 vol. %, vapor pressure is 1 kPa temperature =
23o F
• Experimental flash point temperature = 25o F
Flammability Limiting O2
Concentration:
Diagram
LOC
Vol. % O2 below
which combustion
can’t occur
1 Atmosphere
25°C
FLAMMABLE
HEL
MIXTURES
LEL
Flammability Limiting O2
Concentration:
Diagram
LOC
Vol. % O2 below
which combustion
can’t occur
1 Atmosphere
25°C
HEL
FLAMMABLE
MIXTURES
LEL
8/61
Flammable Limits Change With:
Inerts
Temperature
Pressure
9/61
Effect of Temperature on
Lower Limits of Flammability
L
E
L,
%
10/61
Effect of Pressure of Flammability
HEL
Natural Gas, volume%
Natural Gas In Air at 28oC
LEL
Initial Pressure, Atm.

Minimum Ignition Energy
• Lowest amount of energy required for
ignition
• Major variable
• Dependent on:
• Temperature
• % of combustible in combustant
• Type of compound
Minimum Ignition Energy
Effects of Stoichiometry
Autoignition Temperature
• Temperature at which the vapor ignites
spontaneously from the energy of the
environment
• Function of:
• Concentration of the vapor
• Material in contact
• Size of the containment
14/61
Flammability Relationships
AUTO
IGNITION
CONCENTRATION OF FUEL
MIST
FLAMMABLE REGION
FLAMMABLE REGION
TEMPERATURE AIT
FLASH POINT AIT
More Definitions
• Fire
• A slow form of deflagration
• Deflagration
• Propagating reactions in which the energy transfer from
the reaction zone to the unreacted zone is accomplished
thru ordinary transport processes such as heat and mass
transfer.
• Detonation / Explosion
• Propagating reactions in which energy is transferred from
the reaction zone to the unreacted zone on a reactive
shock wave. The velocity of the shock wave always exceeds
sonic velocity in the reactant.
16/61
Classification of Explosions
Rapid Equilibration of High Pressure Gas
EXPLOSION = via Shock Wave
Physical Explosions Chemical Explosions
Uniform Reactions Propagating Reactions
Thermal Detonations Deflagrations

Explosions (Shock Wave) (Normal
Transport)
17/61
Potential Energy
Stored Volumes of Ideal Gas at 20° C

PRESSURE, psig TNT EQUIV., lbs. per ft3
10 0.001
100 0.02
1000 1.42
10000 6.53
TNT equivalent = 5 x 105 calories/lbm

18/61
Deflagration
• Combustion with flame speeds at non-
turbulent velocities of 0.5 - 1 m/sec.
• Pressures rise by heat balance in fixed volume
with pressure ratio of about 10.
CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O + 21000 BTU/lb
Initial Mols = 1 + 2/.21 = 10.52
Final Mols = 1 + 2 + 2(0.79/0.21) = 10.52
Initial Temp = 298oK
Final Temp = 2500oK
Pressure Ratio = 9.7
Initial Pressure = 1 bar (abs)
Final Pressure = 9.7 bar (abs)
19/61
Multi-Energy Models
• Experts plotted efficiency against vapor cloud size and …
reached no effective conclusions. Efficiencies were
between 0.1% and 50%
• Recent developments in science suggest too many
unknowns for simple TNT model.
• Key variables to overpressure effect are:
• Quantity of combustant in explosion
• Congestion/confinement for escape of combustion products
• Number of serial explosions
• Multi-energy model is consistent with models and pilot
explosions.
20/61
DESIGN for PREVENTION
21/61
Eliminate Ignition Sources
• Fire or Flames • Typical Control

• Furnaces and Boilers • Spacing and Layout
• Flares • Spacing and Layout
• Welding • Work Procedures
• Sparks from Tools • Work Procedures
• Spread from Other Areas jkdj • Sewer Design, Diking, Weed
dkdjfdk dkdfjdkkd jkfdkd fkd fjkd Control, Housekeeping
fjdkkf djkfdkf jkdkf dkf • Procedures
• Matches and Lighters
22/61
Eliminate Ignition Sources
• Hot Surfaces  Typical Control

• Hot Pipes and Equipment – Spacing
• Automotive Equipment
– Procedures
 Electrical  Typical Control

– Sparks from Switches – Area Classification
– Static Sparks jkfdkd fjkdjd – Grounding, Inerting,
kdjfdkd Relaxation
– Lightning – Geometry, Snuffing
– Handheld Electrical – Procedures
Equipment
23/61
Vacuum? Pressure? Which?
• Pressure purging is faster because pressure
differentials are greater (+PP)
• Vacuum purging uses less inert gas than

pressure purging (+VP)
• Combining the two gains benefits of both

especially if the initial cycle is a vacuum cycle
(+ VP&PP)
24/61
Other Methods of Inerting
• Sweep-Through Purging
• ‘In one end, and out the other’
• For equipment not rated for pressure, vacuum
• Requires large quantities of inert gas
• Siphon Purging
• Fill vessel with a compatible liquid
• Use Sweep-Through on small vapor space
• Add inert purge gas as vessel is drained
• Very efficient for large storage vessels
25/61
Static Electricity
• Sparks resulting from static charge buildup (involving at
least one poor conductor) and sudden discharge
• Household Example: walking across a rug and grabbing a
door knob
• Industrial Example: Pumping nonconductive liquid
through a pipe then subsequent grounding of the
container
Dangerous energy near flammable vapors 0.1 mJ

Static buildup by walking across carpet 20 mJ
26/61
Double-Layer Charging
• Streaming Current
• The flow of electricity produced by transferring
electrons from one surface to another by a flowing
fluid or solid
• The larger the pipe / the faster the flow, the larger the
current
• Relaxation Time
• The time for a charge to dissipate by leakage
• The lower the conductivity / the higher the dielectric
constant, the longer the time
27/61
Controlling
Static Electricity
• Reduce rate of charge generation
• Reduce flow rates
• Increase the rate of charge relaxation

• Relaxation tanks after filters, enlarged section of pipe
before entering tanks
• Use bonding and grounding to prevent discharge
28/61
Controlling
Static Electricity
GROUNDING
BONDING 29/61
Explosion Proof Equipment
• All electrical devices are inherent ignition sources
• If flammable materials might be present at times in

an area, it is designated XP (Explosion Proof
Required)
• Explosion-proof housing (or intrinsically-safe

equipment) is required
30/61
VENTILATION
• Open-Air Plants
• Average wind velocities are often high enough to safely
dilute volatile chemical leaks
• Plants Inside Buildings

• Local ventilation
• Purge boxes
• ‘Elephant trunks’
• Dilution ventilation (≥ 1 ft3/min/ft2 of floor area)
• When many small points of possible leaks exist
31/61
Summary
• Though they can often be reduced in magnitude or
even sometimes designed out, many of the hazards
that can lead to fires/explosions are unavoidable
• Eliminating at least one side of the Fire Triangle
represents the best chance for avoiding fires and
explosions
32/61
Why Is Dust Control Necessary?
• Health hazards
- Occupational respiratory diseases
- Irritation to eyes, ears, nose and throat
- Irritation to skin
• Process hazards
– Risk of dust explosions and fire
– Damage to equipment
• General hazards/concerns
– Impaired visibility
– Unpleasant odors
– Problems in community relations
• American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
adopted standards known as threshold limit values (TLVs). These values
are used as guides in the evaluation of health hazards. TLVs are time-
weighted concentrations to which nearly all workers may be exposed 8
hours per day over extended periods of time without adverse effects.
1
Size and
Characteristics of
Airborne Solids
Diagram taken from “Dust Collection

Engineering Manual” by MAC Equipment Inc.
2
Size and Characteristics of Airborne Solids
Diagram taken from “Dust Collection

Engineering Manual” by MAC Equipment Inc. 3
Respirable Dust
• Respirable dust refers to those dust
particles that are small enough to
penetrate the nose and upper
respiratory system and deep into
the lungs.
• Particles that penetrate deep into
the respiratory system are generally
beyond the body's natural clearance
mechanisms of cilia and mucous and
are more likely to be retained.
• The Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) defines Aerodynamic Diameter, µm
(unit density spheres)
Percent Passing
Selector
respirable dust as the fraction of ≥ 2.0 90
airborne dust that passes a size- 2.5 75
selecting device (e.g., cyclone), 3.5 50
having the following characteristics: 5.0 25
10.0 0
4
Common Respiratory Diseases Caused by Dust
• Pneumoconiosis is a disease caused by the
accumulation of mineral or metallic particles in the
lungs and the tissue reaction to their presence.
Pneumoconiosis is the common name for a number
of dust-related lung diseases. Five factors which
contribute to the development of pneumoconiosis
are:
– composition of the dust
– concentration of the dust
– size of the particles
– duration of exposure
– individual susceptibility
5
Dust Removal
• Dust Collection Systems
– Dust collection systems are industrial ventilation principles to capture
airborne dust from the source. The captured dust is then transported to a
dust collector, which cleans the dusty air.
• Wet Dust Suppression Systems
– Wet dust suppression systems use liquids (usually water) to wet the material
so that it has a lower tendency to generate dust. Keeping the material damp
immobilizes the dust, and very little material becomes airborne.
• Airborne Dust Capture Through Water Sprays

