Hakob’s lectures on

History & Philosophy of Science

 Popular Science Mythology

Democritus: Plato: Aristotle:Hippocrates:

Education is a refuge
All things are The Earth isThe human body is
in the
for the unfortunate.
made of triangles. centre of the made of four humors.
universe.
Popular Science Mythology
Popular Science Mythology
Popular Science Mythology

Churchmen:
God created the Earth
and all living things.
Popular Science Mythology

Galileo: Churchmen:
You are all ignorant And you are too clever
and dogmatic! for your own good!
 Popular Science Mythology

Galileo:
Is it safe to say
“none of the above”?

What is in the centre of the universe?

A: Earth B: Water
C: Air D: Fire
Popular Science Mythology

Scientists: Scientists:
Hurrah! ScienceBy is
applying the scientific method
finally liberatedwe prove new theories and
from religion!discover more and more facts.
 Popular Science Mythology

Scientists Nowadays: Scientists Nowadays:

Scientists
Contemporary science is allNowadays:
The scientific method demarcates science
about observations
Godanddoesfrom all that pseudoscience and ensures
not exist.
experiments; it is free from that science is a rational enterprise.
metaphysical nonsense.
 Popular Science Mythology

Science began in the 17th century with Science proves its theories by
the likes of Galileo and Newton. experiments and observations.

Galileo was a martyr of science who The method of science is

fought against the dogmatism of clergy. universal and unchangeable.

The scientific revolution liberated Science is a rational enterprise because

science from religion. of its universal method.

It is accepted in the contemporary Each succeeding scientific theory

science that God does not exist. contains more and more true claims.

Contemporary science is independent There is a strict demarcation line

from any metaphysics. between science and pseudoscience.
 PopularTheScience
Question:
only Mythology
way of knowing
whether
Do anyanyof these
of these
myths
myths
are true hold
is by water?
studying HPS.
Historical Myths Philosophical Myths

History of Philosophy of
Science Science
 History of Science

Question:
History of What do we
Science mean by this?
 History of Science

History of Science
(disambiguation)

Biographies
History ofof
great
Science: Great Scientists
scientists.

Copernicus Galileo Newton Einstein

 History of Science

History of Science: Institutions

History of Science
(disambiguation)

Biographies of great
scientists.
University of University of University of University of University of
Bologna Paris Oxford Cambridge Toronto
The histories of
scientific institutions.

European Royal German Academy

Organization for Society of Sciences
Nuclear Research
 History of Science

History of Science Neither!

(disambiguation)

Biographies of great
scientists. Question:
Which of these
two are we
The histories of
interested in?
scientific institutions.
This is what we
Changes
The history
in the mosaic
of are interested in.
ofscientific
acceptedtheories.
theories.
 Contemporary Scientific Mosaic

Mathematics
General
Relativity
These are some of
the theories of our Quantum
Cosmology &
Chemistry
contemporary Physics
Astronomy
scientific mosaic.
Genetics

Biology
Sociology Economics
Neurophysiology PsychologyHistory
Contemporary Scientific Mosaic

Formal Science

Natural Science

Social Science
 Some Key Terms

Scientific Change ≡

Any change in the

scientific mosaic.
Note:
This is the sign of use,
Note:
Scientific Mosaic ≡ i.e. the concept of The scientific
This is the sign of scientific mosaic is used
mosaic wasn’t
definition.
A set of all accepted to define the concept of always like this.
theories. scientific change.
Note:
This is the sign of
Theory ≡ aggregation,
i.e. a mosaic
A set of propositions consists of theories.
that attempt to
describe something.
 Scientific Mosaic

Some 250 years ago the

mosaic of accepted theories
was very different.

1500 1600 1700 1765 1800 1900 2000 Now

 Scientific Mosaic circa 1765

Phlogiston
Theory
Newtonian
Theology Physics

Theory of Calculus
Preformation
 Scientific Mosaic

If we could go back in
time 500 years, we
would hardly recognize
anything in the mosaic.

1500 1515 1600 1700 1765 1800 1900 2000 Now

 Scientific Mosaic circa 1515

Geocentric
Cosmology Astrology

Aristotelian
Physics of
Four Elements

Mathematics
 Scientific Change

The mosaic is in a process

of constant change.

1500 1515 1600 1700 1765 1800 1900 2000 Now

Scientific Change
 Scientific Change

General
Even this simple
Relativity
phenomenon has
received many
different explanations.

Question:
Newtonian What is going
Physics on here?

Aristotelian
Physics
Newtonian Physics

Aristotle:
If I were alive, I’d say
your explanation doesn’t
make any sense.

