Characteristic Features of

Glacial Sediments
Don J. Easterbrook
Department of Geology
Western Washington University
Bellingham, Washington

INTRODUCTION GLACIAL TILL GLACIOMARINE

DRIFT
Few depositional environments are
30- 40-
as varied as those associated with gla-
ciers, resulting in deposits of widely .
20- 20-
differenting physical characteristics.
Sediments deposited directly from gla- 10 -
cial ice generally are poorly sorted and 64 32 16 2 1 V4 ' ib- '
MM
unstratified diamictons whereas those
indirectly associated with ice via 8 4 2 1 V j VA

meltwater streams or lakes are sorted

and stratified. Recognition of glacial 0/
/O
clastic sediments is important because
of climatic implications and rapid fa- 20
30-
des changes associated with glacial
deposition. 20-
8 4 2 1 V2 VA

DIAMICTONS 10 PARTICLE SIZE

(MM)

The term diamicton is used for

poorly sorted, unstratified deposits of
unspecific origin. The most common
glacial diamictons are till and gla-
ciomarine drift, both deposited more
or less directly from ice without the
winnowing effects of water. They are
characterized by a heterogeneous mix-
ture of sediment sizes, ranging from
boulders to clay, and a lack of stratifica-
tion. Particle size distribution is often
bimodal with concentrates in the peb-
ble-cobble and silt-clay fractions (Fig.
1). Both types of diamictons are usually
massive with only minor stratified in-
tercalations.
Till
Glacial till is deposited in direct con-
tact with glacial ice. Although it does
not make up substantial sediment
thicknesses in the geologic record, till
makes a discontinuous cover for as
much as 30% of the earth's continental
landmasses and forms significant de-
posits in Precambrian and Permo-
Carboniferous rocks of South America,
Africa, and North America (Fig 2).
Till consists of unsorted, unstratified
16 8 4 2 1 Vj Va
Fig. 1—Particle size distribution of till and
glaciomarine drift.
pebbles, cobbles, and boulders in a ma-
trix of sand, silt, and clay. The coarser
fraction is mostly pebble size with cob-
bles and boulders scattered through-
out.
Many pebbles are rounded to sub-
rounded, suggesting that they were in-
corporated by ice riding over stream
gravel; others have been faceted, stri-
ated, and polished by glacial abrasion.
Sand and silt in the matrix is usually
angular to subangular quartz, with
much of the fine silt consisting of
quartz rock flour.
Physical properties which permit
recognition of a diamicton as a till in-
clude the following: (1) poor sorting
with bimodal particle size distribution;
(2) lack of stratification (Figs. 2, 3); (3)
Copyriyht © 1981 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
1
60-
40 -
20 -
32 16 8 4 2 1 V2 V4
faceted, polished, and striated stones
(Fig. 4); (4) fabric consisting of a pre-
ferred orientation of long axes of
elongated particles; (5) compactness in
close packing of constituent particles
as a result of overriding ice, high bulk
densities, and low void ratios; (6) er-
ratic lithologies of stones and heavy
minerals; (7) striated and polished bed-
rock surface beneath the till; and (8)
strongly sheared, folded, structures
produced by glacial movement (Fig. 5).
At least three different types of tills,
lodgement, ablation, and flow have
been recognized on the bases of varia-
tion in physical properties and dif-
fering depositional processes from gla-
cial ice.
 2 D. J. Easterbrook
Fig. 4—Striated stones in till, Solheimajokull,
Iceland,
Lodgement till — This type is depo-
sited subglacially from basal, debris-
laden ice under the influence of shear
Fig. 5—Deformation of glacial gravel by ice shove, near Bern, Switzerland.
stress, as the till is plastered over the
ground beneath the ice (Fig. 6). Thus,
lodgement till is characterized by pre-
ferred fabric and a high degree of com-
paction.
The long axes of rod-shaped stores
are preferentially oriented with a pri-
mary maximum parallel with the direc-
tion of ice movement and a secondary
smaller maximum at right angles.
Shearing and weight of ice produce
compaction of the deposit evidenced
by high bulk densities and low void
ratios of uncemented deposits.
Ablation till — This till is deposited
