©2013 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 108, pp. 1953–1970

The Lithospheric Mantle Plays No Active Role in the Formation of

Orthomagmatic Ore Deposits
Nicholas Arndt†
ISTerre UMR 5275 CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble cedex 9, France

Abstract
The hypothesis that the metals in certain orthomagmatic ore deposits come from a source in the subconti-
nental lithospheric mantle is evaluated in this paper. According to this hypothesis, parts of the mantle beneath
the continents are metasomatically enriched in metals like Ni, Cu, and the platinum group elements (PGE). It
is proposed that under some circumstances, these metals are transported into the crust where they become con-
centrated in orebodies. An examination of the compositions of xenoliths from the lithospheric mantle reveals
little evidence, however, of components that could represent the source of metal-enriched magmas. In addition,
the mechanism whereby metals are brought from the source to the surface is very unclear. The lithosphere
is the coldest part of the mantle and it only melts under special circumstances. The normal product is a low-
degree melt, an alkaline, Si-undersaturated magma of the type that only rarely contains ore deposits. Major
magmatic orebodies normally form from high-volume, high-flux magmas that are produced by high-degree
melting in deeper, hotter parts of the mantle—in the asthenosphere or a mantle plume. For melting to occur
in the lithosphere, rather than in the hotter parts of the mantle, the melting point of the source must be drasti-
cally reduced by the presence of volatiles. On the other hand, there is ample evidence that the host magmas
of ore deposits were abnormally rich in water or CO2 as would have been the case if they came from a volatile-
rich metasomatized source. Magmas from sublithospheric sources could have interacted with the lithospheric
mantle as they ascended toward the surface and they could have picked up some metals through this interac-
tion. This process could have contributed to the formation of some ores, a notable example being the PGE
deposits in Bushveld Complex. There is ample geological and geochemical evidence, however, that the majority
of magmatic deposits form when magmas from sublithosphere sources assimilate material from the continental
crust and that the latter process is instrumental in the formation of the deposits.

Introduction deposits are extracted from a source in the subcontinental

In what might be called the “standard model” for the for-
mation of magmatic sulfide deposits (Naldrett, 1992, 1999,
2004; Lightfoot and Naldrett, 1994; Arndt et al., 2004; Li et
al., 2009; Arndt, 2011), magma, usually tholeiitic and resulting
from relatively high degrees of melting in the asthenosphere
or in a mantle plume, assimilates material from the conti-
nental crust, a process that leads to the segregation of sulfide
liquid. The chalcophile ore metals partition from the magma
into the sulfide liquid, and an ore deposit forms if the sulfide
accumulates in sufficient quantity and with a sufficiently high
grade. We know within reasonable limits the likely compo-
sitions of the magmas that are produced by melting in the
upper mantle: these magmas contain moderate to high levels
of Ni, Cu, and platinum group elements (PGE; Keays, 1995;
Rehkämper et al., 1999) and, given an efficient concentra-
tion process, they can produce high-tenor ore. There is some
discussion about the exact nature of the ore-forming process,
particularly the question of whether sulfur must be added
from an external source (Lehmann et al., 2007; Godel et al.,
2011), but the general lines of the model, as applied to depos-
its such as Norilsk-Talnakh in Russia (Fig. 1; Naldrett, 1992;
Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997; Li et al., 2009), Voisey’s
Bay in Canada (Li and Naldrett, 1999), Jinchuan in China
(Chai and Naldrett, 1992; Tang, 1993; De Waal et al., 2004),
and Kambalda in Australia (Lesher and Keays, 2002), are well
established.
Many recent papers have promoted an alternative hypoth-
esis according to which the ore metals in magmatic ore
†E-mail, Nicholas.Arndt@ujf-grenoble.fr
lithospheric mantle (SCLM) and not in the asthenosphere or
in a plume. The model builds on a concept—well entrenched
in the geologic literature—that certain types of continental
basalts result from partial melting of metasomatized portions
of the SCLM (Hawkesworth et al., 1984b, 1988; Sweeney and
Watkeys, 1990; Hergt et al., 1991; Menzies, 1992b; Lightfoot
et al., 1993, 1994; Lassiter and DePaolo, 1997; Shirey, 1997;
Jourdan et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2009). The foundation of
this model lies in the trace element and isotopic composi-
tion of these magmas, which differ from that of the sublitho-
spheric mantle and which, in the opinion of many authors,
cannot have resulted from crustal contamination.
In the papers advocating an SCLM source of ore metals
(e.g., Garuti et al., 1997; Hong et al., 2002; Maier and Barnes,
2004; Fiorentini and Beresford, 2008; Fiorentini et al., 2008;
Richardson and Shirey, 2008; Zhang et al., 2008) it is proposed
that the metasomatized portions of the SCLM are enriched in
chalcophile and highly siderophile elements and that partial
melting of this part of the mantle, or contamination within the
lithosphere of magma from sublithospheric sources, produces
magmas of unusual compositions that are particularly capable
of forming magmatic ore deposits (Fig. 2). The evidence cited
in support of a metal-enriched source in the SCLM is diverse,
ranging from concrete observations such as the mineralogy
and chemical compositions of xenoliths from the lithospheric
mantle, through to estimation of unusually high metal con-
tents or abnormal metal ratios in the parental magmas of ore
deposits. A summary of these arguments is given in Table 1.
In this paper the arguments that have been advanced to
support of an SCLM source of ore metals are evaluated first,

0361-0128/13/4173/1953-18 1953
1954 NICHOLAS ARNDT

Pechenga
Slave
Craton Norilsk
Voisey’s Udachnaya
Bay Kamchatka
Ivrea zone
Lherz
Rhonda

Gorgona

Lihir

Reunion
Bushveld Kaapvaal Kambalda
Craton
Complex

Fig. 1. Map showing the localities of ore deposits (in bold) or other geologic units (smaller font) mentioned in the text.

a flood basalts distinguishing those that provide direct evidence of derivation

of metals from the SCLM from those in which a lithospheric
continental shallow intrusions with ore deposits
source is adopted by default, after evaluation and rejection of
crust other explanations. The SCLM model itself is then critically
evaluated, and the range of compositions that have been pro-
mid- and lower crustal
posed for the mantle beneath the continents are discussed. In
magma chambers this discussion, the emphasis is on models in which the SCLM
plays an active role; i.e., as a source of metals and/or volatiles,
depleted lithospheric and those models in which the lithospheric mantle serves only
mantle (DL) as a passive guide or impediment to the ascent of the mantle
source or of magmas derived from this source are excluded
metasomatized layer (MM & CM) (e.g. Begg et al., 2011). The questions of how these reservoirs
could have been produced and, crucially, how the metals and
other components could have been extracted and transported
into the crust are discussed. Finally, the “standard model” is
eclogite ancient shown to satisfactorily explain most of the features of mag-
veins (EC) mantle wedge (SC) matic Ni-Cu sulfide deposits. The conclusions that emerge
are that most magmatic ore deposits probably develop as
magma of normal composition and sublithospheric origin
b interacts with continental crust, and that the latter process is
instrumental in the formation of the ore deposits.
sub-lithosphere source of
magma and/or heat Arguments Advanced in Support of an
SCLM Source of Ore Metals
Portions of the SCLM are enriched in chalcophile elements
and provide a likely source of metals in ore deposits
Fig. 2. Sketch showing the possible architecture of the continental litho-
sphere. Two alternative models for the formation of magmatic ore deposits Several authors (Sharpe, 1982; Sun et al., 1991; Zhang et al.,
are (a) Extraction of metals from a portion of the subcontinental mantle with 2008) have proposed that the parental magmas of ore deposits
appropriate composition. Abbreviations: CM = carbonate-metasomatized, contained high concentrations of ore metals. In many such
MM = melt-metasomatized, SC = subduction component. (b) Derivation of
magma from a sublithosphere source (plume or asthenosphere) followed by cases, these magmas are also said to have unusual trace ele-
concentration of metals by processes within magma chambers in the conti- ment or isotopic compositions that have been interpreted to
nental crust. indicate derivation from the SCLM. Perhaps the best-known
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1955

