Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification

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Flotation technique: Its mechanisms and design parameters T

⁎ ⁎
Ritesh Prakash , Subrata Kumar Majumder , Anugrah Singh
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, 781039, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A knowledge of hydrodynamic characteristics is important because it helps in design, control, analysis, opti-
Flotation mization, operation, and modelling of the system, which enhances the performance of process unit. This paper
Hydrodynamics aims to provide the evaluation of the techniques of flotation and design parameters, which is required to improve
Design parameter the separation efficiency of the flotation processes. Different components of flotation columns, flotation me-
Flotation kinetics
chanism and design parameters like flow regime, gas holdup, bubble size and its distribution, mixing char-
acteristics and carrying capacity are critically discussed. The measuring techniques of design parameters for
flotation process are also described. The present article on flotation technique and its research components may
provide in hand information on the flotation process to the researcher and designer of flotation unit.

1. Introduction
Flotation is a widely used, cost-effective separation technique for
wastewater treatment [1], mineral beneficiation [2], micro-oxygena-
tion of wine [3], fermentation [4], ink removal [5], plastic recycling [6]
etc. Flotation techniques are used for the various chemical, mineral and
biological industries. In this technique, components like fine particles,
oil droplets, contaminants etc. are separated from the mixture based on
their hydrophobic or hydrophilic surface properties. The essence of the
flotation process depends on using the gas bubbles to capture the par-
ticles based on their surface hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity [7]. The
gas bubbles produced in conventional flotation columns are in the size
range of 1.0–1.5 mm in diameter [8]. The gas bubbles are used to ad-
here the hydrophobic particles selectively and carry them to the surface
of the liquid, hence they form a froth zone where it can be separated
while the hydrophilic particles are discharged from the bottom outlet as
the tailing. The efficiency of the flotation process is a function of the
probability of particle-bubble collision, particle-bubble attachment, and
particle-bubble detachment. Froth flotation is an extensively accepted
separation technique where the separation characteristics depend on
narrow particle size range between approximately 10–100 μm. Beyond
this particle size range, the separation efficiency of flotation process
reduces notably because of difficulty to attachment of weak hydro-
phobic particles to gas bubbles [9]. Fine particles have large specific
surface areas and low mass due to which the probability of bubble-
particle collision is limited therefore results in slow separation rate
[10]. Conventional flotation machines does not generate bubble size
less than 600 μm for which its application is limited to separate the
coarser particles only [11]. Very fine particles may float with smaller
size bubbles and fine or mid-sized particles with the bigger size bubbles
[12]. Flotation of fine particle (< 37 μm) and ultrafine particle
(< 8–13 μm) is a key challenge. Feed in flotation consists of wide range
of particle size, therefore, flotation column needs to have wider bubble
size to target fine as well as coarse size particles [13,14]. So, flotation of
fine particles is one of the major challenging tasks. Research is con-
ducted to explore the mineral-bacteria interaction in order to under-
stand the mechanisms of selectivity of microorganism towards specific
particle [15]. Perez-Garibay et al. [16] investigated the effect of bubble
size distribution, superficial gas velocity, surfactant concentrating and
three different particle sizes such as coarse (100 μm), medium (39 μm)
and fine (15 μm) on the flotation characteristics. Investigation reports
that particular particle-size distribution needed an optimum bubble-size
distribution profile, bubble size ranges between 150–1050 μm diameter
and gas holdup ranging from 0.2% and 1.3%. The wide range of bub-
bles can be produced using dissolved air flotation technique in combi-
nation with a surfactant. This technique is able to produce coarse
bubbles (400–800 μm) and nanobubble (200–720 nm) where nano-
bubbles are obtained by selective separation from the microbubble. The
separation efficiency of the particles in presence of a combination of
coarse and nanobubbles are compared with only coarse bubbles which
reported that separation can be improved by 20–30% for the very fine
particles (8–74 μm) while a slightly low separation is reported for
coarse particles (67–118 μm) [17]. Lim et al. [18] proposed that in-
tegration of microbubble with macrobubble reduces the macrobubbles-
oil attachment time by 82%, enhance the bubble-oil contact angle by
40.35 and interfacial surface area of attachment by 54.5%. Many

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ritesh.prakash@iitg.ernet.in (R. Prakash), skmaju@iitg.ernet.in (S.K. Majumder).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2018.03.029
Received 28 February 2018; Received in revised form 26 March 2018; Accepted 28 March 2018
Available online 29 March 2018
0255-2701/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

Nomenclature k′ Constant correcting the number of particles that can at-

tach to the available bubble surface area due to the hy-
drophobicity effect of the particles (-)
K1, K2 Empirical parameters (-)
A Area of electrode (m2) k1, k2 Conductivities of continuous and dispersed phase (s/m)
Ab Surface area of a single bubble (m2) k∞ Rate constant at prolonged flotation time (s−1)
a Gas-liquid specific interfacial area (m−1) ke Electrictrical conductivity (s/m)
B Constant (-) kl Electrical conductivity of the liquid (s/m)
PIV Particle image velocimetry Kl-d Effective conductivity of the dispersion (s/m)
Bl Bubble load (ton/m3) kl-g Electrical conductivity of liquid-gas mixture (s/m)
bm Eddy turbulent acceleration (m/s2) kl-s Electrical conductivity of liquid-solid mixture (s/m)
C Tracer concentration (mol/l) Kl-s-g Electrical conductivity of dispersion for three phase (s/m)
Cθ Dimensionless concentration (-) krc Local value of mixture conductivity distribution (-)
C(ti) Concentration of tracer that is function of time (mol/l) l Distance between two electrodes (m)
Ca Carrying capacity (kg/hr m−2) L Height of gas-liquid dispersion (m)
CA Carrying capacity per unit area (ton/h m−2) L Vessel length (m)
Cb Concentration of gas bubble (-) lp Optical path length (m)
CG Carrying capacity per unit volume of gas (ton/h m−3) m Parameter (-)
CL Carrying capacity per unit length (ton/h m−1) ml Weight of penetrating liquid (kg)
Cm Maximum carrying capacity (kg/h m−2) mp Mass of the particle (kg)
Cp Concentration of solid particle (kg/m3) N Number of mechanical cells (-)
Cs Solid concentration (kg/m3) n Parameter depends on flow regime (-)
D Axial dispersion coefficient (m2/s) ND Vessel dispersion number (-)
d32 Sauter-mean bubble diameter (m) ni Number of bubbles (-)
d50 Mean particle size (50% “finer than” size) (m) np Number of particles that can attach to a bubble (-)
d80 Product of 80% passing size diameter (m) P Probability of collection of the solid particle on gas bub-
db Bubble diameter (m) bles (-)
ds Sparger diameter (-) P′ Absolute liquid pressure (pa)
dp Particle diameter (m) Pa Probability of attachment (-)
db,max, db,min Maximum and minimum bubble diameter (m) Pc Probability of bubble particle collision (-)
dbe Equivalent spherical bubble diameter (m) Pd Probability of detachment (-)
dc Column Diameter (m) Pr Operating pressure (Pa)
De Equivalent column diameter (m) R Overall recovery (-)
Di Particle size (m) Rc Collection zone recovery (-)
DL Liquid axial dispersion (m2/s) Rf Froth zone recovery (-)
DL Diffusion coefficient in liquid phase (m2/s) R* Maximum recovery (-)
dp Particle diameter (m) r, s Orders of concentration term (-)
dpi Mean particle diameter of size i (m) rb Radius of a bubble (m)
dpore Sparger pore diameter (m) rp Particle radius (m)
ds Sauter diameter (m) Rfw Water recovery from the feed (kg)
dT Tube diameter (m) S2 Scattering function (-)
E Activation energy (J /mol) Sb Surface area of the rising bubble (m2)
E(t) Residence time distribution (time−1) T Temperature (k)
Efi Entrainment factor represents gangue-water recovery ratio t Time (s)
(-) t0 Coefficient (-)
Ei Degree of entrainment (-) tat Attachment time (s)
El Volumetric flow of entrained material (m3/s) tc Contact time (s)
ENTi Degree of entrainment (-) tfl Time of flow (s)
ES Solid recovery by entrainment (kg) ti Induction time (s)
fsp Single phase friction factor (-) tm Mean residence time (s)
fthree-phase Three-phase friction factor (-) ts Sliding time (s)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) U Interstial liquid velocity (m/s)
G Electrical conductance (siemens) ub Bubble rise velocity (m/s)
H Collection zone height (m) usg Superficial gas velocity (m/s)
Hf Froth height (m) usl Liquid superficial velocity (m/s)
hl Clear liquid-solid height after disengagement process (m) usp Single phase velocity (m/s)
hm Total height of gas-liquid-solid mixture (m) V Froth volume (m3)
hr Height of the reactor (m) vb Bubble velocity (m/s)
Iθ Intensity of scattered light (candela) vbs Volume of a single bubble (m3)
Jb Bias water flow rate in the froth (m/s) vcl Total volume of collected bubble (m3)
Jf Superficial feed rate (m/s) Vg Volume of the gas (m3)
jgl Volumetric flux (m/s) Vl Volume of the liquid (m3)
K Rate constant (s−1) wr Water recovery (Kg/m2 s−1)
ks Stoke’s number (-) X Axial position in the column (m)
K′ Boltzmann constant (J/K) Z Dimensionless position (-)

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Ar Archimedes number (-) ΔL Difference between two-pressure tap (m)

Eo Eotvos number (-) Δρ Density difference between particle and fluid (kg/m3)
Fr Froude number (-) ƛ Fraction of light transmitted (-)
Pe Peclet number (-) λ Wavelength (m)
Reb Reynolds number of bubble (-) λent Residence time of the entrained material (s)
Reg Reynolds number of gas (-) δ Drainage parameter (-)
Rel Reynolds number of liquid (-) δmi Parameter related to mean particle size (-)
σ Surface tension (N/m) ϕs Solid loading (-)
ε Phases (-) μl Viscosity of liquid (Kg/m.s)
εg Gas holdup (-) μeff Effective viscosity (Kg/m.s)
εl Volume fraction or phase holdup of liquid phase (-) ν Frequency (Hz)
εd Volume fraction or phase holdup of dispersed non-con- η Slurry kinetic viscosity (m2/s)
ducting phase (-) α Dynamic shape factor (-)
ρl Liquid density (kg/m3) Ψ Dimensionless concentration (-)
ρm Mixture density (kg/m3) σθ2 Normalized variance (-)
ρg Gas density (kg/m3) σ2 Variance (-)
ρp Particle density (kg/m3) θc Contact angle (-)
ρsl Slurry density (Kg/m3) θm Maximum collision angle (-)
ρsp Single phase density (kg/m3) θ Dimensionless time, θ = t / τ (-)
ρpulp Pulp density (kg/m3) Ø Azimuthal angle (-)
Δρ Specific density difference between solid and water (kg/ β Dimensionless number (-)
m3) τ Mean residence time (s)
ΔH Height difference between pressure transducer (m) γrg Ratio of specific heats of the gas (-)
ΔPTP Total pressure drop (pa) γ Entrainment parameter (-)
ΔPfTP Frictional pressure drop (pa) Ψc Stream function which characterizes the grazing trajectory
ΔPh Hydrostatic head (pa) (-)
ΔPa Pressure drop due to acceleration (pa) Ψ0c Stream function at the bubble equator (θ = 90°) (-)
ΔPf,sp Single phase frictional pressure drop (pa) Ψ Dimensionless concentration (-)
ΔPf,three-phase Three-phase frictional pressure drop (pa)