from englacial and superglacial debris
dumped on the land surface as the ice
Fig. 2—Precambrian Gowganda tillite scoured by Pleistocene ice sheets,
near Lake Ontario, Canada,
melts away. In contrast to lodgement
till, ablation till usually is only loosely
consolidated and possesses a random
fabric in the absence of strong shearing
stresses.
Flow till — This deposit is formed by
water-saturated debris flowing off gla-
cial ice as mud flows. It hasn't the de-
gree of compaction of lodgement till
but elongate stones may have a pre-
ferred orientation as a result of flowage
(Fig. 7).
Glaciomarine Drift
Deposits of glacial debris melted out
of ice floating in marine water are col-
Fig. 3—Till, north of Uppsala, Sweden.
lectively termed glaciomarine drift in
recognition of both the glacial and ma-
rine influence on resulting sediment.
Because of their poor sorting and lack
of stratification, glaciomarine drifts of-
ten resemble glacial tills in general ap-
pearance and have sometimes been re-
ferred to as "marine tills," but the term
glaciomarine drift is more appropriate
because sediment is not deposited in
contact with glacial ice and often in-
cludes facies which are not till-like in
appearance. The floating ice may con-
sist of shelf ice or berg ice calving from
a glacier margin (Figs. 8, 9).
Melting of floating ice releases clay,
 Glacial Sediments 3
silt, sand, pebbles, cobbles, and boul-
ders which settle to the underlying
seafloor, often burying marine mol-
lusks living on the bottom (Figs. 8,10).
The coarser fraction of glaciomarine
deposits consists of pebbles, cobbles,
and a few boulders, many of which are
faceted, polished, and striated, ran-
domly scattered throughout a matrix of
clay, silt and sand. The pebble to silt-
clay ratio varies considerably, grading
from till-like diamictons to silty clay
with only a few pebbles. Typical parti-
cle size distributions are shown in Fig-
ure 1.
Glaciomarine drift is generally
characterized by a lesser degree of
compaction than glacial till, presum-
ably because deposits were never un-
der appreciable glacial loading (Fig.
Fig. 6—Lodgement till being deposited from the base of moving ice, Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland. 11).
The glacial origin of these fossilifer-
ous deposits is indicated by: (1) lack of
sorting; (2) faceted, striated and pol-
ished pebbles showing little or no sec-
ondary rounding (Fig. 12); and (3) face-
ted and polished erratics of distance
provenance.
Till-like deposits (Figs. 13,14) proba-
bly represent times when debris-laden
floating ice was extensive, whereas
pebbly silt and clay probably represent
times when floating ice was less abun-
dant or lacked large quantities of de-
bris.
The relatively uniform distribution
of the coarser fraction throughout the
clay-silt matrix indicates that a nearly
continuous rain of unsorted material
took place during the greater part of
sediment accumulation. If berg ice was
the principle transport agent, calving
and melting of the bergs must have oc-
curred rapidly to produce the relatively
Fig. 7—Flow till with parallel orientation of stones, Kristineberg, Sweden. uniform distribution of coarse mate-
rial.
Criteria for identification of gla-
ciomarine drift includes: (1) whole, un-
broken shells; (2) articulated pelecy-
ICEBERGS pod valves (Fig. 15); (3) preservation of
mollusks in growth position (Fig. 15);
(4) barnacles and other marine mol-
lusks attached to glacially faceted sur-
faces of pebbles; (5) distribution of
shells throughout a deposit; (6) ab-
sence of underlying fossiliferous de-
posits from which shells could be re-
worked; (7) preservation of delicate
ornamentation on shells; (8) foramini-
fera and diatoms in matrix material; (9)
sediment inside articulated shells and
O o -O worm tubes indicating that organisms
GLACIOMARINE DRIFT O TILL
O , were living in the environment of depo-
o Q sition of the diamicton; (10) regional
distribution of deposits; and (11) high
Fig. 8—Depositional environments of glaciomarine drift and basal till. content of Na and total exchange ca-
 4 D. J. Easterbrook

"SI

Fig. 9—Debris-laden icebergs from Breidamerkurjokuil, Iceland.