Table 1. Arguments for a Source of Ore Metals in the Subcontinental Lithospheric Mantle

Argument Justification References

Portions of the SCLM are enriched in Some parental magmas of ore deposits are enriched in metals; Sharpe (1982), Sun et al. (1991),
chalcophile elements and provide a trace-element or isotopic compositions resemble those of an Garuti et al. (1997), Kerrich et al. (2000),
likely source of metals in ore deposits SCLM source; metasomatized SCLM is enriched in ore metals Hong et al. (2002), Maier and Barnes (2004),
Zhang et al. (2008), Richardson and
Shirey (2009), Hronsky et al. (2012)
Magma or metals are derived from Magmas that form some ore deposits have near-chondritic Mitchell and Keays (1981), Keays (2012)
an S-undersaturated source PGE ratios which requires that they were undersaturated in
sulfur; some parts of the SCLM have this characteristic
Some Ni-Cu-PGE ores contain The association of minerals such as amphibole and biotite with Fiorentini and Beresford (2008),
hydrous minerals from a meta- ore sulfides indicates that the magma was hydrous; trace element Fiorentini et al. (2008)
somatized mantle source and isotope data point to a source in metasomatized SCLM
Default arguments The parental magma is not contaminated by continental crust Hawkesworth et al.(1984b), Hergt et al.
and its composition differs from that of the asthenosphere or (1991), Lightfoot et al. (1994), Lassiter and
plume; therefore the source of magma and/or metals is in DePaolo (1997), Hong et al. (2002), Maier
the SCLM and Barnes (2004), Zhang et al. (2008)

and most convincing example is the Bushveld Complex in In most arguments for an SCLM source of ore metals, ref-
South Africa whose parental magmas, as estimated from the erence is made to metasomatism of parts of the subcontinen-
compositions of peripheral sills or a basal chill zone (Fig. 3), tal lithosphere: it is proposed that, in addition to lithophile
contained unusually high platinum concentrations (Sharpe,
1982; Maier and Barnes, 2004; Wilson, 2012). It is suggested 20
that the high metal contents were crucial to the formation of Continental tholeiites
Bushveld sills
the PGE ores of, for example, the Merensky Reef and UG2 Bushveld sills Mantle peridotite
16
deposits. Another example is provided by the continental Komatiites

flood basalts that host Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide deposits, like those Meimechites
Oceanic basalts
of the Norilsk-Talnakh region in Russia. These basalts have 12
Pt (ppb)

Boninites
high PGE contents and near-chondritic ratios of Pt/Pd, and
in this respect they differ from basalts of mid-ocean ridges 8
and ocean islands, which contain lower contents of the PGE
(Fig. 3). To consider another tectonic setting, many authors 4
argue that the source of Cu or Au in porphyry deposits are MARID
extracted from a part of the suprasubduction mantle wedge
0
that was abnormally enriched in these metals (McInnes et al., 0 10 20 30 40 50
10
1999; Mungall, 2002; Hronsky et al., 2012). And on a broader Mgo (wt%)
scale, the notion of a “metallogenic province” is often associ-
ated with the hypothesis that these clusters of ore deposits are
linked to metal-rich parts of the mantle (Kerrich et al., 2000; 1
Hong et al., 2002; Hronsky et al., 2012). MARID
Ir (ppb)

Isotopic data provide intriguing evidence that at least a por-

tion of the PGE in the Merensky Reef in the Bushveld were
derived from the SCLM. Richardson and Shirey (2008) meas- 0.1

