Networking Key word

Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM)

Time-Division-Multiplexing (TDM)
Circuit switching -
Routing Connection Oriented
Routing:
PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORKS
PSTN Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Statistical Multiplexing (SM)
Packets Switching
Routing: Connection/Connectionless
Oriented

Time Division Multiplexing • Assume that the bandwidth is shared by the terminals
transmitting at different times.
•Assume that we have m communication terminals, T1, T2, .., Tm
sharing a transmission line, how do we schedule the sharing of
communication bandwidth?
• We also assume that a scheduling mechanism is available
so that the transmissions are conflict free, namely, that no
T1 T2 Tm two terminals attempt to transmit at the same time.

• We call this scheduled or arbitrated access communication.

BROADBAND BUS
• In the absence of an arbitration mechanism, two
communication terminals may transmit at the same time,
SCHEDULER
often resulting in unintelligible transmissions.
Multiplexing with scheduling

The Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Two basic approaches to multiplexing:
1. The first approach assumes a common time reference among the
terminals. We call this time reference a frame reference.
The communication bandwidth assigned for each terminal is
termed a circuit. This mode of multiplexing is commonly known
as the Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM).
2. The second approach assumes no frame reference among the
terminals, hence the name Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
This mode allows more flexible sharing of bandwidth by avoiding
rigid bandwidth assignments.
Bandwidth is seized on demand, and the information transmitted
(together with a proper label) upon a successful seizure is termed
a packet.
• The definition of a frame depends on the bit-rates of the terminals
multiplexed on the transmission link.
• The choice of frame structure is difficult since we have little
knowledge of the traffic mix.
• An alternative approach abandons the concept of a frame reference
altogether. Instead of choosing a basic terminal bit-rate as in
TDM, ATM achieves more flexible bandwidth sharing
allowing the terminals to seize bandwidth when a sufficient number
of bits are generated.
• Without a frame reference, these bits have no implicit ownership,
unlike STM for which each slot is assigned an owner.
• Hence a key feature of ATM is that information from each
terminal must be labeled.

1
 The Asynchronous Transfer Mode
The Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Cell (or Short fixed length packets):
There are many forms of asynchronous multiplexing: • Each cell or packet has a fixed size of l bits. The channel is slotted
into fixed intervals of duration l/C, each transporting a cell.
• First, we may have fixed length blocks of information from each
terminal.
• The terminals are asynchronous in the sense that they have no
common time reference other than the common slot reference.
•These blocks are termed cells in ATM terminology.
• A label for each time slot must be provided by the terminal which
• A cell is labeled block of transmitted information, and usually has
transmits in that time slot.
a small information payload (typically from 32 bytes to 128 bytes).

• We shall also refer to them as short fixed length packets.

The Asynchronous Transfer Mode The Asynchronous Transfer Mode

The label identifies the terminal generating the bits delivered in the
time slot. A label is included in the header part of a packet. The
header may serve other functions; such as classifying the
information payload (type and priority), and possible error check
sums for protecting the header from transmission error.
PACKET
INFO
HEADER
t quality of communication.
There are two major factors in determining the proper packet size:
First, headers use up part of the communication capacity of the link. This
overhead is inversely proportional to the packet size l, consequently favoring
long packet.
Second, a packetization delay is needed for the terminal to collect the l bits for a
packet. The delay between signal generation and reception is given by , t = l/b
plus the delay taken for the signal to travel in the network.
For some applications, excessive delay results in perceivable degradation of the

Consequently, minimizing packetization delay requires choosing short packets.

l BITS SLOTS
A compromise has to be chosen between two opposing factors.
Multiplexing of Fixed Length Packets

The Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Variable Length Packets: PACKET

INFO
Instead of short fixed length packets, it is often convenient
(particularly for data communications) to use long (say 128 bytes HEADER
or more) variable length packets.
t
Besides the label for ownership, the packet header should also
contain the information for packet length to mark the end of the l BITS SLOTS
packet, as well as a flag to mark the beginning of the packet.
Multiplexing of Fixed Length Packets

