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Article history: Restrained drying shrinkage cracking was investigated on composite beams consisting of substrate concrete and
Received 7 February 2013 bonded mortar overlays, and compared to the performance of the same mortars when subjected to the ring test.
Accepted 22 July 2013 Stress development and cracking in the composite specimens were analytically modeled and predicted based on
the measurement of relevant time-dependent material properties such as drying shrinkage, elastic modulus,
Keywords:
tensile relaxation and tensile strength. Overlay cracking in the composite beams could be very well predicted
Shrinkage C
Composite E
with the analytical model. The ring test provided a useful qualitative comparison of the cracking performance
Physical properties C of the mortars. The duration of curing was found to only have a minor influence on crack development.
Mortar E This was ascribed to the fact that prolonged curing has a beneficial effect on tensile strength at the onset of stress
Overlays development, but is in the same time not beneficial to the values of tensile relaxation and elastic modulus.
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction relaxation has been recognized as one of the main stress relief mecha-
nisms for bonded overlays subjected to restrained deformations [3–6]
The amount of concrete infrastructure needing repair and rehabilita- and can decrease stress by up to 60%, depending on material properties
tion is increasing worldwide, resulting in major capital expenses for and loading conditions [7]. A lower elastic modulus implies a less stiff
private owners and governmental institutions. The bonded overlay concrete and therefore smaller stress resulting from restrained shrinkage.
technique, which involves removal of damaged or deteriorated con- In addition to material properties and restraint conditions, environmental
crete in an existing structure and replacing it with a new concrete factors viz. temperature and relative humidity also affect tensile stress
or mortar layer, is a generally viable and common technique used for development mainly through their effect on overlay shrinkage.
both structural and non-structural repairs. However, the performance A number of test methods have been presented for the evaluation of
of bonded overlays is often impaired by the effects of surface cracking shrinkage cracking. These methods include ring tests with a restraining
due to restrained thermal and hygral deformations. Shrinkage arises core [8], longitudinal tests where the restraint is at the edge of the
as a result of moisture loss from the overlay both to the environment specimen [9,10], panel tests in which the restraint is along the circum-
and substrate concrete, and also through internal consumption. Loss ference of the panel [11,12], and tests in which restraint is offered by
of moisture results in plastic shrinkage in newly cast concrete or drying the substrate, simulating performance required in repair and retrofit
shrinkage in aging concrete, while a temperature gradient can cause [13–15]. Bentur & Kovler [2] provide a good review of some of the
thermal shrinkage. The possible restraint of such deformations by above methods and conclude that these methods often provide only
the substrate concrete results in the development of tensile stresses, a qualitative indication of material cracking but generally fail to allow a
which can lead to overlay cracking if tensile strength is exceeded, thus detailed and quantitative assessment of influencing factors and their
compromising durability and serviceability requirements [1,2]. interaction. Of these test methods, the ring test is the most widely used
Overlay resistance to crack initiation and propagation depends on method [2]. This is even reflected by its adoption as a standard test for
a number of time-dependent properties of the concrete. In addition to characterizing the cracking tendency of concrete by both AASHTO [16]
free shrinkage and tensile strength, which are often considered the and ASTM [17]. The use of the ring test goes back as far as the 1930s
main parameters for cracking potential, tensile relaxation and elastic [18] and its main merit is its simplicity and economy. Also the uniform
modulus are of significant importance. The advent of cracking will state of stress that exists as a result of elimination of the edges associated
depend upon the interaction of these material properties. In general, with the longitudinal and panel tests makes it suitable. However, evalua-
the risk of cracking increases with increasing shrinkage and elastic tions using the ring test are of qualitative nature as pointed out above [2].
modulus, and decreasing tensile relaxation and tensile strength. Tensile A quantitative prediction of overlay cracking in combination with
a detailed assessment of influencing factors needs to be based on con-
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 21 650 5181; fax: +27 21 689 7471. sideration of the various material properties discussed above and their
E-mail address: hans.beushausen@uct.ac.za (H. Beushausen). interaction. Such a prediction model for overlay stress development
0008-8846/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.07.008
H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 257
ties, which may not always be available and impractical to obtain. Constituent CRM1 CRM2 CRM3 M45 M60 Sub.