– This technique suppresses airborne dust by spraying fine droplets of water on
the dust cloud. The water droplets and dust particles collide and form
agglomerates. Once these agglomerates become too heavy to remain
airborne, they settle from the air stream.
6
DeDuster
7
Are These Materials Explosive?
coal
sugar
metal
plasti
c wood
medicine
s
Contributing Factors
Processes
Equipment Areas Ignition Dispersion
Materials (use,
(Electrical (open, sources (dust
(dust type) produce,
class) hidden) (present) movement)
consume)
EXPLOS
ION
Fires and Explosions of Combustible Dust
For a combustible dust explosion to happen, it

requires the presence of all these factors
Confinement
Dispersion
Ignition
Source
Oxidant Fuel
(dust)
Introduction
A Chemical Safety Board Study Shows:
• From 1996 to 2005, a total of 106 explosions resulted in 16

fatalities and 126 injuries, at an estimated cost of $162.8
million in damages to the facilities.
• In 2005, there were 13 grain dust explosions reported in the

US.
A RARE EVENT
But catastrophic when it happens!
1
1
Experience in the Grain Handling Industry
In the late 1970s, grain dust explosions left 59 people dead

and 49 injured.
1
2
Experience in the Grain Handling Industry
In 1987, OSHA promulgated the Grain Handling Facilities

standard (29 CFR 1910.272) still in effect.
1
3
Imperial Sugar Company
February 7, 2008
•Port Wentworth,
Georgia
•14 deaths and

numerous injured
persons
•A spark started the fire

and explosion of the
sugar cloud
Imperial Sugar Company, Port Wentworth GA.
Explosion and Fire
Feb. 7, 2008
14 Dead and Numerous serious injuries
1
5
Dust Explosions
An initial (primary) explosion in

processing equipment or in an area
where fugitive dust has accumulated may
shake loose more accumulated dust,
Or damage a containment system
(such as a duct, vessel, or collector).
• The additional dust dispersed into the air may cause

one or more secondary explosions.
• These can be far more destructive than a

primary explosion
1
6
CASCADING EXPLOSIONS
1
7
Dust explosion in a work area
Dust Dust settles on flat

surfaces
Some event
disturbs the
settled dust
into a cloud
Dust cloud is
Adapted from ignited and
CSB explodes
1
8
A timeline
The following nine slides depict a timeline for a dust
explosion and the results of that explosion.
Slides prepared by Joseph P. Howicz CSP, CFPS

Accident Prevention Corporation
W.W.W. safetyman.com
19
Primary deflagration inside process equipment
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
(Timing of actual events may vary)
2
0
Shock wave caused
by primary deflagration
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
2
1
Shock waves reflected by surfaces within
the building cause accumulated dust to go
into suspension
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

2
2
Time, msec.
Dust clouds thrown in the air by the shock waves
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
2
3
Primary deflagration breaks out of the equipment
enclosure - creating a source of ignition
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
24
Secondary deflagration ignited
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
2
5
Secondary Deflagration is propagated
through the dust clouds
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

2 Time, msec.
6
Secondary
deflagration bursts
from the building
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

27 Time, msec.
Collapsed building with remaining fires
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 325

Time, msec.
2
8
Types of Dusts Involved in
Explosions
2
9
Required Conditions for an
Explosion
• The dust must be combustible and fine enough to be
airborne.
• The dust cloud must beat the Minimum Explosive
Concentration (MEC) for that Particular dust.
• There must be sufficient oxygen in the atmosphere to support
and sustain combustion.
• There must be a source of ignition.
• The dust must be confined.
• The dust must be dry.
Dust Particle
3
0
Ignition Sources
31
Explosive Limits
• The Minimum Explosive Concentration (MEC) for
grain dust, grain flour, or ground feed ingredients
varies according to the particle size and energy:
• Smaller particles are more powerful
• Caloric value of the product
• Corn starch is considered one of the more volatile
and powerful grain products.
• As the size of the particle decreases the risk of a
deflagration or explosion increases.
3
2
Dust Combustibility
Combustible dust per NFPA 654

• Prior to 2006 - “Any finely divided solid material that is
420 microns or smaller in diameter (material passing a
U.S. No. 40 Standard Sieve) and presents a fire or
explosion hazard when dispersed and ignited in air.”
• 2006 Edition – A combustible particulate solid that
presents a fire or deflagration hazard when suspended
in air or some other oxidizing medium over a range of
concentrations, regardless of particle size or shape.
33
The Prevalence of Dust
 Examples of materials that have historically caused

dust explosions include:
 Cosmetics
 Coal
 Dyes
 Grain and other dry foods
 Metal
 Pharmaceuticals
 Plastic and rubber
 Printer toner
 Soaps
 Textiles
 Wood and paper
3
4
Where Do Dust Explosions
Occur?
• Dust explosions, for grain, usually occur at transfer points as
in bucket elevators or enclosed conveyors.
• In 1997, 50 percent of primary explosions occurred in elevator
legs.
• Accumulation of dust in suspended ceilings
• Cyclone collectors
• Electrostatic collectors
• Holding bins
3
5
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board Photo
36
Risks Factors
¿ What factors should I consider for

preventing explosion?
Major Factors:
• Dust Combustibility
• The accumulation of dust in areas and
work surfaces
• Presence of ignition sources.
Prevention – Ignition Control
NFPA Code 654
The manual loading of No!

material from intermediate Dust
bulk containers is not
allowed, when the
movement of dust may cause
a flammable atmosphere.
Tank with
flammable
mixture
Fuente: Curso 7120 OSHA Training Center

Fire Prevention and Control
• Hot work permits • Severity reduction

policies, practices and
• Lockout/tagout policies procedures designed to
minimize the spread of
fire
• Design specifications for
storage of flammable
materials • Emergency plans
• Alarm systems
39
Engineering Controls
• Follow National Fire

Protection Association
(NFPA) standard 654.
• Ensure operations
involving dusts have
proper engineering
design and controls.
• Maintain an effective
housekeeping program.
• Establish and maintain a
preventative
maintenance program.
4
0
Principal Methods of Control
Mitigation of damage, once the fire or explosion

process occurs or explosion, keep damages to a
minimum by:
• Systems of ignition detection and control

• Containment pressure deflagration
• Deflagration Suppression
• Isolation
Prevention – Dust Control
NFPA code 654
• Use cleaning methods that

do not generate dust clouds;
• Only use vacuum cleaners

approved for combustible
dust collection
Prevention – Ignition Control
NFPA Code 654
• Sparks and friction mechanical control to remove

foreign materials that can cause fires in combustible
materials of the process;
• Separate combustible dust from hot surfaces and

equipment that generate heat
• Have hot work permits available

References
• University Of Puerto Rico , Río Piedras Campus
– Division of Continued Education and Professional Studies
(DECEP)
– Migdalia Ruiz, MS – Project Director
• Kirkwood Community College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa
– Combustible Dust Training Program (C-DuST)
– Bob Downs, Manager
44
What is chemical engineering design?
Chemical engineering design consists of developing
and/or improving the operation of manufacturing
facilities to create useful products.
• It encompasses the original layout of new plants,
equipment specification and selection, development of
operating and control strategies, troubleshooting
existing process equipment, and process modification.
• The objective of design work is to find and implement
the most profitable alternative with due consideration
of personnel health and safety, environmental
responsibility, and ethical professional practice.
• Engineering design requires creativity as well as broad
technical knowledge and analytical ability. Design
involves all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Requirements Specification
 Identifies requirements design must satisfy

for success
1. Marketing requirements
 Customer needs
2. Engineering requirements
 Applies to technical aspects
 Performance requirements
 Safety
2
Design Constraints
Economic
Environmental
Ethical and Legal
Health and Safety
Manufacturability
Political and Social
Sustainability
3
Standards
• Examples – ASME, ANSI, API…

• Types
 Safety
 Testing
 Reliability
 Communications
 Documentation
4
Concept Generation and Evaluation
Explore many solutions

 Brainstorm
Select the best solution
 Based on needs and constraints
Creativity
 Development of new ideas
Innovation
 Bringing creative ideas to reality
5
Creativity
6
Barriers to Creativity
Perceptual blocks
• Limiting problem space
Emotional blocks
• Fear of failure – “fail early and often”
Environmental blocks
• Engineering cultural bias
Intellectual and expressive blocks
• Understand tools
7
Strategies to Enhance Creativity
Lateral thinking
Question
Practice
Suspend judgment
Allow time
Think like a beginner
8
Concept Generation
Substitute – new elements

Combine – existing elements
Adapt – different operation
Modify – size, shape, function
Put to other use – other app domains
Eliminate – parts or whole
Rearrange or reverse – work better
9
Design Considerations
1) RELIABILITY
 mechanical parts fail first
 design redundancy into system
 simple system/fewer parts = more reliable
10
Design Considerations
2) SAFETY
 identify failure modes
 provide protection
3) TEST
 design for ease of test
4) PRODUCTION/MANUFACTURING
 consider ease of production
11
Design Methodologies
CASE-BASED:
 Research a specific, similar design case study
 Model your process on that
INCREMENTAL REDESIGN:
 Find an existing design and "unravel" the design from the
bottom up
 Modify as required
 Detailed and least global aspects of the design are explored
and redesigned, if necessary, first
12
ITERATIVE REFINEMENT:
 An iterative top-down approach
 First a rough, approximate and general design is
completed
 Then we do it finer, more exact and more specific
 This process continues iteratively until the complete
detail design in done
13
"EXPLORER" METHOD:
 Typically used for new design ideas or research. It is useful
in initial design and specification stages, and is often used
when in "unfamiliar territory":
1) Move in some direction; e.g. toward the library, telephone, domain
expert's office, etc.
2) Look at what you find there.
3) Record what you find in your notebook.
4) Analyze findings in terms of where you want to be.
5) Use results of analysis to choose next direction.
6) Back to 1) and continue exploring
14
Design Group (Team)
 Engineering projects require diverse skills
 This creates a need for group (team) work
 Select members based on skills

1. Technical
2. Problem-solving
3. Interpersonal
15
Design Group (Team)
 Develop decision making guidelines
1. Decision by authority (leader)