studies are focused on the mineral-bacteria interaction in order to un-
derstand the mechanisms behind the floatability and mineral selectivity
achieved in the beneficiation process. Recent studies demonstrate the
microorganisms aided mineral beneficiation with the modern ad-
vancement in biotechnology. Microorganisms specifically involve to
remove the gangue particles which are detrimental as responsive flo-
tation reagents [19]. Flotation columns are simple in construction and
mostly suited for carrying out the separation of the desired element
from the liquid or solid mixture in a multiphase environment. Flotation
columns are multiphase contacting device where the liquid is in con-
tinuous phase while the gas and particles are in dispersed phase. In
counter current operation, the feed is introduced after conditioning
with reagents, which enters into the flotation column approximately at
2/3 of the column height where it mixes with liquid and interacts with
the swarm of gas bubbles that is introduced from the bottom of the
column through a gas distributor [20].
The relative motion of particles and gas bubbles governs the prob-
ability of the bubble-particle attachment, bubble loading, and flotation
rate. Counter current movement of feed and gas bubble results in re-
duction of rise velocity of the bubbles, which increases their retention
time in the slurry, hence decreases the compressed air requirement and
increases the specific throughput of the column. In the counter current
operation, the probability of bubble-particle collision is high because of
the large aerated mixture in the column, the long distance of the
transport of the bubble and particle along the column length and low
longitudinal slurry mixing [21]. In some cases, the co-current operation
is useful during the treatment of coarse particle in which particle-laden
bubble rise time is reduced and residence time of the particle increases
[22]. The flotation column can be divided into three specific zones:
recovery zone, cleaning zone and froth zone. Recovery zone or collec-
tion zone: the zone between feed slurry inlet and sparger. In the re-
covery zone, the downflow feed slurry interacts with upflow gas bub-
bles where the attachment of the particles to the bubble takes place.
The zone controls the degree of the capacity of flotation columns
because the capacity of the flotation column depends on the intensity of
bubble-particle collision, the probability of attachment and surface area
of the gas bubble. Cleaning zone: the zone above feed slurry to froth
interface level. Froth zone: the zone above the interface. Dead zone: the
zone below the sparger zone. The volume below the sparger (dead
volume) does not help in flotation but is used to expel tailings. Hy-
drophobic solid particles attached to the air bubbles are collected by
froth while the hydrophilic particles are left in the slurry. It is not al-
ways the case of making a solid particle hydrophobic, but in some cases,
a solid particle is made to be hydrophilic using reagent (depressant) so
that their attachment to the bubble does not take place and settle down
in flotation column. Generally, four steps are required during froth
flotation such as:
• conditioning of desired solid particles during which hydrophobicity
imparted to the surface of the solid
• the introduction of feed slurry to the flotation column where colli-
sion and attachment of solid particles to gas bubbles take place
• stable froth formation on the surface of flotation column and
• the removal of mineral-laden froth or tailing from the flotation cell.
In industrial flotation column, the entrainment of gangue particle is
common, so several stages of flotation columns are involved to meet the
economically acceptable quality of the desired mineral in the product.
In this review article, the details of various design parameters of flo-
tation process and the effect of operating and geometric variables in-
fluencing the separation efficiency are described. The optimization of
different hydrodynamic characteristics is also discussed, and some
strategies are suggested for improving the working principle of flotation
devices.
2. Type of flotation and its application
Numerous techniques of flotation processes based on different

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working principles are briefed as follows: chromium (VI) and fluoride by electrocoagulation-electroflotation by
developing hybrid Fe-Al electrode. Fine cassiterite particles are sepa-
2.1. Cyclonic-Static micro-bubble flotation column (FCSMC) rated by EF technique using bioreagent and reported 64.5% recovery
[32].
Cyclonic-static micro-bubble flotation column has been successfully
incorporated and industrialized for whole flotation circuit for mineral 2.3. Induced or dispersed air flotation (IAF)
separation in China. Cyclonic-static micro-bubble flotation column
started commercial production in 1994 and patented in 1999 [23]. Dispersed air flotation operates by dispersing or inducing gas bubble
Separation process like column flotation use a single step of froth flo- into the liquid [37]. In large agitated columns, the gas is injected from
tation process but the FCSMC is the combination of series of a process the base of the mechanical agitator shaft and small bubbles are gen-
like a column flotation, cyclone separation and microbubble generator erated by the shearing action of the impellers [38]. In a small column,
[23]. The microbubble generator directly influences the bubble size and sparger or gas distributor is often used for the production of bubbles.
its distribution hence the gas holdup in the column flotation zone in the The range of bubble size is about 700–1500 μm [39]. High-speed ro-
FCSMC. Consequently, this equipment significantly affects the separa- tating impeller or diffuser cause mechanical mixing of gas and liquid
tion efficiency of the flotation column [24]. The cyclone separation causes production of bubbles, which transported directly into the flo-
zone comprises of concentric conical structure which separated particle tation column. Suspended particles adhere to the bubble surface and
into three different densities. The pulp comprises of highest bubble float to the surface of the liquid where it is removed by the skimming
concentration rises to the column separator while the pulp with the device. IAF technique is widely used to treat industrial wastewater from
high-density particle is expelled directly as tailings. The rest pulp with oil in the refinery, natural gas processing plant, petrochemical, and
the intermediate bubble concentration is pumped as the circulating chemical plant [40].
pulp through the external bubble generation device for further bene-
ficiation [25]. Wang et al. [26] reported the effect of cone angle (38°,
2.4. Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
48°, 58° and 68°) in cyclonic separation zone and recommended that too
small (38°) and too large (68°) cone angle is not suitable for effective
In DAF technique, the air is pressurised to dissolve it into the water
separation. Larger cone angle decreases the separation which is due to
then saturated water is passed through a pressure-reducing valve to
the high centrifugal intensity whereas the overflows from cyclonic
generate the microbubbles. The produced micro-bubbles size is be-
flotation zone reduce gradually. The cone angle of 48° is recommended
tween 20–100 μm diameter [41]. DAF is the one of the potential se-
for effective separation environment which is the optimized cone angle
paration technique used to separate the water contaminant like parti-
for proper overflow from the cyclone zone. Li et al. [27] reported the
cles, droplets or microorganisms in a size range of 10–100 μm. Radzuan
separation efficiency of fine oil droplet (< 10 μm) from treated waste-
et al. [42] investigated the oil droplet separation efficiency from oil-in-
water effluent and compared the separation efficiency of FCSMC with
water mixtures where the oil droplets were in size range of 15–80 μm.
dissolved air flotation technique. They observed higher oil removal
They developed a correlation for separation efficiency based on various
efficiency in FCSMC than dissolved air flotation column. The obtained
experimental data and observed that predicted results were below the
oil removal efficiencies are 92.19% and 76.65% respectively in FCSMC
6% error. Rao et al. [43] reported the removal of algae and cyano-
and dissolved air flotation with lower oil concentration in FCSMC. A
bacteria in water treatment using positively charged microbubble. The
schematic of FCSMC is shown in Fig. 1.
bubbles made positively charged by cationic flotation reagent. Some
other gasses like nitrogen, methane and carbon dioxide can also be used
2.2. Electroflotation (EF)
to form microbubbles in some specific cases [44]. DAF is widely used
for the water treatment to restrict the dissolved and colloidal impurities
The EF technique is potentially applied for separation of ions or
formation in process water and to improve process ability. In DAF
solid particles, suspended or dissolved in the liquid phase, by attaching
on bubbles produced on the electrodes and moves upward in the flo-
tation column [28]. In EF technique, when liquid waste is exposed
between the electrodes (cathode and anode) and energy supplied to the
electrode, an electric field established between electrodes due to the
conductance of the liquid which causes the generation of tiny bubbles
of hydrogen and oxygen on cathode and anode electrode. Conventional
flotation techniques are able to produce bubble sizes in the range of
600–1000 μm in diameter [29], which are not very much efficient to
float particle sizes less than 20 μm [30]. Electroflotation technique can
produce bubble size in the range of 15 −80 μm [31,32]. Variables,
which affect the bubble diameter, bubble number, and current density
in EF technique are pH, type of electrolyte (NaOH, HCl, NaCl) and re-
tention time. EF technique has some advantages such as generation of
very fine and uniform bubbles of average size of 20 μm, changing of
concentration by varying the current density to increase the probability
of collision [33]. The conventional technique fails to clean wastewater
for very dilute solutions having contamination level below 50 mg/dm3
due to high operational cost and low removal capacity [34]. Mota et al.
[28] used the EF technique on synthetic wastewater containing lead,
barium, and zinc and successfully removed the 97% of these heavy
metal. Membrane separation processes are also in use to clean waste-
water but membranes are prone to fouling during their use where gas
sparging required to overcome it. A hybrid flotation cell can overcome
their limitation by integrating both dispersed air flotation and mem-
brane separation [35]. Aoudj et al. [36] investigated the separation of Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of FCSMC [27].

