CHAPTER THREE

DESCRIPTION OF THE
STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
Intensive geomorphological and geological studies of groundwater
basin will be required to delineate its geomorphological features or land
forms in order to evaluate the manner and degree in which they contribute
to the basins groundwater hydrology. Land forms are the most common
features encountered by anyone engaged in groundwater investigations.
Proper interpretation, land forms throw light upon a groundwater basins
geological history, lithology, and hydrology [14].
The study area in figure (3-1) occurs along the foot of mountains of
the Iraqi-Iranian frontier in south of Iraq. It extends from Teeb Area near
the Iraqi-Iranian border to Shikh Fars area. Two important rivers
penetrate the study area, both rivers originate from Iranian territory, the
first is Teeb River enter the Iraqi territory at the Teeb station after it has
cross Hamrin hills and ending in its estuary Alsnaf Marsh. The second
river is Duiraige River, which also flows from Iranian territory and runs
through the Hemrin hills at south east side of the study area near Al-Faugi
area, so that its mouth in Al Rais Marsh. This area was chosen as a study
domain to illustrate the proposed methodologies. Successful
implementation of the simulation-models requires a clear understanding
of the underlying hyderogeological system. All the information and data
needed to build simulation-model are often not readily available. This
information has to be compiled from a variety of information sources.
Therefore, this chapter aims at providing an overview for describing the
study area which includes its physical characteristics.

16
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.2 Geomorphology
The study area is bounded in the northeast by low anticlinal hills
(Hemrin Hills), which rise to a maximum elevation of 250 m above sea
level (a.s.l) near Teeb area. Generally, the surface is sloping towards the
west and southwest to reach elevation about 8 m (a.s.l) along the Tigris
River. Jabal Hemrin and its southeastern extension, Jabal Faugi, which
generally follows the Iraqi-Iran border, are the only major anticlinal folds
in the studied area. The other features within the study area are:- (see
figure 3-1)
a- Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are rock debris that are eroded into fine sediments and
subsequently transported by ephemeral streams to the valley floor
and deposited there as a result of gradient decrease of the mountain at
higher elevation on the drainage basin periphery. These sediments
are then subsequently distributed into fan-shaped landforms called
alluvial fans. Alluvial fans within the study area are developed along the
boundary of foothill zone with the Mesopotamia. They are deposited by
the ephemeral streams draining the foothill zone to the northeast. The
surface of the fans is generally weathered and consists of a veneer of red
clay and coarse particles coated by desert varnish [38]. Older fan bodies
are often truncated by younger ones. Fan deposits consist of lenticular
bodies of poorly sorted fine to coarse-grained sand and gravel with
varying amounts of clay.

17
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E

32°24'0"N

32°24'0"N

32°12'0"N
32°12'0"N

47°36'0"E

32°0'0"N
32°0'0"N

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°36'0"E

Km
0 3 6 12 18 24

Legend

River
Marshs
shallow depression fill deposits
sand sheet
sand dunes
Quaternary sheet runoff deposits
flood plain deposits

Figure (3-1): Geomorphology of the study area [39].

18
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

b- Flood plain
Flood plain is the flat area occurring on both sides of the Teeb and
Duiraige streams which is flooded and filled with large amount of
deposits. The thickness of these sediments may reach several meters with
very steep slopes. The thickness decreases considerably to reach few
meters near the Iraqi border. Sediments mainly consist of sand and clay
with different combinations.
c- Sebkhas
During periodic rain in the winter months, water from the Iranian side
of the border drains onto the flat area resulting in occasional flood.
The evaporation of this water results in large area of salt
accumulation (i.e., Sebkhah). The sediments that fill Sebkhas consist of
sand, silt, and clay in varying combinations.
d- Ahwar (Marshes)
Generally, the Iraqi marshland is considered as the largest wetland
ecosystem in the Middle East, which have a considerable environmental
and socio-cultural significance. These depressions are filled either from
rainwater or from flooding rivers, where water remains for a long period
during dry seasons in some of them. The flow of water in these
depressions usually follows the surface slope in the study area, which is
generally starts from north to south. Water level in these depressions is
about 2 meters above sea level. According to sieve analysis and
hydrometer test results, the surface sediments of these marshes consist
mainly of sandy silt or clayey silt. As reported by United Nations
Environment Program, the re-flooding of dried area started in 2003, only
20 to 30 percent of the original area has been re-inundated to date, with
varying degrees of ecosystem recovery. According to this report the