2
 PSTN
Local Exchange Carriers (LECs)
♦ LECs provide local telephone service, usually within the boundaries of a
metropolitan area, state, or province.
♦ LECs also provide short-haul, long distance service, Centrex, certain enhanced
services such as voice mail, and various data services.
♦ BOCS (Bell Operating Companies), originally were wholly owned by AT&T,
dominated the ILECs landscape.
Local Access and Transport Area (LATA)
♦ Effective January 1, 1984, those 22 BOCs were spun off from AT&T as a result of
the Modified Final Judgement (MFJ).
♦ BOCs were reorganized into seven Regional BOCS (RBOCS).
♦ BOCs were limited to providing basic voice and data services within defined
geographical areas, known as Local Access and Transport Areas (LATAs).
♦ Are some 170 areas defined by the MFJ
♦ Collectively span all BOC territories
♦ In general, each Boc territory comprises several LATAs
PSTN Continue
InterExchange Carriers (IXCs or IECs)
♦ IXCs are responsible for long-haul, long-distance connections
across LATA boundaries.
♦ IXC networks are connected to the LECs through a Point of
Presence (POP) which typically is in the form of a tandem
switch.
♦ A POP is a location where IXC interfaces BOC for exchange
access to IXC services.
♦ The IXC POP is connected to the LEC access tandem switch
via dedicated trunks leased from the LEC. Alternatively, the
IXC may collocate network termination equipment in the LEC
office, assuming that space is available and that secure
physical separation can be established and maintained.
♦ IXCs provide inter-lata services.

LEC Domain
IXC Access Types
IXC Domain Direct Access Switched Access LEC
End
Switch
Central Office
end
Tandem Switch Customers
office Switch POP

Tandem Customer
Central PBX POP
Switch Switch
Tandem POP
office
Remote LEC
LEC POP
Access
Terminal End Tandem
(RT) Tandem
Switch Customers Office

Distribution Feeder
Customer has large enough
Network Network volume of traffic accessing
the POP or requiring egress Customer traffic to/from POP doesn’t justify
from it to pay for the direct direct connect.
Access (Local) Network connect facility, bypassing
Regional Network Long-distance Network • The IXC purchase access/egress facilities
the LEC switching network.
from the LEC which uses its switched network
Basic Architecture of a PSTN to deliver/receive that traffic.

End user access to an IXC via a IXC domain

ATT POP
CAP, bypassing the LEC
Achieving Connectivity

CAP Fiber Ring

Sprint POP

Office Park

MCI POP
Switch

Full Mesh Shared Medium

CAP

3
 Role of Switching Sharing Transmission Bandwidth
Connectivity, network resource sharing, customer coordination
Dedicated
Line

Time Shared
Synchronous
TDM

Time Shared
Packet, Burst

Circuit Switching Circuit Switching Continue

Circuit” refers to the capability of transmitting one telephone conversation
along one link. ♦ In current telephone networks, the bit streams in the trunks (lines
connecting switches) and access links (lines connecting subscriber
To set up a call, a set of circuits has to be connected, Joining the two telephone
telephones the switch) are organized in the digital signal (DS) hierarchy.
sets. By modifying the connections, the operators can switch the circuits.

Circuit switching occurs at the beginning of a new telephone call. Operators
were later replaced by mechanical switches and, eventually, by electronic
switches.
An electronic interface in the switch converts the analog signal traveling on the
link from the telephone set to the switch into a digital signal, called a bit
stream. The same interface converts the digital signal that travels between the
switches into an analog signal before sending it from the switch to the
telephone.
♦ The DS-1 signal carries 24 DS-0 channels, but its rate is more than 24
times 64 kb/s. The additional bits are used to accommodate DS-0
channels with rates that deviate from the nominal 64 because the signals
are generated using clocks that are not perfectly synchronized.
♦ Since the 1980s the transmission links of the telephone network have
been changing to the SONET or Synchronous Optical Network,
standard.

The switches use a dedicated data communication network “Common channel ♦ In circuit switching, the route and bandwidth allocated to the stream
signaling (CCS)” to exchange control information among themselves. Thus remain constant over the lifetime of the stream.
CCS separates the functions of call control from the transfer of voice.