ured the Re-Os isotope compositions of inclusions in diamonds

transported in kimberlites from the Kaapvaal subcontinental
lithospheric mantle. They obtained relatively radiogenic iso-
tope ratios similar to those previously measured in platinum
group minerals (PGM) from the Merensky Reef by Hart and
Kinloch (1989) and on this basis argued that the PGE in Bush-
veld ores came from an enriched component of the SCLM. It
must be noted, however, that (1) in Richardson and Shirey’s
model, the bulk of the magma comes from a sublithospheric
source that entrains the PGE as it passes through the SCLM,
and (2) these data do not necessarily require that the primary
magma was abnormally enriched in PGE. As explained in a
later section, extensive crustal contamination could account
for the radiogenic Os in the Merensky samples, and within-
crust processes may have boosted the concentrations of PGE
in magmas that initially had only a modest PGE content.
0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50
MgO (wt%)
Fig. 3. Platinum and iridium contents, plotted against MgO of various
types of volcanic and intrusive rocks and mantle xenoliths. The Pt contents
of continental tholeiites, and particularly those of marginal sills of the Bush-
veld Complex, are far higher than those in basaltic rocks from oceanic set-
tings with similar MgO contents. They are comparable to levels in post 3 Ga
komatiites and higher than in mantle peridotites, reflecting the incompatible
behavior of Pt and an absence of sulfide in the residue of melting. Ir con-
tents of continental tholeiites are also higher than in most oceanic basalts, but
lower than in mantle peridotite, reflecting the more compatible behavior of
this element. Data from Sharpe (1982), Arndt et al. (2004), Maier and Barnes
(2004), Barnes et al. (2010), Maier et al. (2012). MARID = rock composed
mainly of mica, amphibole, rutile, ilmenite, and diopside (discussed in text).
1956 NICHOLAS ARNDT
elements and volatiles, the metasomatized regions also
became enriched in chalcophile and/or highly siderophile ele-
ments. Although the idea is not unreasonable, closer evalu-
ation provides little direct evidence that the metasomatized
parts of the SCLM are enriched in metals such as Ni, Cu and
the PGE. This aspect of the problem is discussed in a later
section when the compositions of the diverse components
that are known or inferred to exist in the subcontinental litho-
spheric mantle are explored.
Magma or metals are derived from an
S-undersaturated source
Mitchell and Keays (1981) and Keays (1995, 2012) argued
that the magmas that produce ore deposits are undersatu-
rated in sulfide and that these magmas came from a source
with very low sulfide contents such as the depleted peridotite
of the SCLM. While it is probably true that most of the mag-
mas that yield ore minerals were indeed S undersaturated,
this may merely be the consequence of the manner in which
the magmas have formed. Wendlandt (1982), Keays (1995),
and Mavrogenes and O’Neill (1999) have demonstrated
that the solubility of sulfide in mafic or ultramafic magmas
decreases with increasing pressure. The magmas parental to
ore deposits are produced by melting at great depth, >90 km
for basalts and picrites in continental settings. At these depths
only a small fraction of sulfur dissolves in the melt, but as the
magma rises through the lithosphere, its capacity to dissolve
sulfur increases. The consequence is that almost every deep-
sourced magma should be S undersaturated when it reaches
the crust. An additional process, such as crustal contamina-
tion or the addition of S from an external source, is required
to induce the segregation of an immiscible sulfide liquid. It
therefore seems unnecessary, on this basis alone, to invoke
derivation from the SCLM.
Furthermore, it is by no means certain that those parts of
the SCLM that are invoked as the source of ore-forming mag-
mas have very low sulfide contents. It is true that the har-
zburgite or dunite that forms the building block of ancient
SCLM is highly depleted in S (Lorand et al., 2003; Pearson
et al., 2004), but this material is highly refractory and is an
unlikely source of partial melt. The more fertile parts affected
by metasomatism may or may not be S undersaturated. This
issue is discussed later in the paper, following evaluation of
the compositions of various components of the SCLM.
Some Ni-Cu-PGE ores contain hydrous minerals that could
have come from a metasomatized mantle source
In several papers the presence of hydrous phases in Ni-Cu-
PGE ores has been linked to derivation from a source in
metasomatized SCLM. The argument is that metasomatism is
caused by the introduction into the mantle of hydrous or other
volatile-bearing fluids and that the presence of volatiles would
promote melting and facilitate the extraction of metals from
the metasomatized source. Fiorentini and Beresford (2008)
noted the presence of hydrous phases and Fe-Ni sulfides in
the Valmaggia ultramafic pipe in the Ivrea-Verbano zone of
Italy. They invoked a link between hydrous phases (amphi-
bole and biotite) in Ni-Cu-PGE ores in the Ivrea region and
a hydrated metasomatized source in the SCLM. In another
study (Fiorentini et al., 2008) the same authors proposed that
volatiles in ore-bearing ferropicrites in the Pechenga green-
stone belt of Russia came from a source located either in
metasomatized subcontinental mantle or in a volatile-bearing
plume. To explain how the metals were transported into the
continental crust, they proposed (p. 339) that “Metasomatism
introduced alkalis, Cu, PGEs and S into the depleted man-
tle…. Increased water activity caused the harzburgite to melt,
producing volatile-rich sulphide-bearing ultramafic magma
that evolved to intrusions that host Ni-Cu-PGE mineraliza-
tion.” In a third paper, Fiorentini et al. (2012) proposed that
komatiites from the Ni sulfide belt of the Yilgarn craton in
Western Australia were hydrous and that their degassing may
be implicated in the formation of the ore deposits.
These ideas are interesting and, particularly in the case of
the Pechenga deposits, have considerable merit. However,
they are open to the following criticisms:
1.  In many magmatic deposits hydrous phases are indeed
associated with ore sulfides, but the total concentration of
these phases is very low. As pointed out by Barnes and Camp-
bell (1988), water behaves as an incompatible element and
becomes concentrated in the last portion of the silicate liquid
to solidify; the hydrous minerals then crystallize from this liq-
uid. Sulfide liquid, which remains in the liquid state to tem-
peratures below the solidus of the silicate liquid, accumulates
together with the last fractions of silicate liquid: the associa-
tion between sulfide and hydrous minerals may therefore be
largely coincidental and does not imply that water was directly
associated with the formation of the ores.
2. The mechanism proposed for the transport of metals
from the metasomatized zone toward the surface is poorly
known, as discussed in a later section.
Default arguments for an SCLM source
In a great number of papers advocating a lithospheric source
of magmas or metals (e.g. (Hawkesworth et al., 1984a; Hergt
et al., 1991; Gallagher and Hawkesworth, 1992; Lightfoot et
al., 1994; Fedorenko et al., 1996; Molzahn et al., 1996; Las-
siter and DePaolo, 1997), the authors first test whether the
host magmas have been contaminated by continental crust
and conclude that the amount of contamination was negli-
gible. They then observe that the compositions of the rocks
in question are unlike those of magmas from depleted upper
mantle and conclude, with no further ado, that the source was
in the SCLM. There are three major problems with this type
of argument: First, the criteria used to dismiss crustal contam-
ination are based on oversimplified assumptions or are totally
invalid; second, even in cases where crustal contamination is
not important, the source is not necessarily in the lithosphere
but could be a component in a mantle plume or another part
of the sublithospheric mantle; third, and most significantly,
only rarely is the SCLM model evaluated objectively—instead
it is commonly adopted by default after dismissal of other
alternatives. Here, the tests that are made of crustal contami-
nation models are considered first, and then the SCLM model
itself is scrutinized.
Crustal contamination should be accompanied by frac-
tional crystallization: If this argument is correct, indices
like SiO2, Th/Nb or 87Sr/86Sr, which monitor the amount of
contamination, should correlate with MgO or Mg numbers,
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1957
which monitor the amount of crystallization. The rationale
behind this argument is the (correct) observation that, unless
the magma is superheated, crystallization is required to pro-
vide the heat needed to heat and assimilate the contaminant
(DePaolo, 1981; Bohrson and Spera, 2001). This combination
of processes leads to the well-known assimilation-fractional
crystallization (AFC) models of crustal contamination. The
pitfall in the argument is the fact that, in many cases, multiple
types and compositions of crustal rocks are assimilated, or a
period of fractional crystallization unaccompanied by contam-
ination follows an earlier period of AFC. In both cases the
correlation between fractionation and contamination indices
will be obscured or lost.
A well-known example is illustrated in Figure 4, which
shows the compositions of rocks in ore-bearing and weakly
mineralized intrusions of the Norilsk-Talnakh region in Russia
(Naldrett, 1992). There is sound geochemical evidence that
the magma that fed into the weakly mineralized intrusions had
become heavily contaminated with granitic material in a mid-
crustal magma chamber to impart the distinctive geochemi-
cal signature observed—high La/Sm, Th/Nb, and 87Sr/86Sr
(Fig. 4; Lightfoot et al., 1990; Wooden et al., 1993). The ore-
bearing intrusions were less contaminated in the mid-crustal
chamber and they have lower values of these contamination
indices (Arndt et al., 2003). Both magmas subsequently crys-
tallized and accumulated olivine and other minerals at the
shallow level of intrusion, producing large variations of MgO
and SiO2 that do not correlate with the contamination indices
5.0
L Talnakh
4.5
Norilsk
4.0
3.5
La/Sm
3.0
2.5
2.0
1,5
0.710 5 10 15 20 25
MgO (wt%)
0.709
Sr/ 86 Sr
0.708
0.707
87
0.706
0.705
5 10 15 20 25
MgO (wt%)
Fig. 4. Diagrams showing variations of La/Sm and 87Sr/86Sr with MgO in
intrusions of the Norilsk-Talnakh region (Arndt et al., 2003). The isotopic and
trace element ratios of the ore-bearing “Norilsk-type” and weakly mineral-
ized “L. Talnakh-type” intrusions differ because the latter were more highly
contaminated by granitic rock in mid-crustal magma chambers; subsequently,
the magmas in both intrusions differentiated with no further contamination.
As a consequence, there is no correlation between indices of contamination
and fractional crystallization.
(Fig. 4). Similar patterns are seen in many komatiites, which
fractionate abundant olivine following an earlier period of
contamination (Arndt et al., 2008). In the Lower and Main
zones of the Bushveld Complex, within-chamber accumula-
tion of olivine, pyroxene, or plagioclase produces wide varia-
tions in composition that are superimposed on the effects of
contamination which took place deeper in the crust (Maier et
al., 2000; Wilson, 2012).
Crustal contamination should produce heterogeneous
hybrid magmas: Here it is argued that the continental crust
is heterogeneous and that any mixing between crust and
magma, itself an erratic process, should produce hybrid mag-
mas with a wide range of compositions. In cases where the
magma has a uniform basaltic composition, as in the upper
two-thirds of the Siberian traps (Wooden et al, 1993), it has
been argued that the source must be in the mantle (because
no other source can yield a large volume of homogeneous
mafic magma) and since this composition differs from that
inferred for the asthenosphere, the mantle in question must
be the SCLM (Hawkesworth et al., 1984a; Lightfoot et al.,
1993).
A flaw in this argument is revealed by closer examination of
the uniform compositions of the Siberian flood basalts (Fig. 5).
These magmas have evolved compositions characterized by
high SiO2 and low MgO or Mg numbers (Wooden et al., 1993;
Arndt et al., 1998). Their compositions are very different from
the primary picritic magmas that are produced by melting at
depths at or near the base of the subcontinental lithosphere.
Furthermore, the covariation of Al2O3 with MgO and types of
phenocrysts observed in these lavas indicate that plagioclase
was part of the crystallizing assemblage (Wooden et al., 1993).
The involvement of this low-pressure phase places the frac-
tionation at shallow, crustal levels. The conclusion is that the
uniform composition of the basalts was also acquired at these
depths—the homogenization evidently was a shallow-level,
late-stage process and the compositions of erupted lavas are
far removed from those of their mantle sources.
Another example of within-crust homogenization is pro-
vided by the Mafic Complex in the Ivrea zone in Italy (Sini-
goi et al., 1994; Quick et al., 2009). Figure 6 shows that the
magmas that first fed into the lower part of this deep-crustal
magma chamber had relatively high eNd and low 87Sr/86Sr,
combined with trace element characteristics that indicate
derivation from a depleted mantle source (Voshage et al.,
1990; Sinigoi et al., 1994). Gabbros higher in the Complex, in
contrast, have mineral assemblages (abundant spinel, garnet,
and orthopyroxene) and the combination of low eNd and high
Th/Nb that signal massive contamination with crustal rocks.
Partial melting of the metasediments that surround the intru-
sion and the presence of rafts of melt-depleted metasediment
within the gabbros point to local wall rocks as the contami-
nant. Throughout the upper 90% of the intrusion, the isotopic
and trace element composition is uniform, illustrating once
again the efficacy of mixing and homogenization in a crustal
magma chamber.
In a later section it is argued that the SCLM, being het-
erogeneous at all scales, is most unlikely to produce homoge-
neous magma.
The calculated amount of assimilated crust is unreasonably
high: In many papers the amount of crustal contamination is
1958 NICHOLAS ARNDT