19
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

marsh water is contaminated with pesticides, salts, untreated industrial

discharges and sewage coming from upstream.
e- Sand Dunes
Sand dunes are accumulation of loose, well sorted windblown sand
grains in wave-like mounds or ridges whose characteristics shapes are
maintained by periods of wind – induced, grain by grain movement. The
aeolian deposits in the Teeb area are derived from alluvial fans. They are
often rich in grains which occur in the older Mio-Pliocene molasse [40].
A series of sand dunes which vary in size and degree of stability occur
parallel to the Hemrin Hills .
3.3 Stratigraphy
The study area is a part of the alluvial plain which represents its
eastern edge. Most of this area is covered with Quaternary sediments, it's
generally a river sediments and partly of Aeolian sediments. The
thickness of this Quaternary deposits in the Mesopotamian plain exceeds
250 m. However, these types of Quaternary sediments are unconsolidated
and usually finer grained than the underlying formation ( Mukdadiya and
Bai Hassan ) Lower and Upper Bakhtiari Formation or Injana (Upper
Fars Formation) [41]. The age of these sediments on the plain can be
divided into Plio-Pliestocene, Pliestocene, and Helocene deposits [3].
Rocks of Miocene and Pliocene age dip toward the Mesopotamian
plain from the foot-hills along the Iranian border on the east. Miocene
formations are represented by limestone, sandstone, gypsum, anhydrite,
and marl. Pliocene rocks are considered of continental origin and consist
mainly of conglomerate and sandstone [3]. The stratigraphic column in
this area consists of the following formations as shown in figure (3-2).

20
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.3.1 Euphrate Formation

This formation is a limited exposures, a white and yellow limestone
rocks with thin layers of anhydrite and gypsum of Lower Miocene age
[3]. The thickness of this formation is approximately 30m. The Euphrate
limestone is overlain conformably by the Fatha formation of Middle
Miocene age which contains beds of gypsum, anhydrite and clay forming
impermeable barrier to upward movement of groundwater (Parsons,
1957). The lower part of this formation is considered as a marine
environmentally, while, the upper part of it is continental [40].

Figure (3-2). Stratigraphic succession column in the study area [39].

21
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.3.2 Fatha Formation

The Fatha Formation is one of the most aerially widespread
and economically important formations in Iraq. Fatha Formation is
referred as a Middle Miocene age. This formation is subdivided into two
members, the thickness of lower part is approximately 40 m which
contains organ detrial limestone and anhydrite with minor amount of
green dolomatic marl followed by 100 m of cyclically inter-bedded
gypsum, green marl and thin limestone, while the upper member consists
of cyclic succession of green and red mudstone and gypsum and few thin
oolitic or recrystallized shally limestone beds [38].This formation has
approximately 900 m thick in the central parts of Iraq. It is of a shallow
marine deposition within the semi-closed basins with high salinity,
especially in its upper part [42]. The upper part of this formation contact
with Injana formation, is gradational and diachronous [41].
3.3.3 Injana Formation
Clay mineral distribution in Injana formation and the underlying
Fatha Formation show no significant variation although their different
depositional environments. The former is predominantly fluvial whereas
the latter is hyper saline-lagoon. Chloride presents in both the red colored
fluvial sediments and in the grey colored lagoonal sediments [43].
Accordingly, [38] proposed the name Injana Formation to replace the
upper Fars formation in Iraq and defined a subsiding type section near
Injana and Jabal Hemrin. The upper Miocene Injana formation has a wide
extent in Iraq [41].It is basically described as subcontinental to
continental coarse to medium grained carbonate-rich sandstone
alternating with brownish red siltstones, mudstones, and marls with rare
freshwater limestone [41]. The upper part of this formation has a contact
with Mukdadiya Formation.