252
R. Prakash et al.
operation the suspended particles removal efficiency is about 90% but
the dissolved organics removal is only 10% which reveals that still, it is
a great challenge to obtain the absolute effluent free water [45]. Some
important applications of DAF technique are:
• Separation of metal ions such as copper, nickel, zinc, ferric from the
aqueous solution [46].
• Separation of zinc from hydroxide precipitate [47].
• Separation of feldspar mineral from feldspathic slime and iron
containing minerals [48].
• Separations of mercury, arsenic and selenium ions from gold cya-
nide leach solutions [49].
2.5. Column flotation
Flotation column is intensively used in the mineral processing in-
dustry. The success of column flotation depends on the hydrophobic
and hydrophilic nature of particles or it may be imparted using reagent.
Bubbles generated at the bottom of the column on which hydrophobic
mineral particles are attached and rise up with bubble. Separation ef-
ficiency of conventional flotation cell reduces as the size of the particle
becomes smaller [10]. To overcome this problem, flotation technique
like column flotation, pneumatic free jet flotation [50] and Jameson
cell can be used [51]. Conventional mechanically agitated flotation
column are substituted by column flotation to improve the flotation
efficiency. Liu and Schwarz [52] reported the particle size effect on
probability of particle-bubble collision in conventional flotation column
and concluded that it decreases with the particle size. The separation
efficiency can be enhanced using smaller bubble size. Agitated columns
are more prone to backmixing and entrainment, so column flotation
operations are maintained at streamline conditions in the flotation zone
to avoid back mixing and entrainment. The details of differences be-
tween conventional and column flotation are provided by Reddy et al.
[53]. Other applications of flotation are treatment of oil riches wastes,
food wastes, dairy wastes, textile fibre waste, rubber waste, asbestos
waste, polymer waste, paper industry waste, dye, electroplating waste,
vegetable waste, poultry processing waste etc.
2.6. Jet flotation
In this technique, a jet is used to induce air to generate the bubble to
make froth. Microcell, Davcra cell, and Bahr cell are examples of this
type of flotation. These flotation machines are high-intensity flotation
machines. The schematic of Jameson flotation cell is shown in Fig. 2.
In the Jameson cell slurry and air are introduced at the top which
proceeds downward in the downcomer and forms a liquid jet.
Consequently, air is entrained into the plunging jet because of the va-
cuum effect and generates a large number of tiny bubbles as a result of
high shear rate [55]. In the downcomer region, the collection of par-
ticles on bubble takes place due to rapid mixing. Compared to con-
ventional flotation cell the Jameson cell is designed for rapid flotation
based on a high bubble surface area flux due to large number of fine
bubbles produced by high shearing action in the downcomer. The size
of produced bubbles in the cell is in the range of 0.1–0.6 mm diameter
[56,57]. Another feature of Jameson cell is that its downcomer can
work under vacuum which causes high-intensity contact time (1–10 s)
[54,57]. Some of the research claim that Jameson flotation cell can
produce a large number of bubbles of size < 600 μm in diameter, so this
device can be potentially used for the fine particle separation [58]. A
comparison study between Jameson cell and other flotation cells like
(Canadian column, Flotaire column, Microcel) done by different au-
thors. The comparative study reports minimum residence time and high
particle carrying capacity of Jameson cell over another flotation cell.
Separation of emulsified oil studied in a modified Jameson cell that
results in increased separation efficiency (85%) in MJC (modified Ja-
meson cell) than CJC (conventional Jameson cell) (80%) [59]. Guney
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
et al. [50] studied the beneficiation of fine coal particles, which results
in 72.4% recovery. Guney et al. [60] investigated the removal effi-
ciency of asphaltite through jet flotation technique. A quite good 55%
removal efficiency observed as initial sample contains 43.69% ash
while the processed asphaltite has 19.66% ash content. You et al. [61]
studied the effect of bubble-particle interaction in downcomer section
of the Jameson cell by determining flotation rate constants based on the
velocity, bubble and particle size distribution, bubble-particle contact
angle and turbulence intensity. The observed average gas holdup and
mean bubble diameter in the downcomer section are 55.84% and
0.72 mm respectively.
2.7. Centrifugal flotation or air-sparged hydrocyclone (ASH)
ASH is mainly famous for extremely high throughput per unit vo-
lume and suitable for fine particles. It consists of two concentric right
vertical tubes. In ASH, a centrifugal force is generated by converting
pressure head into the rotational motion of swirl flow. Centrifugal force
breaks the film that leads to the attachment of particle to gas bubble.
Gas is distributed through the inner porous tube where the outer tube
(non-porous) acting as air blanket, which guides the even distribution
of gas through the inner tube. The generation of gas bubble takes place
through the perforation of air from the innermost cylindrical tube.
Slurry is introduced tangentially to the ASH where slurry moves axially
down to the central cylinder where mixing of slurry takes place with gas
bubbles. Hydrophobic particles are attached to the air bubbles and
reach to the overflow section and discharge with the help of the vortex
finder [62]. Chu et al. [63] studied the copper recovery in modified
ASH and reported increment in recovery.
2.8. Gas aphrons based flotation
Colloidal gas aphrons (CGA) are multi-layered stable bubbles sur-
rounded by a thin surfactant layer. Small size aphron bubbles have high
interfacial area as well as stability so that it can be transported by pump
like water without collapsing. These bubbles follow the same charge as
of the surfactants used to produce them [64]. CGA technique uses the
diffusion of microbubbles into an aqueous solution. CGA bubbles can be
generated by both cationic and anionic surfactants. CGA technique is
able to generate extremely stable microbubble (10–100 μm) using
stirrer which rotates at around 8000 rpm [65]. CGA technique can be
applied to fine particles (4–20 μm in diameter) separation [66]. Treat-
ment of nanoparticle effluent is a major challenge due to the low
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of Jameson cell [54].
R. Prakash et al.
probability of bubble-particle collision causing from Brownian motion.
The separation efficiency becomes lowest when the particle size is <
100 nm. The separation efficiency can be enhanced by controlling the
Brownian motion of nanoparticles and interfacial forces between par-
ticles and bubbles [67]. Zhang and Guiraud [68] applied modified CGA
technique to generate charged microbubbles (42.1 μm diameter) in
presence of a surfactant to float the silica nanoparticles. The removal
efficiency of the nanoparticle is observed to be 90–99%. Some appli-
cations of CGA technique are as follows:
• Separation of ZnO, CuO, and Al O [66]
2 3
• Separation of protein [69]
• Separation of cellulose fibers from paper mill wastewater [70]
• Separation of pyrene using the biodegradable surfactant [71]
• Extraction of glucoamylase [72]
• Extraction of gallic acid [73]
• Separation of natural phenolic extract [74]
• Separation of pulp using the natural surfactant [75]
• Separation of organic dye from water [76]
2.9. Ion flotation
Ion flotation involves the metal ions separation using suitable sur-
factant where the charged gas microbubble introduced through the
aqueous solution to float the oppositely charged ions [77]. The bubble
can be made charged using surfactants. Hoseinian et al. [78] studied the
Ni(II) ion removal efficiency using ion flotation and check the effect of
different parameters; chemical interactions, separation mechanism, ion
removal rate, pH, surfactant concentration, and gas type. They con-
cluded that pH of the solution significantly affects the separation effi-
ciency. With increasing pH upto optimal value, the ion removal rate
increases, increasing surfactant concentration removal rate reduces due
to the formation of ion-surfactant intermediate complexes, the presence
of other ions in the solution reduces the removal rate. The use of ni-
trogen and oxygen gas reports higher ion removal efficiency compared
to the air as gas type. Taseidifar et al. [79] investigated the heavy metal
removal efficiency of arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium and chromium
ions from an aqueous solution. Ion flotation technique used in
groundwater reports that contamination level of 5 mg/l of heavy metal
can be reduced to acceptable levels of about 0.01 mg/l.
3. Design parameters of flotation process
In the subsequent section, the hydrodynamic characteristics like
flow regimes, gas holdup, bubble size and its distribution, pressure
drop, wetting phenomena, RTD, mixing characteristics, channelling,
induction time, entrainment, settling velocity and interfacial area are
described.
3.1. Flow regime
Knowledge of flow regime plays an important role in design, op-
eration, control, analysis, and scale-up of flotation column. Multiphase
flow can be termed as the interacting flow of two or more phases where
the interface among the phases influenced by their motion. The factors
which affect the flow regime are geometric variables (diameter, length,
sparger pore diameter, particle size, and cross-sectional area) of the
column, dynamic variables (flow rate of flowing fluids) and physical
properties (density, viscosity, and surface tension) of the flowing fluid.
The transition of flow regime depends on column dimension, sparger
design and physical property of the system [80]. The adjacent boundary
of two regimes is called flow regime transition. Knowledge of flow re-
gime is required because it helps in to upgrade the performance of the
column by directing the heat & mass transfer, mixing, pressure fluc-
tuation, momentum loss and volume productivity [81]. At low super-
ficial gas velocity, the flow regime is homogeneous while at high
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
superficial gas flow rate the flow regime turns to heterogeneous. There
are mainly two types of flow regimes occur in flotation columns: bubbly
(homogeneous) and churn-turbulent (heterogeneous). Bubbly flow
takes place at low to moderate superficial gas velocity in the continuous
liquid phase and gas as a dispersed phase in the column. In bubbly flow,
the size of bubbles formed is approximately uniform in size [82].
Homogeneous flow regime is observed at the superficial gas velocity
less than 5 cm/s in semi-batch column [83]. Nature of gas distribution
and physical property of the liquid decides the size of air bubble for-
mation. Bubbly flow is known as homogeneous flow regime in which
there is no coalescence and breakup of bubbles [80]. The travel paths of
bubbles are vertical with minor transverse and axial oscillation. The
distribution of gas holdup in the bubbly flow regime is radially uniform.
In bubbly flow regime, a uniform distribution of bubble and uniform
mixing are observed across the cross-sectional area [84]. With the
further increase in air flow rate, the shape of bubbles become longer
until they break and cause a random, and chaotic mixture propagating
through the tube. This kind of flow pattern is known as churn flow. It is
highly unstable and oscillatory in nature, which can be differentiated
from slug flow by the absence of the periodic character. Churn turbu-
lent flow regime is likely to occur at a superficial gas velocity greater
than 5 cm/s. Beyond the limit of the bubbly flow regime, a disordered
form of the homogeneous gas-liquid system is developed due to the
turbulent motion of the gas bubble and liquid recirculation. The flow
regime trend at various column diameter and superficial gas velocity is
reported in Fig. 3.
Under this turbulent condition, coalescence of bubbles occurs due to
high gas throughput which leads to the development of large bubbles
with short residence time and unsteady flow pattern in the column
[82]. Bubble size distribution is wide in this flow regime due to coa-
lescence and breakup of the gas bubbles. This flow regime possesses the
mixture of small to large bubble, which varies from millimetre to
centimetre in diameter [86]. Churn turbulent flow is generally observed
in the large diameter column [84]. The generation of the number of
bubbles increases with the further increase of gas flow rate, which leads
to coalescence of bubble and formation of elongated bubbles having the
shape of the spherical nose and cylindrical tail. The shape of the formed
bubble is similar to the shape of an axisymmetric bullet, which is
known as Taylor bubble or gas slug. The formed slug may be more than
or equal to the diameter of the column. In slug flow, the Taylor bubbles
are detached by liquid slugs, which may or may not be aerated. In the
Taylor bubble regions, the liquid flows downward as a thin annular film
from the preceding to the succeeding liquid slug. This forms a wake
region when it meets the liquid slug. The vorticity induced in the wake
shears bubbles from the tail of the Taylor bubble and aerates the liquid
Fig. 3. Schematic of flow regime map [85].
R. Prakash et al.
slugs. Slug flow is always unsteady in nature, in spite of fixing the flow
rate of gas and liquid at column inlet. Slug flow regime is observed to
occur in small diameter column at the high superficial gas flow rate
[84]. Phase holdup, gas & liquid velocity and mixing in a flotation
process are dependent on each other which makes the complex flow
behaviour in the flotation column. Hence, the complex flow char-
acteristics significantly influence the flotation efficiency [20].
3.1.1. Methodology
There are various methods available to observe flow regime and its
transition. Some of the methods are:
• Visual observation [87–89]
• Drift flux analysis [90]
• Particle image velocimetry (PIV) [91]
• Electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) [92]
• Laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) [93]
• γ-ray computed tomography (CT) [94]
• Conductivity probe [88]
• Temperature variation using a heat transfer probe [95]
• Neural network [96]
Some of the important measurement techniques are described as
follows:
3.1.1.1. Visual observation technique. It is one of the simplest technique
for estimation of flow pattern in a flotation column. This technique can
be used only when the column is transparent. In the homogeneous flow
regime, the slow movement of the bubble can be observed but in the
heterogeneous regime, the gross circulation and intensity of interaction
of bubbles are very high, so it is not possible to identify the accurate
transition velocity. A fast video technique is used for visual
observations and, combined with image processing to interpret flow
regime [87,88].
3.1.1.2. Drift flux analysis. Wallis [97] first suggested the drift flux
theory for predicting the flow regime and its transition for two-phase
system. Drift flux theory can be applied to obtain the transition point
separating the homogeneous and heterogeneous flow regimes. In this
method, the drift flux, jgl (the volumetric flux of either phase relative to
a surface moving at the volumetric average velocity) is plotted against
the gas holdup in which sudden change of slope of the curve denotes
the transition point. The drift flux relation can be represented as [90]
jgl = usg (1 − εg ) ± usl εg (1)
where usg is the superficial gas velocity and usl is the superficial liquid
velocity. The ± sign indicates the counter-current and co-current flow
of liquid relative to the gas phase. Drift flux plot represents the phase
velocity at which the bubble flow changes into the churn turbulent
region, due to steeply increase of drift flux at that point [98]. Plot
representing transition point which is function of gas holdup and drift
flux is shown in Fig. 4.
3.2. Gas holdup
The gas holdup can be expressed as the volume fraction occupied by
the gas phase in the total volume of the two or three phase mixture in
the column. Gas holdup in the flotation column depends on bubbles, the
local flow velocity, the presence of backmixing flow, and the rising
velocity of the bubbles [99]. In flotation columns, the desired recovery
has a great dependence on the determination of gas holdup and flow
regime. Particle and liquid residence time cannot be estimated without
the knowledge of gas holdup and flow regime. Particle recovery is
greatly dependent on gas flow rate and bubble diameter both of which
influence the gas holdup. Finch et al. [100] observed a linear
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
relationship between bubble surface area flux and the gas holdup for
different types of flotation column and operating variables. According
to Massinaei et al. [101] linear correlation reported between flotation
rate constant and the gas holdup in the industrial flotation column.
Tavera et al. [102] investigated the radial gas holdup in presence of
vertical baffle which is known for providing even distribution of gas
bubble and suppressing the mixing effect. Author claimed that the ra-
dial differences in gas holdup is due to the sparger system arrangement
which is unable to provide the even distribution of the bubble. Vinnett
et al. [103] reported an indirect technique for measurement of local gas
holdup in the collection zone of flotation column. This technique is
based on the model structure which is the function of percent area
occupied by gas bubbles in binary images and the superficial gas ve-
locity. Images are obtained using a bubble viewer and more than 250
images of bubbles are generally analysed to get the appropriate percent
area approximations. The model structure is capable of measuring the
gas holdup in the range of 2.5–15% in laboratory flotation column and
6.0–21.0% in industrial flotation column. Li et al. [104] studied the gas
holdup in presence of Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and sodium do-
decyl sulfate and nitrogen were used as a gas phase. They observed that
gas holdup increases by increasing the superficial gas velocity and de-
creasing with increase of CMC concentration. Bhunia et al. [105] in-
vestigated the effect of particle on the gas holdup. Experimental result
shows that gas holdup decreases in presence of particle. This reduction
is more toward increasing concentration and smaller particle size that
results in moderately higher gas holdup than the bigger size. Particle
size addition increases the slurry viscosity hence coalescence behaviour
of the gas bubble increases which causes reduction in gas holdup. Ac-
cording to Joshi et al. [106], the gas holdup in the column depends on
the number of bubbles, average bubble size and its rise velocity. One
can define gas holdup as the ratio of column volume occupied by the
gas phase to the total column volume, which is expressed by [105]
Vg
εg =
Vg + Vl (2)
Some of the recently developed correlations of gas holdup for the
flotation column are given in Table 1.
3.2.1. Measurement techniques
There are several methods available to measure the gas holdup in
the column. Some of the available methods for measurement of the gas
holdup in the column are phase isolation, conductivity [111], pressure
drop [102,112], electrical resistance tomography [113], dynamic gas
disengagement [114], an optical probe [115], γ ray densitometry [116]
etc. Some of the methods are described in the following subsection.
3.2.1.1. Phase isolation technique. Phase isolation technique is used to
Fig. 4. Plot of drift flux vs gas holdup applying Wallis [97].
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