Fig. 10—Fossiliferous Pleistocene glaciomarine drift, Penn Cove, Washington.

 Glacial Sediments 5

~
G
.9 _
-
G

o O
- A VASHIONTILL
0 V SUMASTILL
G
- G 0 G GLACIOMARINE DRIFT

5 .5
0
G
g
§ .4 -
G Q
.3 - 0 G A
" A V A ^
A
.2 -- V v
A * * >

.1 -
" Fig. 12—Faceted, polished and striated cobble
I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 from glaciomarine drift, Puget Lowland,
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Washington.

BULK DENSITY
Fig. 11—Void ratios and bulk densities of Pleistocene glaciomarine drift and till, Puget ^-""W mm
Lowland, Washington.
I;;

I
Fig. 1S—Articulated valves of pelecypods
preserved in growth positions in Pleistocene
Fig. 13—Till-like texture of Pleistocene glaciomarine drift, Puget Lowland, Washington. glaciomarine drift, Bellingham, Washington.

tions in clay size fractions (Fig. 16).

Measurement of exchangeable Na in
clay-size fractions may be used to dis-
tinguish some glaciomarine sediments
from similar appearing diamictons (Pe-
vear and Thorsen, 1978). Sodium con-
tent in expandable clay is higher in gla-
ciomarine drift apparently because of
enrichment from sea water (Fig. 16).
ICE-CONTACT DEPOSITS
Not all debris transported and depo-
sited by glaciers consists of till.
Meltwater on, under, within, or mar-
ginal to glaciers produces detritus
which, when deposited on, against, or
beneath ice, forms deposits known col-
lectively as ice-contact sediments. Be-
cause most such deposits involve
Fig. 14—Shell-bearing, till-like glaciomarine drift, Puget Lowland, Washington.
 6 D. J. Easterbrook
6

H
TILL
E

n
GMD H I = unoxidized
E -

JR3 p ILpi £—D

i n , i—i
2 3 4 5 6 7
Na, meg./100 g. clay, normalized to 1 Na, K, Ca, My = 100

Na Ca Mg Total Cations

TILL TILL TILL TILL

15
10
5-
I f f T I T—n-
GMD GMD GMD GMD

20> 20' 20-

15' 15-
1C' 10-
5- 5' 5

• 01 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 10 20 30 4050 60 -70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 -100

Meg.! OOy Meg lOOg MeglOOg Meg/IOOg Meg, 100g

Fig. 16—Exchangeable sodium and other cations in glaciomarine drift and till, Puget Lowland, Washington (after D. R. Pevear, 1978).

Fig. 18—Deformation of ice-contact glaciofluvial deposit by collapse of supporting ice. Ostersund,

Fig. 17—Sediment accumulating in a moulin, Sweden.
Breidamerkurjokuil, Iceland.