22
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.3.4 Mukdadiya and Bai Hassan (Lower and Upper

Bakhtiari Formation)
The Bakhtiari Formation (Pliocene) was divided into the Lower
and Upper Bakhtiari Formations [41]. The two formations are strongly
diachronous but can be recognized throughout the foothill and high flood
zones. Injana and Mukdadiya Formations are consisting of alternation of
very thick beds of silt brown clay stone and thick one of sandstone. The
sandstone is mostly composed of carbonate rock with some chert and
quartz. The boundary between the Lower and Upper Bakhtiari is merely a
facies change and arbitrarily assumed to be at the base of the first coarse
conglomerate. In some places, this contact can be seen to grade laterally
into silts and clays, where it becomes difficult to trace. This formation is
considered as the principle source of groundwater for wells near the
Iranian border. Figure (3-3) shows the exposed formations in the study
area.
3.3.5 Quaternary Deposits
Upper Quaternary sediments constitute the main aquifer for shallow
groundwater reserves and the hypersaline groundwater that affects the
salinity of plain [38]. The upper part of the sequence (mostly of Helocene
age) comprises fluviatile flood silts an Aeolian silt. However the
Quaternary is unconsolidated sediments and usually finer grained than
Mukdadiya and Bai Hassan (L & U Bakhtiari) or Injana Formations.
Mesopotamian plain usually covered with Quaternary heterogonous
sediments of both age Pleistocene and Holocene. The stratigraphic
column is composed mainly of sand, silt, and clay beds with good
porosity. No continuous stratigraphic sequence of Quaternary can be
supposed, and many lithological facies replacing each other horizontally
and vertically. There are several types of recent sediments are recognized;

23
 Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

flood plain, shallow depression filling, Ephemeral valley filling, and

deposits (sand dunes and sheets) [44].

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E

32°24'0"N

32°24'0"N

32°12'0"N
32°12'0"N

47°36'0"E

32°0'0"N
32°0'0"N

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°36'0"E

0 3 6 12 18 24
Km

Legend

River
Quaternary sheet runoff deposits
Mukdadiy and Bai-Hassan Formations

Figure (3-3) Exposed formations within the study area [39].

24
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.4 Hydro-Metrological Data of The Study Area

The relationship between the climate variable change and
groundwater is more complicated and poorly understood [13]. The greater
variability in rainfall could mean more frequent and prolonged periods of
high or low groundwater levels. Groundwater resources are related to
climate change through the direct interaction with surface water
resources, such as lakes and rivers, and indirectly through the recharge
process. The direct effect of climate change on groundwater resources
depends upon the change in the volume and distribution of groundwater
recharge. Climate changes is likely to affect groundwater due to changes
in precipitation and evapotranspiration [45].
Warm air holds moisture and increase evaporation of surface moisture.
With more moisture in the atmosphere, rainfall and snowfall events tend
to be more intense, increasing the potential for floods. However, if there
little or no moisture in the soil to evaporate, the incident solar radiation
goes into raising the temperature, which could contribute to longer and
more severe droughts [46]. Therefore, change in climate will affect the
soil moisture, groundwater recharge and frequently of flood or drought
episodes and finally groundwater level in different areas.
The Iraqi climate is hot and dry in Summer, cold and rainy in Winter,
and a pleasant in Spring. Roughly 90 % of the annual rainfall occurs
between November and April, most of it in the winter months from
December through March. The remaining six months, particularly the
hottest ones of June, July, and August. The influence of Arabian Gulf on
the climate of Iraq is very limited, near the gulf the relative humidity is
higher than other parts of the country.
Climate information of the study area is obtained from meteorological
recording station in Amara City.

