EOR Notes 1 Updated

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY PE-405
By: Muhammad Ahmed (pe-033)
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

Basic Definition
EOR is oil recovery by the injection of materials not normally present in the reservoir. The
definition does not restrict EOR to a particular phase (primary, secondary, or tertiary) in
the producing life of a reservoir. (By Larry Lake)
Types of Recovery
Oil recovery operations traditionally have been subdivided into three stages: primary,
secondary, and tertiary.
1. Primary Recovery
Primary recovery results from the use of natural energy present in a reservoir as the
main source of energy for the displacement of oil to producing wells. These natural
energy sources are:
i. solution gas drive,
ii. gas-cap drive,
iii. natural waterdrive,
iv. fluid and rock expansion,
v. gravity drainage.
2. Secondary Recovery
Secondary recovery results from the augmentation of natural energy through injection of
water or gas to displace oil toward producing wells. Gas injection, in this case, is either
into a gas cap for pressure maintenance and gas-cap expansion or into oil-column wells
to displace oil immiscibly according to relative permeability and volumetric sweepout
considerations.
3. Tertiary Recovery
Any technique applied after secondary recovery can be termed as tertiary recovery.
Page 1 of 35
Q. Are these three techniques in chronological order?
Ans: No. It depends on the reservoir characteristics.
The drawback to consideration of the three stages as a chronological sequence is that

many reservoir production operations are not conducted in the specified order. A well-
known example is production of the heavy oils that occur throughout much of the world.
If the crude is sufficiently viscous, it may not flow at economic rates under natural energy
drives, so primary production would be negligible. For such reservoirs, waterflooding
would not be feasible; therefore, the use of thermal energy might be the only way to
recover a significant amount of oil. In this case, a method considered to be a tertiary
process in a normal, chronological depletion sequence would be used as the first, and
perhaps final, method of recovery.
Because of such situations, the term "tertiary recovery" fell into disfavor in petroleum
engineering literature and the designation of "enhanced oil recovery" (EOR) became more
accepted.
Another descriptive designation commonly used is "improved oil recovery" (IOR), which
includes EOR but also encompasses a broader range of activities, e.g., reservoir
characterization, improved reservoir management, and infill drilling.
Page 2 of 35
 In secondary recovery technique, we do not always do pressure maintenance, but

instead we also usually perform displacement as in case of water flooding.
 It should be noted that pressure maintenance and displacement are two different
things.
THE NEED FOR EOR
We need all forms of EOR the maintain reserves at an acceptable level. This is because
each process, even commercially successful ones, has demonstrated success on only a
part of the EOR target thus far.
RESERVES
Reserves are petroleum (crude and condensate) recoverable from reservoirs under
prevailing economics and technology. They are given by the following material balance
equation:
Clearly, reserves can change with time because the last two terms can change with time.
Adding to Reserves
The four categories of adding to reserves are:
1. Discovering new fields.
2. Discovering new reservoirs.
3. Extending reservoirs in known fields.
4. Redefining reserves because of changes in economics of extraction technology.
Now comparing categories 1 to 3 with category 4 which is EOR. It is observed that applying
categories 1 to 3 results in greater chances of drilling dry holes as only 3 out of 10 wells
drilled are profitable while the rest are waste of money. On the other hand, EOR is more
feasible as it is applied on known reservoirs whose past history is known so they give
much successful results.
Page 3 of 35
Idealized Characteristics of an EOR Process

Efficient Microscopic and Macroscopic Displacement. The overall displacement efficiency
of any oil recovery displacement process can be considered conveniently as the product
of microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiencies. In equation form,
𝑬 = 𝑬𝑫 × 𝑬𝑽
where
E=overall displacement efficiency (oil recovered by process/ oil in place at start of
process),
ED =microscopic displacement efficiency expressed as a fraction,
EV=macroscopic (volumetric) displacement efficiency expressed as a fraction.
Microscopic displacement efficiency

Microscopic displacement relates to the displacement or mobilization of oil at the pore
scale. That is, ED is a measure of the effectiveness of the displacing fluid in moving
(mobilizing) the oil at those places in the rock where the displacing fluid contacts the oil.
ED is reflected in the magnitude of the residual oil saturation, Sor, in the regions contacted
by the displacing fluid.
Macroscopic displacement efficiency