Newton:
The apple also
Newton:
has a mass.
The force of gravity
pulls them together.
Newton:
The Earth has a
certain mass.
 Aristotelian Physics

Aristotle:
Aristotle:
All celestial bodies are
Aristotle:
Planets
made ofand stars revolve
element aether.
In the
around terrestrial
the Earth.
Aristotle:
Aristotle:
(sublunar) region,
Water
There
everything
The Earthare
isistwo
inmade
the of
distinct
theof
centre regions
four
the in
terrestrial
universe.
the elements.
universe.
Air
Earth
Fire
 Aristotelian Physics

Aristotle:
Aristotle:
Aristotle: Heavy elements tend the
This explains
Earth is heavier towards theAristotle:
arrangementcenter
of of
elements
than water. thethe
in universe.
Light elementsregion.
terrestrial tend
towards the periphery
of the sublunar region.

Aristotle:
Fire is lighter
than air.
 Aristotelian Physics

Aristotle:
FireAristotle:
is the topmost
terrestrial layer.
Above water is
the layer of air.
Aristotle:
Aristotle:
Then comes the
layerearth
Element of water.
naturally
gathers in the centre of
the universe.
 Aristotelian Physics

Aristotle:
An object presumably
made of elements
earth and water…

… descends towards
the centre of the
universe.
 Theories of Free Fall
The two theories offer completely different
Question:
What
Accepted up until the explanations of the phenomenon. is theuntil
Accepted explanation
late 17th century. accepted nowadays?
circa 1920.

Aristotelian Newtonian
Physics Physics

The apple, a heavy The apple is moving

body, is descending with acceleration
towards the centre being pulled by the
of the universe. Earth’s gravity.
General Relativity

Einstein:
A fragment of space is flat,
when there are no objects
with considerable mass.
Lines indicate
Einstein:
Einstein:
trajectories of light
Space curves
Like arays
ballin due
this to
placed inthe
the
presence
center of objects
fragment a of with a
space.
suspended
considerable
bedsheet, a heavy mass.
object
curves the space around
it.
General Relativity

Einstein:
The greater is the mass,
the greater is the
curvature of space.
 General Relativity

Einstein:
The space around the Einstein:
Earth is curved due to It is in a state of inertial
the Earth’s mass. motion in a curved space.

Einstein:
The apple is not
pulled by any force,
as it was assumed in
Newtonian physics.
 Theories of Free Fall

Aristotelian
Aristotelian Newtonian Newtonian
General
Physics Physics Physics Physics Relativity

The apple,Thea heavy

apple, a heavy
The apple is moving
The apple is The
moving
apple is in a
body, is descending
body, is descending
with acceleration
with acceleration
state of inertial
towards the
towards
centrethe centre
being pulled bybeing
the pulled
motion
by the
in a curved
of the universe.
of the universe.Earth’s gravity.Earth’s gravity.
space.
History of Science: Questions

These are the key questions

of the history of science.

? What
The
Conclusion:
were
history ofthe major
science scientific mosaics?
shows
that our views concerning even

?
the most simple phenomena
change through time.
What were the major transitions in the mosaic?
Philosophy of Science

Question:
What does philosophy
have to do with science
and its history?
Question 1: Absolute Knowledge

Contemporary
Astronomy

Question:
Kepler’s We know that our
Astronomy DoesIsIsthere
everything
it possible
physical absolute
to
in the
theories
know
Ourmosaic
knowledge?
anything
change?
astronomical
have changed.for
Or are there
theoriescertain?
theories
have alsowhich
are immune to change?
changed.

Geocentric
Astronomy
Question 2: Scientific Method

Question:
Are
How
What
newdo
method
theories
we evaluate
dobetter
we
than
competing
employ
old ones
inscientific
theory
and, if so,
what makes
evaluation?
theories?
them better?
Question 3: Scientific Change

Question:
How do What
theories
is thebecome
accepted
mechanism
and how of do they
scientific
become rejected?
change?
Question 4: Scientific Progress

The history of science knows

many episodes when a theory that
Question:
had been accepted for centuries
Given that even time-honored
was eventually rejected and
theories become rejected, is
replaced by a new theory.
there scientific progress?

Geocentric
Astronomy
Galenic
physiology
Question 5: Science and Pseudoscience

Question:
Manyany
Is there once-accepted
difference
theories are nowadays
between scientific and
Theology
classified as non-scientific
pseudoscientific theories?
or pseudoscientific.
If so, what makes a theory
scientific?

Astrology
Philosophy of Science: Questions
These are some of the problems
of the philosophy of science.

? Is there absolute knowledge?

? How do we evaluate competing theories?

? What is the mechanism of scientific change?

? Is there scientific progress?

? What makes a theory scientific?

Philosophy of Science: Questions

Next Time

? Is there absolute knowledge?

? How do we evaluate competing theories?

? What is the mechanism of scientific change?

? Is there scientific progress?

? What makes a theory scientific?