Fig. 5. Variations of selected major and trace elements and Sr isotope compositions in the Siberian Traps (data from
Wooden et al. 1993). The different symbols distinguish the lithologic units and are not relevant to the issues discussed
here. The compositions of lavas in the upper two-thirds of the volcanic pile have remarkably uniform compositions, despite
elevated values of indices such as Th/Nb, La/Sm, and 87Sr/86Sr that indicate the presence of a significant component of conti-
nental crust (Wooden et al., 1993; Arndt et al., 2003). The diagram shows that magmas that are heavily contaminated through
assimilation of crustal rocks can maintain uniform compositions.

Ivrea Zone – mafic complex calculated using geochemical data and values exceeding 30
to 50% are obtained. On thermal grounds, it is argued that
contamination must be accompanied by crystallization in the
DIO proportion of at least 1:3 (DePaolo, 1981; Bohrson and Spera,
2001), which requires that the magma would totally crystallize
before 30 to 50% of crust was added. It is also claimed that if
MG so much crust were added, the contaminated magma should
have a silica-rich, highly evolved composition, not the basaltic
7.5 km

composition of common flood volcanics.

What is wrong with these arguments? First, in many studies
the choice of parental magma is open to question. A com-
UZ mon error is the adoption of the most magnesian basalt in the
sample suite (e.g., Molzahn et al., 1996), even though it can
often be demonstrated that such basalts are too evolved to
be primary magmas. Melting beneath thick SCLM produces
picritic to komatiitic magmas (Wooden et al., 1993; Herz-
berg, 1999), to which large amounts of crust can be added
IZ without exceeding a basaltic composition. Second, because
800 m

BZ Fig. 6. Variation of Nd isotope composition in the mafic complex of the

Ivrea zone. In the upper 7.5 km of the complex, compositions are uniform
despite abundant mineralogical and geochemical evidence of crustal contam-
ination (Sinigoi et al., 1994; Quick et al., 2009). The strongly negative eNd(t)
-10 -5 0 5 10 indicate that the magmas are heavily contaminated but their compositions
are homogeneous. This is another illustration that crustal contamination of
εNd (270 Ma) mantle-derived magmas does not produce heterogeneous hybrid magmas.
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1959
of the large difference between the liquidus temperature
of picrite and the temperature of appearance of the second
major phase (usually pyroxene), these highly magnesian mag-
mas can accommodate a large proportion of assimilated crust
(Mungall, 2007). Third, the contaminant is probably not bulk
continental crust but a partial melt of this crust that contains
far higher concentrations of incompatible trace elements
(Thompson et al., 1984; Williams et al., 2011). In the Ivrea
zone, there is strong geological and geochemical support
for the argument that partial melt from metasediment was
added to the mafic magma to produce the distinctive min-
eral assemblages and geochemical compositions observed in
the Mafic Complex (Voshage et al., 1990; Sinigoi et al., 1991;
Quick et al., 2009). In other cases, it can be demonstrated that
the assimilated material does not melt completely but breaks
down to a molten fraction, which mixes into the host magma,
and a solid residue that reacts with the magma or remains
as xenocrysts. The heat required to absorb a contaminant in
this way is less than the heat required for total melting. When
such factors are taken into account, the calculated amount of
assimilated crust in most suites of continental basalts remains
within reasonable physical and chemical limits.
Composition of the SCLM
The compositions of various components of the SCLM,
using information from mantle xenoliths, peridotite massifs,
and mantle-derived magmas, are evaluated in this section.
Four components can be identified, as illustrated in Figure 7.
Component 1: Depleted lithospheric mantle: The mantle
beneath Archean cratons (DL, Figs. 2, 7) is composed mainly
of harzburgite or dunite containing olivine and orthopyrox-
ene with high Mg numbers and only small amounts of easily
fusible minerals (Boyd and Mertzman, 1987; Menzies, 1990a;
Ionov et al., 1992; Griffin et al., 1999, 2003, 2009; Pearson
and Nowell, 2002; Pearson et al., 2004; Simon et al., 2007).
The trace element compositions are difficult to establish
because of common contamination of mantle xenoliths by the
host kimberlite or alkali basalt, but whole-rock compositions
reconstructed from mineral compositions reveal low concen-
trations of incompatible trace elements (Fig. 8a, b; Simon et
al., 2007). Isotopic compositions reflect the trace elements,
with high eNd, and low 87Sr/86Sr and gOs. Depleted harzbur-
gite or dunite was the initial building block of the lithospheric
mantle, but through geologic time it has been modified by the
addition of metasomatic material (Menzies, 1990a, b; Griffin
et al., 1998, 2003; Simon et al., 2007; Foley, 2008). Depleted
harzburgite and dunite is also a common component of peri-
dotite massifs like Rhonda or Lherz (Maaloe and Aoki, 1977;
Bodinier et al., 2004).
Component 2: Eclogite and pyroxenite (EC, Figs. 2, 7): Sev-
eral origins are attributed to this component: fragments of
ocean crust that were trapped in the lithosphere during its for-
mation, solidified intrusions of melt from deeper in the man-
tle, or the products of reaction between melt and older
lithosphere (MacGregor and Manton, 1981; Jacob, 2004; Pear-
son et al., 2004; Bodinier et al., 2008; Gréau et al., 2011). The
eclogitic component has a basaltic composition and a high-pres-
sure assemblage consisting mainly of garnet and sodic pyrox-
ene. The levels of lithophile trace elements are higher than in
depleted lithosphere, and the more incompatible elements
are relatively depleted (in the case of relict ocean crust) or
enriched (in solidified melt from the asthenosphere).
Component 3: Metasomatized mantle (MM and CM): Meta-
somatism has changed the composition of large parts of the
SCLM. Clear evidence of metasomatism is revealed by Sr-Nd-
Hf-Pb isotope ratios that depart considerably from those of
basalts in an oceanic domain. It should be noted, however,
that even where extremely enriched Nd and Sr isotope com-
positions exist in the SCLM; they are usually accompanied by
unusually low Nd and Sr concentrations (Pearson and Nowell,
2002).
Volatile-bearing rocks such as phlogopite-K richterite peri-
dotite and pyroxenite record interaction with two types of
fluid: high-temperature silicate melt, and lower temperature
fluid or melt composed dominantly of CO2 and H2O (Hawkes-
worth et al., 1984b; Menzies and Hawkesworth, 1987; Griffin
et al., 1999; Ionov et al., 2002; Simon et al., 2007; Konc et al.,
2012). Interaction with silicate melt changes the mineralogy
of depleted lithospheric mantle by introducing components
such as clinopyroxene and potassic amphibole and mica to
transform the original harzburgite to phlogopite-K-richterite
lherzolites (Erlank et al., 1987; Gregoire et al., 2003). The
extreme example of this metasomatism is MARID (Figs. 7,
8), a rock composed mainly of mica, amphibole, rutile, ilmen-
ite, and diopside. Strongly metasomatized mantle is enriched
in incompatible trace elements, but the signature from the
two types is different. Melt-metasomatized mantle (MM) is
broadly enriched in all incompatible elements and it has a
chemical signature like that of the end members of an array
defined by the compositions of ocean island basalts. It is rela-
tively enriched in the majority of incompatible trace elements
but not in those with the lowest partition coefficients. Man-
tle-normalized patterns commonly show a peak around La
with, in many cases, a positive Nb-Ta anomaly (McDonough,
1990; Pearson and Nowell, 2002). Lower temperature meta-
somatism by CO2-H2O fluids or melts (CM) produces more
subtle changes in mineralogy but imparts a distinctive trace
element signature distinguished by enrichment in elements
such as Rb, Ba, Sr, and the REE and pronounced depletion of
all the high field strength elements, including Zr-Hf as well as
Nb-Ta, and Ti (Yaxley et al., 1991, 1998; Ionov and Harmer,
2002; Pearson et al., 2003; Fig. 8d).
Because the sources of the fluids responsible for both types
of metasomatism come from deep in the mantle, this type of
metasomatism might be expected to affect preferentially the
lower part of the lithospheric mantle. However, K-richterite
is not stable at the base of the SCLM and while it is difficult
to estimate directly the depth of equilibration from MARID
assemblages, they are widely believed to form at depths of
no more than 100 to 120 km. Because of the low solidi of
most hydrous metasomatic components, they do not freeze
at the high temperatures at the base of the lithosphere but
would instead penetrate to mid-lithospheric depths (McKen-
zie, 1989).
Component 4: The “subduction” component (SC). This com-
ponent is produced in the mantle wedge when hydrous fluid
or melt introduces a distinctive suite of major and trace ele-
ments from dehydrating subducting ocean crust. The mantle
wedge has high Si and low Fe, giving it a distinctive harzbur-
gitic mineralogy, and it is strongly enriched in fluid-mobile
1960 NICHOLAS ARNDT