2. Expert Member
3. Average member opinion
4. Majority
5. Consensus
16
Design Group (Team)
 Teams that spend time together tend to be
successful teams
 Respect each other
1. Listen actively
2. Consider your response to others
3. Constructively criticize ideas, not people
4. Respect those not present
5. Communicate your ideas effectively
6. Manage conflict constructively
17
Design Group (Team)
 Hold effective meetings
1. Have an agenda
2. Show up prepared
3. Pay attention
4. Schedule time and place of next meeting
5. Summarize
 Assign tasks and responsibilities
18
Project Management
 Work breakdown structure
 Hierarchical breakdown of tasks and deliverables
need to complete project
 Activity
1. Task – action to accomplish job
2. Deliverable – e.g., figure, report
19
Project Management
 Define for each activity
1. Work to be done
2. Timeframe
3. Resources needed
4. Responsible person(s)
5. Previous dependent activities
6. Checkpoints/deliverables for monitoring
progress
20
Schedule – Gantt Chart
21
Project Management
• Guidelines
 Project plan after design plan complete
 Double time estimates and add 10%
 Assign a lot of integration and test time
 Remember lead times for parts ordering
 Assign tasks based on skills and interests
 Track progress versus plan
 Plans change
22
Project Communication
Focus on needs of specific audience
• Who?
 level of knowledge
 their motivation – needs
• Why?
 to persuade
 to inform
23
Project Proposal
One goal is to sell idea, be persuasive
 In industry the proposal will show:
1. Product is useful for someone for something
2. The design will work, it will solve the problem
3. Will meet the specified constraints
 Additionally, in Senior Design, the proposal should
show:
1. You are learning something new
2. Sufficiently complex
3. Apply previously learned ChBE knowledge
24
Steps in Process Design
Assess Primitive
Problem
Detailed Process Plant-wide

Synthesis - Development Controllability
Algorithmic of Base-case Assessment
Methods
Detailed Design,
Equipment sizing, Cap.
Cost Estimation,
Profitability Analysis,
Optimization
Assess Primitive Problem
• Process design begins with a primitive design problem that
expresses the current situation and provides an
opportunity to satisfy a societal need.
• The primitive problem is examined by a small design team,

assessing possibilities, refining the problem statement, and
generating more specific problems:
– Raw materials - available in-house, can be purchased or need to be
manufactured?
– Scale of the process (based upon a preliminary assessment of the
current production, projected market demand, and current and
projected selling prices)
– Location for the plant
• Brainstorming to generate alternatives.

Environmental Issues
• Handling of toxic wastes
– 97% of hazardous waste generation by the chemicals and nuclear
industry is wastewater (1988 data).
– In process design, it is essential that facilities be included to
remove pollutants from waste-water streams.
• Reaction pathways to reduce by-product toxicity
– As the reaction operations are determined, the toxicity of all of the
chemicals, especially those recovered as byproducts, needs to be
evaluated.
– Pathways involving large quantities of toxic chemicals should be
replaced by alternatives, except under unusual circumstances.
• Reducing and reusing wastes
– Environmental concerns place even greater emphasis on recycling,
not only for unreacted chemicals, but for product and by-product
chemicals, as well. (i.e., production of segregated wastes - e.g.,
production of composite materials and polymers).
Environmental Issues
• Avoiding non-routine events
– Reduce the likelihood of accidents and spills through the reduction
of transient phenomena, relying on operation at the nominal
steady-state, with reliable controllers and fault-detection systems.
• Design objectives, constraints and optimization

– Environmental goals often not well defined because economic
objective functions involve profitability measures, whereas the
value of reduced pollution is often not easily quantified
economically.
– Solutions: mixed objective function (“price of reduced pollution”),
or express environmental goal as “soft” or “hard” constraints.
– Environmental regulations = constraints
Design for Safety
• Techniques to Prevent Fires and Explosions
– Inerting - addition of inert dilutant to reduce the fuel concentration
below the LFL
– Installation of grounding devices and anti-static devices to avoid
the buildup of static electricity
– Use of explosion proof equipment
– Ensure ventilation - install sprinkler systems
• Relief Devices
• Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment
– The plant is scrutinized to identify sources of accidents or hazards.
– Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is carried out, in which all of
the possible paths to an accident are identified.
– When sufficient probability data are available, a fault tree is
created and the probability of the occurrence for each potential
accident computed.
Summary – The Design Process
• Steps in Designing and Retrofitting Chemical Processes
– Assess Primitive Problem
– Process Creation
– Development of Base Case
– Detailed Process Synthesis - Algorithmic Methods
– Process Controllability Assessment
– Detailed Design, Sizing, Cost Estimation, Optimization
– Construction, Start-up and Operation
• Environmental Protection
– Environmental regulations = design constraints
• Safety Considerations
– Should strive to design for “inherently safe plants”
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
Modified Bloom’s Taxonomy w/comments by Cindy Turner, 2012

Primitive Design Problems
• The design or retrofit of chemical processes begins with a

desire to produce profitable chemicals that satisfy societal
needs in a wide range of areas:
– petrochemicals – polymers
– petroleum products – coatings
– industrial gases – electronic materials
– foods – bio-chemicals
– pharmaceuticals
• Partly due to the growing awareness of the public, many

design projects involve the redesign, or retrofitting, of
existing chemical processes to solve environmental
problems and to adhere to stricter standards of safety.
Final Comments
• Capabilities upon Completion of this Class

– How to simulate complete flowsheets and predict their
performance.
– How to identify best achievable performance targets for a process
WITHOUT detailed calculations.
– How to systematically enhance yield, maximize profit, maximize
resource conservation, reduce energy, and prevent pollution?
– How to debottleneck a process?
– How to choose units and screen their performance?
– How to understand the BIG picture of a process and use it to
optimize any plant?
– And much more….. 
Properties of Engineering Requirements
1. Abstract – what, not how
2. Unambiguous – unique and specific

 Unlike marketing requirements
3. Traceable – satisfy need?
4. Verifiable – test/measure
37
End of Revenue after
Investment dk FCIL-Σdk Revenue COMd Cash Flow
Year (k) Tax
0 -5.00 5.00 -5.00
1 -13.00 3.00 12.00 32.00 4.90 19.87 6.87
2 4.80 7.20 32.00 4.90 20.41 20.41
3 2.88 4.32 32.00 4.90 19.83 19.83
4 1.73 2.59 32.00 4.90 19.49 19.49
5 1.73 0.86 32.00 4.90 19.49 19.49
6 0.86 0.00 32.00 4.90 19.23 19.23
7 5.00 32.00 4.90 18.97 23.97
Tax Rate 30
FCIL 15
D.A. Bruce ChE 4310 Test 2 30 November 2017
Student ID#_______________________________________
Writing your ID# signifies that you have neither given nor received aid on this exam!
Open Book and Notes Exam!
As you respond to each question on this quiz, be sure that you

 list assumptions (if for any reason essential data has not been provided, make an assumption
and continue the problem, but be sure to list the assumption)
 write brief notes of explanation as needed,
 reference all data you get from Turton or elsewhere,
Problem 1 (24%) A vinyl chloride manufacturing plant is planning an expansion in capacity and
needs to purchase a new plate heat exchanger. Your job is to decide which material of
construction should be used for the heat exchanger. Assuming that the internal rate of return for
this comparison is 12% p.a. and the rate of inflation is 3% p.a., use the capitalized cost method
to identify which is the lowest cost option.
Costs A B C
Material of Construction CS 304 SS Hastelloy C
Installed Cost $75,000 $90,000 $160,000
Equipment Life 2y 4y 10y
Yearly Maintenance Cost $4,500 $3,000 $2,500
Salvage Value $8,000 $15,000 $40,000
Solution:
  Ceq  Seq  1  i neq  A
Capitalized cost method: CCEq  Seq     op
 
n eq
 1  i 1  i
 
Effective rate of return = internal rate of return – inflation rate, ieff = i – inf. = 0.12 – 0.03 = 0.09
Option A: Option B: Option C:

481193.51 305557.22 275537.90
  75, 000  8, 000 1  0.09 2  4,500

Option A: CCA  8, 000     $481,194
1  0.09   1
2
  0.09
  90, 000  15, 000 1  0.09 4  3, 000
Option B: CCB  15, 000     $305,557
1  0.09   1
4
  0.09
 160, 000  40, 000 1  0.09 10  2,500