Macroscopic displacement efficiency relates to the effectiveness of the displacing fluid(s)
in contacting the reservoir in a volumetric sense. Alternative terms conveying the same
general concept are sweep efficiency and conformance factor. Ev is a measure of how
effectively the displacing fluid sweeps out the volume of a reservoir, both areally and
vertically, as well as how effectively the displacing fluid moves the displaced oil toward
production wells. Both areal and vertical sweeps must be considered, and it is often useful
to further subdivide Ev into the product of areal and vertical displacement efficiencies. Ev
is reflected in the magnitude of average or overall residual oil saturation, SOT' because
the average is based on residual oil in both swept and unswept parts of the reservoir.
Consider the magnitude of these efficiencies in a typical waterflood. For an example in

which initial oil saturation, Soi is 0.60 and Sor in the swept region is 0.30,
𝑆𝑜𝑖 − 𝑆𝑂𝑅 0.6 − 0.3
𝐸𝐷 = = = 0.50
𝑆𝑜𝑖 0.6
A typical waterflood sweep efficiency, Ev, at the economic limit is 0.7. Therefore,
𝐸 = 𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑉 = 0.5 × 0.7 = 0.35
Page 4 of 35
It is desirable in an EOR process that the values of ED and Ev, and consequently E, approach
1.0. An idealized EOR process would be one in which the primary displacing fluid (primary
slug) removed all oil from the pores contacted by the fluid (Sor -> 0), and in which the
displacing fluid contacted the total reservoir volume and displaced oil to production wells.
A secondary fluid slug used to displace the primary slug would behave in a similar manner
in that it would displace the primary slug efficiently both microscopically and
macroscopically.
Several physical/chemical interactions occur between the displacing fluid and oil that can
lead to efficient microscopic displacement (low Sor). These include miscibility between
the fluids, decreasing the IFT between the fluids, oil volume expansion, and reducing oil
viscosity. The maintenance of a favorable mobility ratio between displaced and displacing
fluids also contributes to better microscopic displacement efficiency. EOR processes are
thus developed with consideration of these factors.
 Mobility :The ratio of effective permeability to phase viscosity. The overall

mobility is a sum of the individual phase viscosities. Well productivity is directly
proportional to the product of the mobility and the layer thickness product.
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜
𝑀𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝜇𝑜
 Mobility Ratio: The mobility of an injectant divided by that of the fluid it is

displacing, such as oil.
Page 5 of 35
Microscopic Displacement of Fluids in a Reservoir

FACTORS AFFECTING ED
1. Surface and interfacial tension
2. Wettability Capillary Forces
3. Capillary pressure
4. Relative permeability
CAPILLARY FORCES
1. SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
Whenever immiscible phases coexist in a porous medium as in essentially all processes of
interest, surface energy related to the fluid interfaces influences the saturations,
distributions, and displacement of the phases.
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the
least surface area possible. It may be defined as the contractile tendency of a liquid
surface exposed to gases.
The term "surface tension" usually is reserved for the specific case in which the surface is
between a liquid and its vapor or air. If the surface is between two different liquids, or
between a liquid and a solid, the term "interfacial tension" is used.
A free liquid surface is illustrated in Fig. 2.2, where A, B, and C represent molecules of the
liquid. Molecules that are well below the surface such as A are, on average, attracted
equally in all directions owing to cohesive forces, and their movement therefore tends
to be unaffected by cohesive forces. Molecules B and C, however, which are at or near
the liquid/air interface, are acted on unequally. A net downward force tends to pull these
molecules back into the bulk of the liquid. The surface thus acts like a stretched
membrane, tending to shorten as much as possible.
Page 6 of 35
This surface force, which is a tensile force, is quantified in terms of surface tension, a, the
force acting in the plane of the surface per unit length of the surface. Surface tension can
be visualized as shown in Fig. 2.3, where a force F is acting normal to a liquid surface of
length L. The force per unit length, F/L, required to create additional surface area (that is,
to extend the surface) is the surface tension, usually expressed in dynes/cm.
The surface tension of water in contact with its vapor at room temperature is about 73
dynes/cm. IFT's between water and pure hydrocarbons are about 30 to 50 dynes/ cm at
room temperature. Mixtures of hydrocarbons such as crude oils will have lower IFT's that
depend on the nature and complexity of the liquids. IFT's and surface tensions are
relatively strong functions of temperature.
Measuring surface or interfacial tension