2.5
2,5
Low-Ti basalt High-Ti basalt
MARID Perid xenolith
2.0 Carbon xenolith Continental crust
2,0
Mantle Bushveld

(Nb/La)N 1.5
1,5
OIB
CMM MARID
(Nb/La)N

1.0
1,0 DM

0.5
0,5
DL LCC UCC
Bushveld
0.0
0,0
0.0
0,0 1.0 0,5 2.0 1,0 3.0 1,5 4.0 2,05.0 6.0
2,5
(La/Sm)N
(Zr/Sm)N

2.5

2.0

OIB MARID
1.5
(Nb/La)N

1.0 DM

0.5 CMM
LCC UCC

DL Bushveld
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

(Zr/Sm)N
Fig. 7. Comparison between the compositions of basalts and possible components of the subcontinental lithospheric man-
tle. The parental magmas of magmatic ore deposits have compositions similar to low Ti basalt, as illustrated by flood basalts
from the Siberian and Karoo provinces (Wooden et al., 1993; Jourdan et al., 2007). High Ti basalt represented by examples
from the Siberian and Ethiopian provinces (Wooden et al., 1993; Kieffer et al., 2004) do not normally contain ore deposits.
Mantle components are represented by: MARID = strongly metasomatized peridotite from Grégoire et al. (2002); Perid xeno-
lith (DL) = reconstructed compositions of peridotite xenoliths from Simon et al. (2007); carbon xenolith (CMM) = carbonated
xenoliths. UCC = upper continental crust, LCC = lower continental crust (Rudnick and Fountain, 1995); DM = depleted
upper mantle, OIB = source of Hawaiian basalts (Hofmann, 1988); Bushveld = marginal sills (Sharpe, 1982; Wilson, 2012).
Notes: (a) The compositions of flood basalts are aligned between mantle sources, either DM or OIB and the compositions
of upper or lower continental crust. They do not coincide with compositions of components in the SCLM which show a much
larger spread of compositions. (b) The wide diversity of compositions of components in the SCLM is unlikely to give rise to
magmas of uniform compositions such as those illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.

elements such as Cs, Rb, and Sr, moderately enriched in Th
and the REE, and deficient in Nb-Ta and Ti (Hawkesworth
et al., 1994; Eiler, 2003; Pearce et al., 2005). Similar charac-
teristics are ascribed to the portions of the SCLM that are
said to give rise to continental flood basalts (Hawkesworth et
al., 1984b, 1988; Sweeney and Watkeys, 1990; Hergt et al.,
1991; Menzies, 1992b; Lightfoot et al., 1993, 1994; Lassiter
and DePaolo, 1997; Shirey, 1997; Zhang et al., 2009; Ionov,
2010). Unlike carbonate-metasomatized mantle, this compo-
nent is not deficient in Zr-Hf relative to the REE. It contains
moderate to high 87Sr/86Sr and gOs values while eNd varies
from distinctly positive to slightly negative. The fact that very
few lavas in subduction settings record eNd values less than
about −3 is important for the following discussion.
Although it is commonly proposed that parts of the SCLM
formed in a subduction setting, or that ancient mantle wedge
is incorporated at a later stage into the SCLM, the subduc-
tion component is only poorly represented in xenolith suites
(McDonough, 1990; Arndt and Christensen, 1992; Pearson
and Nowell, 2002; Pearson et al., 2004). Analyses of an ancient
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1961

(c) MARID
(a) Depleted peridotite

(d) Carbonate

(b)

(f) Amphibole harzburgites

(e) Lherzolites

W"
Websterites

Fig. 8. Mantle normalized trace elements in probable components of the SCLM. (a) and (b) Compositions of peridotite
xenoliths from the Kaapvaal craton, reconstructed from the compositions of primary minerals by Simon et al. (2007); (c)
MARID-type xenoliths (Grégoire et al., 2002); (d) Carbonate minerals in xenoliths (diagram from Pearson et al. (2003) using
data from Ionov and Harmer (2002); (e) and (f) Peridotites from the Rhonda massif (from Bodinier et al., 2008).
1962 NICHOLAS ARNDT

mantle wedge, as sampled in xenoliths in volcanoes of the
Kamchatka arc (Ionov, 2010), reveal a large range of composi-
tions but lack the “subduction signature” (Fig. 9). Very few
samples show the over enrichment of fluid-soluble elements
like Ba, Rb, and Sr that distinguish magmas from subduction
zones. In addition, rather than being deficient in Nb and Ta
(i.e., having negative Nb-Ta anomalies), these xenoliths dis-
play a wide range of Nb/La ratios, the majority higher than
the chondritic ratio.
Chalcophile and Highly Siderophile Elements
in SCLM Components
The PGE contents of the mantle components can be esti-
mated in several ways: (1) inference based on the geochemi-
cal behavior of these elements during partial melting and
crystallization (Keays, 1982, 1995; Rehkämper et al., 1999),
(2) through measurements of the concentrations of these
metals in mantle xenoliths or peridotite massifs (Pearson et
al., 2003), and (3) through measurements of the PGE con-
tents of high-degree mantle melts like komatiites (Fiorentini
et al., 2011). Information obtained through measurements
of PGE contents of mafic and more evolved volcanic rocks
is subject to major uncertainties because of the sensitivity of
the PGE to the segregation or accumulation of sulfide during
passage through the crust (Rehkämper et al., 1999). In addi-
tion, Lorand et al. (2003), Pearson et al. (2003), and Wittig
et al. (2010) have pointed out that seemingly fertile mantle
peridotite may show the effects of multiple episodes of melt
extraction and metasomatism, which would have significantly
altered their trace element contents and obscured the signal
from the mantle source.
Maier et al. (2012) recently summarized the PGE contents
of peridotite xenoliths from the Kaapvaal and Karelian cratons
and reported the data summarized in Figure 10. To these can