25
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.4.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is a natural feature of the earth's weather system. Rainfall
seeps into the ground in a process called infiltration. Some of the water
seeps deep beneath the top layers of soil where it fills up the space
between the particles of soil, it becomes groundwater. Rainfall influences
directly on the water surplus, therefore its one of the necessary
components of groundwater recharge in the study area. Rainfall begins in
October and continuous till April. The maximum rainfall value may be
reached during January and March, while its vanished during Summer
season, as shown in Table (3-1).
Table (3-1) Distribution of monthly average of rainfall during the
period 1980-2012 [47].
Month Average of rainfall Month Average of rainfall
(mm) (mm)
JAN. 33.4 JUL. 0
FEB. 25.3 AUG. 0
MAR. 33.9 SEP. 1.1
APR. 17.9 OCT. 6.1
MAY. 0.86 NOV. 26.8
JUN. 0 DEC. 31.5

3.4.2 Temperature
Temperature increase affects the hydrologic cycle by directly
increasing evaporation of available surface water and vegetation
transpiration. Consequently, these changes can influence precipitation
amounts, timings and intensity rates, and indirectly impact the flux and
storage of water in surface and subsurface reservoirs (i.e. lakes, soil
moisture, and groundwater). As shown in Table (3-2), the maximum
average of highest monthly temperature is 45.9 °C in July, while the
minimum value is 16.8 °C in January.

26
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

Table (3-2) Distribution of monthly average of highest temperature

during the period 1980-2012 [47].
Month Average of Month Average of
temperature °C temperature °C
JAN. 16.8 JUL. 45.9
FEB. 19.8 AUG. 45.3
MAR. 24.8 SEP. 42.2
APR. 31.7 OCT. 35.3
MAY. 38.7 NOV. 25.6
JUN. 43.4 DEC. 18.9

3.4.3 Evaporation
One of the major processes in the hydrologic cycle, is the transfer of
water from the surface of the earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation,
water in the liquid state is transferred to the gaseous or vapor state. This
transfer occurs when some molecules in a water mass have attained
sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves from the water surface. The
main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind speed,
and solar radiation. Table (3-3) shows the average of monthly
evaporation for evaporator pan class (A). The maximum average of
highest monthly evaporation is 564.3 mm in July, while the minimum is
61.9 in January.
Table (3-3) Distribution of monthly average of evaporation during
the period 1980-2009 [47].
Month Average of Month Average of
evaporation (mm) evaporation (mm)
JAN. 61.9 JUL. 564.3
FEB. 92.5 AUG. 513.6
MAR. 161.2 SEP. 369.0
APR. 235.8 OCT. 239.4
MAY. 375.9 NOV. 118.1
JUN. 531.5 DEC. 66.2

27
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.4.4 Relative Humidity

The relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in
the air (at a specific temperature) compared to the maximum amount of
water vapor air could hold at that temperature, and is given as a
percentage value. Relative humidity depends on the temperature of air, as
warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. A relative humidity of
100 percent indicates that the air is holding all the water it can at the
current temperature, and any additional moisture at that point will result
in condensation. A relative humidity of 50 percent means the air is
holding half the amount of moisture that it could. As the temperature
decreases, the amount of moisture in the air doesn't change, but the
relative humidity goes up (since the maximum amount of moisture that
cooler air can hold is smaller). Relative humidity is normally expressed as
a percentage and is calculated by using the following equation.

Where:-
∅ is the relative humidity.

ew is the partial pressure of water vapor.

e*w is the saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed temperature.

The maximum and minimum average of monthly relative humidity is

(72, 24 %) during January and July respectively as shown in Table (3-4).

28
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

Table (3-4) Distribution of monthly average of relative humidity

during the period 1980-2012 [47].

Month Average of relative Month Average of relative

humidity % humidity %
JAN. 71.5 JUL. 23.9
FEB. 63.4 AUG. 25.6
MAR. 56 SEP. 29.3
APR. 46.3 OCT. 41
MAY. 34.4 NOV. 58.3
JUN. 25.7 DEC. 69.3