Table 1 where εl is the phase holdup or volume fraction of the liquid phase.
Some correlations for gas holdup measurement. Another correlation available to predict the gas holdup, proposed by
Gas holdup correlation Author Begovich and Watson [121] which is tested on 4–6 mm glass alumina
and plexiglass beads is
ρl ul dc
1.09 u 0.820 0.235 Kumar and Khanna
εg = 3.60 × 10−7 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ g⎞ ⎛⎜ Pr ⎞⎟ (εs )−0.108 [107]
kl − s − g = kl εl (8)
μl ⎠ 2
⎝ ⎝ ul ⎠ ⎝ ρl ul ⎠
−2.46 ρ −11 Shukla et al. [108]
εg = 290.69 × Re1.07
g
⎛ db ⎞ ⎛ p⎞
⎝ dp
⎠ ⎝ ρsl ⎠ 3.2.1.3. Pressure drop method. This method is one of the standard
ρp −0.2 dp −0.02 H −0.3 dpore 2.25 Bhunia et al. [105] methods for calculating the gas holdup in two and three-phase
εg = 244.6 × Re−g 0.02 ⎛ ⎞
⎝ ρsl ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎝ db ⎠ dc ( )
⎛
⎝ db ⎠
⎞
systems. If the gas density, frictional force, and accelerative force are
u −0.08 Cs −0.008
⎛ g⎞ ⎛ ⎞ neglected then the local gas holdup between the two points in the
⎝ usl ⎠ ⎝ ρsl ⎠
column can be calculated as [102,112]
dc 0.433 Abdulrahman [109]
εg = 0.085 ( )
hr
( Rel )0.594 (1 − Cs )1.196
ΔP
0.264 Anastasiou et al. εg = 1 −
ds 1.16 dpore 2.86 ⎤ ρsl ΔLg (9)
εg = 2.2 ⎡Fr 1.07Ar 0.84Eo0.19
⎢
⎣
( ) ( )
dc ds ⎥
⎦
[110]
where ΔP is the pressure difference between two points, ΔL is the
difference between two pressure tap, g is the acceleration due to
estimate the average gas holdup in any system. Gas holdup can be gravity, ρsl is the slurry density. This method can be used to estimate
obtained by measuring the difference in height between the level of the axial gas holdup by taking the pressure measurement at the
clear liquid before aeration and the gas-liquid-solid mixture level after different axial location. Wencheng et al. [99] reported the gas holdup
aeration. This technique gives reliable value only when measurement is measurement using the differential pressure technique in a cyclone-
accomplished at the steady state during operation. The average gas static micro-bubble flotation column. Gas holdup measurement
holdup can be calculated as [117] obtained from the differential pressure technique are compared with
the volume expansion technique and relative error between them are
(hm − hl )
εg = used to optimize the measurement positions. They suggested that
hm (3)
measurement position should be in the middle of the column and in
where εg is the overall gas holdup, hm is the height of gas-liquid-solid the region half way from the center to the wall. The gas holdup in the
mixture and hl is the clear liquid-solid height. axial direction is lower at the bottom and higher at the top of the
flotation column.
3.2.1.2. Conductivity method. Electrical conductivity is defined as the
ability of a substance to conduct electric current. All substances have 3.2.1.4. Dynamic gas disengagement technique (DGD). Sriram and Mann
the ability to conduct electricity to some degree. The accuracy of phase [114] first introduced DGD technique. When the system is at steady
isolation method reduces when to deal with reducing bubble size and state at a given velocity, the gas flow is quickly shut down by a quick
liquid volume under test. So, to counter this problem electrical closing valve and start measuring the decaying gas-liquid dispersion
conductivity method is used to measure the gas holdup. According to height or pressure at the different level with respect to time. Initially,
Maxwell [118], the electrical conductivity of dispersion (a continuous the decay in liquid level is fast due to disengagement of the large bubble
phase plus one or two dispersed phase) is given by and after some time, the decay in liquid level decreases due to
disengagement of small bubbles. The decaying level of gas-liquid
1 − εd ⎞
kl − d = ⎛⎜ kl ⎟ dispersion level can be estimated by a video camera [122], visual
⎝ 1 + 0.5εd ⎠ (4) observation, pressure profile (pressure transducer signal) [123] and X-
where kl-d is the effective conductivity of the dispersion, kl is the ray [124]. The change of decaying height of gas-liquid dispersion with
electrical conductivity of the liquid and εd is the volume fraction or time (is known as dynamic gas disengagement profile) is used to
phase holdup of dispersed non conducting phase. For two-phase (gas- estimate the holdup structure prior to the gas flow shut down. The basic
liquid), by putting g for gas instead of d (indicate dispersed phase) the assumptions are: (i) initially at the time (t = 0) the dispersion is axially
gas holdup is estimated by homogeneous, (ii) constant rate of disengagement process in which
every bubble disengages with each other independently, (iii) there is no
kl − kl − g
εg = coalescence and break up of bubble occurs, and (iv) the cross-sectional
kl + 0.5kl − g (5) area occupied by the bubbles remains unaltered during disengagement
process. The liquid surface is not determined clearly due to waviness.
where kl is electrical conductivity of liquid and kl-g is the electrical
The waviness of the liquid surface creates uncertainty during direct
conductivity of liquid-gas mixture. Two grid electrodes covering the
estimation of liquid level. This problem is countered by measuring the
cross-section of the column are used to can measure the electrical
average liquid level. Resistance probe sensor is used to measure the
conductivity. Conductivity probes measurement is an invasive
liquid level, which provides the time-average value, if the resistance
technique which may interrupts the flow field consequently may
probe estimates the local value, multiple probes are needed to get the
impact the performance of the system [113]. The grid electrodes
surface average mean liquid level.
should be inserted in such a way so that they do not disturb the flow
field in the column. The conductivity of the liquid and liquid-gas is
related to measured conductance (G) which can be calculated as [119] 3.2.1.5. Electrical resistance tomography (ERT). Electrical resistance
tomography technique is used to measure the radial and axial gas
A holdup profile in two or three phase process. ERT technique can be
G = ke ⎛ ⎞
⎝l⎠ (6) potentially applied in many industrial applications to monitor the flow
where ke is the electrical conductivity, A is the area of electrode and l is and holdup characteristics in multiphase flow system [125] due to its
the distance between two electrodes. The ratio of (A/l) is known as cell high-speed competence, low price measurement, robust sensors and
constant. The electrical conductivity of dispersion for three-phase non-intrusive nature [126]. The ERT technique comprises of electrodes,
(solid-liquid-gas) (kl-s-g) is calculated by empirical correlations [120] data acquisition system, and image reconstruction system. A particular
number of ERT sensor positioned along the column length and for each
kl − s − g = kl − s εl (solid−free−basis) (7) plane which is equally spaced, a fixed number of electrode is installed

256
R. Prakash et al.
in the inner wall of the column. The size of the electrode varies
according to column diameter, fluid velocity, image speed, and fluid
conductivity. The data acquisition system follows the adjacent
measurement approach by implementing a current between two
adjacent electrodes and measuring the corresponding voltage between
all other electrode pairs. The installed electrodes are attached to the
data acquisition system by coaxial wire. The data acquisition system is
connected to the computer for data processing using suitable image
repair algorithm. For each sensor plane (m × n) pixel array can be
generated using an algorithm, and after excluding pixel (k) belongs to
the outside reactor perimeter, the remaining pixels (m × n-k) can be
incorporated into the repair of the circular image [89]. If there are r
number of planes, the total of (m × n-k)r number of conductivity
measurement is acquired for each frame. Using the conductivity data
obtained from the ERT, the local gas holdup can be measured by
applying Maxwell equation which relates conductivity to concentration
of dispersed phase as [127]
(2k1 + k2 − 2krc − (krc k2/ k1))
εg =
krc − (krc k2/ k1) + 2(k1 − k2) (10)
where k1 and k2 are the conductivities of continuous and dispersed
phase respectively. The parameter krc is the mixture conductivity
distribution of two phases. Considering disperse phase as non-
conducting material, the Eq. (10) can be rewritten as [113]
2k1 − 2krc
εg =
krc + 2k1 (11)
Phase holdup characteristics of the three-phase system as a function
of impeller Reynold number and particle loading can also be estimated
by ERT technique [128]. 3D gas holdup characteristics in flotation
column are estimated by three-dimensional ERT technique [129]. Va-
dlakonda and Mangadoddy [113] applied ERT technique to estimate
the effect of operating variable, surfactant concentration and gas dis-
tributor porosity on phase holdup. They concluded that gas holdup is
enhanced by the increase of superficial gas velocity, gas distributor
porosity, feed flow rate and initial liquid height.
3.3. Pressure drop
The difference in pressure between two points of fluid carrying
network is called pressure drop Pressure drop measurement determines
the requirement of flow energy for the transportation of fluids in the
multiphase system. The notion of pressure drop provides the energy
dissipation pattern, which helps in modelling and assessment of the
performance of the system [89]. The main cause of pressure drop is the
frictional forces which are due to the resistance to flow, change in
elevation of fluid, extra pressure gain due to any fluid which is added
using a pump, turbulence generated by sharp changes in fluid flow
direction and friction inside the column. Resistance to flow of fluid
caused by fluid velocity, viscosity, surface roughness (friction between
fluid and wall of column), bend, convergence (sudden contraction) and
divergence (sudden enlargement) of the tube, and friction between
adjacent layers of fluid etc. The high flow rate or high viscosity leads to
higher-pressure drop while low flow rate lowers or no pressure drop.
Gas holdup increases as gas density increases [130]. The total pressure
drop (ΔPTP) in the system can be described as
ΔPTP = ΔPfTP + ΔPh + ΔPa (12)
which is the summation of all the three frictional pressure drop (ΔPfTP),
hydrostatic head (ΔPh) and pressure drop due to acceleration (ΔPa).
Hydrostatic pressure drop depends on the density of the two-phase or
three-phase system and height of the gas-liquid-solid mixture, which
can be represented as
ΔPh = ρm ghm (13)
where ρm is the mixture density and hm is the vertical height of the two
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
or three-phase mixture. Pressure drop due to the acceleration can be
neglected compared to the total pressure drop in a tube of uniform cross
section and also in adiabatic condition [89]. For single-phase flow, the
frictional pressure drop is related to the fanning’s friction factor as [89]
2
2fsp ρsp usp ΔL
ΔPf , sp =
dc (14)
where fsp is the single-phase friction factor, ρsp is the single phase
density, usp is the single-phase velocity and ΔL the difference between
the two pressure tapping over which the pressure drop has been mea-
sured. In similar way, three-phase frictional pressure drop based on the
superficial gas velocity in the column can be defined as
2fthree − phase ρm usg2 hm
ΔPf , three − phase =
dc (15)
3.4. Bubble size and its distribution
Interfacial area available for the particle adhesion characterizes the
separation efficiency of the system which helps in the design and scale-
up of the flotation column. The interfacial area is directly affect the
flotation rate constant [131]. The interfacial area in flotation column
depends on the bubble size, gas holdup, superficial gas velocity [132],
gas distributor design, properties of phases, and column geometry.
Smaller bubbles coalesce to form a larger bubble, the interfacial area for
the collision of bubble-particle reduces which causes reduction in at-
tachment probability of particle on the bubble hence flotation effi-
ciency decreases. Gas holdup and bubble size in flotation column de-
pend on the physco-chemical property of the system and type of gas
distributor used [133]. The probability of collision in pulp phase of
flotation decreases with an increase in bubble size, which results in a
decrease in recovery [12]. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) and electro-
flotation (EF) are some other important process, which is able to gen-
erate even small-sized bubble in the range of 10–100 μm diameter.
Some of the methods like Mie scattering technique [134], Bayesian
magnetic resonance technique [135], Coulter count method or pore
electrical resistance method [136], dynamic gas disengagement tech-
nique [113] are utilized to estimate the bubble size. Image analysis
technique is most widely used to estimate the bubble size but there are
some drawbacks like it requires a transparent wall for image capture,
low bubble concentration, complicated experimental setup, and time-
consuming process. Laser diffraction technique is used to measure the
size distribution of microbubble for dissolved air flotation process.
Bubbles below 1 mm [137] or have diameter few hundred μm or less
are considered as microbubbles [138]. A new microfluidic device
known as fluidic oscillator that can be used to convert steady gas flow
into oscillatory flow which in turn results in the production of micro-
bubble. Fluidic oscillator is easy in design which contains no moving
part. Microbubbles produced from porous plate combining oscillatory
flow technique may be 10 times smaller in bubble diameter and 2–3
orders of magnitude less energy consumption as compared with con-
ventional microbubble generation method based on sparging, cavita-
tion, agitation, electrolysis, and fluid jets [139]. Brittle et al. [137],
attempted to further decrease the size and population of the micro-
bubble by optimizing the frequency of the oscillating gas supply in a
fluid oscillator. They applied frequency optimization on three different
microbubble production systems; an acoustic oscillation system with a
mesh membrane, a fluidic oscillator employed with a single orifice
membrane and a fluidic oscillator with a porous gas distributor. Ex-
perimental results show that in some of the cases a bubble size reduc-
tion is about 73% as compared with non-optimal operating frequencies.
In some cases, a reduction in bubble size of upto 73% was achieved as
compared with non-optimal operating frequencies. A current novel in-
novation demonstrates that microbubbles smaller than 100 μm can be
economically produced by incorporating oscillatory airflow pattern
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

