Chapter 2 - Plate Tectonics and the Resulting Landforms

Revisiting Plate Tectonics Theory

• Process by which the crustal plates are being moved by convection currents
is known as plate movement or plate tectonics
• Crustal plates are resting on the soft, plastic-like mantle are constantly in
motion
• Force that brings about the motion of the crustal plates comes from the heat
found in the Earth’s interior
• Heat causes rocks in the mantle to melt and become molten rocks called
magma
• When magma is heated, it expands, rises and generates convection currents
which push the plates away from each other
• When it cools, the magma sinks and brings the plates towards each other
• Constant rising and sinking of the magma results in the movement of the
plates over the Earth’s surface

Type of Plate Movements

• Divergent plate movement
• Occurs when convection currents cause two plates to move away from
each other
• Movement causes fractures and cracks to develop at the plate boundary
• Magma from the mantle begins to flow out from the cracks
• When this magma solidifies, new crust is formed at the plate boundary
• Constant flow of magma along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge causes new crusts to
form continuously and the old crust to be pushed further and further away
from the plate boundary
• Phenomenon which occurs under the ocean is known as seafloor spreading
• Considered to be constructive because the constant upward flow of the
magma through the cracks build up gradually, forms new crust and in
some places produces volcanic islands
• Convergent plate movement
• Can move towards each other by forces of compression
• Known as the collision of plates
• Three types of convergent plate movements
• Oceanic-continental
• Oceanic plate bends underneath when colliding with a continental
plate as the oceanic plate is more dense than the continental plate
• Oceanic plate is subducted into the molten upper mantle where it is
melted
• Considered destructive because part of the Earth’s crust is destroyed
and melted
• Continental plate moves over the oceanic plate and folds, rises and
crumples to form fold mountains
• When the oceanic plate melts, it forms magma which is not very
dense, rises to the surface leading to volcanic eruptions
• Common to find active volcanoes where convergent plate movement
takes place
• Oceanic-oceanic
• Convergence of two oceanic plates results in one being subducted
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Lionel Lim
 • Results in an oceanic trench
• Volcanoes also result from the subduction process
• Continuous eruption of lava and volcanic debris accumulates on the
ocean floor
• Undersea volcanoes rise to form volcanic island arcs
• Moderate to strong earthquakes are frequent due to the stress
created by the interaction of the two plates
• Continental-continental
• Subduction does not take place because continental plates are
relatively light
• No subduction = no volcanic activity
• Crust may fold at the collision zone forming mountain ranges
• Transform plate movement
• Lateral movement of the plates as they slide past each other
• Boundaries known as transform fault margins
• At the margins, huge land masses move in opposite directions resulting in
tremendous friction and giving rise to earthquakes
• As they slide past each other, stress builds up and can lead to devastating
earthquakes

Folding
• When plates collide, compressional force puts the rock layers under pressure
• Eventually, they bend and fold
• Found in sedimentary rock which are softer and more flexible
• Have the ability to deform under pressure
• Forms upfold (anticline) and downfold (syncline)

Faulting
• When plates move, part of the crust may be under compressional or tensional
force
• Causes the crust to fracture
• Type of rock is a key factor
• Common in igneous and metamorphic rocks which are more brittle
• These rocks tend to fracture and break under pressure
• Faulting stores up stress and then releases it
• May result in earthquakes
• A fault is a fracture in the Earth’s crust
• Shape of faults
• A-shape
• Tensional force results in block mountains
• Compressional force results in rift valleys
• V-shape
• Tensional force results in rift valley
• Compressional force results in block mountains
• Block mountain is a raised block of land that has been uplifted or left standing
after the surroundings sink
• Block mountain has steep sides and a flat top
• Erosion and weathering may result in rounded hills

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Lionel Lim
• Distribution of uplifted block mountains can be found along fault lines caused
by either compression or tension
• Rift valley occurs when the central block of land between two parallel faults
sink
• Rising convection currents that pull the two plates apart produces volcanoes
in the rift valley

Vulcanicity
• Upward movement of magma to the Earth’s surface forms volcanoes
• Volcanoes are usually found along plate boundaries
• A volcano is built up by the emission of lava and ashes from a vent in the
Earth’s crust
• Three main types according to their frequency of eruption, types of lava,
nature of lava flow and the strength of eruption
• Lava flow can be classified according to viscosity
• Refers to the resistance of a substance to flow
• Viscosity determines the type of volcanic eruption that would occur
• In turn affects the shape and type of volcano
• Viscosity of lava is dependent on silica content and temperature
• High silica content, higher viscosity
• Lower temperature, higher viscosity
• Two types of lava, basic and acidic
• Basic lava is less viscous, spreads easily over an area, generates less
powerful explosions as the gases trapped within the lava are readily released
• Creates volcanoes with gentler slopes
• Acidic lava is more viscous, produces greater explosions as the gases trapped
within the lava are not readily released
• Contributes to the formation of taller and steeper volcanoes
Type of volcano Frequency of eruption