Rate in Mb/s
Meium Signal No. of Voice North America Europe
Circuit Switching Continue Circuits
T-1 paired DS-1 24 1.5 2.0
♦ The capacity of each channel is divided into a number of fixed-rate logical Cable
channels, called circuits. The division is usually accomplished by TDM. T-1C paired DS-1C 48 3.1
cable
Circuit switching involves three phases: T-2 paired DS-2 96 6.3 8.4
cable
(1) The source makes a connection or call request to the network, the network T-3 coax, radio, DS-3 672 45.0 32.0
assigns a route and one idle circuit from each link along the route, and the fiber
call is then said to be admitted (if the network is unable to make this Coax, DS-4 4032 274.0
assignment, the call is rejected). This phase is called connection setup. waveguide,
radio, fiber
(2) Data transfer now occurs-the duration of the transfer is called the call
holding time.
Digital Signal Hierarchy
(3) When the transfer is complete, the route and the circuits are deallocated.
That phase is called connection teardown. Note that the bit rate of a DS-1 signal is greater than 24
times the rate of voice signal (64 Kb/s) because of the
additional framing bit required.

4
 Time Division Multiplexing Synchronous Transfer Mode
Channel 1 Frame 1 Frame 2

Channel 2
1 2 ... N 1 2 ... N
...
PBX
Channel N

Circuits / Time Slots STM

Multiplexer
• TDM is ideal for constant bit rate traffic. Router
• The capacity of the outgoing channel is divided into N logical channels. 3 2 1 3 2 1
• Time on the outgoing channel is divided into fixed-length intervals called frames.
• Frames are delimited by a special bit sequence called a framing pattern.
• Time in each frame is further subdivided into N fixed-length intervals called Workstation
slots/circuits.
• Each frame consists of a sequence of slots: slot 1, slot 2,.., slot N. (A slot is usually
1 bit or 1 byte wide). STM Multiplexing is also known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• A logical channel occupies every Nth slot. There are thus N logical channels. The
first logical channel occupies slots 1, N + 1, 2N + 1,..; the second occupies slots 2,
N+2, 2N+2,...; and so on.

TDM Continues Statistical Multiplexing (SM)

• The T1 Frame (or the OSI term, PDU) consists of 24 8-bits slots. Channel 1

The TDM multiplexer operates as follows:

1 N 1 2
• The data bits in each incoming channe1 are read into a separate FIFO (first in, Channel 2
first out) buffer. ...
Channel N
• The multiplexer reads this buffer in sequence for an amount of time equal to
the corresponding slot time: buffer 1 is read into slot 1, buffer 2 is read into slot
2, etc.
♦Most effective in the case of bursty input data.
• If there are not enough bits in a buffer, the corresponding slot remains partially
empty. ♦As in TDM, the data bits in each incoming channel are read into separate FIFOs.

• The bit stream of the outgoing channel is easily demultiplexed: the ♦The multiplexer reads each buffer in turn until the buffer empties.
demultiplexer detects the framing pattern from which it determines the begi-
nning of each frame, and then each slot. ♦The data read in one turn is called a “data packet”.

Asynchronous Transfer
SM Continues
Mode
♦ In TDM each FIFO is read for a fixed amount of time-one slot-and
A so each incoming channel is allocated a fixed fraction of the
Y
outgoing channel capacity, independent of the data rate on that
channel.

PBX ♦ By contrast, in SM, the capacity allocated to each incoming

B channel varies with time, depending on the instantaneous data
ATM
rate: the higher the rate, the larger the capacity allocated to it at
Multiplexer Z Y Z Z Z Y that time.
Router
♦ The size of packets read from each FIFO can vary across channels
C
and over time within each channel.

Z ♦ The demultiplexer cannot sort the packets belonging to different

Workstation
channels merely from their positions within a frame.

5
 SM Continues

♦ Additional bits, which delimit each packet and identify the corresponding
incoming channel or source, must be added to each packet.

♦ The resulting overhead is significantly larger than under TDM.

♦ Multiplexer and demultiplexer implementations are more difficult;

♦ Multiplexer must now add the packet delimiter and channel or source DATA COMMUNICATIONS
identifier.

♦ Demultiplexer must locate and decode those bit patterns.

♦ These increases in complexity and overhead must be balanced against high

utilization in the face of bursty data to determine whether SM or TDM is more
efficient.