Option C: CCC  160, 000     $275,538
1  0.09   1
10
  0.09
Option C (Hastelloy C) is the lowest cost option.
Problem 2. (20%) Answer the independent questions below about distillation towers.
a. With an existing packed distillation tower, what modification(s) could you make (without
changing the size of the tower) to improve product purity?
Solution: Replace the column packing with another packing that has a higher efficiency or Kya
(overall mass transfer coefficient x surface area per unit volume).
b. If you were designing a new tray tower, what type of trays would you suggest for a plant that
wants the ability to change feed flow rates to the tower by a moderate amount and still
achieve the same level of separation?
Solution: Trays with moveable valves are an excellent, low-cost option for tray towers with
variable gas flow.
c. What is a divided wall column, and what advantage is gained by using this design?
Solution: A divided wall column is a distillation tower that contains a central, vertical wall that
creates flow patterns within the column that mimic those observed with two-column Petlyuk
designs. For example, a divided wall column (consisting of only one distillation tower with a
side stream) can efficiently separate a 3-component feed into three, high-purity products. These
designs are most useful when the boiling points of the three components are quite different.
These designs are lower in cost because fewer towers are needed to separate the multi-
component feed (fewer pumps and heat exchangers; less heat loss to the surroundings).
d. Assume a new distillation tower was optimized two years ago to minimize its EAOC. At the
time, it was thought that it needed to be made of stainless steel, but you now know that it
could have been made out of carbon steel. If this information were known earlier, how might
this knowledge have altered the overall tower design? Justify your answer by explaining
clearly how the change of information affects the EAOC.
Solution:
EAOC = (CTM tower, trays, reboiler, condenser)(A/P,I,n) + YOC (steam, CW)
Likely increase the number of trays and decrease reflux rate.
e. Assume a new distillation tower was optimized two years ago to minimize its EAOC;
however, the price of fuel to make steam has dramatically decreased. If this information
were known earlier, how might it have altered the overall tower design? Justify your answer
by explaining clearly how the change of information affects the EAOC.
Solution:
EAOC = (CTM tower, trays, reboiler, condenser)(A/P,I,n) + YOC (steam, CW)
Likely decrease the number of trays and increase reflux rate.
Problem 3 (20%) Listed below are actual end-of-year, after-tax cash flows for a small pesticide
production plant for years 2012 through 2017. These are actual dollar values, not discounted.
The MARR was 20% when the plant was designed. The process is scheduled for shutdown at
the end of the year, and the salvage value and return of working capital are already included in
the 2017 ATCF projection. If management had known these numbers at the beginning of 2012,
would this project have been funded - use Net Present Value (NPV) to evaluate?
End of Year After Tax Cash Flow, million dollars

2012 - 10
2013 - 20
2014 +15
2015 +15
2016 +15
2017 +20
Solution:
10 20 15 15 15 25
NPV        6.418
1.20 1.20  1.20  1.20  1.20  1.20 6
2 3 4 5
NPV>0 (or DCFROR>25%)
Yes, the project would still have been funded.

Problem 4. (36%) Information on the design of a chemical plant is summarized below.
The plant will be an expansion on existing property with no cost assigned to land.
Total fixed capital investment: $15 million ($5M now, $10M at the end of year 1).
Start-up will occur at the end of year 1.
Working capital: $3 million
Annual production rate and revenue: 8.0 million kg valued at $4.00 per kg
Raw material and utility cost: $4.0 million/yr
Waste treatment: negligible
Operating labor: 5 operators each shift, 3 shifts per day, 24/7 year-round operation,
$60,000/yr average wages plus fringe benefits
Operating life of plant: 6 years assumed
Salvage value: $2 million
Depreciation: 5-year MACRS (or 6-year straight line is acceptable)
Tax rate: 30%
 Fill in the table below from the perspective of the parent company (signs are important).
 You will need to calculate COMd from the data provided!
 Show all calculations in a clear and organized manner (on another sheet if necessary). If you
use a spreadsheet to calculate the numbers, you can email the file to me (dbruce@clemson.edu
– before testing is complete), but show basic equations used on the test (e.g., calculation of
COMd, depreciation, etc.).
 If you run short on time, be sure to show all calculations for at least one year that the plant is
operational.
Total annual cash flow or
Time
After tax cash flow
Now
End of year 1
End of year 2
End of year 3
End of year 4
End of year 5
End of year 6
End of year 7
Solution:
COM d  0.180FCI  2.73COL  1.23  CUT  C WT  CRM  (Turton, 4th, Eqn. 8.2)
FCI = $15 x 106
Assume the plant will be operational 50 weeks (351 days or 8,424) per year
Number of operators = 5·((8,424 hr/yr)/(8 hr/shift))/(245 shifts/yr/operator) = 21.49 = 22
COL = 22 operators·$60,000/yr/operator = $1.32 x 106/yr
CUT + CWT + CRM = $4.0 x 106/yr
  
COM d  0.180 15x106  2.73 1.32x106  1.23 4.0x106   
COM d  $11.2x106 /yr
Annual Sales = (8.0 x 106 kg/yr) x ($4.0 per kg) = $32.0 x 106 per yr
Year ending at time (disc.) -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Row

Year ending at time -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sum
6
1. Land, 10 $ (see notes) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00
6
2. Fixed Capital Investment, 10 $ 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.00
6
3. Working Capital, 10 $ -3.0 3.00 0.00
6
4. Salvage Value, 10 $ 2.00 2.00
6
5. Total Capital Investment, 10 $ 0.0 -5.0 -13.0 -18.00
6
6. Annual sales, 10 $ 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 192.00
7. Annual Total Product Cost,
6 -11.20 -11.20 -11.20 -11.20 -11.20 -11.20 -67.20
depreciation not included,10 $
8. Annual depreciation factor, 1/y 0.20 0.320 0.192 0.115 0.115 0.058 1.00
6
9. Annual depreciation, 10 $/y 3.00 4.80 2.88 1.73 1.73 0.86 15.00
6
10. Annual Gross Profit, 10 $ 17.80 16.00 17.92 19.07 19.07 21.94 111.80
6
11. Annual (after tax) Net Profit, 10 $ 12.46 11.20 12.54 13.35 13.35 15.36 78.26
6
12. Annual operating cash flow,10 $ 15.46 16.00 15.42 15.08 15.08 16.22 93.26
6
13. Total annual cash flow, 10 $ 0.0 -5.0 -13.0 15.46 16.00 15.42 15.08 15.08 21.22 80.26
6
14. Cumulative cash position, 10 $ 0.0 -5.0 -18.0 -2.54 13.46 28.88 43.96 59.04 80.26
ChE 4310 HW#1 Due 9/5/2017
1. (20 pts) Problem 1-14 (Turton 4th) Draw a section of a P&ID diagram for a vessel
receiving a process liquid through an insulated 4-in schedule-40 pipe. The purpose of
the vessel is to store approximately 5 minutes of liquid volume and to provide
"capacity" for a feed pump connected to the bottom of the pump using a 6-in
schedule-40 pipe. The diagram should include the following features:
a. The vessel is numbered V-1402 and the pump(s) are P-1407 A/B.
b. The discharge side of the pump is made of 4-in schedule-40 carbon steel pipe and
all pipe is insulated.
c. A control valve is located in the discharge line of the pump, and a double block and
bleed arrangement is used (see Problem 1.15 for more information).
d. Both pumps and vessel have isolation (gate) valves.
e. The pumps should be equipped with drain lines that discharge to a chemical sewer.
f. The vessel is equipped with local pressure and temperature indicators.
g. The vessel has a pressure-relief valve set to 50 psig that discharges to a flare
system.
h. The tank has a drain valve and a sampling valve, both of which are connected to
the tank through separate 2-in schedule-40 CS lines.
Figure P1-15. Double Block and Bleed Arrangement

Solution:
Vent to flare
4" sch 40
V-1402 Pset=50 psig
LAH LAL
PI TI
Sample Port LIC LY
LE LT
2" sch 40 CS
6" sch 40 CS
2" sch 40 CS
LCV
V-20
Chemical 4" sch 40 CS

Sewer P-1407 A
Chemical P-1407 B
Sewer
= insulation Chemical
Sewer
Chemical
Sewer
2. (10 pts) Problem 1-23 (Turton 4th) What do the following symbols (as seen on a P&ID)
indicate?
SOLUTION:
a) TE = temperature element (i.e., thermocouple or RTD)
TT = temperature transmitter (converts very low voltage signal from a thermocouple or
RTD into a 12V or 24V signal that can be sent longer distances)
TIC = remote temperature indicating controller (not connected to the apparatus)
b) PS = pressure switch with electrical connection
c) PCV = pneumatic actuated pressure control valve
d) PAL = pressure alarm low (i.e., low pressure alarm - located in control room)
e) LAH = level alarm high (i.e., alarm for vessel level being too high - located in control
room)
3. (10 pts) Look up current pricing for tetrahydrofuran (THF) as well as current commodity
pricing for electricity and natural gas. Also, specify the U.S. region (e.g., gulf coast) for the
listed utility costs.
SOLUTION: Current Pricing is listed below.

THF: (as of 9/2017)
Prices from federal database at dataweb.usitc.gov (see options below)
= $1.950/kg export price, $2.255/kg import price
First Screen: Imports for consumption (or you can pick exports)
Second Screen: Data to Report = Customs Value/First Unit of Quantity (FAS value/quantity if
exports), Years to Display = 2017 Year-to-date, Commodity Number = 2932110000, Time
Line = Annual + year to Date, all other default values
Sort Order Page: Year = 2017, all other default values
Price from www.alibaba.com

= $1.20 - $2.20/kg in China
Electricity:
$73.3 per MWh (from www.eia.gov, industrial, July 2017 US Total)
$23.4 per MWh (from www.cmegroup.com, Dayton Hub, Oct. 2017)
Natural Gas:
$2.918 per MMBTU (from www.eia.gov, Oct. 2017)
$2.917 per MMBTU (from www.cmegroup.com, Henry Hub, Oct. 2017)
ChE 4310 HW#2 - Solutions Due 9/28/2017
Problem 1. A stainless steel (304 SS) plate heat exchanger is needed to cool a lube oil stream
(Cp =1.82 kJ/kg·°C), flowing at the rate of 13,500 kg/h, from 125 °C to 40 °C using cooling
water (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·°C), which enters the exchanger at 10 °C. Assume the cooling water
exits the exchanger at 20 °C.
a) Is the suggested ΔT for the cooling water within normally observed values?
Yes, cooling water ΔT is normally 15 – 25 °F
b) Is the approach of the fluid exit temperatures within normally observed values?
Yes, the approach ΔT should normally be greater than 10 °F
c) Calculate the required cooling water flow (ignore heat loss to the surroundings).
 oil C p,oil  Toil   13500 1.82  125  40   2.088x106 kJ / h

qm
q 2.088 106
 water 
m   50,300 kg / h
Cp,water  Twater  4.18   20  10 
d) Estimate the required heat exchanger surface area. Use charts discussed in class (Otto
Frank plot) to estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient. Assume counter current flow.
q  UA  T lm
Estimate U using Frank, 1974 data. From plot (see next page), U ~300 W/m2 °C.
 