[140]. Rehman et al. [141] investigated the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient and bubble diameter in the oscillatory flow and compared
the results with steady flow. The oscillatory flow environment results in
55% improvement in volumetric mass transfer coefficient and able to
produced bubble size in the range of 80–120 μm diameter than 1 mm in
the steady flow condition. Various techniques of bubble generation and
bubble size distribution measurement are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
3.4.1. Measurement method of bubble size
There are several methods available to measure the bubble size in
flotation column. Some of the methods are photographic [172,173],
acoustic [172,174], optical, light scattering [134], inverted funnel
[175], phase Doppler anemometry (PDA) [176], Bayesian magnetic
resonance [135]. Drift-flux analysis can be also applied to estimate the
bubble size using technique given by [105,177]. Some of the bubble
size measurement methods are described as follows.
3.4.1.1. Photographic technique. It is one of the simple technique for
estimation of bubble diameter. Since a decade, numerous intrusive and
non-intrusive techniques are invented to measure the bubble sizes. The
bubble size is estimated by photographic technique followed by image
analysis. The generated bubbles are captured by a high-speed camera.
Columns wall should be transparent so that the high-speed camera can
capture the bubbles. A light source can be placed opposite to the
camera to get a clear picture of bubbles. The captured images are
analysed by the image processing software to estimate the bubble size.
In this technique, bubble size can be measured by manually identifying
each of the bubbles. Photographic technique is limited to resolve large
bubble clusters [173] and captures only those bubbles, which are
nearby the wall of the column. The mean bubble diameter is also known
as Sauter mean bubble diameter which can be expressed as [16,173]
n
∑1 = 1 ni dbi3
d32 = n technique can also be applied to investigate the bubble size [68,175],
∑1 = 1 ni dbi2
where ni is the number of bubbles of diameter dbi. Schematic of
photographic technique and fitting of bubbles through Stat-Fit
software is shown Fig. 5.
The 2-D shape bubbles are assumed as elliptical and their minimum
and maximum axes computed automatically by image analysis software
[178]. Using the known values of the maximum and minimum axes of
the 2-D bubble, the equivalent spherical bubble diameter dbe can be
calculated as [179]
dbe = (db2,max db,min )1/3 (17)
where db,max and db,min are maximum and minimum bubble diameter.
3.4.1.2. Acoustic method. The acoustic method is based on excessive
attenuation of the acoustic wave or scattering and changes in sound
velocity. Minnaert [174] first introduced an acoustic method in which
sound generated by bubbles are investigated and based on this an
equation developed between bubble sizes and their natural frequency of
oscillation. The resonance frequency of the acoustic wave can be
expressed as [180]
1 3γrg P′
ν=
πdb ρl (18)
where ν is the Minnaert frequency, db is the bubble diameter, γrg is the
ratio of specific heats of the gas, ρl is the liquid density, P′ is the
absolute liquid pressure. In this technique produced bubbles are passed
through the acoustic perturbation and at same time recording and
analysing the response. The bubble volumetric vibration at small
amplitude, which is recorded by the harmonic oscillator can be used
to calculate the bubble size. This setup consists of a hydrophone which
is a kind of microphone designed in such a way that it can do
underwater recording or listen to underwater sounds. The working
principle of hydrophone is based on a piezoelectric transducer. A
piezoelectric transducer is a device, which generates electricity when
experiences pressure change. In this method, the hydrophone is placed
at sufficient distance from the bubble generator so that it does not affect
the bubble size. It is connected to a wireless microphone so that it can
amplify and transform the electric signal into acoustic one. Acoustic
(16)
bubble coalescence phenomena in presence of solid particles [181] and
mass loading on the bubble [182]. Kracht and Moraga [172], estimated
the bubble size using the acoustic technique in the flotation column.
Authors claimed that acoustics technique is able to measure the bubbles
in the range of 0.75–3 mm diameter in two and three-phase system
which is sufficient to cover the range of interest in the flotation. Bubble
size obtained from the acoustic technique is correlated well with

Table 2
Bubble generation techniques.
Author Flotation technique/device Bubble generation system Bubble size range (μm)

Sebba [77], Jauregi and Varley [142] Gas aphrons Mechanical agitation or gas aspiration nozzle 10–100
Bennet [143] Induced air flotation (IAF) Mechanical agitation 700–1500*
Bennet [143] Nozzle Flotation Gas aspiration nozzle to draw air into recycled water 400–800*
Yianatos et al. [144] Column Flotation Sparger of porous stainless steel or ceramic 0.0067–0.0012
Jameson and Manlapig [56], Clayton Jet flotation Gas aspiration nozzle to draw air into recycled water in a down comer 100–600
et al. [57]
Zouboulis et al. [145,146] Electroflotation Electrolysis of diluted aqueous solutions (H2 and O2 bubbles) 20–40*
Yoon et al. [147] Microcel Flotation Injection of water/air mixture through static mixtures 400*
Lazaridis et al. [46] Dissolved air flotation (DAF) Reducing water pressure which is supersaturated at high pressure via needle 30–100
valve.
Edzwald [148], Couto et al. [149] Dissolved air flotation (DAF) Reducing water pressure which is supersaturated at high pressure 10–100 40*
Hosny [33] Electroflotation (EF) Electrolysis of diluted aqueous conducting solution at electrodes (Bubble 20
generation takes place on electrode).
Kim et al. [150] Ultrasonication Gas-water circulation method followed by coupling of palladium electrode 0.3–0.5
with ultrasonication
Jauregi et al. [65] Colloidal Gas Aphrons Stirring Surfactant solution at high speed 37–115.6
Rubio et al. [39] Induced air flotation (IAF) Air injection system or Mechanical agitator 700–1500
Oeffinger and Wheatley [151] Ultrasonication Ultrasonication of mixed surfactant solution upon mixing of octafluoropropan 0.4–0.7
gas at regular interval.
Takahashi et al. [152] Dissolved air flotation (DAF) Supersaturated water passes through the nozzle (pressure reduction) 5–40
Sarkar et al. [31] Electroflotation (EF) Hydrogen bubbles generated on platinum wire electrode. 15–23
Kim et al. [153] Dissolved air flotation (DAF) Reducing water pressure which is supersaturated at high pressure via nozzle. 19.2–54.2
Chegeni et al. [154] Column flotation Sparger 800–2000

* Represents mean bubble size.