Data
Binary Codes
♦ Between machines, information is exchanged by binary digits (bits).
Two sets are in common use today:
ASCII: the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
employs a sequence of seven bits. Since each bit may be 0 or 1, ASCII
contains 128 unique patterns.
EBCDIC: the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
employs a sequence of eight bits. It contains 256 unique patterns.
♦ There are two basic methods of data transmission Asynchronous and
Synchronous.
Asynchronous (Character Framed) Transmission;
♦ Characters are generated and transmitted singly, one after the other.
♦ In some terminals, the characters are collected until a complete line of
text is created, or the return key is pressed, causing the line to be sent as a
burst of continuous characters.
Data Continues
♦ Whether sent one-by-one as they are generated, or sent line-by-line as each line
is completed, each character is framed by a start bit (0) and a stop bit (1)
Synchronous (Message Framed ) Transmission:
♦ Such transmission is message framed and overcome the inefficiencies of
asynchronous, start-stop transmission for high speed data transmission.
♦ Rather than surrounding each character with start and stop bits, a
relatively large set data is framed, or blocked with one or more
synchronization bits or bit patterns used to synchronize the receiving
terminal on the rate of transmission of the data.
♦ The start sequence is called the header – it contains synchronizing,
address, and control information. The stop sequence is called the trailer –
it contains error checking and terminating information.
♦ The entire data entity is called a “Frame”

Character
Asynchronous Transmission Format

In asynchronous transmission, Error Control/Detection

each character is framed by one Datastream that includes redundant bits and the
start bit and one or two stop bits. result of the sender’s calculations
Stop Bit (1) Start Bit (0) Message Message
Sender Receiver
Framed characters sent as they are created -- a data Sender adds redundant bits and Receiver checks redundant bits and
stream typical of keyboard input to a terminal or performs calculations to assist the repeats calculations looking for
communications controller. receiver in error detection agreement with sender’s results

‹Because each character is assigned a unique code, it is extremely

Framed characters that are concatenated and sent when a
string is completed -- a datastream typical of a terminal important to be sent without error. For instance, the ASCII code for p
sending keyboard input line-
line-by-
by-line to a communications 1110000 An error in bit # 1produces 1110001
is 1110000. 111000 which is the
controller code for q.
Characters are assembled
Data Block into a datablock that is ◆ Error detection is a cooperative activity between the sender and the
Trailer Header framed by a header and a
receiver in which a sender adds information to the character or frame
trailer to produce a frame.
Frame Character The frame is sent when a to assist the receiver in determining whether an error has occurred in
command is received from transmission or reception.
Synchronous Transmission Format the controlling unit in the
communication system.

6
 Error Correction
Sender performs calculation... Receiver performs same calculation...
MK Once detected,an error must be corrected. Two basic approaches to
MK = integer + F’n
= integer + Fn Gn+1 error correction:
Gn+1 If F’n = Fn’ transmission is without error 1. Automatic-Repeat-Request (ARQ):
If F’n ≠ Fn’ transmission is without error Requires the transmitter to re-send the portions of the exchange in
which errors have been detected. ARQ techniques include:
•Stop-and-Wait: The sender sends a frame and waits for
MK Sender adds Fn MK Receiver MK acknowledgement from the receiver. This technique is slow.
Frame Check re-calculates
Sequence •Go-back-n:
Fn
(Fn) to frame
Gn+1 Gn+1 2. Forward Error Correction (FEC): FEC techniques employ special
Generating
Generating codes that allow the receiver to detect and correct a limited number of
Function
Function errors without referring to the transmitter. This convenience is bought
at the expense of adding more bits (more overhead)

Cyclic Redundancy Check

MODEM
Analog (Voice Data Communication
Data Terminal Grade) Line
Equipment DTE EIA232 DCE ♦ Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE): is the equipment that interfaces the DTE
to the network; maps the incoming bits into signals appropriate for the channel, and at
Data Circuit the receiving end, maps the signals back to bits.
Digital Signals Terminating
Equipment
♦ DCEs includes modems, digital service units (DSUs), and channel service units
(CSUs).
Digital ♦ If the transmission channel is an analog line (voice-grade), the DCE is called a
DTE Line
EIA232 DSU/CSU modem. When sending, DCE convert the digital signal received by the DTE to
analog signals to match the bandwidth of the channel.

• The data equivalent of Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) in the
voice world, Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) comprises the computer
transmit and receive equipment; are digital devices that send or receive
data messages.
• Internally, their signals are simple, unipolar pulses; externally, they
may use one the more sophisticated digital signaling schemes.
♦ If the connections are digital connections, the DCE consists of two parts:
DSU- receives unipolar digital signals from the DTE and converts them to bipolar
signals.
CSU: provides loopback (for testing), limited diagnostic capabilities. When
sending, it converts bipolar signals to AMI.