4
(a) Udachnaya xenoliths
Mantle wedge
3 Peridotite massif
(Nb/La) N

convecting
1
mantle
low-Ti basalts
Upper continental crust
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

(La/Sm) N

4
(b)
3
(Nb/La) N

high-Ti basalts
1

Upper continental crust

low-Ti basalts
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

(Zr/Sm) N
Fig. 9. Comparison between the compositions of flood basalts (fields labelled “high-Ti” and “low-Ti” taken from Fig. 7)
and the compositions of little-altered xenoliths from the Udachnaya kimberlite (Ionov et al., 2010) and xenoliths from an
ancient mantle wedge (Ionov, 2010). Note the vast range of compositions of the samples from the SCLM, and the absence of
the “subduction signature,” i.e. (Nb/La)N <1 and high La/Sm, in samples from the mantle wedge.
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1963

0.1 mineralogical and geochemical evidence of metasomatism, the

extreme example being the MARID rocks (Fig. 10c), Pt and to
Metals / C1 chondrite

a lesser extent Pd are slightly enriched compared to Ir, but the

overall levels of PGE remain low. Indeed, Lorand et al. (2003)
0.01 and Pearson et al. (2004) concluded that interaction with per-
colating melts commonly leads to a reduction of PGE abun-
A\-#J" dances, because intergranular sulfides are dissolved and
removed. In the data compiled by Maier et al. (2012) and other
0.001 authors, there is very little evidence of the enriched source
that is said to provide metals to magmatic ore deposits.
To further explore the models that invoke an SCLM source
Jagersfontein of ore metals, in the following section the probable chalco-
0.0001 phile element characteristics of the mantle components iden-
0.1 tified in the previous section are summarized.
Depleted lithospheric mantle
Metals / C1 chondrite

This refractory material contains only moderate concen-

0.01 trations of IPGE, usually within error of those of the primi-
tive mantle (Irvine et al., 2003; Pearson et al., 2004; Wittig
et al., 2010). These elements are retained in alloys and accu-
mulate with olivine. Concentrations of the PPGE are far
A\-#J" lower because these elements are removed with the melt
0.001
that extracted other incompatible elements. Most Ni will be
bound up in olivine but a very minor amount will be pres-
Frank Smith ent together with Cu in sulfides. The Pt and Pd contents of
MORB typically are lower than those of the primitive mantle
0.0001
(Keays, 1995; Rehkämpfer et al., 1999).
0.1
MARID Eclogite
Metals / C1 chondrite