1. By using a capillary tube
One of the simplest ways to measure the surface tension of a liquid is to use a capillary
tube, as shown in Fig. 2.5. When a capillary tube of radius r is placed in a beaker of water,
the water will rise in the capillary tube a certain height, h, as a result of the force
difference created across the curvature of the meniscus. (The water level will rise if it wets
the capillary-tube material. Solid wettability will be discussed later.) At static conditions,
the force owing to surface tension (vertical component of surface tension multiplied by
the wetted perimeter) will be balanced by the force of gravity acting on the column of
fluid:
upward vertical force of surface tension X wetted perimeter = downward gravitational

force acting on fluid column, or
Page 7 of 35
Where,
r = capillary-tube radius, cm;
h = height of water rise in the capillary, cm;
pw = water density, g/cm3;
Pa = air density, g/cm3;
g = gravity acceleration constant, 980 cm/s2; and
ϴ = contact angle between water and capillary tube.
Solving for σ gives the familiar equation for capillary rise,

𝒓𝒉(𝝆𝒘 − 𝝆𝒂 )𝒈
𝝈=
𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Thus, if one carefully measures ϴ (measured through the liquid) and the height of the
column for a given capillary radius, the surface tension can be determined.
Page 8 of 35
2. By Ring Tensiometer method (Du nuoy ring method)

In practice, the contact angle is rather difficult to measure. A simpler technique is the ring
tensiometer method shown in Fig. 2.6 being used to measure IFT between oil and water.
In this method, a carefully cleaned platinum/iridium ring is pulled through the interface.
As this occurs, the interfacial area increases (Figure 2.6a), and the surface is stretched
further until it finally breaks (Figure 2.6b). The force on the ring is measured throughout
the process. At the breaking point of the surface, the force divided by the circumference
of the ring (corrected for a geometric factor) is the σow value at the experimental
temperature.
This method is reliable and convenient over the range of surface and 1FT values
commonly encountered for water, hydrocarbons, water/hydrocarbon systems and some
water/hydrocarbon/surfactant systems (σ> 1.0 dyne/cm).
Q. What is the purpose/importance of determining the interfacial tension?

Ans. It helps to determine the miscibility of the fluid.
3. By Wilhelmy plate method
Method for measuring the surface tension (SFT) of a liquid, the interfacial tension (IFT)
between two liquids and the contact angle between a liquid and a solid. The force acting
on a vertically immersed plate is measured.
When a vertically suspended plate touches a liquid surface or interface, then a
force F, which correlates with the surface tension or interfacial tension σ and with the
contact angle θ according to the following equation, acts on this plate:
Page 9 of 35
The wetted length L of the plate is equal to its perimeter. To measure the force F, the
plate is attached to a force sensor of a tensiometer.
2. WETTABILITY
Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the
presence· of a second fluid. When two immiscible phases are placed in contact with a
solid surface, one phase usually is attracted to the solid more strongly than the other
phase. The more strongly attracted phase is called the wetting phase.
Page 10 of 35
Rocks are also known to have intermediate and/or mixed wettability, depending on the
physical/ chemical makeup of the rock and the composition of the oil phase.
Intermediate/neutral wettability occurs when both fluid phases tend to wet the solid,
but one phase is only slightly more attracted than the other.
Mixed/Fractional wettability results from a variation or heterogeneity in chemical
composition of exposed rock surfaces or cementing-material surfaces in the pores.
Fractional or mixed wettability means that certain areas or regions of the inner surface
of a rock are covered by water, while the rest of the regions are covered by oil.
Homogeneous Wettability: A system has uniform or homogeneous wettability when it
has the same wetting characteristics throughout.
Preferential Wettability: The surface of the rock is preferentially wet by only oil or by
only water.
Wettability can be quantitatively treated by examining the interfacial forces that exist
when two immiscible fluid phases are in contact with a solid. Fig. 2.8 shows a water drop
placed in contact with a homogeneous rock surface in the presence of an oil phase.
The water drop spreads on the solid until forces are balanced, as shown in Fig. 2.8. A force
balance at the line of intersection of solid, water, and oil yields:
Page 11 of 35
Where,
σos, σws and σow = IFT's between solid and oil, water and solid, and water and oil,
respectively, dynes/cm,
ϴ = contact angle, measured through the water.
 Angle cannot be maintained if σos ≠ σws.
If mercury were used as the liquid, the mercury