Protocols
Data Communication Continues Data Link Control (DLC) Protocol
EIA232 interface → A set of rules that governs the exchange of messages over a data link.
♦ A DET is connected to a DCE by a cable that conforms to EIA232 standard. DLC protocols are divided into two classes:
♦ EIA232 describes a multi-wire cable that terminates in 25-pin connectors. • Asynchronous Operation:
♦ The cable supports asynchronous or synchronous operation at speed up to → Start-Stop DLC protocol
19.2 kb/s. At 19.2 kb/s, the cable length is limited to 50 feet. • synchronous Operation:
♦ The EIA232 circuits linking DTE and DCE carry signals that initiate, → Bit-oriented DLC protocol (e.g., SDLC): Introduced in 1972, SDLC
maintain, and terminate communication between the two. was modified and standardized by ITU-T and ISO as:
⇒ HDLC (High Level Data Link Control Protocol)
Higher Speed Interconnections ⇒ LAP-B (Link Access-Procedure Balanced), for X.25 Standard
EIA449: It permits operation up to 2 Mb/s at distances up to 4000 feet.
⇒ LAP-D ((Link Access-Procedure Channel), for ISDN-D Channel
Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON): ⇒ LAP-F ((Link Access-Procedure Frame Relay), a version of LAP-D
an optical fiber connection operating up to 40 kilometers at 17 Mb/s. used in Frame Relay applications.
Fiber Channel Standard (FCS): Operates up to 10 kilometers at speeds up
to 800 Mb/s. FCS includes error control and switching.
Different in the detailed meaning of specific control field bits, all of
these protocols share a common structure. In the order that they are
transmitted, they consist of the following fields: Flag,
Flag Address,
Address
Contro Text,
Control, Text Frame Check Sequence,
Sequence and Flag.
Flag

7
 SDLC Frame Format

01111110
NR Receive Sequence Number
CHARACTER CHARACTER 01111110
Start Stop Start Stop Number (in sequence 000
ASCII ‘a’ ASCII ‘b’ SDLC FRAME
Bit Bit Bit Bit
through 110⇒) of frame
Header Trailer
Line expected. 111
Line Idle Line F TEXT F F

Control
L L acknowledges sequence of
Idle 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 State 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Idle A
Address usually 1024 bits C
A seven frames.
State State G (not Supervisory Frames) S G NS Send Sequence Number
8 24 8 Nx8 16 8
Timing Mark Number (in sequence 000
Timing Mark bits
through 110⇒) of this
Time between characters Information Format frame.
Transmission Format for Start- stop (Asynchronous) 0 NS F NR Mode 00 = Ready to Receive

Signaling. In idle state, the line is maintained at the 1 Supervisory Format

10 = Not ready to Receive

level. The start bit (0) reduces the level to zero 1 0 Mode P NR
01 = Reject

signaling the commencement of activity. NO TEXT

F = 0 = more frames to come.
Information transfer is not
P = 0 = not polled complete.
1 = poll
1 = last Frame

Packet Switching

♦ The data stream originating at the source is divided into packets of fixed or
variable size.

♦ The time interval between consecutive packets may vary, depending on the
burstiness of the stream.

♦ As the bits in a packet arrive at a switch or router; they are read into a
PACKET SWITCHING buffer when the entire packet is stored, the switch routes the packet over
one of its outgoing links.

♦ The packet remains queued in its buffer until the outgoing link becomes
idle. This store-and-forward technique thereby introduces a random
queuing delay at each link;

♦ The delay depends on the other traffic sharing the same link. Packets from
different sources sharing the same link are statistically multiplexed.

Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless
Packet Switching Continues
Transport
The routing decision
Connection Oriented
Circuits and Virtual
Connectionless (datagram)
Connectionless (datagra Connection Oriented (virtual circuit) Circuits Connectionless
Guaranteed Shared
In datagram packet networks, each packet within a stream is independently routed. Resource Resource
♦ A routing table stored in the router (switch) specifies the outgoing link for each
destination. The table may be static, or it may be periodically updated. Connection State Yes Yes No
♦ Each packet must contain bits denoting the address of the source and destination.
Delay Constant Variable Variable
In virtual circuit packet networks, a fixed route is selected before any data is transmitted
in a call setup phase similar to circuit-switched networks. Bandwidth Guaranteed Shared Shared
♦ However; there is no notion of a fixed-rate circuit or logical channel. All packets
belonging to the same data stream follow this fixed route, called a virtual circuit. Overload “Busy” “Share Pain” “Share Pain”
♦ Packets must now contain a virtual circuit identifier; this bit string is usually shorter than
the source and destination address identifiers needed for datagrams. However; the call Packet Sequence Maintained Maintained Could change
setup phase takes time and creates a delay not present in datagram packet networks.

8
 Connection Oriented Packet Transport Connectionless Transport

• Connection Request • Lower Level Protocol (IP)

• Resource Check
• Route Selection
“Send and Pray”
• Destination Acceptance • Upper Level Protocol
• Connection begins Guaranteed delivery

Frame
Circuit Message Packet Relay Cell Relay
Switching Switching Switching (Switching) (Switching)
Fast Relay
Techniques
Relay

Direct Store & Hold & Hold & Hold &

Connection forward forward forward forward
Frame Relay Cell Relay
(Variable size (Fixed size PDU’s-
PDU’s--frames) -cells)
Copper, Copper, Copper,
Media

Copper, Copper,
wireless, wireless, wireless,
wireless wireless
optical optical optical
PVC SVC ATM Based 802.6 Based
(LAPD) (Q.931) (For B-ISDN) (For SMDS)
Size of

Variable, Variable, Variable,

PDU

No such Fixed, very

large to large to large to
thing small
small small small

PVC SVC
(Q.2931)
Delay

Very Fast Slow Fast Faster Very Fast

Switching Technologies
Types of relay systems

Typical X.25 Topology

X.75 (NNI) X.25 Continue
X.25
X.25 ‹ X.25 encompasses the lower three layers of the OSI model
User
User
X.25-
X.25-3 layer (network layer)
Packets are created at the network layer that Establishes, manage,
= Packet switches and teardown the connections between the user and the network.
X.25-
X.25-2 layer (data link layer)
X.25 is not a packet switching specification. It’s a packet network
network
The packet is encapsulated within the Link Access Procedure, Balanced
interface specification. X.25 says nothing about operations within
within
(LAPB) protocol as the information field. The LAPB protocol is a sub-
the network.
set of HDLC (High Level Data Link Control).
It Provides for an interface between an end-user device (DTE) and a X.25-
X.25-1 layer (physical layer)
network (DCE). Its formal title is “Interface between DTE and DCE The physical layer is the physical interface between the DTE and the
for terminals operating in the packet node on public data networks” DCE.

In X.25, the DCE is the “agent” for the packet network to the DTE.

9
 X.25 Continue
♦ X.25 uses logical channel numbers (LCNs) to identify the DTE connections to the
network. An LCN is really nothing more than a virtual circuit identifier (VCI).
♦ Octets #1 and Octet #2 of the packet header provide a 12-bit identifier. If all-zeros
possibility is excluded, as many as 4095 logical channels (i.e., user sessions) can be
assigned to a physical channel.
X.25 Continue
♦ PVCs may support large users. All packets travel the same path between two computers;
which path is established by routing instructions programmed in the involved nodes.
♦ The circuits involved in the route are defined on a permanent basis, until such time as
they are permanently redefined, perhaps as the service

♦ The LCN serves as an identifier (a label) for each user's packets that are transmitted ♦ Alternatively, the network may select the most available and appropriate path on a call-
through the physical circuit to and from the network. by-call basis using Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs);

♦ Typically, the virtual circuit is identified with two different LCNs-one for the user at the
local side of the network and one for the user at the remote side of the network.
♦ X.25 provides two mechanisms to establish and maintain communications between the
user devices and the network (and ATM has borrowed these concepts): Permanent
Virtual Circuit (PVC) and Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC).
♦ Again, all packets in a given session travel the same path.
♦ SVCs demand a greater level of network intelligence that adds to total network cost; this
translates into higher cost to the end-user organization.
♦ The establishment of a SVC also involves some level of delay since the network nodes
must examine multiple paths in order to make a proper selection.

