What is nondestructive testing?

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials,

components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying
the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed
the part can still be used.

In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited
number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies
actually being put into service.

These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such as
impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness and fatigue
strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more effectively found
by NDT.

Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service
inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower
production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During construction, NDT is used to
ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and erection phases,
and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the
integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public. It should be noted that
while the medical field uses many of the same processes, the term "nondestructive testing" is
generally not used to describe medical applications. In many industrial applications, non-
destructive testing (NDT) and fracture mechanics are individually applied each following its own
rules with not so much interaction. Non-destructive testing is usually applied within a frame of
what might be designated as a “good workmanship” philosophy, i.e., the product is aimed to be
as defect-free as possible both during production and service. Note, however, that “defect-free”
does not mean no defects exist, but that either they cannot be detected using the best suitable
NDT procedure or they are present, but of a size smaller than proper acceptability levels.
Fracture mechanics, on the other hand, is frequently restricted to “crisis intervention” when a
defect is detected, especially if its size is not admissible according to conventional design rules.
The authors of this presentation are confident that the real potential of fracture mechanics is
during the design stage, with respect to both quality control and the definition of acceptability
levels for NDT procedures during production as well as for specifying proper NDT inspections
during service. When, for example, a crack is detected in a railway axle during an inspection, it
will be removed and replaced. Fracture mechanics, in such a case, should assist in specifying
meaningful inspection intervals so that a potential crack would be detected before it grows to its
critical size. To this aim, close cooperation between non-destructive testing and fracture
mechanics is essential and indispensable. The intention here is to provide a discussion about how
both disciplines can be applied in a complementary manner for ensuring the safe service of
components.
NDT methods

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment used to
perform that test. Current NDT methods are:

 Acoustic Emission Testing (AE), Electromagnetic Testing (ET),

 Guided Wave Testing (GW), Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
 Laser Testing Methods (LM), Leak Testing (LT),
 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL), Microwave Testing,
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
 Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR),
 Radiographic Testing (RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR),
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Vibration Analysis (VA) and
 Visual Testing (VT).

The six most frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and VT.

Visual and Optical Testing (VT)

Visual Examination can be an effective way to recognize surface imperfections that could
adversely affect a part or component. Visual Examiners use knowledge of how a part is
manufactured, the function of the human eye, lighting requirements, and precise measuring tools
to evaluate materials. Computer controlled camera systems and optical aids such as borescopes
may also be used to recognize and measure features of a component.

Radiography (RT)
Radiographic Examination involves using radioactive isotopes (gamma rays) or X-rays on
materials to peer qualitatively for indications the same way a doctor looks for fractures or other
conditions within the body. Radiation is directed through a part and projected onto film or a
digital detection device leaving an image which can be examined by the qualified Radiographer.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic Examination uses high-frequency sound waves which are transmitted into a material
to detect discontinuities or locate changes in material characteristics. Sound is introduced into the
object being examined and reflections from internal imperfections, areas of acoustic impedance,
or varying geometrical surfaces are returned to a receiver.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic Particle Examination is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field into a
ferromagnetic material and applying iron particles to the surface of the item being examined.
Surface and near-surface discontinuities affect the flow of the magnetic field within the part
causing the applied particles to gather at locations of flux leakage, thus producing a visible
indication of the irregularity on the surface of the material. Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or
more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
When using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is being applied. When
the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the
flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own as shown in Figure 1. Because
magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic particles
("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the
discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the part.
The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be
colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Penetrant Examination is performed with a dye solution. Once applied to the surface, the dye
will effectively penetrate any surface-breaking cavity. Excess solution is removed from the
object. A developer is then applied to draw out any penetrant that remains unseen. With
fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the “bleed-out” fluoresce brightly, allowing
imperfections to be readily seen. With visible dyes, a color contrast between the penetrant and
developer makes the "bleed-out" easy to see.

What is the importance of nondestructive testing in the field of fracture mechanics?