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R. Prakash et al.
Table 3
Different techniques to measure bubble size distribution.
Author
Unno and Inoue [155]
Ahmed and Jameson [156]
Dobby et al. [157]
Yianatos et al. [144]
O’Connor et al. [158]
O’Connor and Mills [158]
Yoon [159]
Rijk et al. [160]
Tucker et al. [161]
Biswal et al. [162]
Rykaart and Haarhof [163]
Saberi et al. [164]
Gorain et al. [165]
Filippov et al. [166]
Chen et al. [167]
Chen et al. [167]
Zhou et al. [168], Grau and
Heiskanen [169]
Han et al. [170]
Han et al. [170]
Rodrigues and Rubio [171]
* Mean bubble diameter (μm).
photographic technique.
3.4.1.3. Light scattering method. Light scattering technique is based on
the principle of Mie scattering theory [183]. Intensity of scattered light
is related to the radius of the air bubble as given by [134]
λ2
Iθ =
4π 2rb2 |S2 |2 cos2 φ
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
Methods Bubble sampling features Bubble generation methods Bubble size range (μm)
Image analysis Viewing box Orifice plate 300–2000
Image analysis Flat cell Porous plate 75–655
Drift flux analysis Calculated by measuring gas velocity and Ventury static mixer 420–900*
gas holdup
Image analysis (Zeiss digitizer) Photographs captured after placing Porous stainless steel or 0.0067–0.0012*
rectangular view box around the column ceramic sparger
filled with water
Porous plate Drawing bubbles into a capillary tube Porous plate 1620–3340*
Refractive index of bubble and slurry Bubbles drawn into capillary under vacuum Sintered disc 0.261–0.290* (2-phase
(due to change in light intensity) and transform its shape close spherical to system)
cylindrical 0.261–0.291* (3-phase
system)
Drift flux analysis Calculated by measuring gas velocity and Porous tube 320–770*
gas holdup
Image analysis Cuvette cell Dissolved air flotation 10–300
Porous plate Drawing bubbles into a capillary tube Induced air flotation 390–2230*
Optical Drawing bubbles into a capillary tube Synthetic filter cloth 300-2000
Image analysis Measuring module (with air filter) Dissolved air flotation 29–77*
Optical (optical sensor) Optical fibre Perforated plate 3700–4100*
Porous plate Drawing bubbles into a capillary tube Induced air flotation 530–1450*
Drift flux analysis Calculated by measuring gas velocity and Ventury static mixer 350–1100*
gas holdup
Image analysis Bubble viewer Induced air flotation 350–1750
Image analysis Bubble viewer Porous plate 400–1200
Image analysis Viewing chamber Induced air flotation 1500–3600*
Electroresistivity Particle counters Dissolved air flotation 13–96
Optical (optical-sensor Particle counters (laser) DAF 15–85
Electroflotation 15–65
Image processing Bubbles drawn into column (Special viewing Induced air flotation 250–1500*
chamber) Dissolved air flotation 33–37.5*
where Iθ is intensity of scattered light, λ is wavelength, rb is the radius
of the bubble, φ is an azimuthal angle and S2 is the scattering function.
Here scattering light intensity is inversely proportional to the radius of
the bubble. Takahashi et al. [184], reported the size and concentration
of fine bubble suspension using the light scattering technique. Author
proposed that dynamic light scattering technique based on the Mie
theory is more suitable than laser diffraction for measurement of all
(19) kinds of particles if the shape of the particle is known. In case of the fine
Fig. 5. Schematic of photographic technique and BSD fitting in the air-water system.
259
R. Prakash et al.
bubbles, the scattering profile is same as that of a water droplet in the
air which supposed to be spherical. Couto et al. [149], estimated the
bubble size distribution of microbubble produced from the dissolved air
flotation using the laser diffraction technique.
3.4.1.4. Inverted funnel method. Inverted funnel technique is used to
measure the bubble size. This technique was first introduced by the
Leighton and Walton [185]. An inverted transparent glass funnel is used
to capture the air bubble. The syringe piston is used to generate a
bubble. Length of the air bubbles is measured by drawing captured
bubble into the capillary tube. In this technique, the mean volume of
the air bubble is estimated by calculating the total volume of the air
bubble accumulated in an inverted liquid filled cylinder, which is then
divided by the total number of bubbles. The sound emitted by the
bubble is caught by the hydrophone. The hydrophone works based on
the principle of the piezoelectric transducer, which converts pressure
changes into electricity. The generated electric signal is amplified and
then stored on a transient recorder to display on a cathode ray
oscilloscope or processing on a spectrum analyser. Vazquez et al.
[175] demonstrate the bubble size measurement by three different
techniques, inverted funnel, photographic, acoustic. They observed
0.5% repeatability error with a 50 bubble set in inverted funnel
technique while an accuracy between 86%–99% with a 5%
repeatability error in photographic technique. The acoustic technique
provided an accuracy of 97% and 99% with a repeatability of 0.3%.
Author concluded that the acoustic technique can provide precise
bubble size measurement than other two techniques. Inverted funnel
technique also can be applied to measure the rise velocity of the
bubbles in the viscous solution [186].
3.4.1.5. Phase doppler anemometry (PDA). Phase Doppler anemometry
(PDA) method is used for estimation of size, concentration, and velocity
of a spherical particle like bubbles and droplets in gaseous or liquid
phase [176,187]. PDA technique can be used to measure the turbulence
characteristics in the flotation column [176]. This method is based on
the light scattering interferometry. In this technique, coherent laser
beams used to focus the measurement location. When the fluid particle
passes through the measurement location scatters the waves from two
incident laser beams. Photo detectors receive the Doppler signal in
different phases and the phase shift between the Doppler signals is
proportional to the fluid particle diameter. The frequency of the
Doppler signal is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid
particle [187]. An advantage of this method is that it can measure the
size and velocity of each fluid particle simultaneously. This technique
Fig. 6. Steps of PIV technique.
260
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
provides online real time data [188].
3.4.2. Bubble rise velocity
There are several methods available to measure bubble velocity in
the column. Some of the available methods for measurement of the
bubble velocity in the column are conductivity method [189], laser
Doppler anemometry (LDV) [190], Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
[176], optical fiber probe [191] ultrasonic Doppler etc. A detail ex-
planation of PIV technique is provided in the subsection.
3.4.2.1. Particle image velocimetry (PIV). PIV is a non-intrusive
technique used to measure the instantaneous whole field velocity
vector of flowing field. This technique is suitable to measure the fluid
velocity vector at many points at one instant of time. PIV technique can
measure 2D or 3D velocity component for whole area simultaneously.
The fluid of interest is seeded with neutrally buoyant tiny tracer
particles/markers, which makes flow field visible under the light
source (laser sheet, which ensures better illumination of tracer
particle). The CCD (charge-coupled device) camera is used to capture
the images of these tracer particles at different interval of times [192].
The instantaneous velocity field is determined from the displacement of
tracer particle between two successive images in a period [193]. A
suitable software (e.g., PIV-SLEUTH) can be used to do the image
analysis in which each image is divided into the mesh of small segment
called as interrogation area. Cross-correlation method is used to
calculate the mean displacement (Δx) in the interrogation area, which
is divided by inter-frame time interval (Δt) to get the mean flow
velocity [194]. The velocity map over the whole target area is
determined by repeating cross-correlation method for each
interrogation area over two image frames recorded by the camera.
Another software can be used to do the analysis of images is PIVlab,
which is an open source software. PIVlab is an open source MATLAB
code, which can be used to determine the velocity distribution within
the image pair and can also be used to derive display and export
multiple parameters of the flow pattern [195]. Tracer particle can be
either solid/liquid/gas during measurement of fluid velocity. In the
case of liquid flows, the tracer particle like hollow glass sphere,
aluminium, polystyrene, and polyamide within the size range of
(5–100 μm) are generally used. In the case of gas flows the tracer
particle are oil drops with the size range of 1–5 μm. PIV techniques are
executed considering following assumptions: (I) homogeneous
distribution of tracer particles, (II) tracer particles obey the fluid
flow/motion ideally, and (III) uniform displacement within
interrogation region. The criteria to select the tracer particles are: (I)
R. Prakash et al.
tracer particles should be easily detectable/visible (Light reflecting
particle), (II) tracer particle does not disturb the fluid flow, and (III) for
better precision, the density of tracer particle should be close enough to
the density of fluid. In the case of single phase (liquid), the flow
measured with the help of tracer particle, which is illuminated by laser
light sheet. In the case of two-phase (liquid/gas) flow, the liquid seeded
with tracer particles and both tracer and bubble scatter light, which
enables to distinguish tracer from bubbles. Measurement of the local
displacement of tracer particle and gas bubble enables to calculate the
velocity of both phases [196]. PIV technique is also used to measure the
bubble diameter, shape, acceleration, and instantaneous velocity field
[197]. Flow regime and its transition are mapped by PIV technique
[91]. PIV technique can also be used to characterize the turbulence by
capturing the fringe visibility within the error of less than 10% [198].
Fig. 6, represents the subsequent steps of PIV measurement.
PIV technique can be successfully employed to study the fluid flow
movement in a flotation column. The computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) are used to estimate the
flow pattern in presence of strong vortex generated by rotor. An ex-
cellent agreement is obtained between the simulation results and ex-
perimental measured flow characteristics for the flotation column
[199]. Darabi et al. [200], studied the turbulence characteristics in the
flotation column using PIV technique. Authors reported, local turbu-
lence characteristics vary in presence of gas bubbles due to average
velocity, turbulent kinetic energy dissipation and turbulent kinetic en-
ergy.
3.4.3. Interfacial area
The knowledge of the gas-liquid interfacial area is essential for
scale-up and design of the multiphase system. The overall degree of
separation in the flotation column can be controlled by interfacial area.
The interfacial area depends on gas holdup and bubble size distribution
and bubble velocity [201].
3.4.3.1. Methodology. There are several methods available to measure
the gas-liquid interfacial area. Some of the important techniques are
video imaging [202], dynamic gas disengagement [203], Laser Doppler
anemometry [204], conductivity probes [205], chemical method
[204,206] and light transmission method [207]. Physical and light
transmission technique are described in the subsequent section.
3.4.3.2. Physical method. If gas holdup and Sauter mean bubble
diameter is known, then the gas-liquid interfacial area can be
calculated as [149]
6εg
a=
d32 (20)
where a is the gas-liquid specific interfacial area (interfacial area per
volume), εg is the gas phase holdup and d32 is the Sauter-mean bubble
diameter.
3.4.3.3. Light transmission technique. Light transmission technique is
used for calculation of gas-liquid interfacial area. A detailed study of a
light transmission technique is reported by Ghiassi et al. [201].
Calderbank et al. [207], introduced light transmission method, in
which transmitted beam of light allowed to pass through the gas-
liquid dispersion. The intensity of emerging beam is estimated by a
photo-multiplier or photosensitive device. The fraction of light
transmitted (ƛ) is related to the gas-liquid interfacial area and optical
path length which can be expressed as [208]
−alp
ƛ= e 4 (21)
where a is gas-liquid specific interfacial area and lp is optical path
length. Light attenuation method is restricted to a value of alp < 20.
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
3.5. Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity can be defined as the maximum capacity of the
gas bubble to transport the solids particles or removal capability of
solids by the gas bubble in flotation column [22]. The capacity of the
flotation column depends on the number of free bubble surfaces area
available for attachment of particle [209]. As bubble loading starts,
contact time decreases because of reduction of particle trajectory along
the free bubble surface. The rate of collection of solids by the gas bubble
decreases as solid loading increases by the gas bubble. Carrying capa-
city of the smaller bubble size is greater than the bigger when the
column is operated at a constant gas flow rate [16,22,131,177]. Ac-
cording to Finch and Dobby [177], the theoretical carrying capacity can
be expressed as
πdp ρp usg,max
Ca,max =
2db (22)
where usg,max denotes maximum superficial gas velocity. The amount of
particle, which is carried by the gas bubble, depends on the size of the
gas bubble. The degree of carrying capacity is controlled by the avail-
ability of total surface area [210]. A correlation proposed by Princen
and Peplinski [211] to predict the load carrying capacity of the gas
bubble which can be expressed as
Bl = 4.84πρp (rb + rp)2rp (23)
where Bl denotes bubble load, rb is the bubble radius, rp is the particle
radius and ρp is the particle density. According to Li et al. [212] the
bubble load can be determined from the bubble surface coverage which
can be mathematically expressed as
Bl = K1 πdp ρp / db (24)
where K1 is the fraction of bubble surface occupied. Bubble loading can
be demonstrated as ratio of mass of collected solid particles to the total
surface of bubbles which can be expressed as [154]
mcl
Bl =
(vcl/ vb) Ab (25)
where mcl is the mass of loaded particles, vb is the volume of single
bubble, and Ab is the surface area of the single bubble. The carrying
capacity can be normalized as per unit length (CL), per unit area (CA)
and per unit volume of the gas (CG) [213]. Flotation column generally
operates at 60% of their maximum carrying capacity [214]. Some
correlations for carrying capacity are given in Table 4.
3.6. Mixing characteristics
Mixing and dispersion in the flotation column are due to the pulp
recirculation and turbulence of bubble and feed slurry motion. Mixing
in flotation column affect particle suspension, fine bubble generation
and dispersion consequently bubble-particle collision takes place [217].
Mixing and dispersion characteristics play an important role in de-
signing and scaling up of the flotation columns [147]. The degree of
mixing can be estimated by residence time distribution (RTD) tech-
nique. The variation of gas holdup radially or axially cause pressure
variation, therefore responsible for liquid circulation, and back mixing
Table 4
List of correlation for estimation of carrying capacity.
Author Correlations
Espinosa-Gomez et al. [215] Cm = 0.068d80 ρp
Finch and dobby [177] CA = 0.05d80 ρp
Patwardhan and Honker [216] CA = (np dp3 ρp ug ) db3
Patwardhan and Honker [216] −0.542 0.2
CA = 522.54d50 3
σ (np d50 ρp db3) usg
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

of the phases [89]. Liquid circulation direct the rate of mixing and re- takes place axially, the axial dispersion model predicts the
covery efficiency of flotation column. Mills et al. [218] studied the concentration of tracer at axial distance from the introduction point z
mixing characteristics of the flotation column using the RTD technique. and time t which is represented as [226]
In collection zone of flotation column, it is assumed that axial disper-
∂C ∂ 2C ∂C
sion model controls the flow structure. Author reported that the axial =D 2 −U
∂t ∂X ∂X (27)
dispersion model is superior to other models dealing with column
diameter 10 cm–150 cm. For modelling of small diameter column, ei- where D is the axial dispersion coefficient of the liquid phase which
ther dispersion model or tank in series model can be used. The solid accounts the mixing intensity during flow, U is the interstitial liquid
dispersion coefficient is more than the liquid dispersion coefficient and velocity, C is the tracer concentration. The first term in the Eq. (27),
solid dispersion coefficient increases with increase in particle loading in characterizes the time dependence concentration and U(∂ C/∂ x) term
laboratory test column but remains unaltered in large column [218]. represents the convective flow in the axial direction and D(∂2C/∂X2)
The performance of flotation cell when they are arranged in series for represents the diffusive action, which represents the convective flow.
continuous operation can be modelled using N perfect mixer in series by The dimensionless form of axial dispersion model can be expressed as
RTD as [219] ∂ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ
= −
t N − 1e−tN / τ ∂θ Pe ∂Z 2 ∂Z (28)
E (t ) =
τN
(N − 1)! (26) where Pe is Peclet number Pe = UL/D, L is the column length (bubbling
N
zone height), Ψ is the dimensionless concentration Ψ = C/C0, Z is the
where E(t) is the RTD function, N is the number of mechanical cells, τ is dimensionless position Z = X/L and θ is the dimensionless time θ = t/τ
the mean residence time and t is the time. Bubble size, bubble number, where τ = L/U is called mean residence time of the liquid in the system.
particle settling velocity, slurry rate, collection zone height, and dia- Axial dispersion model employs vessel dispersion number to specify the
meter of the column influences the dispersion number [22]. The in- RTD profiles in the flotation columns [227]. Vessel dispersion number
tensity of axial mixing increases with the increase in column diameter is defined in terms of Peclet number as
[220]. Mixing of phases inside the flotation column significantly affects
1 D
the bubble-particle attachment and bubble-particle detachment pro- ND = =
Pe UL (29)
cess. The study of mixing characteristics helps in optimization and
design of the flotation column [221]. when ND tends to zero and ∞, vessel results in negligible dispersion
(plug flow) and large dispersion (perfect mixed flow). The analytical
3.6.1. Methodology and analysis of mixing characteristics solution of the Eq. (28) for normalized response curve using open-open
Flotation column never obeys the ideal flow pattern. The non-ideal boundary conditions is given as [226]
behaviour is due to (i) channel formation, (ii) recycling of fluid, (iii) 1 (1 − θ)2Pe ⎞
vortices and turbulence at inlet and outlet of the vessel, (iv) bypassing Cθ = exp ⎛ ⎜ ⎟