USER’S INFORMATION
I.e. message data and/or headers from upper layers
USER-NETWORK INTERFACE PACKET NETWORK
X.25
User’s Data User’s Data User’s Data User’s Data
Segment Segment Segment Segment
User Stack User’s Data

Transport HDLC FRAME

Packet Header
Header Packet Trailer
Packet
Packet Network A C
Data
X.25-3 F d o F
d n User’s Data
LAPB
LAPB
Header
LAPB
Trailer
L r t Packet
Segment 1024 FCS L
LAPB Data Link A e r Headers A
X.25-2 Data s o
bits
G s l G
X.21 X.21 Physical
X.25-1
DTE DCE Logical Grp # 1 0 D Q

Logical Channel Number

0 P(S) M P(R) X.25 Packet and Frame Format

RS-232-C (1969)

2.4 – 38 Kbps

COMPUTER NETWORKS 01101011_11011010_

The RS-232-C standard for the serial line

specifies the transfer of one 8-bit character at a
time, separated by time intervals. The speed
and distance of the serial line are limited.

10
 A B

The Synchronous Data Link Control and related
standards transmit long packets of bits. The header (H)
contains the preamble that starts the receiver clock,
which is kept in phase by the self- synchronizing
encoding of the bits. The receiver uses the cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) bits to verify that the packets is
correctly received.
C E
D
Store-
Store-and-
and-forward transmissions proceed by sending the packet
successively along links from the source to the destination. The
packet header specifies the source and destination addresses (A
and E, for example) of the packet. When it receives a packet, a
computer checks a routing table to find out on which link it
should next send the packet.

A A B
B

4 or 16 Mbps

C E
E
D C D

Ethernet. In this network, computers are attached to a

common coaxial cable. The computers read every transmitted Token ring. The computers share a ring. Access is regulated
packet and discard those not addressed to them. by a token
- passing protocol.

155-622 Mbps
A B A B

100 Mbps

E
E C
C D D

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network. The network

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). A token-
token-passing
transports information in 53-
53-byte cells. Total throughput of
protocol is used to share the ring. The computers time their
this network is much larger than that of FDDI or of a 100-
100-Mbps
holding of the token. This network guarantees that every
Ethernet.
computer gets to transmit within an agreed-
agreed-on time.

11
 CPU
Display

CPU

CACHE
VRAM
RAM

User
System

DISK
LAYERING APPROACH RAM

Keyboard, NIC
mouse, etc. NIC

Computer Message Transfers

The left panel gives a simple architecture of a host computer and its
connection to the network. The right panel shows the four copies
that may be involved across the CPU bus to run an application,
reducing the host throughput.

OSI Hierarchy OSI Hierarchy

• Physical • Transport
7 Application 7 Application
– SONET, T1, T3 – Error and congestion
6 Presentation 6 Presentation control
5 Session • Link
5 Session – TCP, UDP
4 Transport – Ethernet, FDDI
4 Transport • Session, Presentation,
3 Network
– Circuit, ATM, FR
switches
3 Network Application
2 Link 2 Link – Data, voice encodings
• Network
1 Physical 1 Physical – Authentication
– Routing, Call control
– IP internetworking – web/http, ftp, telnet

Data Transfer Over Frame-based Data Transfer Over Cell-based

Networks Networks

File File

TCP
TCP

IP
IP

Adaptation
Frame
(Ethernet,
FR, PPP)
ATM Cells

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 Why a Synchronous Network
Internet Protocol Architecture
“Visibility” of each byte at the line rate
• Simplification of the multiplexing and
Ping
Ping FTP
FTP TELNET
TELNET HTTP
HTTP DNS
DNS RTP
RTP SNMP
SNMP
switching process

SMTP
SMTP BGP
BGP RIP
RIP • Simple access to overhead bytes

ICMP TCP
TCP UDP
UDP OSPF
OSPF Asynchronous

“Stuffing” Bits
IP
OH OH Synchronous

LANs
LANs ATM
ATM FR
FR PPP
PPP CDPD
CDPD
Overhead functions – framing, monitoring,
Dedicated fault location, protection switching,
10/100BaseT
10/100BaseT DedicatedB/W:
B/W: Circuit-Switched
Circuit-SwitchedB/W:
B/W: Wireless
DSx,
DSx,SONET,
SONET,...
... POTS,
POTS,SDS,
SDS,ISDN,
ISDN,...
...
Wireless management communications.

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