 
 125  20    40  10  
 T lm   59.87 C
 125  20   
 ln   

   40  10   
A
q

 2.088x106 kJ / h  1/ 3600 h / s 
 32.3m 2
U  T lm  300x10 kJ / m ·C·s    59.87 C 
3 2
U ~ 300 W/m2·°C
Problem 2. Powdered coal is being transferred from an outside pile to a furnace used to produce
steam using a dilute phase pneumatic conveying system. A total of 2 tons per hour (TPH) of
coal must be transported to the furnace. The pneumatic line will require 300 ft. of straight pipe
and have two 90° elbows and two 45° bends. Assume that the elbows/bends have a 2.0 bend
diameter ratio (DR, i.e., centerline radius for the bend is twice the length of the outside pipe
diameter).
a. Estimate the pressure drop (in psi) across the pneumatic line? (see calculation procedure
in course slides from www.spiralmfg.com). Note that “wg equals inches of water.
1) Calculate the pounds of materials to be conveyed per minute (lbs/min).
2 tons/h = 4000 lbs / 60 min = 66.7 lbs/min
2) Determine the weight (density) of the bulk solid material (lbs/ft3) – use Column B of
included Table 47-1 (see next page) if actual value is unknown. If your specific material
is not listed, use values form a related material having similar solid density.
Powdered coal: 30 lbs/ft3
3) Estimate the required air flow per lb of material using Column C of Table 47-1 (ft3 of
air per minute per lb of material conveyed or CFM/lb).
42 ft3/min/lb
4) Estimate the minimum conveying velocity (ft/min or FPM) using Column D in Table
47-1.
4000 ft/min
5) Estimate the required suction pick-up (inches of head of water at STP or “wg) using
Column E in Table 47-1.
3 in. of water head
6) Calculate the Total Minimum CFM of air required (Step 1 times Step 3).
2,800 ft3/min
7) Calculate the Actual CFM for specified duct. Using Table 47-2, read across the line
corresponding to the conveying velocity (FPM) calculated in Step 4. Find the first CFM
greater than the required CFM calculated in Step 6. Also, record the duct size at the top
of the column. Recognize that multiple ducts maybe needed if the rate of solid material
flow is too high.
12 in. duct, 3142 ft3/min

8) Using the duct size identified in Step 7, record the friction loss value per 100 ft of duct
from Table 47-2.
1.84 friction loss/100 ft
9) Calculate the total equivalent length of straight horizontal supply duct by multiplying
the length of straight vertical duct by 2 and adding that value to the length of straight
horizontal duct (use a factor of 1.5 for angled ducts).
300 ft horizontal + (50 ft vertical x 2 = 100 equivalent ft horizontal) = 400 ft
10) Using Table 48-1 calculate the factor for each type of bend in equivalent feet of
horizontal duct per bend. Multiply the bend factor by the number of each type of bend in
the duct system. Sum all of the equivalent lengths to get the total bend equivalent
length of duct.
2 x 14 (90° elbows) + 2 x 7 (45° elbows) = 42 equivalent ft horizontal
11) Calculate the total equivalent length of duct by adding the value from Steps 9 and 10.
442 equivalent ft horizontal
12) Calculate pressure loss arising from friction (i.e., friction loss) by multiplying the
friction loss value from Step 8 by the total equivalent length of horizontal duct from Step
11 and diving by 100. This value is in inches of water gauge.
53.04 in. water head
13) Using a 10% safety factor, calculate the total system pressure loss by adding the friction
loss value from Step 12 to the suction loss value from Step 5 and then multiplying that
sum by 1.1.
56.04 in. water head x 1.1 = 61.6 in. water head = 2.2 psi pressure drop
b. Specify what type of blower/fan you would recommend for the process and estimate its
cost in June, 2015. Note that the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) in
2003 was 402.0 and in June, 2015 it was 558.6.
(Cost in June, 2015) = (Cost in 2003) * (CEPCI in June, 2015) / (CEPCI in 2003)
From part a) 12 in. fan, 3142 ft3/min flow, 2.2 psi pressure drop
See chart on next page.
2003 cost (actually 2002, but assume 2003 here):

Rotary Blower or Centrifugal Blower = $ 60,000
Turbo Blower, 3 psi = $21,000 in 2003
Cost in 2015 = 21,000·558.6/402.0 = $29,180

From Peters, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, 2003.
Problem 3. (Turton 4th, Chpt. 2, Prob. 4) When and why would one purposely add an inert
material to a feed stream? Provide two examples – one where an inert liquid was added and the
other where an inert gas was added.
a. Gas System: To reduce the chance of an explosion. For example, add nitrogen to an
organic/air vapor mixture to lower the flammability limit of the mixture.
b. Liquid System: Add a high heat capacity solvent to a reaction system. The high heat
capacity diluent could be used to 1) absorb heat in an exothermic reaction system – limiting
the chance of the system overheating or 2) give off heat in an endothermic reaction system –
thereby keeping the reaction rate at an acceptable level.
Problem 4. Specify the type of pump and shut-off valve that might be used for the specified
application (multiple answers may be possible – you need only list one).
a. Removal of sludge from a water treatment process.

Progressive Cavity Pump; Ball valve, Butterfly valve, Gate Valve
b. Generation of high pressure water for tank cleaning.
Gear Pump; Gate Valve, Ball Valve
c. Transporting 10x powdered sugar from a storage bin into a bagging assembly line.
Dilute Phase – Pressure or Vacuum Pneumatic Conveyor; Knife Valve (maybe a rotary
valve)
d. Human blood to a filtration system during open heart surgeries.
Peristaltic/Hose Pump; Pinch Valve (pinch the same tubing used in the pump)
e. Feeding polymer to a blown film process.
Extruder, Progressive Cavity Pump; Ball Valve, Gate Valve on pump oultet or Knife Valve
on the pump inlet
Problem 5. Specify the type of mixing method that should be employed for the specified
circumstance (multiple answers may be possible – you need only list one).
a. Maintaining uniform concentrations in a batch reactor – organic reaction.

Marine, Back Swept, or Rushton Impellar, pumping into and out of the reactor (pump
around) will also work for large systems
b. Mixing two high-pressure, low-viscosity processes streams of similar flow rate.
Impingement Mixing Tee
c. Homogenizing a mixture of two high viscosity lubricants.
High shear mixer or Helical Agitator (maybe an anchor impeller)
d. Mixing a solid pharmaceutical agent with an inert solid (before tablet making).
Turbula, Double Cone, V-Blender and related type mixers
ChE 4310 HW#3 - Solutions Due 10/20/2015
Problem 1. Pure water is to be used in a packed bed absorption tower to remove residual
amounts of hydrogen chloride (HCl) from a polluted air stream that enters the column at a rate of
65 kmol/h. The mole fraction of HCl in the entering gas stream is y HCl, in = 0.024, and the
desired mole fraction of HCl in the exiting gas stream is yHCl, out = 0.002. At the conditions in
the tower (1 atm, 25 °C), the equilibrium K value for HCl is relatively constant and equals 2.7.
The column is to be filled with ¾ in. ceramic saddles. Answer the questions below (see
absorption slides).
a. Calculate the minimum required liquid flow rate.
V ( yi,in − yi,out ) 65 ⋅ ( 0.024 − 0.002 )

=L min = = 160.88 kmol/h
 yi,in   0.024 
 − x i,in   − 0
 Ki   2.7 
b. Use the Kremser equation/plot to determine the number of equilibrium stages needed to
achieve the specified separation, assuming L = 1.5·Lmin .
L 1.5 (160.88 )
=
A HCl = = 1.375 Absorption Factor
K HCl V 2.7 ⋅ 65
y1,HCl V1 0.002 ⋅ 65
=
φHCl = = 0.08333 Recovery Fraction
y N +1,HCl VN +1 0.024 ⋅ 65
 A −1 
ln  + 1
A −1  φHCl  −1
=φHCl =
or N
A N +1 − 1 ln A
1.375 − 1 
ln  +1
 0.08333 
=N = −1 4.353 stages Number of Stages (use either equation)
ln (1.375 )
 y − mx in   A − 1  1   0.024 − 2.75 ⋅ 0   1.375 − 1  1 

ln  in   +  ln     +
 out
y − mx in   A  A   0.002 −=2.75 ⋅ 0   1.375  1.375 
N Abs = 4.353 stages
ln ( A ) ln (1.375 )
c. Assuming the HETP for the packing is 0.9 ft, calculate the tower height.
z = HETP ⋅ N = 0.9 ⋅ 4.353 = 3.92 ft = 1.19 m