With regard to the above-mentioned issues, the aims of this study are beams
twofold. Firstly, to evaluate the usefulness of the ring test for the pre- w/c ratio n.a.a n.a. n.a. 0.45 0.6 0.5
diction of overlay cracking by comparing ring specimen performance CEM I 42.5 (kg/m3) n.a. n.a. n.a. 556 417 350
with the performance of actual bonded overlays in composite specimens Water (kg/m3) 261 230 215 250 250 175
Sand 0–2 mm n.a. n.a. n.a. 1490 1605 875
and secondly, to relate the performance of ring specimens and composite
Greywacke (13 mm) 0 0 0 0 0 1025
members to the analytical prediction of stress development based on the Superplasticiser (ml/m3) n.a. n.a. n.a. 400 0 0
measurement of relevant material properties. Slump (mm) 0 0 0 85 ± 10 85 ± 10 80 ± 15
Densityb (kg/m3) 1810 1815 1515 2219 2154 2415
Comp. strengthb 45 48 11 49 36 50
(28 days) (MPa)
2. Experimental program
a
n.a. = data not available.
b
Measured on water-saturated cubes of 100 mm side length.
2.1. Strategy and approach
As discussed earlier, detailed assessment of the influence of various 2.3. Experimental parameters and test methods
material parameters on overlay cracking due to restrained drying shrink-
age needs to include the measurement of relevant material properties 2.3.1. Environmental conditions and curing
such as drying shrinkage strain, elastic modulus, tensile relaxation and In order to capture the influence of curing on overlay performance, 2
tensile strength. In this study, these material parameters were measured different curing periods of 2 days and 7 days were applied. The curing
for 5 different mortars and used to analytically model stress develop- procedure was such that after samples were remolded, they were covered
ment and predict cracking in bonded mortar overlays, as explained in wet hessian and plastic sheets for the prescribed curing period.
in more detail in later sections. Actual overlay performance was visually Subsequently, all specimens were kept under standard conditions of
assessed on composite specimens consisting of substrate concrete beams temperature and relative humidity (23 ± 2 °C and 50 ± 5% RH).
and bonded mortar overlays, focusing on time of cracking and crack area.
The latter was determined 14 days after first occurrence of cracks. 2.3.2. Bonded overlays in composite beams
The usefulness of the ring test for prediction of overlay cracking Bonded mortar overlays were cast on concrete substrate beams
was assessed by casting ring specimens with the 5 above-mentioned so as to simulate the behavior of concrete patch repair mortars in ser-
mortars and comparing both the time and order of cracking to those vice. Substrate concrete beams with dimensions of 1000 mm length,
observed on the composite specimens and the analytical modeling of 150 mm width and 200 mm height were cast and left to mature for
stresses. about 3 months prior to application of 30 mm thick overlays (Fig. 1).
The duration of curing is commonly assumed to have a significant To facilitate bonding between overlay and substrate, freshly cast sub-
influence on overlay cracking due to the beneficial effects of prolonged strate surfaces were scrubbed with a wire brush until a consistent
curing on tensile strength. However, the authors could find no references rough finish was obtained. Compressed air was used to thoroughly
in the literature that would verify this assumption with experimental clean the substrate beam surfaces, which were then pre-wetted to a
research. The duration of curing was thus included as a test parameter, saturated dry surface before application of 30 mm thick overlays.
with 2-day and 7-day wet curing being considered to represent poor These were finished to a smooth surface using steel trowels. Subsequent
and good on-site curing, respectively. to the curing periods discussed above, the specimens were monitored
daily for time of cracking. A hand-held magnifying glass was used to
aid with the identification of cracks. After first occurrence of cracking,
2.2. Materials crack widths and lengths were monitored for an additional two weeks.
The crack area measured after 2 weeks was used for the evaluation of
Five overlay materials representing three commercial mortars the mortar performance.