would be depressed in the capillary as shown
in Fig. 2.9. Here, mercury does not wet the
glass. If as before, ϴ is measured through the
liquid, then its value exceeds 90° and cos ϴ is a
negative number. The value of h is also a
negative quantity, and thus Eq. 2.4 yields a
positive value for the surface tension of
mercury. The mercury surface is in tension
because a force acts upward in the mercury in
the capillary because of the liquid head
differential between the mercury in the
container and capillary.
Adhesion Tension
In a system with two immiscible fluids in contact with a solid, the difference in the two
fluid-solid surface tensions is called the adhesion tension. In thermodynamic equilibrium
this difference is equivalent as a result of the Young-Laplace equation to the product of
the interfacial tension between the two fluids and the cosine of the contact angle at the
fluid/fluid/solid interface.
𝝉 = 𝝈𝒐𝒔 − 𝝈𝒘𝒔
𝝉 = 𝝈𝒐𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Page 12 of 35
Q. What is the purpose/importance of determining wettability?

Ans It helps us to understand physical and chemical interactions between
 Individual fluids and reservoir rocks
 Different fluids within a reservoir
 Individual fluids and reservoir rocks when multiple fluids are present.
Measurement of wettability
Wettability is measured practically by two methods:
1. Amott-Harvey Method
2. USBM (U.S Bureau of Mines) Method
Amott-Harvey Method
The Amott test combines spontaneous and forced imbibition to measure the average
wettability of a specimen. The method is based on the fact that the wetting fluid will
generally imbibe spontaneously into the specimen and displace the nonwetting one.
In the first step of the Amott test, the specimen is centrifuged first in water and then
in oil to reduce the specimen to the irreducible water saturation Swir. Then it consists
of the following four steps:
(1) immerse the specimen in water, and measure the volume of oil displaced
spontaneously,
(2) centrifuge the specimen in water until the residual oil saturation Sorw is reached, and
measure the amount of oil displaced under force,
(3) immerse the specimen in oil, and measure the volume of water displaced
spontaneously, and
(4) centrifuge the specimen in oil until Swir is reached, and measure the amount of water
displaced under force. The specimen may be driven to Swir and Sorw by flow rather than
with a centrifuge.
Page 13 of 35
Figure 2-42: Amott Index Calculation
USBM (U.S Bureau of Mines) Method