2 πθ / Pe ⎝ 4θ ⎠ (30)
and short-circuiting of the fluid, and (v) formation of dead zone at the
corner of the vessel. The amount of time spent by the molecule in the where Cθ denotes (C/C0) and θ denotes (t/tm) are dimensionless
vessel called as the residence time of the molecule in the vessel. It is concentration and time. If both experimental and theoretical
obvious that different particles use different routes to pass through the residence time are equal, it represents that the column is most likely
column takes a different amount of time and due to this, there will be well mixed. If the experimental mean residence time is smaller than
the distribution of residence time of the molecules inside the vessel. The theoretical, it specifies the presence of dead volumes, short-circuiting
distribution length of time spent by different molecule inside the vessel, [228]. The mean residence time can be calculated by first moment
called residence time distribution (RTD) or exit age distribution (E). methods is represented as
Tracer technique is one of the simple methods to measure RTD [222].
∑ ti C (ti ) Δti
The tracer should be non-reactive, should not be adsorbed on the vessel tm =
∑ C (ti ) Δti (31)
wall or other surfaces of the vessel, its physical property should be si-
milar to the system, should be easily detectable, should be completely The second moment about the mean is called square of standard
soluble in the system fluid [223]. Tracer is injected with feed at the deviation or variance (σ2) is expressed as
time (t = 0) and then measured the tracer concentration in the outlet of
∑ (ti − tm)2C (ti ) Δti
the vessel as a function of time. Pulse and step input method is com- σ2 =
monly used for RTD measurement. RTD can be determined by a non- ∑ C (ti ) Δti (32)
invasive sensor in case of radioactive tracer by locating it at an outlet of The magnitude of variance dictates the spread of the distribution.
the vessel [217]. Particle RTD in the flotation column strongly depends The greater will be variance, more is the spread of the distribution. The
on the superficial velocity of the feed and hindered settling velocity. magnitude of moments related to axial dispersion number (1/Pe) is
Information entropy theory can be applied to analyse the quality of
mixing in flotation column which is based on the information entropy σ2 2 8
σθ2 = = +
theory [224]. Chegeni et al. [225] attempted to design the laboratory tm2 Pe Pe 2 (33)
flotation column employing the axial dispersion and drift flux model where σθ2 is the normalized variance.
considering axial mixing coefficient, gas holdup, column length, vessel
dispersion number and bubble size. Applying the theory of the axial 3.7. Entrainment characteristics
dispersion model and vessel dispersion model, the dimensions of the
flotation column calculated for particular operating conditions. The Entrainment is defined as the transportation of fine particle in froth
study reports the axial mixing coefficient of 0.003 (m2/s) and vessel phase from pulp phase (collection zone) by entrapment in eddies be-
dispersion number of 0.32. The required diameter and height of the hind the rising gas bubble [22]. Entrainment of gangue material de-
column are 0.0542 and 1.15 m. creases the selectivity of the flotation column hence limit the collection
effectiveness of the desired particle. Therefore, the knowledge of en-
3.6.1.1. Residence time distribution. RTD is most widely accepted trainment characteristics helps in reduction of the collection of un-
technique to examine the mixing characteristics. When liquid or solid desired particle which improves the column efficiency, increases opti-
tracer is introduced into the flotation column, assuming that mixing mization and control of the column. During processing of particles

262
R. Prakash et al.
larger than 38 μm [229], the entrainment problem is insignificant be-
cause gravitational force cause entrained solid particle to drop back
from froth phase to collection zone. Entrainment of gangue material
into the froth dilutes the desired material and decrease the grade of the
concentrate hence selectivity and performance of the column [230].
Wang et al. [231] suggested that the entrainment is not only the
function of particle size but other variables like gas flow rate, the
density of the undesired particle and impeller speed and froth height.
The degree of entrainment effectively varies with flotation time during
the course of each experiment. Yianatos et al. [232] reported the en-
trainment study using the radioactive tracer technique and checked the
effect of three different particle sizes. They suggested that fine particle
size (< 45 μm) significantly affect the entrainment while the recovery
of the coarse particle (> 150 μm) by entrainment is 0.05% which sig-
nifies weak dependence on entrainment.
3.7.1. Entrainment theory and empirical correlations
There are two mechanisms of entrainment observed in flotation
column. First, one is due to the introduction of feed water which con-
tains suspended solid particle, swept into the froth and second is due to
entrapment of fine particle (gangue) in rising bubble [6]. The issue of
entrainment in froth phase can be minimised by; film water drainage in
which slow fall of entrained material takes place around the gas bubble
surface, fall of an entrained particle due to shear forces results from the
relative motion of the gas bubble, local froth collapse which results in
fast vertical fall of an entrained solid particle [233]. Entrainment in
column depends upon the size of feed particle, recovery of water, pulp
phase density, the speed of impeller, dispersing agent, froth thickness
and air flow rate [234]. Entrainment is low in case of particle size more
than 50 μm [235]. The entrainment depends upon the depth and
structure of the froth. Some other parameters which affect the en-
trainment are superficial feed rate, collection and cleaning zone height,
superficial wash water rate [235–238]. The degree of entrainment de-
creases with decrease in particle size. Stable froth structure made up of
small bubbles is responsible for the better recovery of both entrained
particle and attached particle due to low drainage and coalescence
tendency. Many authors proposed different models and theories for
predictions of entrainment [239]. The degree of entrainment based on
the pulp phase is proposed by Johnson [240], is defined as the ratio of
the mass of free gangue particles of ith size interval in the concentrate to
the mass of free gangue particles of the ith size interval in the pulp. The
degree of entrainment based on residence time of entrained solid is
given by [241,242]
1 + K1 λ ent (ρp − ρpulp )
Ei =
1 + K1 λ ent (ρp − ρpulp )exp(k2 dp) (34)
where Ei denotes degree of entrainment, K1, K2 empirical parameter, dp
is the particle size, ρpulp and ρp are the specific gravity of pulp phase and
entrained solid particle and λent is froth residence time of the entrained
material. The froth residence time of the entrained material can be
calculated as
V
λ ent =
El (35)
where V is the froth volume and E is the volumetric flow of entrained
l quartz and phlogopite. Entrainment correlation does not include cal-
material in the concentrate. Another way to calculate the froth re-
sidence time of the entrained material is given by [243]
Hf
λ ent =
usg (36)
where Hf is the froth height and usg is the superficial gas velocity. Ac-
cording to Subrahmanyam and Forssberg [244] and Kirjavainen [238],
the degree of entrainment can be expressed as the ratio of recovery of
the entrained species to the recovery of the water. Water recovery, solid
concentration in the pulp, particle size, impeller speed, particle density,
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Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
gas rate, froth height, froth retention time, froth structure are the prime
factors which affect the entrainment characteristics [6]. Different
methods of measurement of entrainment are discussed by Trahar [241],
Warren [245], Savassi et al. [242]. There are several models developed
by researchers to predict entrainment in the flotation column. Devel-
oped methods can be categorized as; estimating the entrainment flow
directly, and by determining entrainment flow based on the estimation
of the degree of entrainment, classification effect of pulp, and water
recovery [6]. An empirical model that measures the entrainment flow is
expressed as [236]
ES = exp( −0.0325Δρ) Rfw exp( −0.063dp) (37)
where Es is the solid recovery by entrainment, Rfw is the water recovery
from the feed, Δρ is the specific gravity difference between solid and
water, dp is the particle diameter. Water recovery from the feed is ex-
pressed as
Rfw = 2.58jf−1 e−13.1jb (38)
where jf is the superficial feed rate and jb is the bias water flow rate in
the froth (it is the difference between the superficial velocities for the
wash water flow and the concentrate water flow). Model proposed by
Savassi [242] shows relationship between degree of entrainment (ENTi)
and particle size as
−1
β β
⎡ ⎛ dp ⎞ ⎛ dp ⎞ ⎤
ENTi = 2 ⎢exp ⎜2.292 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎟ + exp ⎜−2.292 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ γ ⎠ ⎝ γ ⎠
(39)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
1 dp
β = 1 − ⎡ln ⎛ ⎞ exp ⎛⎜ ⎟⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎝δ ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ γ ⎠⎦ (40)
where γ is the entrainment parameter, δ is the drainage parameter, and
dp is the particle diameter. Savassi [242] developed the model for de-
gree of entrainment fits well with the number of industrial datasets and
depends on particle size. According to Savassi [246], the degree of
entrainment defined as the ratio of mass transfer of entrained particle of
the ith size interval to the concentrate by mass transfer of water to the
concentrate. The froth height above the level of pulp significantly af-
fects the performance of the flotation column. The wetness of the froth
increases with increasing superficial gas flow rate. The grade of the
concentrate can be upgraded by controlling the residence time of the
froth and by skimming off the top layer of the froth. The upgrade of
concentrate is due to drainage of water and gangue into the lower layer
of the froth phase and drain back to the pulp phase. Yianatos and
Contreras [239], proposed a dimensionless entrainment factor based on
particle which is expressed as
dpi ⎞ ⎤
Efi = exp ⎡−0.693 ⎛ δ
⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ δmi ⎠ ⎦ (41)
where Efi denotes entrainment factor which represents gangue/water
recovery ratio, dpi is the mean particle diameter of size i, δmi is the
parameter related to the mean particle size and δ is the drainage
parameter which depends on mineral characteristics and cell operation
conditions like cell design and water recovery. Kirjavainen [237] stu-
died the entrainment of a hydrophilic particle in the laboratory using
culation of water recovery, so the proposed model is not suitable for
wide range of flotation conditions. The proposed entrainment factor
that is based on particle mass, particle shape, water recovery rate, and
slurry kinematic viscosity can be expressed as
wr0.7
Efi =
wr0.7 + bαη−0.5α mp0.5α
−0.4
(42)
where Efi stands for entrainment factor, wr is the water recovery, mp is
the mass of a particle, η is the slurry viscosity, α is the dynamic shape
factor and b is constant to be form from experiment.
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

3.8. Flotation kinetics
Flotation rate constant can be defined as the ability of the species,
how rapidly they float. Floatation is generally a first order process and a
function of particle concentration [247]. Using chemical kinetic ana-
logy, the kinetic of bubble-particle collision and attachment of particle
to gas bubble in is given as [248]
−dCp
= KCpr Cbs
dt (43)
where Cp, Cb, K, and t are the concentration of solid particle, the con-
centration of gas bubble, rate constant, time of flotation and r, s re-
presents respective orders of concentration terms. At constant air
supply, the probability of change in concentration of air bubble is very
small and using first order kinetic (r = 1), the rate equation can be
expressed as
−dCp
= KCp
dt (44)
The model is useful for prediction of process analysis. A flotation
kinetic determines the variation of the rate of change of recovery with
time and recognizes the variables that affect the flotation kinetics
[249]. The removal rate of particles or probability of collection of solid
particles on gas bubbles in pulp phase in the flotation column is a
function of the probability of collision, the probability of adhesion and
probability of detachment. According to Yoon and Luttrell [250], the
rate constant of flotation process is directly proportional to the prob-
ability of collection of particle and surface area of the rising bubble.
3.8.1. Induction time
Induction time governs the attachment of solid particle to gas
bubble. The time needed for the particle and bubble to break the
narrow film separating the particle and gas bubble is called induction
time. Rupturing of the thin film takes place due to surface forces be-
tween particle and bubble. Attachment of gas bubble to particle occurs
when the time in which the particle and gas bubble is in contact with
each other is more than the required induction time. Induction time
strongly depends on the fluid properties, particle and bubble sizes and
the forces between the particle and bubble. According to Albijanicet al.
[251], the particle and gas bubble attachment take place only when
tat ≤ tc (45)
where tat is the attachment time defined as the time required for at-
tachment of solid particles to the gas bubble when both are very close
and tc is the contact time. Multiple collision occurs on bubble surface
due to rebound from the bubble surface where collision changes to
sliding [252]. The collision time is smaller than the sliding time. Some
naturally hydrophobic particles like bitumen, coal, waxes, molybdenite,
hydrocarbon, tar and talc do not require flotation reagents to make
these particles hydrophobic [253]. The hydrophobicity of naturally
occurring particle decreases due to oxidation, which changes the che-
mical and physical properties of the surface of particle resulting in an
increment of attachment time which causes a decrease in recovery of
the particle during flotation process and the probability of attachment.
The attachment time decreases exponentially with increase in tem-
perature due to thinning of liquid film as given by [254]
E
tat = t0 exp ⎛ ⎞
⎝ K ′T ⎠ (46)
where t0 is the coefficient, E is the activation energy, K′ is the Boltz-
mann constant and T is the absolute temperature. The attachment time
and recovery depend on the particle size [255,256]. Ye et al. [255]
reported an increase of attachment time and a decrease of recovery
with the increase in particle size. The effect of conditioning time on
attachment time of air bubble on bitumen is studied by Su et al. [257].
They reported that the attachment time increases with the increase in
conditioning time. Contact angle and induction time strongly depends
on the hydrophobicity of the particle [159]. The pH value of the mix-
ture significantly affects the flotation kinetics. In presence of cationic
collector, at low pH flotation capacity reduces because of cation and
hydrogen both are in competition to get a suitable site on the solid
particle. In anionic collector environment, at high pH, flotation kinetic
reduces because OH− ion and collector anion are in competition to
search a suitable site on the solid particle during the adsorption process.
pH value also alters the zeta potential of the bubble and particle. The
effect of pH on the zeta potential of bubble and particle and flotation
recovery are studied by Yoon and Yordan [256]. The experimental re-
sults show that at pH 4.5, the induction time is 10 ms and flotation
recovery is 22% while at the pH 9.8 the induction time increased to
125 ms and flotation recovery becomes zero. pH of solution alters the
electrical interaction between the bubble and particle. It controls the
attractive or repulsive electrostatic force between particle and gas
bubble.
3.8.2. Separation analysis of flotation column by kinetic model
The removal rate of particles or rate of flotation depends on the
probability of bubble-particle collision Pc, the probability of bubble-
particle attachment Pa and the probability of bubble-particle detach-
ment Pd [159]
P = Pc Pa (1 − Pd ) (47)
where P is the probability of collection of the solid particle on the
bubbles. The probability of collision in the flotation column is due to
the relative motion of the solid particle and the gas bubble. Many re-
searchers developed the probability of bubble-particle detachment
model which is based on the force balance, energy balance and