and two laboratory made mortars were selected for investigation. The
three commercial mortars, namely, CRM1, CRM2 and CRM3, represent 2.3.3. Ring test
common patch repair materials used in South Africa and are all cement- In this study, a ring test similar to the one described in ASTM C 1581-
based. They comprised of a cement-based, non-sag, multipurpose 04 [17] was adopted. Fig. 2 shows the ring setup used in the experi-
patching and repair mortar (CRM1), a cementitious polymer-modified ments. The steel ring had a wall thickness of 13 ± 0.12 mm, an outer
repair and reprofiling mortar (CRM2), and a cementitious polymer- diameter of 326 mm, and a height of 155 mm. The base was made of
modified, synthetic fiber reinforced mortar (CRM3). The commercial plywood coated with a non-absorptive substance to prevent moisture
mortars were mixed with the amount of water specified by the material loss from the mortar into the base. The outer ring (for molding the
supplier. Due to the proprietary nature of the mortars, details on their specimens) was made from a PVC pipe, with 380 mm inside diameter
actual composition were not made available. and 155 mm height, resulting in a mortar ring thickness of 27 mm.
Laboratory-made mortars comprised of two mixtures with water/
cement ratios of 0.45 and 0.60, in the following termed M45 and M60, Overlay
respectively. The mortars were made of CEM I 42.5 cement and siliceous 30
pit sand. The water content was kept constant for both mixtures and
a superplasticiser was used to achieve the required workability of 200
M45. The substrate concrete for the composite specimens had a design Substrate
strength of 40 MPa and the same mix design as used for substrate
beams in previous studies on composite specimens by Beushausen
and Alexander [14,15]. Mix parameters for the substrate concrete and
mortar overlays are presented in Table 1. The 28-day compressive 150
1000
strength of the mortars was measured on cubes (100 mm side length)
that had been fully cured in water at 23 °C. Fig. 1. Composite beam specimens.
258 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
90
50
50
Fig. 2. Ring test specimen after removal of the outer PVC ring.
Prior to casting, the outer surface of the steel ring and inner surface
of the PVC ring were coated with a release agent. Compaction of the Fig. 3. Dog bone specimens used for testing tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile
mixture was ensured by placing the ring set-up on a vibrating table relaxation.
for a duration of about 30 s. Subsequently, the specimens were trans-
ferred to the conditioned room (23 ± 2 °C and RH 50 ± 5%) within by the authors [19]. The relaxation coefficient ψ (%) was obtained from
10 min after completion of casting. the following equation:
The outer PVC ring was removed after 12 h, and the specimens
subjected to moist curing for either 2 days or 7 days as discussed earlier. ψ ¼ 100 ð1−σ t =σ 0 Þ ð1Þ
On completion of curing, the top surface of the test specimen was coated
with paraffin wax to prevent moisture loss, thus ensuring that only where
circumferential drying took place. The specimens were then assessed
for cracking characteristics as described above for the composite σ0 original stress at time of loading
specimens. σt remaining stress after 72 h.
2.3.4. Tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile relaxation Subsequent to curing and prior to test commencement, specimens
Direct uniaxial tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile were coated with paraffin wax to ensure that no moisture loss occurred
relaxation were measured on “dog bone” specimens measuring
170 × 40 × 40 mm in the prismatic section as shown in Fig. 3.
Tensile strength was tested according to the procedures laid out
in SABS method 863:5-1994. A Zwick Roell Z020 Testing Machine
(UTM), with a maximum capacity of 20 kN, Fig. 4, was used for
the tests. Uniaxial stress application was achieved through the use of
aluminum alloy gripping jaws braced with a steel plate (Fig. 4). The
jaws were made of a truncated ‘V’ prism and were of dimensions
124 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm. Clamps were connected to the UTM cross-
head shaft using a swivel bearing to reduce eccentricity in loading. Bear-
ings allowed for the load to be as close to axial as possible since they
could pivot and rotate about the contact with the jaws. The average result
of three specimens was taken as the tensile strength of the mortars at the
specified age. Specimens cured for 2 days were tested at the ages of 2, 7
and 28 days, and specimens cured for 7 days were tested at 7, 14 and
28 days.