3.4.5 Wind
The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena;
the southern and southeasterly (sharqi), a dry, dusty wind with occasional
gusts of eighty kilometers per hour, occurs from April to early June and
again from late September through November; the (shamal), a steady
wind from the north and northwest, prevails from mid-June to mid-
September. Very dry air which accompanies the shamal permits intensive
sun heating of the land surface but also provides some cooling effect.
Dust storms accompany these winds and may rise to height of several
thousand meters. Table (3-5) shows the distribution of monthly average
of wind velocity during the period (1980-2009).
Table (3-5) Distribution of monthly average of wind velocity during
the period 1980-2012 [47].
Month Average of wind Month Average of wind
velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s)
JAN. 2.7 JUL. 5.6
FEB. 3.3 AUG. 5.1
MAR. 3.7 SEP. 3.8
APR. 3.8 OCT. 3.1
MAY. 4.1 NOV. 2.9
JUN. 5.6 DEC. 2.6

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Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.5 Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral consitituents of
variable thicknesses. A mineral is a naturally occuring soild chemical
substance that is formed through biogeochemical processes and that has a
characteristics chemical composition. Soil is composed of particles of
broken rock that have been altered by chemical and enviromental
processes that include weathering and erosion. Soil differes from its
parent rock due to interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and the biosphere [48].
An agronomist is concerned mainly with upper crest of earth which
furnishes water for plant growth. It is termed as the belt of soil water.
Besides soil water other elements, such as soil air, minerals, free
carbonates are present in the upper layer of soil [49].

3.5.1 Hydrological Soil Groups

The hydrological soil groups are classified by the USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly the Soil Conservation
Service. The hydrologic soil properties are obtained by identifying the
soil textures with a gradation test. The soil textures presented in Table (3-
6) correspond to the soil textures of the U.S Department of Agriculture
(USDA). The data presented in Table (3-6) are based on the analysis of
over 5,000 soil samples by the USDA under carefully controlled
procedures. The use of the soil properties established in this table for
design and review procedures will offer some advantages, such as
eliminates the need for the laborious and costly process of conducting
field and laboratory infiltration and permeability tests.

30
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

Table (3-6) Hydrologic soil properties classified by soil texture [50].

Soil texture class Hydrologic soil Effective water Minimum Effective porosity,
group capacity (Cw) infiltration rate (f) θe

Sand A 0.35 8.27 0.025

(0.022-0.029)
Loamy sand A 0.31 2.41 0.024
(0.020-0.029)
Sandy loam B 0.25 1.02 0.025
(0.017-0.033)
Loam B 0.19 0.52 0.026
(0.020-0.033)
Silt loam C 0.17 0.27 0.300
(0.024-0.035)
Sandy clay loam C 0.14 0.17 0.020
(0.014-0.026)
Clay loam D 0.14 0.09 0.019
(0.017-0.031)
Silty clay loam D 0.11 0.06 0.026
(0.021-0.032)
Sandy clay D 0.09 0.05 0.200
(0.013-0.027)
Silty clay D 0.09 0.04 0.026
(0.020-0.031)
Clay D 0.08 0.02 0.023
(0.016-0.031)

There are four hydrologic soil groups A, B, C, and D as shown in

figure (3.4). Soil in group A have a low runoff potential and high
infiltration rate, as the soils typically are sand and gravel. Group B
includes soils with moderate infiltration rates when completely wetted.
Group B soils are sandy loam soils with moderately fine to moderately
coarse textures. Soils in group C have slow infiltration rates when
thoroughly wetted and these soils typically are silt-loam with an impeding
layer or soils with moderately fine to fine texture. Group D soils have a
high runoff potential and very slow infiltration rate when thoroughly
wetted. Group D soils include clay soils with high swelling potential,
soils in a permanent high water table and shallow soils over nearly
impervious material.

31
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

47°6'0"E 47°12'0"E 47°18'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°30'0"E 47°36'0"E

32°30'0"N

32°24'0"N
32°24'0"N

32°18'0"N
32°18'0"N

32°12'0"N
32°12'0"N

32°6'0"N
32°6'0"N

47°6'0"E 47°12'0"E 47°18'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°30'0"E 47°36'0"E

Km
Legend 0 3 6 12 18 24

Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D

Figure (3-4) Hydrological soil groups in the study area.