cransportation by meltwater streams,
they exhibit better sorting and stratifi-
cation than sediments laid down di-
rectly from ice. The finer fraction is
winnowed from the coarser detritus so
particle size distribution curves lose
most or all traces of bimodal distribu-
tion typical of glacial till. Pebbles and
cobbles are quickly rounded after only
short distances of transport.
Accumulation of glaciofluvial sand
and gravel in englacial or superglacial
cavities of a glacier (Fig. 17) leads to
deposition of irregular bodies of sedi-
ment exhibiting ice-slump deformation
when supporting ice melts away (Fig.
18,19). Post-depositional melting of ice
can produce extensive internal defor-
mation of sediments. Deformation in
deposits may include a variety of col-
lapse features, such as tilting, faulting,
and folding. Often, stratified sediments
and flow tills or ablation tills are in-
Fig. 19—Interstratified ice-contact stratified sediments anddiamictons, Sveg, Sweden.
Fig. 20—Glacial outwash channel and terrace, Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland.
terbedded(Fig. 19).
GLACIOFLUVIAL DEPOSITS
The character of sediments deposi-
ted from glacial meltwater often bears
the imprint of glacial environments, Al-
though mechanisms of transportation
and deposition show similarities to
other fluvial environments, large fluc-
tuations in discharge on a daily, sea-
sonal, or long-term basis produce
abrupt particle size changes and sedi-
mentary structures reflecting the fluc-
tuating discharges and proximity to
glaciers.
Although measurements of many
glacial sediment characteristics have
been made, recognition of a specific
environment is often difficult because
variation in rock types and recycling of
detritus through several environments
produce changes in pebble sizes and
shapes making the influence of the fi-
Fig. 21—Outwash gravel in meltwater channel, Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland.
Glacial Sediments 7
nal depositional environment obscure.
Price (1973) found no significant differ-
ences in roundness values between
moraines and eskers at Breidamerkur-
jokull, Iceland, presumably because
many of the clasts in the moraines were
formed by reworking of glaciofluvial
sediments.
Glaciofluvial deposits grade into
normal fluvial downstream as the gla-
cial influence diminishes. Near the gla-
cial margin, clasts may exhibit a lower
degree of rounding than nonglacial flu-
vial sediments. Rounding increases
abruptly, however, in transport down-
stream, with recycling of previously
overriden material diminishing the
value of rounding in distinguishing gla-
cial and nonglacial deposits.
Pebble and cobble clasts in outwash
deposits are sometimes well imbrica-
ted. Upstream dips are considered
good indicators of current direction.
Long axes of larger elongate clasts are
often oriented transverse to main cur-
rent flow.
Gravel bars on proximal portions of
outwash fans consist of poorly sorted,
imbricated, stratified gravel. Down-
stream migration of megaripples
produces large-scale festoon cross-
bedding, with migration of longitudinal
and linguoid bars resulting in cross-
bedding.
Near the glacier margin, outwash
may be deposited on stagnant ice (Fig.
22). Melting of the buried ice produces
significant disruption of both morphol-
ogy and internal structure of the de-
posit (Fig. 23). Downstream, such sedi-
ments grade into kettled but relatively
undisturbed glaciofluvial sand and
gravel, eventually forming fluvial de-
posits lacking evidence of glacial ori-
gin.
 8 D. J. Easterbrook
Fig. 22—Outwash sediment being deposited on stagnant ice, Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland.
Fiq. 23—Collapsed outwash deposit deformed by melting of buried ice, Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland,
DELTAS AND
GLACIOLACUSTRINE DEPOSITS
Where meltwater streams discharge
into lakes or the sea, deltas are formed.
If the glacial margin is close by, an ice-
contact delta is produced (Fig. 24) and
the resulting deposit will show various
slump deformation structures made by
melting of supporting ice in addition to
normal topset, foreset, and bottomset
stratification. Deltas made by glacial
outwash distant from the ice terminus
(Fig. 25) do not exhibit ice collapse
structures, but are still subject to wide-
ly fluctuating discharges typical of
meltwater streams. These result in con-
siderable variation in sediment dis-
charge and particle size distribution in
sediments. Foreset bedding often con-
sists of relatively parallel beds of sand
and gravel inclined up to 30° (Fig. 26).
Glacially-related deltas exhibit un-
usually rapid sedimentation. A delta in
Malaspina Lake studied by Gustavson,
Ashley and Boothroyd (1975) contains
approximately 9 million cu m of sedi-
ment deposited in less than 10 years.
The Chicopee delta of glacial lake Hitch-
cock in Massachusetts was deposi-
ted at a rate of 2.2 million cu m per year.
Meltwater streams carry large amounts
of glacially ground rock flour which is
discharged as suspended load into
lakes or the seas along with bedload
material. The sand-silt-clay rock flour
deposits from suspension, often as par-
allel laminae which mimic ripples and
other bedforms. Such structures are
termed draped laminations by Gustav-
son, Ashley and Boothroyd (1975).
Other common sedimentary features
include graded bedding from turbidity
current deposition, flow rolls, varves,
ripples, load casts, "flame" structures,
and involutions (Fig. 27).
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