Tensile relaxation was measured as the time-dependent reduction in
stress under sustained imposed strain. The test specimens were loaded
to a stress equivalent to approximately 80% of the tensile strength at
the age of loading, using the same Zwick Roell machine and test set-up
described above for tensile strength. The relatively high stress level
was chosen to simulate stress conditions in bonded overlays close to
cracking. The resulting imposed strain was kept constant and the stress
decay in the specimen automatically recorded. The remaining stress
after a period of 72 h was considered for identification of the ultimate
relaxation value, as discussed and justified in a previous publication Fig. 4. Test set-up for tensile strength and tensile relaxation.
H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 259
during testing, as this would have resulted in increasing stress from re-
strained drying shrinkage. Two specimens were tested for each param-
eter (i.e. for each mortar material and curing duration) and the average
used in the analysis. Specimens were tested at ages of 7 and 28 days to
assess the influence of the age of loading on relaxation values. In addi-
tion, specimens cured for 2 days were also tested at an age of 2 days.
Free shrinkage strain specimens were attached with demec targets
along the prismatic section at 100 mm gauge length. The specimens
were unsealed on all surfaces. A strain extensometer with a gauge length
of 100 mm was used for the measurements. A total of 3 specimens were
used per material and curing age and the mean shrinkage value were
used in the analysis. Shrinkage strain was measured every 2–3 days
until specimens had reached an age of 56 days.
Fig. 5. Tensile relaxation results for mortar specimens cured for 2 days (error bars indicate
2.3.5. Elastic modulus the spread of the data).
Fig. 8. Age at overlay cracking in composite beam specimens. Fig. 10. Age at overlay cracking observed in the ring test specimens.
H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 261
where
Table 3 of curing, no stress is shown in the figures prior to that point in time. The
Summary of constants used in the regression analysis of material parameters. chosen time-interval (ti − 1–ti) for the regression analysis of material
CRM1 CRM2 CRM3 M45 M60 properties and calculation of tensile stresses was 2 days as this provided
reasonable accuracy for the prediction of the age of cracking. The curves
2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7
are not smooth as they follow the actual measured shrinkage strain, as
A 6.30 6.76 5.2 5.5 3.03 3.38 7.41 8.23 5.3 5.9
discussed earlier.
B −1.70 −2.02 8.88 8.03 −1.38 −2.26 0.23 0.45 1.88 1.13
C 0.47 0.51 0.76 0.63 0.61 0.69 0.82 1.2 0.69 0.8 “Elastic” stress, i.e. the theoretical tensile stress calculated
D 0.96 0.85 1.4 1.61 0.49 0.34 1.4 1.18 0.91 1.05 without considering relaxation, was included in the figures to highlight
E −10.1 −9.81 −5.3 −6.5 −13.1 −14.4 −7.2 −8.7 −8.3 −7.9 the effect of relaxation on stress development and retardation of
F 51.9 55.1 36.6 43.6 68.9 76.1 45.4 51.8 51.9 53.4 cracking.
Fig. 12. CRM1: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
Fig. 13. CRM1: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
Fig. 14. CRM2: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 263
Fig. 15. CRM2: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
Fig. 16. CRM3: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
The figures allow a few observations to be made regarding the (CRM3 specimens) compared to a maximum of 4 days (M45 and
development of stress, the effect of relaxation and curing duration: M60) in the 7 days cured specimens. This is attributed to the fact that
earlier ages of loading result in higher relaxation, as pointed out above.
• The figures show that tensile stress generally develops much faster • The influence of the curing duration on the age at cracking of the spec-
than tensile strength such that, it exceeds tensile strength within imens tested is at best minimal. While curing was observed to defer the
7 days (utmost) after curing. This implies that cracking would occur age at cracking in some specimens (M45 specimens and M60 speci-
within 7 days after curing if there was no tensile relaxation. mens by 2–3 days), it did not positively affect the age at cracking in
• From the figures, the effect of relaxation on the time development of CRM1, CRM2 and CRM3 specimens. In fact, it appears to have nega-
stress is apparent. It is observed that stress relaxation delays the onset tively affected the age at cracking in CRM3 specimens where the spec-
of cracking by reducing the tensile stress by as much as 57% in the spec- imens that had had a longer curing duration cracked earlier.