32
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.6 Existing Water Supplies

Existing water sources in the study area and neighboring regions is
obtained predominantly by gravity diversions or by pumping from
surface sources; a relatively small amount is obtained from groundwater.
Groundwater is derived from hand-dug wells, drilled wells, and springs.
Tigris River with its tributaries are the main water source of the Missan
Province which is pumped through water treatment facilities to the main
towns. In the east area of the Tigris River (Teeb Area), hand-dug wells
and drilled wells are the major source of domestic and stock supply.
3.6.1 Surface Water
There are two small seasonal streams with watersheds in the Zagros
Mountains enter the plain of the study area. They are from north to south,
Teeb and Dauriage streams.
3.6.1.1 Teeb Stream
It is a perennial stream emerges from Iran where the Iranian part of
the stream watershed has an extensive area and provides the majority of
the total stream flow. In Iraq, the stream has a southerly course and ends
in Sanaf marsh. The total length of the river within the Iraqi territory is 65
km, the average width is of about 50 m, and the average river bank level
is 10 m. The course of the river changes annually because it runs through
alluvial fan which consists mainly of sand. Rainfall in Iranian territory is
considered the sole source of this stream.
3.6.1.2 Duriage Stream
This stream also originates in Iran and the main source of stream is
rainfall within the Iranian territory. It is considered as a seasonal stream.
The stream follows a western course when it enters Iraq and turns
northwesterly and finishes in Al-Rais marsh. The total length of the

33
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

river within the Iraqi territory is 35 km; the average width is about 30 m,
and the average river bank level is 8 m.
Both streams attain maximum flows during winter months (January
through March), while the minimum flows occur during summer months.
The average discharges of Duriage stream during summer months is zero
whereby the stream channel becomes completely dry. Both streams,
especially Teeb, may flood the surrounding areas during winter months
and causes damage to bridge and other engineering constructions such as
roads.

Table (3-7) Monthly average of discharge for Teeb and Duriage

streams during the period (1990-2007) in (m3/sec) [47].

Months Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep.

Teeb 15 18 75 400 1000 700 125 50 12 10 10 10

River
Duriage 5 12 30 250 500 450 65 25 7 0 0 0
River

3.6.2 Groundwater
3.6.2.1 Groundwater Occurrence
There are two main sources of surface water in Iraq; the permanent
type is represented by Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and many tributaries
of both rivers. Groundwater also form another permanent source of water
in Iraq, large areas of this country are still depend on such type of water
for irrigation and domestic uses. In the extreme eastern portion of the
study area near the Iranian border, the undifferentiated Bakhtiari
Formation occurs (Mukdadiya and Bai Hassan Formations). This
formation attains a thickness of about 300 meters near the Iranian border

34
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

[3]. Brown siltstone and coarse, poorly consolidated lenticular

conglomerate derived from older formations to the east are its principal
constituents. Some of its materials appear well cemented. Permeabilities
of this formation ranging from 85 to 345 U.S gallon per day of square
foot under 100 percent hydraulic gradient [3]. West of the exposed
Bakhtiari, the area is covered by coalescing alluvial fans, whose material
is primarily derived from the Bakhtiari Formation. The lithology of both
Quaternary and pre-Quaternary deposits (Mukdadiya and Bai Hassan
Formations) indicates that the pre-Quaternary sediments are in places in
hydraulic communication with the Quaternary sediments [38].
In addition to the above information also depths to groundwater, static
water levels, and well discharge were available as shown in Table (3-8).
The aquifer system within the study area was subdivided into three
aquifers; shallow, main, and artesian.
The shallow aquifer is composed of clay, silt, sand, and gravel which
grade from relatively coarse materials near the apices, to the fine
grainedmaterials, nearly impermeable silts and clays of the Delta plain.
The spatial distribution of shallow aquifer thickness is shown in figure (3-
5)
The first aquitard seperate the shallow and main aquifer while the
second aquitrade seperates the main aquifer from artesian one. The
thickness of first aquifer ranges between (0-30)m while the thickness of
second one ranged between (0-8)m.

35
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E

32°24'0"N

32°24'0"N

32°12'0"N
32°12'0"N

47°36'0"E

32°0'0"N
32°0'0"N

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°36'0"E

Legend 0 3 6 12 18 24
Km
Shallow aquifer thickness (m)
0 - 3.287
3.287 - 5.581
5.581 - 8.868
8.868 - 13.58
13.58 - 20.33
20.33 - 30

Figure (3-5) Spatial distribution of the shallow aquifer in the study

area [13].