The USBM test includes measurement of drainage and imbibition capillary pressure
curves, usually by use of a centrifuge.
Before the USBM test, the specimen is prepared by centrifuging first in water and then
in oil to Swir. In the first step of the USBM test, the specimen is placed in water and
centrifuged at incrementally increasing speeds. This step is known as the water drive
because water displaces oil from the specimen. At each incremental speed, the average
saturation of the specimen is calculated from the volume of expelled oil and the
capillary pressure is calculated from the rotational acceleration.
During this oil drive, the capillary pressures and average saturations are calculated. Both
the water drive and the oil drive are carried out until a capillary pressure of 70 kPa (10
psi) is reached.
𝐴1
𝑈𝑆𝐵𝑀 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = log ( )
𝐴2
where A1 is the area under the oil drive curve, and A2 is the area above the water drive
curve.
Page 14 of 35
1. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Capillary pressure is the difference in pressures between two immiscible fluids across a
curved surface at equilibrium. Curvature of the interface is the consequences of
preferential wetting of the capillary walls by one of the phase.
The capillary pressure can also be defined as the pressure difference between the non-
wetting and the wetting phase.
𝑷𝒄 = 𝑷𝒏𝒘 − 𝑷𝒘
Fig. 2.10 shows water rise in a glass capillary. The fluid above the water is an oil, and
because the water preferentially wets the glass of the capillary, there is a capillary rise.
Two pressures, Po and Pw are identified in the figure; Po is oil-phase pressure at a point
just above the oil/water interface, and Pw is water-phase pressure just below the
interface. Force balances yield the following:
And,
Page 15 of 35
Where,
Patm = atmospheric pressure, dynes/ cm2;
h and h1 = fluid heights, cm;
𝜌o and 𝜌w=oil and water densities, g/cm3; and
g=gravity acceleration constant, 980 cm/s2.
The water pressure is calculated by summing pressure heads through the oil and
subtracting the water head in the capillary. The pressure at the oil/water interface in the
container is assumed the same as the water pressure at the same elevation in the
capillary.
We know that;
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑤
Subtracting Eq. 2.7 from Eq. 2.6
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑤 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑜 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ) − 𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ
Page 16 of 35
The capillary pressure is thus related to the fluid/fluid IFT, the relative wettability of the
fluids (through ϴ), and the size of the capillary, r. The capillary pressure may be positive
or negative; the sign merely expresses in which phase the pressure is lower. The phase
with the lower pressure will always be the phase that preferentially wets the capillary.
Notice that Pc varies inversely as a function of the capillary radius and increases as the
affinity of the wetting phase for the rock surface increases.
Here,
σw is fluid property,
cos ϴ is rock and fluid property, depends on wettability,
r is porous media property.
VISCOUS FORCES
Viscous forces in a porous medium are reflected in the magnitude of the pressure drop
that occurs as a result of flow of a fluid through the medium. One of the simplest
approximations used to calculate the viscous force is to consider a porous medium as a
bundle of parallel capillary tubes. With this assumption, the pressure drop for laminar
flow through a single tube is given by Poiseuille's law.
Page 17 of 35
where
p =pressure drop across the capillary tube, P2 -PI, Ibf/ft2;
L=capillary-tube length, ft;
r=capillary-tube radius, ft;
𝑣̅ =average velocity in the capillary tube, ft/sec,
µ=viscosity of flowing fluid, lbm/(ft-sec), and
gc=conversion factor.
For an alternative set of units,
where
D..p is in psi, r is in inches, vis in feet per day, /-t is in centipoise, and
L is in feet.
Viscous forces in a porous medium can be expressed in terms of Darcy's law,
Where
p=pressure drop across the porous mediumP2 -PI' psi;
v=average velocity of fluid in the pores of the porous medium, ft/D;
µ=fluid viscosity, cp;
L=length of the porous medium, ft;
Ø=porosity of the porous medium, and
k=permeability of the porous medium, darcies.
For a bundle of equal size capillaries, the permeability is given by:
Page 18 of 35
where
k=permeability of the bundle of capillary tubes, darcies;
d=diameter of the capillary tubes, in.; and
Ø=effective porosity of the bundle of capillaries.
The magnitude of viscous forces can be illustrated with example calculations.
Page 19 of 35
Examples 2.2 and 2.3 illustrate that viscous forces yield pressure gradients in reservoir
rocks on the order of O. 1 to > 1 psi/ft. These are typical values for the bulk of the reservoir
volume. Values can be significantly higher for the regions around injection and production
wells.
PHASE TRAPPING
Trapping of oil or other fluids in a porous medium such as a reservoir rock is not
understood completely and cannot be rigorously described mathematically. The
trapping mechanism, however, is known to depend on:
(1) the pore structure of the porous medium,
(2) fluid/rock interactions related to wettability, and
(3) fluid/fluid interactions reflected in IFT and sometimes in flow instabilities.
Trapping and mobilization are related to these factors in a complex way.
Trapping in a Single Capillary

Jamin Effect.
It has been recognized for some time that the pressure required to force a non-wetting
phase through a capillary system, such as a porous rock, can be quite high. This
phenomenon, called the Jamin effect. The phenomenon can be described most easily by
analyzing a trapped oil droplet or gas bubble in a preferentially water-wet capillary, as
shown in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14.
Fig. 2.13 shows two possible conditions of drop size. In Fig. 2.13a, a very long, continuous
water filament is in contact with a continuous oil filament. The system is static, with
different pressures existing at Points A and B because of capillary forces. The static
pressure difference must be exceeded for flow to occur. In Fig. 2.13b, water contacts both
sides of a finite oil drop. Again, the static pressure difference, PB -PA, if one exists, must
be overcome to initiate flow.
For the condition in Fig. 2.13a, the pressure across the interface is just the capillary
pressure, Pc:
Fig. 2.14 shows three variations of the case shown in Fig. 2.13b, the finite drop in contact
with water on both sides of the drop. In Fig. 2.14a, the capillary tube size varies and
therefore the radius is smaller on one side of the drop than on the other. Fig. 2.14b shows
a situation where the contact angle is different on the two sides of the drop, which could
result, for example, if the drop were displaced in one direction, causing an advancing
contact angle different from the receding angle. Finally, in Fig. 2.14c, a gas drop is trapped
Page 20 of 35
between water on one side and oil on the other. Again, determining the static pressure
differences between Points A and B is important because this value must be exceeded to
initiate flow.
For the other cases in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14, a generalized expression can be written by
simply adding pressure drops across each interface. An assumption is made that the
pressure within the oil or gas drop is constant from one end of the drop to the other.
Subscripts A and B indicate that the values are determined for the interfaces at Points A
and B, respectively. Application of Eq. 2.17 to the cases in Figs. 2.13b and 2.14a through
2.14c yields the following forms, respectively.
Page 21 of 35
Page 22 of 35
Displacement in Linear Systems