imens tested. This is more apparent in the 2 days cured specimens • The above observation on curing duration suggests that it has minimal
where stress relaxation delays age at cracking by as much as 7 days effect on the age at cracking. This is attributed to the fact that even
Fig. 17. CRM3: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
264 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
Fig. 18. M45: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
Fig. 19. M45: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
though longer curing leads to increased strength at the onset of drying the results for CRM3, the figures show a favorable agreement between
shrinkage, it has a counteractive effect on tensile relaxation and elastic the results of the analytical modeling and observations made on the
modulus. At the onset of drying, the increase in elastic modulus and composite beam specimens. For specimens cured for 2 days, there is
reduction in the degree of tensile relaxation with increased curing du- an exact match between results from the analytical model and test
ration means that the elastic stress will be considerably higher in specimens made with M60 and CRM2, i.e. the analytical model exactly
7 days cured specimens compared to their 2 days cured counterparts. predicted the age of cracking on the bonded overlays. For 2-days cured
specimens with overlays made from M45 and CRM1, the difference
5. Comparison of model with experimental results between model prediction and actual specimen behavior was one day
only. Similarly, for specimens cured for 7 days, there is a good agreement
Figs. 22 and 23 present a comparison of age at cracking for both between analysis and specimen behavior, the model predicting overlay
2 days cured and 7 days cured specimens, respectively. Excluding cracking within an error margin of 3 days. However, it needs to be kept
Fig. 20. M60: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 265
Fig. 21. M60: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
in mind that only drying shrinkage was considered in the analysis, seen in the figure, the stress curve intersects the strength curve at
whereas stresses resulting from restrained autogeneous shrinkage and 12 days but does not really deviate from it subsequently. The model
thermal deformations were neglected. The estimated stress develop- therefore did not really show a clear indication that stress exceeded ten-
ment might therefore represent a slight underestimation of actual stress- sile strength at the recorded 12 days. Compared to the other mortars,
es in the overlay. In future research, the analytical model would need to CRM3 had generally the widest spread in material properties with re-
be refined to also account for other effects apart from restrained drying spect to cracking, i.e. the lowest tensile strength and highest shrinkage
shrinkage. (indicating high susceptibility to cracking) but also the highest relaxa-
The only overlay that at first sight showed a different behavior than tion and lowest elastic modulus (indicating low susceptibility to crack-
expected from the analysis was that made with CRM3. However, the ing), which makes the prediction of actual specimen behavior difficult.
overlay cured for 2 days cracked comparatively late, i.e. at 24 days. For Considering the number of simplifying assumptions made in the
the same specimen, the model predicted no cracking within the first analytical modeling and the uncertainties associated with the testing
28 days, but as seen in Fig. 16, cracking could be expected some time of a relatively large number of material properties, the agreement be-
between 30 and 35 days. The general model trend, i.e. comparatively tween the analytical model and bonded overlay behavior can be consid-
late cracking, could therefore be verified with the model even though ered very good. This confirms the general validity of the model used and
numerical values did not match very well. For overlays made from assumptions made.
CRM3 cured for 7 days, the apparent mismatch between model and A comparison between ring test results and composite specimens
specimen behavior can be explained by considering Fig. 17. As can be indicates some differences, the ring test specimens always cracking earlier
than the bonded overlays. These differences are however to be expected
because of the different degree of restraint offered by ring and substrate
beam.
Tables 4 and 5 give ranking of the repair mortars according to age
at cracking. Mortars that cracked first are given a lower ranking in
the tables while mortars that took longer to crack are placed higher up.
It is observed that there is a generally good agreement between ring
test, bonded overlays and analytical modeling with respect to the se-
quence in which the mortars are expected to crack. However, note that
in the ring test, the rating for 2-day cured mortars is reversed for CRM1
and CRM2, compared to observations made with the analytical model
and the composite specimens. Also, for 7-day cured specimens, the
modeled behavior of CRM3 does not correspond to the observed trend
in the restrained shrinkage tests. Neglecting these exceptions, the general
Fig. 22. Comparison of age at cracking for 2 days cured specimens. agreement on the order of cracking suggests that the ring test gives the
correct qualitative order of overlay cracking when used to compare vari-
ous mortar types.
Table 4
Mortar ranking according to age at cracking (specimens cured for 2 days) (figures in
brackets indicate age at cracking).