36
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.6.2.2 Groundwater Levels

Groundwater level fluctuations are related to the quantity and
distribution of rainfall in addition to the nearst or away from recharge
zones. It is controlled by surface water fluctuations. Groundwater levels
in the lower or discharge portions of the fans in the study area are near
the ground surface throught the year. In the distal portion of the fans the
transmissibility of the groundwater basin is much less than in the higher
portions of the fan.
Ten monitoring wells distributed over the study area are selected to
measure the groundwter levels per mounth for one year. It is noted that
the annual groundwater level fluctuation within the study area is typically
started in winter and spring with a sgnificant rise of water levels caused
by rain and high water levels in streams. During the season of lack
recharge ( summer and autumn ), groundwater levels fall. The largest
annual fluctuation of the watertable may reach 29 cm but the lower one
may reach 7 cm. In addition, areas of high hydraulic head may be
interpreted as groundwater recharge zone, while, areas of low hydraulic
head are typically in groundwater discharge zones.
3.6.2.3 Groundwater Movement
Groundwater moves from higher elevations to lower elevations and
from locations of higher pressure to location of lower pressure. Typically,
this movement is quite slow. In grounwater hydraulics, water pressure
and watertable elevation are reffered to as the hydraulic head. Hydraulic
head is the driving force behind groundwater movement. Groundwater
movement is always in the downward direction of the hydraulic head
gradient. If there is no hydraulic head gradient, there is no flow.
Groundwater movement in gravels and sands is relatively rapid, where as
it is exceedingly slow in clay. The ability of geological material to move

37
 Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

groundwater is called hydraulic conductivity. The amount of groundwater

flow is greater with higher hydraulic conductivity, even if the hydraulic
gradient is the same. The groundwater velocity is the product of hydraulic
conductivity and hydraulic gradient, with adjustments for the porosity of
the soil material.
Hydraulic groundwater elevations and directions of groundwater flow
are as shown in figure (3-6). It was observed that there is a consensus
between the hydraulic gradient of grounwater and topograghy of the
study area.

47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E

32°24'0"N

32°24'0"N

32°12'0"N
32°12'0"N

47°36'0"E

Legend
Groundwater elevations (m)
25 - 37.025
37.025 - 49.05
49.05 - 61.075
61.075 - 73.1
73.1 - 85.125
85.125 - 97.15
32°0'0"N
32°0'0"N 97.15 - 109.175
109.175 - 121.2

0 3 6 12 18 24
47°12'0"E 47°24'0"E 47°36'0"E Km

Figure (3-6) Hydraulic groundwater elevations and directions of

groundwater flow in the study area [12].

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Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

3.6.2.4 Groundwater Withdrawal

All of the hand-dug and tube wells in the western foothill area
withdraw groundwater for domestic and stock use only. Artesian aquifer
is found in the eastern part of the study area along the foothill of Hemrin
within the Bai Hassan and Mukdadiya Formations. There are five wells
penetrate this part of aquifer. The average discharge of water ranged (1 –
3) l/sec, while discharge of other wells in the western parts of the study
area ranged (4 -8) l/sec (table 3-3). The spatial distribution of existing
wells in the study area is shown in Table (3.8) and figure (3-7).
The spatial distribution of existing wells in the study area is shown in
figure (3-7) . The average discharge of the existing wells in the western
parts of the study area ranged from 4 l/sec to 8 l/sec ( Table (3-8). While
most existing wells in the eastern part of the study area are along the
foothill of Hemrin abstracted groundwater from the Bai Hassan and
Mukdadiya Formations by artesian wells. All hand-dug and tube wells in
the study area withdraw groundwater for domestic and stock use only.
Tube wells are commonly used for abstracting groundwater compared
with large diameter hand dug wells. Hand dug wells are conducted
randomly with non-uniform shapes

3.6.2.5 Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge is a hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to groundwaer. This process usually occurs
in the vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to
the water table surface. Recharge occurs both naturally ( through the
water cycle ) and anthropologically (i.e artificial groundwater recharge ),
where rainfall and or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface.
Groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snowmelt and to a
small extent by surface water (rivers and lakes). Groundwater recharge is

39
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

Legend 0 3 6 12 18 24
Km
Well location

Figure (3-7) Spatial distribution of existing wells in the study area.