Active volcano Constant emission of lava, ash, dust and

smoke
Strong sulfur smell

Dormant volcano Has not erupted for hundreds of years

May erupt any time in the future

Extinct volcano Has no record of eruption in recorded

history
No sign of possible eruption

Type of lava Viscosity of Silica content Temperature Rate of flow

lava

Basic Low Low High Flows readily

Acidic High High Low Flows slowly

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Lionel Lim
 Type of volcano Frequency of eruption

Active volcano Constant emission of lava, ash, dust and

smoke
Strong sulfur smell

Dormant volcano Has not erupted for hundreds of years

May erupt any time in the future

Types of Characteristics Nature of lava flow Strength of

volcanoes eruption

Shield Cone-shaped with Hot and fluid basic Frequent eruptions

gentle slopes lava flows from a but usually quiet and
Consists of many central vent gentle with large
layers of lava due to Spreads over a quantities of fluid
repeated lava flows wide area basic lava
Cools and solidifies
slowly

Acid lava dome Dome-shaped with Viscous acidic lava When lava solidifies
steep convex slopes flows from a central and blocks the vent,
vent pressure builds up
Cools and solidifies inside the volcano
quickly A massive and
Lava may even cool violent explosion
and solidify as it may occur
flows up the vent Entire top of volcano
may be blown off

Composite Large and cone- Alternate eruptions Creates violent

shaped, with steep of viscous acidic eruptions
slopes lava, ash and cinder Lava may escape
through the sides of
the cone

Usefulness of volcanoes
• Areas around volcanoes are dangerous but still densely populated
• Shortage of flat, suitable land for settlement forces people to settle in
volcanic regions
• In some places, volcanoes have not erupted in a long time, people see no
threat
• Benefits of living in areas around volcanoes
• Fertile volcanic soil for agriculture
• Valuable minerals and precious stones can be found in volcanic rocks
• Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of tourism
industry which can provide a source of revenue
• Geothermal energy is a source of clean energy for generating electricity

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Lionel Lim
 Cause of earthquakes
• Earthquakes are sudden vibrations of the Earth’s crust
• Vibrations in the form of seismic waves occur when tectonic energy that has
built up by plate movements is released rapidly
• Violent earthquakes tend to occur along transform plate boundaries
• At plate boundaries, crust experiences stress and the rocks are forced to
bend
• Energy builds up
• When the rocks are unable to hold the stress, they snap and break
• The stored energy is released suddenly in seismic waves which cause the
plates to vibrate, creating an earthquake

Effect of earthquakes
• Earthquakes are natural hazards that bring serious damaging effects to both
physical and human environments
• Vibrations can cause the collapse of buildings and bridges and the rupturing
of gas and water pipes
• Can indirectly bring about fires, floods, power failures, water shortages and
the spread of epidemics due to poor sanitation
• Most damaging effects of an earthquake is the occurrence of tsunamis
• Huge, towering wavers caused by the vibration of the seafloor
• Different from tidal waves which are the result of gravitational pull
• Tsunamis are caused by the movement of the seafloor due to causes like
earthquakes
• Extent of damage by earthquakes depend on several factors
• Population density of affected area
• Level of preparedness of affected area
• Distance from epicentre
• Type of rock or soil foundation of affected area
• Despite danger, earthquake zones have an appeal for many people
• Large financial and commercial centers are in earthquake zones
• Offer great economic opportunities that attract many people
• These areas have suitable relief and mild climates which are additional
positive factors

Human Adaptation to Earthquakes

• Use of technology to prevent fire hazards
• Installation of electronic systems to cut off electricity and gas supplies
automatically during an earthquake
• Minimize or prevent the danger caused by “live” wires or the bursting of
gas pipes
• Construct earthquake-resistance buildings
• Buildings be constructed to meet the earthquake-resistance standards
• High-rise buildings should have flexible steel frames
• Smaller buildings should have concrete frames with reinforcing bars to
absorb the impact of earthquakes
• Foundations of tall buildings should be on solid bedrock
• Use of fire-resistant materials in construction

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Lionel Lim
 • Transamerica Pyramid Building was specially designed according to these
standards and left people unharmed and the building undamaged after an
earthquake in 1989
• Use of technology to predict and monitor tectonic activities
• Technology can be used to carry out more accurate predictions
• Estimation of earthquake probabilities are done through a number of ways
• Use of historic evidence to determine the likelihood of earthquakes
reoccurring in a specific area
• Measure the rate stress builds up in the crust and calculate the time
required for the stress to cause an earthquake
• Increase number of seismic instruments to record the Earth’s movements
in a region helps in monitoring the frequency of the Earth’s vibrations and
the detection of the development of a tsunami
• Accurate predictions and monitoring can give people ample time to be
evacuated
• Early warnings of earthquakes
• Occur suddenly and violent, it is important to have efficient warning
systems in place

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Lionel Lim