The PGE contents of this component are difficult to estab-

0.01
A\-#J"
0.001
0.0001
Os Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au
Fig. 10. Concentrations of chalcophile and highly siderophile elements,
normalized to chondrites, in selected examples of xenoliths from the SCLM
of the Kaapvaal craton (from Maier et al. 2012).
be added analyses of xenoliths from the lithosphere beneath
the Slave (Irvine et al., 2003; Pearson et al., 2003) and Siberian
(Ionov et al., 2010) cratons, from the mantle beneath younger
continental crust (e.g. (Handler and Bennett, 1999), and from
subduction settings, the latter representing the composition
of the mantle wedge (McInnes et al. 1999; Ionov, 2010).
Inspection of these data shows that the measured PGE con-
tents are in most cases very low and with few exceptions do
not have the patterns predicted for the sources of metals in
ore deposits. Most samples in Maier et al.’s (2012) compila-
tion (Fig.10) have PGE levels that vary from a tenth to a hun-
dredth of those in primitive mantle and the palladium-platinum
group elements (PPGE) are depleted relative to the iridium-
platinum group elements (IPGE). In xenoliths displaying
lish because the behavior of PGE during subduction is not
well understood. Gréau et al. (2011) reported only small
amounts (0 to a maximum of 5%) of base metal sulfides in
eclogite xenoliths in South African kimberlites. PGE mea-
sured in the sulfides in eclogites and associated gabbros
interpreted to have cycled through a subduction zone have
unusual patterns, being enriched in Ru and Rh, and very low
Pt. Overall levels are higher than those of primitive mantle
and comparable to levels in mid-ocean ridge basalts, which
are the probable source of these rocks (MacGregor and Man-
ton, 1981; Jacob, 2004).
Metasomatized mantle (MM and CM)
The agents of metasomatism of the lithospheric mantle
most probably are volatile-rich, low-volume silicate melts or
carbonate-rich fluids derived from moderate to great depth in
the mantle below the lithosphere (Hawkesworth et al., 1984a;
Griffin et al., 2003; Simon et al., 2007). The compositions of
the silicate melts likely resemble those of low-degree partial
melts like meimechites and alkali picrites (Arndt et al., 2004):
if so they contain high concentrations of PGE and moderately
fractionated patterns. If Mungall et al’s (2002) explanation
for high PGE contents in meimechites and other low-degree
melts is correct, these fluids were relatively oxidizing. Data on
the PGE contents of carbonatites are sparse but there is little
evidence that they contain abnormally high concentrations of
PGE. Analyses of carbonates in mantle xenoliths have rela-
tively high concentrations and moderately fractionated pat-
terns, but the PGE contents of carbonatites appear to be low
(1 ppt Os, G. Pearson, pers commun.).
1964 NICHOLAS ARNDT
The “subduction” component (SC)
The PGE content of the fluid and/or melt transferred from
subducting crust into the lithosphere is difficult to establish.
Woodland et al. (2002) concluded that the PGE are little
affected by the extraction of fluid from the subducting slab.
If so, this portion of the mantle probably would have PGE
contents similar to that of refractory Archean lithosphere with
moderate concentrations of IPGE and very low concentra-
tions of the PPGE. Lee (2002) reported these characteristics
in xenoliths from western United States. Overall PGE con-
centrations are near chondritic levels, as inferred from stud-
ies of arc lavas (Mungall, 2002; Jenner et al., 2010). Dale et
al. (2009, 2012) in their study of PGE contents in arc lavas
found that the PPGE were strongly enriched compared to
the IPGE; extraction of this melt would leave the residue
extremely depleted in PPGE. McInnes et al. (1999) showed
that xenoliths from beneath the Lihir volcano, presumed to
represent samples from the subarc lithosphere, are enriched
in Au and PGE.
Importantly, if the subduction component does indeed
come from the mantle wedge, it will be relatively oxidized and
much of the sulfur will be present as sulfate, not sulfide. The
absence of sulfide saturation leads to high concentrations of
chalcophile elements in residual liquids (Jenner et al. 2010)
but such magmas will need to be reduced by assimilation of a
reductant such as organic matter if sulfide is to segregate at an
early stage of crystallization.
Summary
Although there is no doubt that parts of the SCLM are
metasomatized and contain elevated concentrations of incom-
patible trace elements and in some cases volatiles, there is
little evidence that these regions are the source of metals in
magmatic ore deposits. The component of the lithospheric
mantle that is most commonly cited as a source of continen-
tal basalts—ancient subduction-affected lithosphere—is in
fact very poorly represented in most xenolith suites and in
peridotite massifs, and it probably forms only a minor part
of the cratonic lithospheric mantle. Even if ancient mantle
wedge formed part of the original building blocks of the con-
tinental lithosphere, its distinctive geochemical signature has
subsequently been overprinted by the influx of fluids from
sources deeper in the mantle. The most abundant types of
metasomatized SCLM have trace element and isotopic com-
positions that are distinct from those of the parental magmas
of most magmatic ore deposits (Figs. 7, 9), excluding them
as a potential source of these magmas. And finally, there is
little evidence that metasomatized portions of the mantle are
abnormally enriched in chalcophile and highly siderophile
elements.
The Plausibility of Models Invoking an
SCLM Source
As mentioned in the Introduction, the validity of models
invoking extraction of ore metals from the lithospheric mantle
is very rarely discussed; in many if not all cases, an SCLM
source is adopted by default. When such models are scruti-
nized, they are seen to be far less plausible than those invok-
ing within-crust processes.
The problem of extracting magma from cold
subcontinental lithospheric mantle
As pointed out by Arndt and Christensen (1992) and
emphasized by other authors (Menzies, 1992a; Sharma et al.,
1992; Wooden et al., 1993; Saunders et al., 2005), the sub-
continental lithospheric mantle is a highly improbable source
of voluminous mafic magma. For the lithospheric mantle to
have survived beneath the continents for billions of years,
it must have had low density and high viscosity, characteris-
tics imparted by its refractory composition, its relatively low
temperature, and its low water content. All these characteris-
tics also make it particularly resistant to partial melting. Gal-
lagher and Hawkesworth (1992) suggested that part of the
lithospheric mantle, probably a basal layer, would melt if its
composition had been modified through the introduction of
volatiles and other components that reduced its melting tem-
perature. They proposed that the Siberian traps and other
continental flood basalts might have formed when heat from
a mantle plume induced melting in a metasomatized layer at
the base of the lithosphere. They further inferred, on the basis
of the trace element contents of continental flood basalts, that
the metasomatism had taken place in a subduction setting
to introduce the so-called subduction component. Likewise,
other authors (Hatton and Sharpe, 1988) have proposed that
the sources of the Bushveld Complex and other layered intru-
sions were portions of the SCLM that had been enriched in
subducted material such as detrital sediment. Does this model
stand close scrutiny?
An immediate problem stems from the compositions of
mantle xenoliths, in which the subduction component is very
poorly represented (Figs. 7−9). In the compilations made
by Ionov et al. (1992, 1997) or Maier et al. (2012) very few
samples show the particular combination of trace element and
isotopic features thought to characterize the mantle wedge
above a subduction zone; i.e., very high contents of fluid-
soluble large-ion lithophile elements (LILE) like Cs, Rb, Pb,
and Sr, intermediate contents of Th and the REE, low con-
centrations of Nb-Ta and Ti (but not Zr-Hf), high 87Sr/86Sr
and γOs, and moderate εNd. In the xenolith suites, extremely
few samples are overenriched in LILE and most do not show
negative Nb-Ta anomalies. Of those that do, the majority are
depleted as well in Zr-Hf and Ti, the tell-tale sign of carbon-
ate metasomatism (Figs. 7−9). These features are absent from
almost all continental flood basalts, including those that host
magmatic ore deposits.
There are, however, abundant examples of xenoliths that
have been metasomatized by fluids or silicate melts from
deeper in the mantle. These peridotites do contain volatiles
in minerals such as amphibole, phlogopite, or carbonate that
would reduce their melting temperatures; material with this
composition would melt preferentially if heat were conducted
into the lithosphere from a mantle plume. But would such a
source yield metal-enriched magmas of the type that are said
to produce magmatic ore deposits? Here again the answer is
negative, for several reasons. First, even in MARID rocks the
content of PGE (not to mention Ni, Cu, and Cr) is low. Second,
magmas issuing from such rocks would have high contents
of highly to moderately incompatible elements and in terms
of their trace elements (if not their isotopic compositions),
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1965
they would resemble the high Ti suite of continental flood
basalts. In regions containing magmatic ore depositions such
as Norilsk-Talnakh in Russia, the low Ti suite, not the high Ti
suite, contains the ores (Wooden et al., 1993; Lightfoot et al.,
1994; Arndt et al., 1998).
Another source of information about compositions in parts
of the continental lithosphere also provides little support
for the SCLM model. Analyses of peridotite massifs such as
Rhonda and Lherz (Reisberg and Zindler, 1987; Garuti et al.,
1997; Bodinier et al., 2004, 2008) also reveals a large range of
compositions but nothing appropriate as a source of metals
in ore deposits. In the Rhonda massif, for example, incom-
patible element contents are low, Pb anomalies are negative,
and most samples lack negative Nb-Ta anomalies (Bodinier
et al., 2004,2008). Those samples that do have deficits in
Nb-Ta are also depleted in Zr-Hf, the signature of carbonatite
metasomatism.
Yet another problem arises from the uniform compositions
of flood basalts and other magmas parental to ore depos-
its (Figs. 5, 6). As pointed out in the section in which these
compositions were discussed, the process that homogenizes
magmas in the continental crust operates in a shallow crustal
setting. The alternative—that the uniform major and trace
element composition reflects that of the mantle source—
is difficult to reconcile with the vast range of compositions
documented or inferred in the SCLM. Figure 9 contrasts the
restricted range of compositions of flood basalts, which are
confined to an array between the sublithosphere mantle and
continental crust, with the enormous spread defined by analy-
ses of various types of xenoliths.
An alternative way to address the problem is to consider
the likely distribution of metasomatized components within
the SCLM and manner in which they could have been tapped
by invading magma. As mentioned in the section on compo-
nents in the SCLM, although the source of metasomatizing
fluids is the underlying mantle, these fluids penetrate to mid-
lithospheric depths before solidifying. No matter whether the
cause of melting was advection of heat from a plume beneath
the lithosphere (as advocated by Gallagher and Hawkesworth,
1992), invasion of hydrous fluid (Fiorentini and Beresford,