40
Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

Table (3-8) Water discharge for existing wells in the study area.
well Location coordinates discharge well Location coordinates discharge
No. (l/s) No. (l/s)
Easting Northing Easting Northing
1 32o4 '53 '' 47o26 '8 '' 6 19 32o 20 '15 '' 47o16 '20 '' 7

2 32o7 '13 '' 47o23 '26 '' 5 20 32o22 '4 '' 47o18 '22 '' 6

3 32o16 '21 '' 47o13 '9 '' 6 21 32o23 '51 '' 47o11 '27 '' 6

4 32o13 '14 '' 47o14 '10 '' 5 22 32o26 '39 '' 47o9 '50 '' 6

5 32o 6 '34 '' 47o24 '3 '' 6.5 23 32o 3 '33 '' 47o32 '26 '' 5

6 32o 3 '43 '' 47o27 '21 '' 7 24 32o 4 '4 '' 47o29 '45 '' 5

7 32o22 '27 '' 47o1 '18 '' 5 25 32o 6 '1 '' 47o31 '49 '' 5

8 32o23 '44 '' 47o14 '23 '' 5 26 32o 4 '49 '' 47o33 '28 '' 4

9 32o 20 '59 '' 47o15 '25 '' 6 27 32o3 '45 '' 47o35 '50 '' 6

10 32o 17 '27 '' 47o21 '24 '' 5 28 32o6 '35 '' 47o29 '3 '' 5

11 32o16 '42 '' 47o16 '49 '' 6 29 32o18 '43 '' 47o19 '51 '' 6

12 32o 28 '47 '' 47o7 '55 '' 6 30 32o 22 '34 '' 47o23 '38 '' 7

13 32o 4 '58 '' 47o26 '42 '' 5.5 31 32o 23 '45 '' 47o15 '15 '' 5

14 32o 23 '3 '' 47o13 '55 '' 7 32 32o 9 '2 '' 47o29 '14 '' 5

15 32o10 '5 '' 47o28 '15 '' 7 33 32o 26 '13 '' 47o12 '6 '' 7

16 32o15 '54 '' 47o13 '37 '' 4 34 32o 16 '16 '' 47o18 '34 '' 6

17 32o 19 '18 '' 47o17 '32 '' 8 35 32o 20 '25 '' 47o18 '42 '' 6

18 32o24 '35 '' 47o14 '34 '' 7

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Chapter Three Description of the Study Area

an important process for sustainable groundwater management, since the

volume rate abstracted from an aquifer in the long term should be less
than or equal to the volume rate that is recharged.
Study area contains some valleys especially in Teeb area. These
valleys are filled with water after heavy rain and they are significantly
contribute to groundwater recharge. Surface runoff calculated (Basho,
2004) as annual rate of equal to (5.8 mm), while groundwater recharge
determined as annual rate of (58.45 mm) [11].The previous studies that
dealt with recharge arrived at different results and conclusions with
reference to the percentage of rainfall that percolates to the groundwater.
[51] hypothesized that the percentage of recharge lies between 17-26%
and 3.3-14.3% respectively.

The amount of water that may be extracted from an aquifer without

causing depletion is primarily dependent upon the ground water recharge.
Thus, a quantitative evaluation of spatial and temporal distribution of
ground water recharge is a prerequisite for operating ground water
resources system in an optimal manner [52]. Rainfall is the principal
source for replenishment of moisture in the soil water system and
recharge to groundwater. The amount of this recharge depends upon the
rate and duration of rainfall, the subsequent conditions at the upper
boundary, the antecedent soil moisture conditions, the water table depth
and the soil type. In present model and from information above and from
manual calibration of this model refer to the best value of rainfall that
percolate to the groundwater equal to 10% of the rainfall [12] .

42