Problem 2. Short answer questions (brief discussion only – no calculations are required).
a. When designing a new stripping tower, explain how the calculated tower diameter and height
vary with the entering vapor flow rate (assuming that the vapor flow rate is above the
minimum required for the separation process).
Height: As vapor flow rate increases, the required number of stages will decrease. Thus, for
a packed tower the overall tower height will decrease. For a tray tower, the overall height
might decease depending on whether a full tray decrease in stages was created by the
increased vapor flow. It should also be noted that the tray spacing may need to increase with
higher vapor flows, so it is possible that the tower would need to get taller if less than a
single stage decrease in stages was created by the higher vapor flow.
Diameter: As vapor flow rate increase, the diameter will need to increase to prevent
flooding.
b. For an absorption process, how does the required tower height for a packed tower vary with
the equilibrium constant (K eq ) for the component being absorbed?
(Assuming the liquid flow rate is maintained at 1.5 x Lmin)
For an absorption process, as K eq . increases, the absorption tower height would increase –
i.e., higher K’s indicate that the compound has a greater tendency to remain in the vapor
phase, which is counter to the goal of an absorption process – hence, more stages would be
required.
c. In stripping and absorption processes where the component changing phases is in relatively
high concentrations, the L/V ratio can change significantly. Which variable, L or V, is likely
changing the most?
The vapor flow rate will change more (due to the density difference between the two phases).
Problem 3. A mixture of hexane (50 mol%, B.P. = 69 °C), octane (10 mol%, B.P. = 125 °C),
nonane (15 mol%, B.P. = 151 °C), and dodecane (25 mol%, B.P. = 216 °C) are to be separated
using distillation operated at near atmospheric pressures, such that the purities of the final
products will all be greater than 99 mole% purity. Suggest an optimum arrangement of the
necessary towers and explain why it is the optimum arrangement. Specify which pure
components (if any) are being removed out of the respective towers. Also, label the components
in each tower as a light non-key (LNK), light-key (LK), heavy-key (HK), or heavy non-key
(HNK).
Tower 1: Distillate – 99+% hexane (LK), Bottoms – octane (HK), nonane (HNK), dodecane
(HNK) (send to tower 2)
Remove hexane first in high purity. It is the largest fraction of the feed and because it is a light
boiler, we can save money on not having to boil-up all of the heavier components.
Tower 2: Distillate – octane (LNK) /nonane (LK) mix (send to tower 3), Bottoms, 99+% -
dodecane (HK)
Remove dodecane from the bottom of the tower because it is the largest fraction of the feed to
the tower.
Tower 3: Distillate – 99% octane (LK), Bottoms – 99% nonane (HK)
It is important that the product purities in the first two towers are above 99% as this is required to
meet the 99% purity specifications for this tower.
Problem 7. A distillation column with sieve trays operating at 1 bar is to separate 600 kg/h of a
solution of benzene and toluene containing 65 wt% toluene into an overhead product containing
98 wt% benzene and a bottoms product containing 99 wt% toluene. A molar external reflux ratio
(L/D) of 3.5 is to be used. The feed is a liquid at its boiling point. Earlier design efforts by
another engineer yielded the following information about the column:
D = 2.682 kmol/h, 210 kg/h, mole fraction benzene in the distillate = 0.987
B = 4.239 kmol/h, 390 kg/h, mole fraction benzene in the bottoms = 0.01
L/V (molar flow rate ratio in the top of the tower) = 0.793
Total number of stages (including the partial reboiler) = 15
Feed Stage = 7
Given the above information,

a. Estimate the required column diameter using Fair’s method (see distillation class lecture
slides). Assume ideal gas behavior for the benzene-toluene mixture, and be careful about
when to use a mole basis or weight basis.
b. Estimate the cost of the tower in 2015. Note that the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI) in 2003 was 402.0 and in June, 2015 it was 558.6.
(Cost in June, 2015) = (Cost in 2003) * (CEPCI in June, 2015) / (CEPCI in 2003)
Tave. = 0.5 ( TDist. + TBottoms ) ≈ 0.5 ( TBP,benzene + TBP,toluene ) = 0.5 ( 80.1 + 111) = 95.55 °C
 n 
P  ∑ yi ⋅ MWi  (1atm )  0.35 ⋅ 78.11 + 0.65 ⋅ 92.14
g 

=
ρV  i =1  =  mol 
= =
2.88 g / l 2.88 kg / m3
 l ⋅ atm 
 ( 95.55 + 273.15 K )
RT
 0.08206
 mol ⋅ K 
n
=
ρL ∑ x ⋅ρ = ( 0.35 ⋅ 876.5) + ( 0.65 ⋅ 870
i =1
i i = ) 872.3 g / l
For the flow parameter F LG , L and V are in units of kg/s or lb/s, but the composition (at the top
of the tower) of the exiting vapor, reflux, and distillate are all the same, so L and V can also be in
molar units for this case – i.e., L/V is the same on a mass and molar basis at the top of the tower.
0.5
L  ρV 
0.5
 2.88 
=FLG =   0.793 =  0.0456
V  ρL   872.3 
Assume a tray spacing of 18 in.
See plot on next page to find the Souder-Brown Coefficient (C SB ).
From plot, C SB = 0.08 m/s

CSB=0.08 m/s
Now determine the vapor velocity at flooding conditions.
Toluene surface tension (at 30 °C) = 28.52 dyne/cm. The benzene surface tension is similar.
Assume this system has minimal foaming – i.e., C FF = 1.

0.5
 σ L   ρL − ρV  m   28.52   872.3 − 2.88 
0.2 0.2 0.5

vSF,flood C=
sb C FF      0.08  (1)  =    1.49 m/s
 20   ρV   s   20   2.88 
Calculate the tower cross-sectional area (AS) required for operation at flood conditions. For this
calculation, the listed units for V are kg/s and the units for ρ v are kg/m3; however, to convert
both of the units to a molar basis you would simply need an average molecular weight for the
mixture. Because that average molecular weight factor would be the same for both terms, it is
also acceptable to use a molar basis for V and ρ v .
Now find V.
Convert D to molar units:
 1 h   1000 mol 
D ( mol/s
= ) ( 2.682 kmol/h ) ⋅  ⋅ =  0.745 mol/s
 3600 s   1 kmol 
One can also calculate D by converting the mass flow rate to a molar flow rate using the distillate
composition:
 1 h   1000 g 
( 210 kg/h ) ⋅  ⋅ 
D ( kg/s )

 3600 s   1 kg 
D ( mol/s ) = = 0.72 mol/s
( x D,Benz MWBenz + x D,Tol MWTol ) ( 0.987 ⋅ 80.11 + 0.013 ⋅111)
L
= 3.5
D
3.5 ⋅ ( 0.745 ) =
L= 2.61 mol/s
V = L + D = 2.61 + 0.745 = 3.355 mol/s

V=V ⋅ ( x D,Benz MWBenz + x D,Tol MWTol ) = 3.355 ⋅ ( 0.987 ⋅ 80.11 + 0.013 ⋅111) = 270.1 g/s
In general, these are moderately low flow rates, so one would expect that a relatively small tower
is needed.
Use the vapor flow rate to calculate the tower cross-sectional area at flooding conditions.
 kg 
 0.2701 
A= =
V  s 
= 0.0625 m 2
ρV vSF  kg   m
S,flood
 2.88 3  ⋅ 1.5 
 m   s 
Find the tower cross-sectional area under acceptable operating conditions. The design flooding
fraction (F F ) is commonly 0.8 (80% of flood) for most new units. The value should never be
higher the 0.95.
AS,tflood 0.0625
=
AS,tray = = 0.078 m 2
FF 0.8
AS,tower = AS,tray + AS,down −comer = AS,tray + 0.15 ⋅ AS,tray = 1.15 ⋅ AS,tray = 0.090 m 2
0.5
 4AS,tower   4 ⋅ 0.09 
0.5
=
D tower  =  =  0.34 m
 π   π 
Though this is a small tower, the procedure described above can be used to size any reasonable
industrial absorption, stripping or distillation tower.
7.9 The figures in Appendix A are plotted with the y-axis as the purchased cost per unit of
capacity. For a cost exponent of <1 the slope of the curves should be negative. Searching
are the figures in Appendix A we find only two instances of positive slopes. These are
Figure A.1 – Rotary compressor These are the only equipment that does
Figure A.9 – Auto batch separator not exhibit the “economy of scale” over
the whole range of equipment sizes.
7.10
Year Capacity (m3) Cost (£) CEPCI Exchange Rate

1993 75 7,800 359 $1.40/£
1998 155 13,800 390 $1.65/£
2007 120 ? 500 $2.00/£
n
⎛I ⎞ C ⎛A ⎞
C2 = C1⎜ 2 ⎟ ; a = ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ I1 ⎠ Cb ⎝ Ab ⎠
⎛ 500 ⎞
For 75 m3: C2007 = ⎜ ⎟ (£7,800) = £10,864
⎝ 359 ⎠
⎛ 500 ⎞
For 155 m3: C2007 = ⎜ ⎟ (£13,800) = £17,692
⎝ 390 ⎠
⎛10,864 ⎞
log⎜ ⎟
⎝ 17,692 ⎠
n= = 0.6719
⎛ 75 m3 ⎞
log⎜ 3⎟
⎝155 m ⎠
⎛120 m3 ⎞0.6719
C2007
120 =⎜ 3 ⎟
(£10,864) = £14,897 = ($2.00/£)(£14,897) = $29,795
⎝ 75 m ⎠
7-3
9.13
mn
F ⎛ i ⎞
(a) = ⎜1 + ⎟
P ⎝ m⎠
P = $1,000
365
⎛ 0.095 ⎞
Daily: F = $1,000⎜1 + ⎟ = $1,099.65
⎝ 365 ⎠
12
⎛ 0.10 ⎞
Monthly: F = $1,000⎜1 + ⎟ = $1,104.71
⎝ 12 ⎠
4
⎛ 0.105 ⎞
Quarterly: F = $1,000⎜1 + ⎟ = $1,109.21
⎝ 4 ⎠
10.5% p.a. compounded quarterly is the most profitable scheme.
(b) F = P(1 + ieff)