2008), or ascent of the lithosphere during rifting, any melting
should take place preferentially at the base of the lithosphere.
The degree of melting may vary considerably but on average
it will be low and, if the composition were constant, it will
decrease upward from the base of the lithosphere. The prod-
uct will be a mixture of melts derived by variable degrees of
melting of components spanning the entire range illustrated
in Figures 7 to 9. The overwhelming characteristic of magma
from the SCLM will therefore be extreme heterogeneity (as
displayed by lamprophyres and alkalic magmas that demon-
strably come from the SCLM; Rock, 1991), not the remark-
able homogeneity that typifies the parental magmas of ore
deposits.
Transport of metals by magma passing through the SCLM
Recognizing that the SCLM is an unlikely source of volu-
minous melt, Richardson and Shirey (2008, p. 912) proposed
that magma from the underlying convecting mantle “heats
and preferentially removes the low-temperature-melting sul-
phide and other metasomatic phases from harzburgite and
eclogite comprising the Archaean mantle keel of the Kaapvaal
craton.” Given the unusual Os isotope and trace element char-
acteristics of Bushveld magmas (Richardson and Shirey, 2008;
Fig.6), and the unusual seismic characteristics of lithospheric
mantle beneath the complex (Webb et al., 2004), some inter-
action of this type cannot be ruled out. Whether or not the
process is more widespread remains uncertain.
Zhang et al. (2008, p. 167) suggested that “large-volume
plume-derived hot magmas may scavenge osmium and other
PGEs from the cratonic sulfides in old SCLM keels on their
way to the surface.” Based on their study of the Ivrea zone
of Italy, Fiorentini and Beresford (2008, p. 339) suggested
that hydrous fluids from a sublithosphere source (a slightly
hydrated plume?) both created a zone of Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide
enrichment in the SCLM and caused it to melt. In their model,
“The lowering of the peridotite solidus because of increased
water activity caused the harzburgite in the zone percolated
by fluids to undergo partial melting, thus producing pock-
ets of volatile-rich sulphide-bearing ultramafic magma that
evolved to form independent intrusions.” In other words, they
assign two separate roles to the fluid: first, it introduces the
metasomatic components, including the ore metals; second,
it causes the peridotite to melt. Whether the two processes
can be separated in this way is contentious—if the metals are
introduced in the incoming hydrous fluids, which themselves
are the cause of partial melting, why is it necessary to invoke
the presence of metal-rich zones in the SCLM? Could not the
metals be transferred directly from source to surface, without
being stored in an SCLM reservoir? Some type of scavenging
of chalcophile and siderophile elements for the SCLM may be
possible, but at present the mechanism is very poorly under-
stood; the process as a whole requires further investigation.
Alternatives to the SCLM Model
Melting of recycled components in mantle plumes
It is now well established that mantle plumes contain, in
addition to peridotite, a component of recycled material such
as oceanic crust or sediment, or fragments from the continen-
tal lithosphere (Hofmann and White, 1982; Sobolev et al.,
2007). This material has compositions different from that of
normal convecting mantle and in many respects it is similar to
some of the measured or inferred components of the SCLM
(White, 1985; Zindler and Hart, 1986; White, 2010). In par-
ticular, the presence of recycled sediment, as in the Samoa
plume, imparts a “continental” trace element and isotopic sig-
nature, i.e., enriched incompatible elements, a negative Nb
and a positive Pb anomaly, high 87Sr/86Sr, and low 143Nd/144Nd.
Partial melting of eclogite derived from recycled crust pro-
duces relatively siliceous magma. Rather than automatically
assuming that every enriched mantle source must be in the
SCLM, some consideration should be given to the possibility
that such components reside in mantle plumes.
Interaction between magmas derived from beneath
the lithosphere and the continental crust
Rehkämper et al. (1999, p. 3925) noted that “the PGE are
probably not well suited as geochemical tracers of basalt source
compositions, because the PGE systematics of melts are so
readily modified during petrogenesis.” They were referring
1966 NICHOLAS ARNDT
to processes such as crystallization, segregation of sulfides, or
interaction with wall rocks that can radically change the PGE
content of magma as it passes through the continental crust.
The key mechanism was outlined in an insightful paper by
Kerr and Leitch (2005) who described how the chalcophile
element contents change dramatically as sulfides first accu-
mulate then redissolve in an incoming flux of S-undersatu-
rated magma. Through this process, the PGE contents in
the incoming magma may reach high levels. Li et al. (2009)
adopted these ideas to explain the high PGE tenors in ore of
the Norilsk-Talnakh deposits. Other authors (Campbell et al.,
1983; Czamanske et al., 1995; Beresford et al., 2002; Lesher
and Keays, 2002; Naldrett, 2004) have emphasized that ore
formation is essentially a matter of segregation of sulfide liq-
uid or oxides followed by remobilization of these materials
and upgrading of the metal contents of the sulfide liquid (i.e.,
the tenor) through reaction with incoming magmas. In most
cases the variability in tenor can be explained in terms of mass
balance between silicate and sulfide melt in different physical
or dynamic settings, (R factors, N factors; Campbell and Nal-
drett, 1979; Lesher and Burnham, 1999; Naldrett, 2008) and
that this source of variance swamps the variability in magma
compositions.
In most of these models, the source of the magma is con-
sidered to be a mantle plume. In the view of many authors,
there is no other credible way of producing a large volume of
mafic magma, including highly magnesian picrite or komati-
ite, in a short period in time, as was the case for the Siberian
traps (Campbell et al., 1992) or the Bushveld Complex (Caw-
thorn, 1998; Wilson, 2012). Objections to plume models, for
example, a lack of uplift preceding magmatism (Czamanske
et al., 1998) or questions about the quantity of melt that can
be extracted from a source at sublithospheric depths (e.g.,
Anderson et al., 1992) are countered by recent work in which
plumes are shown to contain a high proportion of recycled
oceanic crust (Cordery et al., 1997; Sobolev et al., 2011). For
other Ni-Cu sulfide deposits, such as Jinchuan in China, the
tectonic context is poorly known.
The Standard Model: Revisited
In previous sections, the case was made that ore metals
in orthomagmatic deposits are rarely if ever derived from
sources in the SCLM model. It now remains to be shown that
the standard model provides a better explanation. Consider
the following arguments:
1.  There is abundant evidence that large volumes of mag-
mas come from sources in the asthenosphere or in mantle
plumes. The compositions of these magmas are known within
reasonable limits—mid-ocean ridge basalt provides an esti-
mate of the composition of melts from ambient upper mantle
and basalts, and picrites from localities such as Hawaii, Reun-
ion, and Gorgona give the compositions of magmas produced
by moderate to high degrees of melting in mantle plumes.
Using constraints from experimental petrology we can infer
the compositions of melts produced in similar sources but
at greater depths beneath the continental lithosphere. At
high pressures, peridotite from a hot source like that which
formed the Gorgona komatiites would undergo low to mod-
erate degrees of melting and would yield meimechite or
alkali picrite. An eclogitic component would first convert to
pyroxenite, then undergo more extensive melting to produce
tholeiitic picrite. These magmas, which are well represented
in continental flood volcanic provinces, contain high contents
of Ni, Cu, and the PGE.
2. There is ample evidence that such magmas interact
with and assimilate continental crust as they ascend toward
the surface. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine how these dense,
hot magmas could escape contamination. Several examples of
this interaction are cited in the earlier sections where crustal
contamination is discussed (see Figs. 5, 6). The only types of
magma that may escape contamination are volatile-charged
magmas such as those that form by low degrees of partial
melting of enriched sources, as is the case for magmas from
metasomatized SCLM. The dissolved volatiles reduce signifi-
cantly the density of the magma, which renders it less likely to
be trapped at density discontinuities at the base of, or within,
the crust (Arndt et al., 1998). In addition, the strong pressure
dependence of CO2 solubility causes this phase to exsolve at
lower crustal depths, creating bubbles that propel the magma
to the surface. Such volatile-rich magmas, exemplified by the
barren Gudchikhin picrites and meimechites from the Sibe-
rian volcanic province, only rarely contain ore deposits (Arndt
et al., 2004).
3.  Segregation of immiscible sulfide liquid, a crucial step in
the formation of most orthomagmatic ore deposits, is trig-
gered by interaction with crustal rocks (Naldrett, 2008). Two
processes—the incorporation of sulfur from sedimentary
rock and assimilation of siliceous material, which decreases
the sulfide solubility—play a role. In many examples, the
metal contents of the ore may be upgraded as magma moves
through the conduit system. Both crustal assimilation and
upgrading operate most efficiently when the magma is hot
and fluid. With the exception of some extreme examples of
PGE reef deposits, almost the entire range of PGE, Ni, and
Cu contents in magmatic sulfide are compatible with varia-
tions in the R factor coupled with normal magmatic pro-
cesses. Such processes operate efficiently in high-temperature,
low-viscosity, volatile-poor magma, but not for volatile-rich
magmas, which are transformed by the loss of their volatiles
during approach to the surface to phenocryst-charged viscous
mush.
Conclusions
Very little evidence supports models that advocate an
SCLM source of the metals in magmatic ore deposits. In
many papers, an SCLM source is assumed by default, with
no consideration of the plausibility of such a model. Examina-
tion of the probable compositions in the subcontinental litho-
spheric mantle reveals a paucity of compositions resembling
those of ore-forming magmas. In addition, the processes that
extract metals from a putative SCLM source are very poorly
constrained.
Far more plausible are models in which the high concen-
trations of chalcophile and siderophile elements in orthom-
agmatic ores result from interaction between magma from
sublithospheric sources and the continental crust. This inter-
action results in the segregation and mobilization of sulfide, a
process that under favorable conditions is capable of generat-
ing large quantities of high-grade ore.
 LITHOSPHERIC MANTLE: FORMATION OF ORTHOMAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS 1967
Acknowledgments
The research reported here was supported indirectly by
grants from the French Agence Nationale de Recherche,
project M&Ms; the American National Research Foundation,
Continental Geodynamics program; the French Centre
national de la recherche scientifique, and the Université
Joseph Fourier in Grenoble. Special thanks go to the two
journal reviewers, Marco Fiorentini and Graham Pearson, for
their very useful and constructive comments and to the journal
editors, Larry Meinert and Steve Barnes for their assistance.
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