Table 5
Models of probability of collision [261].
Model name model

Langmuir-Blodgett model Pc − LB = (ks /(0.2 + ks ))2 , where ks is the Stoke’s number

Sutherland model Pc = 3(dp/ db)
Gaudin model Pc = 1.5(dp/ db)2
Flint-Howarth Pc = (vp/(vp + vb))
Anfruns-Kitchener Pc = ((1 + dp db)2/(1 + (vp/ vb)))((vp/ vb) + 2ψc0 /(1 + (dp db))2)
Weber-Paddock model Pcg = sin2 θm (1 + dp/ db)2 (vp/ vb) ; collision efficiency due to gravitational effect
Pc = (1 + (2/(1 + 37/Reb0.85)))(dp/ db) ; collision efficiency due to interceptional effect
Yoon-Luttrell model Pc = 1.5(dp/ db)2 ; Reb < 1
Pc = 3(dp/ db) ; at potential flow condition
Pc = (dp/ db)2 (1.5 + (4 Reb0.72/15)) ; at intermediate flow condition
Schulze model Pc = 2ψc /((1 + vp/ vb) vb Re2b) ; collision efficiency due to interceptional effect
P c = (1/(1 + vp/ vb))(1 + dp/ db)2)(ks /(ks + a))b ; collision efficiency due to inertial effect

264
R. Prakash et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270

maximum floatable particle size [7]. The probability of detachment of models [221,263,264] are provided in Table 6.
fine solid particle is very small and can be omitted. The expression for
the probability of collision is given as
4. Importance and perspective of future research
PC = A (Dp / Db)n (48)
For a long time, flotation process has been used as a successful way
where A and n are the parameters which are the function of Reynolds of separating fine particles, wastewater treatment, deinking of paper
number. Reay and Ratcliff [258] reported the values of parameter A etc. in chemical process industries. In spite of this, still, there are certain
and n as 2/3 and 2 respectively which are valid for Stokes region. The issues that are yet to be addressed to optimize the flotation process.
values of parameter A and n are 3 and 1 under potential flow condition After going through the literature it is observed that there is a huge
[259]. Probability of collision under intermediate range is given by uncovered area of research in hydrodynamics and microbubble assisted
Weber and Paddock [260] flotation process. Design parameters like flow pattern, gas holdup,
2 mixing characteristics and bubble size & its distribution have a large
Pc = 1.5 ⎡1 +
(3/16 Rel ) ⎤ ⎛ dp ⎞
⎢ 0.56 ⎥
⎜ ⎟
number of applications in industries. Investigation of design parameters
⎣ (1 + 0.249 Re b ) ⎦ ⎝ db ⎠ (49)
intensification facilitate the improved transport processes.
Some of the important developed models for probability of collision
are given in Table 5.
4.1. Flow regime and its transition characteristics
The probability of attachment of solid particles to bubble is influ-
enced by the hydrophobic nature of the solid particle. The mathema-
Today many industries are facing problems because of the complex
tical expression for estimation of probability of attachment is given by
flow behavior of gas-liquid or gas-liquid-solid in a multiphase system.
[159]
Many researchers have explored flow pattern for several years to un-
derstand it in flotation technique. Researchers attempted to create a
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢ −(45 + 8 Reb0.72 ti ub) ⎟ ⎥ universally applicable flow pattern map using non-dimensional quan-
Pa = Sin2 ⎢2 arctan exp ⎜ ⎥ tities but these were validated against only a few experimental data
⎢
⎣
⎜ 15db 1 + db
⎝ dp
⎟⎥
⎠⎦
( ) (50) sets. Most of the industrial operation works with different non-
Newtonian liquids, so a thorough investigation of the flow regime and
where ti, Reb, ub, db and dp stand for induction time, Reynolds number of its transition at the quantitative range of gas and slurry flow rate is
bubble, bubble rise velocity, bubble diameter, and particle diameter. required to improve the efficiency of the flotation process. The design of
The rate constant (K) of the flotation process can be expressed as [159] flotation columns requires detailed information on the flow pattern and
3P ⎞ its characteristics because it directly influences the mixing character-
K=⎛ ⎜ usg ⎟
istics of the phases and bubble stabilization, therefore governs the flo-
2
⎝ db ⎠ (51)
tation effectiveness. Bubbles in the flotation system are presumed to be
where usg is the superficial gas velocity, db is the bubble diameter. The spherical in shape in most of the operation, but it is essentially gov-
probability of detachment (Pd) in the flotation can be described as erned by the flow regime. There is a lack of model development to
[262] interpret the flow pattern and its transition in the cyclonic-static micro-
θ
bubble flotation column and other flotation devices. Most of the non-
⎡ 6σ sin2 ( 2c ) ⎤ invasive technique is most suitable for the two-phase system. Few au-
Pd = exp ⎢1 − θc ⎥
⎢
2 2
dp (gΔρ + ρp bm) − dp σ cos ( 2 ) ⎥ thors studied the measurement of flow regime in the three-phase system
⎣ ⎦ (52)
using a non-invasive technique. More detailed studies on three-phase
where σ is the surface tension of the fluid, θc is the contact angle be- flow regime and its transition required incorporating non-invasive
tween bubble and particle, dp is the particle diameter, Δρ is the density technique at different dynamic and geometric variables. Steady flow
difference between particle and fluid, ρp is the particle density, and bm is and oscillatory flow pattern can be incorporated to produce the bubbles
the eddy turbulent acceleration. Some important flotation kinetic in the flotation column. The latter one results in enhanced gas

Table 6
Flotation kinetic models.
Model equation Model

100Rc Rf Finch and dobby model, based on axial dispersion, R is overall recovery, Rc is collection zone recovery, Rf is froth
R=
(1 + Rc Rf − Rc ) zone recovery
4a exp(Pe / 2) Pe + 4Kτ 0.5 VPI model
R = ⎡1 −
⎣
⎤a =
(1 + a2)exp(aPe / 2 − (1 − a2))exp(−aPe / 2) ⎦ ( Pe )
R = R* (1 − exp(−Kt )) First order model, R denotes recovery at time t, R* represents maximum flotation recovery at infinite time, K is
rate constsnt
First order model, Rectangular distribution of flotatiblities
(
R = R* 1 −
(1 − exp(−Kt ))
kt )
Fully mixed model
R = R* (1 − )
1
1+t/K
Gas or solid adsorption model
R = R* ( kt
(1 + Kt )m )
Second order model, Rectangular distribution of flotatiblities
(
R = R* 1 −
ln(1 + Kt )
Kt )
R = (1 − z )(1 − e−Kt ) + z (1 − e−K *t ) Three parameter model, fast (K) and slow K* flotatiblities
Three parameter model, gamma distribution
(
R = R* 1 −
a
a+t
P )
1 + e−Kt − 2e Kt /2 Two parameter form, Triangular distribution
R = R* ⎛1 − ⎞
⎝ (Kt / 2)2 ⎠
2 2nd order kinetic model
R* K∞ t
R=
1 + R*Kt

265
R. Prakash et al.
dispersion, improved foam stability, improved phase holdup, and axial
mixing [265]. Although plenty of flow regime studies are reported in
the literature, it is observed that important information concerning the
flow regime transition is often unnoticed. In particular, gas holdup and
bubble size, that is considered in flow regime correlation model are
rarely incorporated. The future experiment should consider the im-
portant variables which greatly influences the flow regime maps for
numerical analysis, therefore can enhance the comparability study and
the validation of experimental results. Computational fluid dynamics
technique also required to be more advanced that can predict the
complex behavior of the individual phases in the flotation system.
4.2. Holdup characteristics
The accurate interpretation of gas holdup is important for the ap-
propriate design, operation, and scale-up of the flotation systems in a
wide range of industrial application. Many authors have described the
experimental measurements technique for measurement of average and
radial gas holdup profile. A number of techniques such as phase isola-
tion, electrical resistance tomography, dynamic gas disengagement,
pressure drop etc. are in use to measure the local gas holdup. There is a
number of empirical correlation proposed by different authors to pre-
dict the radial gas holdup but these correlations are not universally
applicable to any flotation system at the wide range of geometric
variable, kinematic variable and physical property of the system. It is
due to the complex behavior of the flotation system; no fundamental
equation is available which can interpret the radial gas holdup profile.
Smaller bubble size is recommended for the high gas holdup in the
flotation process. Smaller bubble size has high interfacial area facilitate
improvement in the bubble-particle interaction efficiency, induction
time as well as carrying capacity, which in turn enhances the flotation
efficiency. Knowledge of radial and axial variation of gas holdup plays
an important role in the design and analysis of the flotation systems.
Radial variation in gas holdup causes a rise in pressure fluctuation
because of which liquid recirculation takes place in the flotation
system. This liquid recirculation directs the mixing rate and transport
efficiency. Successful implementation of CFD is still an open challenge
to understand the radial and axial gas holdup characteristics of the
flotation system.
4.3. Bubble size and its distribution
High interfacial area facilitated by small bubbles allows them to
improve the bubble-particle collection efficiency [137]. Reduced
bubble size results in better process efficiency due to enhanced mass
transfer across the gas-liquid interface [266]. The non-invasive tech-
nique like PIV can be used to predict the flow pattern of the phases,
bubble and particle size and its distribution, rise velocity and in-
stantaneous velocity vector of a bubble. So, current bubble size mea-
surement technique needs to be more advanced in order to work in
presence of a large number of bubbles as well as measure the bubble
size in any part of the column. The probability of bubble-particle col-
lision, attachment, and detachment depend on the appropriate bubble
and particle size. There is lack of studies on bubble size, bubble coa-
lescence, bubble-particle collision, attachment and detachment phe-
nomena in the vertical and horizontal direction in presence of the solid
particle. During particle separation, the feed contains a range of particle
size from ultrafine to coarse size. Therefore, a flotation system must be
designed in such way to target ultrafine particles as well as coarse size
particle.
4.4. Entrainment characteristics
Entrainment significantly reduces the recovery efficiency of the
flotation process. There is a lack of studies on entrainment character-
istics based on the effect of operating variables, geometric variables and
266
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 127 (2018) 249–270
physical properties of the system. Different entrainment models de-
veloped by different investigators are valid for mechanical and column
flotation system. Implementation of these models needs further vali-
dation. For instance, the model of Yiantos and Contreras [239] de-
monstrates only the effect of particle size on entrainment behavior,
however numerous other factors such as solid concentration in the feed,
range of particle size, slurry viscosity, feed flow rate, particle density,
slurry density are also significant to entrainment. Hence it is essential to
examine the effect of the other factors influencing the entrainment
characteristics. A general comprehensive mechanistic entrainment
model needs to be formulated which covers all other important vari-
ables. Developing a model based on the process variable and operating
parameter to estimate the flotation efficiency is a major challenge in
industrial application.
4.5. Mixing characteristics
Mixing characteristics is important for the modeling, design, and
optimization of the flotation processes. The intensity of mixing can be
helpful to understand the degree of homogeneity of phases and is used
to increase the transport efficiency of any system. Many authors have
reported considerable work on analysis of mixing characteristics using
axial dispersion model but there is the scarcity of research work based
on radial dispersion of the phases. Physical properties of the system
greatly influence the mixing intensity. However, detail studies are re-
quired to analyze the effect of the flow pattern and physical properties
on the mixing mechanism. Computation fluid dynamic technique is
needed to incorporate to analyze the mixing process.
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