$1,109.21 = $1,000(1 + ieff )
ieff = .109 = 10.9%
(c) ieff = e inom − 1
ieff = e 0.105 − 1
ieff = 0.111 = 11.1%
9-3
mn
F ⎛ i ⎞
9.17 = ⎜1 + ⎟
P ⎝ m⎠
If P = $1
365
⎛ 0.04 ⎞
Bank 1 : F = $1⎜1 + ⎟ = $1.0408
⎝ 365 ⎠
Bank 2 : F = $1(1 + 0.041) = $1.041
9.18 A
(a)
19 20 21 22
0 1 18
75 75 75 75
F (1 + i ) − 1 (1 + 0.08 ) − 1
n 18
(b) For years 1-18: = ⇒F=A
A i 0.08
P (1 + i ) − 1 (1 + 0.08)4 − 1
n
For years 19-22: = ⇒ P = $ 75 ,000
i (1 + i ) 0.08(1 + 0.08)
n 4
A
A
(1.08)18 − 1 = $75,000 1.08 4 − 1
0.08(1.08)
4
0.08
A = $6,633.1 / yr
(c) $5,000
(1 + i )18 − 1 = $75,000 (1 + i )4 − 1
i (1 + i )
4
i
i = 0.103 = 10.3%
9-5
ChE 4310 Fall 2015 HW#5 Due 11/12/2015
1. Turton 4th, Prob. 10-8. The projected costs for a new chemical plant are given below (all
numbers are in $106).
• Land cost = $7.5
• Fixed capital investment = $120 ($60 at end of year 1, $39.60 at end of year 2, and
$20.40 at end of year 3)
• Working capital = $35 (at start-up)
• Start-up at end of year 3
• Revenue from sales = $52
• Cost of manufacturing (without depreciation) = $18
• Tax rate = 40%
• Depreciation method = Current MACRS over 5 years
• Length of time over which profitability is to be assessed = 10 years after start-up
• Internal rate of return = 9.5% p.a.
For this project, do the following:

a. Draw a cumulative (nondiscounted) after-tax cash flow diagram.
b. From Part (a), calculate the following nondiscounted profitability criteria for the project:
(i) Cumulative cash position and cumulative cash ratio
(ii) Payback period
(iii) Rate of return on investment
c. Draw a cumulative (discounted) after-tax cash flow diagram.
d. From Part (c), calculate the following discounted profitability criteria for the project:
(i) Net present value and net present value ratio
(ii) Discounted payback period
(iii) Discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR)
2. Turton 4th, Prob. 10-10. The following expenses and revenues have been estimated for a new
project (all numbers are in $106):
• Revenues from sales= $4.1 /y
• Cost of manufacturing (excluding depreciation)= $1.9 /y
• Taxation rate= 40%
• Fixed capital investment= $7.7
• (two payments of $5 and $2.7 at the end of years 1 and 2, respectively)
• Start-up at the end of year 2
• Working capital= $2 at the end of year 2
• Land cost= $0.8 at the beginning of the project (time= 0)
• Project life (for economic evaluation)= 10 y after start-up
For this project, estimate the NPV of the project assuming an after-tax internal hurdle
rate of 11% p.a., using the following depreciation schedules:
a. MACRS method for 5 years
b. Straight-line depreciation with an equipment life (for depreciation) of 9.5 years
3. Turton 4th, Prob. 10-15. In a design, you have the choice of purchasing one of the following
batch reactors:
Costs A B C
Material of Construction CS 304 SS Hastelloy C-276
Installed Cost $15,000 $25,000 $40,000
Equipment Life 3y 5y 7y
Yearly Maintenance Cost $4000 $3000 $2000
If the internal rate of return for such comparisons is 9% p.a., which of the alternatives is least
costly?
4. Turton 4th, Prob. 10-19. Three alternative pieces of equipment are being considered for
solids separation from a liquid slurry:
Capital Investment Operating Cost Service Life

Equipment Type
($) ($/y) (y)
Rotary Vacuum
15,000 3,000 6
Filter
Filter Press 10,000 5,000 8
Hydrocyclone and
25,000 2,000 10
Centrifuge
If the internal hurdle rate for this project is 11% p.a., which alternative do you recommend?
ChE 4310 Fall 2017 HW#6 Due 12/5/2017
1. (Turton, Prob. 15-12) For a new process, the following process streams must be cooled or
heated:
Stream No. ṁCp Temperature In Temperature Out

3
(10 BTU)/hr·°F °F °F
1 2 400 320
2 4 300 100
3 3 90 310
4 2 170 310
Use the MUMNE algorithm for heat-exchanger networks and a minimum approach temperature
of 10 °F.
a. Determine the temperature interval diagram.
b. Determine the cascade diagram, the pinch temperatures, and the minimum hot and cold
utilities.
c. Determine the minimum number of heat exchangers above and below the pinch.
d. Determine the heat-exchange network above the pinch.
e. Determine the heat-exchange network below the pinch.
Chapter 8 ‐ Estimation of Working
Capital and Annual Cost of
Manufacturing
Total Capital Investment
Fixed Capital is the portion of the total capital investment spent on land and
on fixed (physical) assets required to build a plant expansion or an entire
chemical manufacturing plant. This money is not directly recoverable as long
as the plant operates. In the early years of operation, the cost of the physical
equipment can be recovered by the company through tax breaks called
depreciation (more about this later). Land cannot be depreciated, but it can
be sold when the process is no longer viable and the plant is shut down.
Working Capital is the money set aside by the company to operate the plant.
It is used to purchase initial raw materials and meet other manufacturing
expenses before sales revenue begins to come in and to smooth out financial
ups and downs after the initial startup. In principle, the amount of working
capital in the facility account should be more or less constant over the life of
the plant, and it is recovered by the company at final shutdown. Common
estimates of working capital are the smaller of:
• 15 to 20% of FCI (CTM or CGR as appropriate),
• 50% of annual manufacturing cost, not including depreciation (COMd).
This is the annual cost to run the plant. It is usually
divided in to three categories(more to follow on each):
• Direct Manufacturing Costs (DMC)
– Strongly correlated with the design production rate. Part of
the DNC will be directly proportional to production rate.
• Fixed Manufacturing Costs (FMC)
– Closely associated with the particular manufacturing
process, but not strongly dependent on the production rate.
• General Expenses (GE) or “overhead”
– Administrative and management costs of the company to
which each manufacturing operation must contribute.
Direct Manufacturing Costs
depend strongly on production rate
The big four Others
• Raw Materials (CRM) • Maintenance and
• Waste Treatment (CWT) Repairs
• Utilities (CUT) • Operating Supplies
• Operating Labor (COL) • Laboratory Charges
• Patents and Royalties
• Supervisory and Clerical
Labor
Fixed Manufacturing Costs
related to design production rate but don’t vary with actual rate
• Depreciation
• Property Taxes; Risk and Liability Insurance
• Plant Overhead Costs (payroll & benefits, accounting,
safety, medical, cafeteria, custodial, recreation, etc.)
General Expenses
costs not directly related to manufacturing
• Sales and Marketing (might vary with production rate)
• Research and Development
• Company Level Administration (CEO, VPs, HR)
Cost of Raw Materials, CRM
• CRM is determined from the process flow rates
– Based on design case process flow diagram & stream table
– apply stream factor = % of time plant will operate over year
– actual process rate will vary day to day
• Cost estimates (Seller quotations are the best source when available.
See D.A. Bruce summary handout for how to use the sources below.)
US International Trade Commission: http://dataweb.usitc.gov/
Energy Information Agency: http://www.eia.gov/
Websites for commercial sales: www.alibaba.com
Chicago Mercantile Exchange: www.cmegroup.com
• Investigate cost trends over time if possible.
• Add 10‐15% for shipping if not included already.
Utility Costs – CUT
• Includes fuel for fired heaters, furnaces, kilns, etc.
– Use PFD rates and stream factor to get process
energy requirement. Total use of fuel also depends
on device efficiency, typically 70‐90%
– Fuel costs – see www.eia.gov web site, Chicago
Mercantile Exchange
• Includes electricity for pumps and compressors
o Fluids theory w/o efficiency gives fluid power (kW)
o Shaft power = fluid power/pump efficiency
o PFD usually gives shaft power
o Power to motor = shaft power/motor efficiency
o Typical cost for large users is $0.05 to $0.10/kWh
Table 8.3 from Turton will be your default source for tests,
but for projects the EIA.gov site is more current.
8
(Data from Fall 2013, from Fall 2015)
Price summary (historical and forecast)
2012 2013 2014 2015
WTI Crude Oila 94.58
94.12 97.91 97.72
$ per barrel 44.60
Brent Crude Oil 101.67
111.65 108.64 104.42
$ per barrel 58.57
Gasolineb 3.38
3.63 3.51 3.45
$ per gallon 2.23
Dieselc 3.80
3.97 3.92 3.85
$ per gallon 2.50
Heating Oild 3.65
3.79 3.78 3.79
$ per gallon 2.65
Natural Gasd 11.13
10.69 10.31 11.09
$ per thousand ft3 10.35
Electricityd 12.69
11.88 12.12 12.48
¢ per kWh 12.55
aWest Texas Intermediate. bAverage regular pump price. cOn‐highway retail. dU.S. Residential
average. Note: Italics indicate forecast. Source: Short‐Term Energy Outlook , EIA.gov 9
Steam – another important utility
• Large chemical complexes generate high‐pressure
steam and use excess pressure to generate electricity.
• Superheated steam might be available, little energy
can be extracted from it because Cp and h are low.
• Steam can be passed through a turbine without
condensing to drive a compressor and pump. See
Turton Table 11.5 for heuristics on application of
various drivers and power recovery equipment.
• The most common way steam is used is by condensing
it in a heat exchanger to deliver the latent heat. Typical
pressure levels and saturation temperature are
– Low (2 to 6 bar => 120 to 160oC)
– Medium (10 to 20 bar => 180 to 210oC)
– High (35 to 47 bar => 240 to 260oC)
A typical large plant steam system
Note: Modern power plants can provide supercritical steam at
250 bar and 580◦C, but it can’t be condensed above Tc=374oC.
11
Condensate is usually returned to the
main boiler to conserve energy and
minimize fresh boiler feedwater use
Steam
Process
Account for steam cost,
but not additional boiler
Condensate returned to
feedwater cost.
steam generating systems
In some cases steam is consumed in
the process
Stripped gas & steam
(not recovered)
Account for steam cost
+ boiler feedwater cost
since condensate is not
returned.
stripping steam
13
Steam might also be generated in in a
chemical process
Steam
Process
BFW
Take credit for steam generation (negative utility cost)
Cooling water: How does a closed
cycle cooling water system work?
make‐up water & anti‐fouling chemicals
Cooling Tower
evaporation &
entrainment
loss
~30 °C Process ≤45 °C

HEX
purge (blowdown)
Refrigerated water is much more
expensive than common cooling water
Ideal work depends on refrigeration temperature
Approximate
Cost ($/GJ)
CW costs 0.4
RW @
‐10 C costs 4
‐20 C costs 8
‐50 C costs 13
16
Waste Treatment Costs, CWT
• Trash can be hauled to a landfill for
~ $50/tonne = $0.05/kg
• Wastewater that contains < 1 mass % non‐toxic
chemicals can be treated with domestic sewage for
$1 to 2/m3 = $0.001 to 0.002/kg
• The cost of treating hazardous and/or concentrated
waste varies depending on what it is, but will likely
be $1 to 2/kg
These estimates can be used to estimate the savings from waste
minimization. Beyond that, green or sustainable engineering is
about personal, professional, and corporate ethics.
17
(Greenville, SC)
Monthly Volume Charges**

Effective Date
Base Fee*
Residential*** Commercial***
3-01-11 $9.40 $4.79 $4.55
3-01-12 $9.80 $4.96 $4.71
3-01-13 $10.20 $5.18 $4.92
3-01-14 $10.60 $5.39 $5.12
3-01-15 $11.00 $5.61 $5.33
* Applies to both residential and commercial accounts.
** Charge per 1,000 gallons of metered water.
*** Commercial customers receive a 5% reduction in volume charges
since they generally use the same amount of water throughout the
year. These accounts are not eligible for the Six-Month Savings
Program.
18
(Turton correlated labor data to get:)
2 0.5
N OL  (6.29  31.7P  0.23N np )
NOL = the number of operators required per shift
P = solid processing steps
Nnp = fluid processing steps – compression, heating,
cooling, mixing, separation, reaction, etc.
CAUTION: Turton acknowledges that his equation was based on
data from plants with few if any solids processing steps. The middle
term gives high estimates if P = 1 or 2 and ridiculous answers if P >2.
Most solids processing steps require 1 to 4 operators per unit. Use
judgment and/or ask someone with experience if possible.
Operating Labor Requirements –Sieder et al.
20
Seider et al., ISBN: 978‐0‐470‐04895‐5
Ulrich and Vasudevan (2004) provide operator
estimates for specific types of equipment; e.g.,
equipment type operators/unit/shift
conveyor 0.1
cooling tower 0.6
boiler & electric turbine 2
incinerator 1.3
See Table 6.2 posted on Blackboard for others. This
table should be more accurate than the two previous
slides because it is more specific to individual unit
21
operations.
Estimating Labor Costs, COL
Usually it is assumed that each operator will be out for 5
wks/yr (vacation + holidays + sick leave. So each operator
actually works (47 work weeks/yr)(5 eight‐hr shifts/wk)
= 235 shifts/yr
.
Total shifts per year for 24 hr/7 day/52 week operation,
= (365)(3 shifts per day) = 1095 shifts/year
.
1095/235 = 4.7 operators needed to cover each position
The cost of labor varies with location and skill level.
.
In the US, the cost of manufacturing labor including
benefits averages $20 to $40/hr or $40,000 to
$80,000/yr.
22
Estimates of “Other” Manufacturing Costs
– 2 – 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
– 10 – 25 % of Cost of Manufacturing Labor (COL)
• Distribution and sales
– 2 – 20 % of total Cost of Manufacturing (COM)
Table 8.2 from Turton shows an estimated range for each additional
item of DMC, FMC, and GE. The equations in Table 8.2 and on the
next slides are based on the mid-point value of each estimated range.
Before using these estimates, always study the table and consider
whether you have better information on any particular cost item.
Actual COM can be quite different depending on the type of process
and industry sector.
23
24
25
Putting it all together
Cost of Manufacturing or COM is usually divided into three
categories: COM = DMC + FMC + GE
DMC = Direct Manufacturing Costs
FMC = Fixed Manufacturing Costs
GE = General Expenses or “overhead”
• Four parts of DMC (CRM, CUT, COL, and CWT) can be estimated from
the PFD and stream table, and these usually dominate COM.
• Other items in DMC, FMC, and GE are usually based on correlations
established between these items and FCI, CRM, CUT, COL, and CWT.
These items should be estimated individually and more accurately if
better data are available and time permits.
Overall Cost of Manufacturing (COMd)
based on the default Turton factors.
• COMd is the estimated cost of manufacturing without
depreciation. This quantity is used commonly to represent the
annual cost of producing a particular product.
• FCI appears in the estimating equation because maintenance,
repairs, property taxes, and other costs correlate with the FCI.
• Some people add to COMd an additional fraction of FCI to include
in the cost of each unit of product made a portion of the fixed
capital investment required to build the process. We will account
for capital investment and depreciation in a different way later.
27
COM (with depreciation) – don’t use this equation!
COM  0.280FCI  2.73COL  1.23  C UT  C WT  CRM 

with depreciation as 10% of FCI
COMd (without depreciation) – use this equation

COM without depreciation – use this because
depreciation is calculated more accurately by other
means (See in Chapter 9 in Turton.)
28
Summary
• The annual cost of manufacturing a product, COMd, can be
divided into direct costs, indirect costs, and general expenses
(overhead).
• An estimate of COMd can be made if you have if you estimates of
fixed capital investment (FCI) and the annual cost of raw
materials (CRM), operating labor (COL), utilities (CUT), and waste
treatment (CWT).
• To estimate these five essential items you must have a process
flow diagram and a stream table (mass and energy entering and
leaving the process).
• Depreciation is not included in the estimation equation
developed here, but will be accounted for later.
• The most common cause of large errors in estimating FCI or
COMd is not inaccurate data or faulty correlations. It is
omission of significant costs due to oversight. It is important
that you understand and use the techniques taught in Turton
(or more accurate methods if available).

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Chapter 9

At the end of Year n, we have Fn = P (1 + i )n,

Bank perspective $20,000 My perspective

Discrete CFD for an annuity

• Depreciation (dk ) = (FCI – L) * d (with d as fraction, %/100%)

• Gross profit after depreciation = (R – COMd ‐ dk)

• Income Tax = (R – COMd ‐ dk) * t (with t as fraction, %/100%)

• Net Profit after Taxes = (R – COMd –dk)(1 – t)

• After Tax Cash Flow, ATCF = (R – COMd – dk)(1 – t) + dk

15. Spectral Database for Organic Compounds "SDBS is an integrated spectral database

21. ChemWiki "... a collaborative approach toward chemistry education where an Open

Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the production of benzene via the hydrodealkylation of toluene. (Turton et al., 2012) 7

Fig. 1.5 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the production of benzene via the hydrodealkylation of toluene. (Turton et al., 2012) 8

Diameter (m) 1.9 1.1

First letter Succeeding letters

What are the items circled?

Section of Plot Plan Section of Elevation Diagram

• Batch → sequen al fill and empty, start and stop;

Control Room: Chevron's

Energetics of cyclopentadiene dimerization

Sasol "slurry" Reactor - Fischer-Tropsch Gasification. (source,

Utility Costs (U.S. in 2013) Commercial Industrial

Note: table lists $52,520 per month for 10,000,000 gallons of

• Carbon steel, < 400 °C

Pressure (P, Thickness

• As P > 10 then t >CA

0.1 CS < 300 oC

40 °C 250 °C 400 °C

where ρp and ρf are the mass density of the sphere and fluid (kg/m3), respectively,

Pressure Drop 0.25 – 0.5 psi 1 – 10 psi 5 – 30 psi 7 – 50 psi

Saturation Vacuum: 10 ‐ 30 Vacuum: 3 ‐ 5

Number of Number of Vacuum or Pressure

1 Many Pressure preferred

Many Many either

ΔPtotal = ΔPaccel + ΔPlift + ΔPbends + ΔPgas + ΔPsolids

Each component of pressure drop can have a significant impact

Plift   p (1  )Hg

 Note that when measuring 2D

vertical and horizontal direction

Pneumatic Conveying by Jacob Fruchtbaum

1.5 DR Elbows 2.0 DR Elbows 2.5 DR Elbows

(Spiral Manufacturing Co.) 46

Planetary 30‐28,000 L 15‐100 rpm Moderate Good Yes Yes

Planetary Moderate Yes Moderate Moderate Yes

Fluidized Narrow No Fast Yes Moderate

High shear Moderate Yes Fast Moderate No

Vapor Feed Uncondensed

Cooling Water Cooling Wate

Packinox® high efficiency heat

where hj is the individual heat‐transfer coefficient between the jacket

Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers

Well suited for cooling high

Low maintenance and operating Higher process outlet temperature

HIGH VACUUM 1 x 10 ‐3 TO 1 x 10 ‐8 (mbar)

ULTRA HIGH VACUUM LESS THAN 1 x 10 ‐8 (mbar)

Pump Flow Rate

Pump Flow Rate

Pump Flow Rate

Pump Flow Rate

Low friction loss, significant static lift

All friction loss,

Pump Flow Rate

Valve Barely Open