Buckley and Leverett (1942) developed a well-established theory, called the frontal
displacement theory, which provides the basis for establishing such a relationship. This
classic theory consists of two equations:
• Fractional flow equation
• Frontal advance equation
The Buckley–Leverett equation is derived based on the following assumptions:
 Flow is linear and horizontal

 Both wetting and non-wetting phases are incompressible
 Immiscible phases
 Negligible capillary pressure effects (this implies that the pressures of the two
phases are equal)
 Negligible gravitational forces
Page 23 of 35
Page 24 of 35
Page 25 of 35
Replacing qo and qw in Equation 14-16 with those of Equation 14-17 gives:
𝑓𝑤 𝑞𝑡 𝜇𝑤 (1 − 𝑓𝑤 )𝑞𝑡 𝜇𝑜 𝜕𝑃𝑐
− = − ∆𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐴𝑘𝑤 𝐴𝑘𝑜 𝜕𝑥
𝑞𝑡 𝑓𝑤 𝜇𝑤 (1 − 𝑓𝑤 )𝜇𝑜 𝜕𝑃𝑐
( − )= − ∆𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐴 𝑘𝑤 𝑘𝑜 𝜕𝑥
𝑓𝑤 𝜇𝑤 (1 − 𝑓𝑤 )𝜇𝑜 𝐴 𝜕𝑃𝑐
− = ( − ∆𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
𝑘𝑤 𝑘𝑜 𝑞𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Multiply by ko/𝜇𝑜 on both sides:
𝑓𝑤 𝜇𝑤 𝑘𝑜 𝑘𝑜 𝐴 𝜕𝑃𝑐
− (1 − 𝑓𝑤 ) = ( − ∆𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
𝑘𝑤 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝑓𝑤 𝑘𝑜 𝜇𝑤 𝑘𝑜 𝐴 𝜕𝑃𝑐
+ 𝑓𝑤 = 1 + ( − ∆𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
𝑘𝑤 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Page 26 of 35
If capillary pressure is negligible and reservoir is horizontal, so the equation of fractional flow of
water becomes:
1
𝑓𝑤 =
𝑘 𝜇
1 + ( 𝑜 𝑜)
𝑘𝑤 𝜇𝑤
Page 27 of 35
Page 28 of 35
Page 29 of 35
Page 30 of 35
 To increase water viscosity, we need to add some polymers.
Page 31 of 35
Page 32 of 35
Page 33 of 35
RELATIONSHIPS FOR FRACTIONAL FLOW OF WATER AND WATER OIL RATE

(WOR) AT RESERVOIR AND SURFACE
Page 34 of 35
Print page 948 to 954
Page 35 of 35

EOR Notes 1 Updated

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

EOR Notes 1 Updated

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY PE-405

By: Muhammad Ahmed (pe-033)

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

Q. Are these three techniques in chronological order?

Ans: No. It depends on the reservoir characteristics.

The drawback to consideration of the three stages as a chronological sequence is that

 In secondary recovery technique, we do not always do pressure maintenance, but

THE NEED FOR EOR

Idealized Characteristics of an EOR Process

Microscopic displacement efficiency

Macroscopic displacement efficiency

Consider the magnitude of these efficiencies in a typical waterflood. For an example in

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑉 = 0.5 × 0.7 = 0.35

 Mobility :The ratio of effective permeability to phase viscosity. The overall

 Mobility Ratio: The mobility of an injectant divided by that of the fluid it is

Microscopic Displacement of Fluids in a Reservoir

Measuring surface or interfacial tension

upward vertical force of surface tension X wetted perimeter = downward gravitational

Solving for σ gives the familiar equation for capillary rise,

2. By Ring Tensiometer method (Du nuoy ring method)

Q. What is the purpose/importance of determining the interfacial tension?

 Angle cannot be maintained if σos ≠ σws.

If mercury were used as the liquid, the mercury

Q. What is the purpose/importance of determining wettability?

Figure 2-42: Amott Index Calculation

USBM (U.S Bureau of Mines) Method

Subtracting Eq. 2.7 from Eq. 2.6

𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑤 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑜 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ) − 𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ

For an alternative set of units,

For a bundle of equal size capillaries, the permeability is given by:

The magnitude of viscous forces can be illustrated with example calculations.

Trapping in a Single Capillary

Displacement in Linear Systems

 Flow is linear and horizontal

Replacing qo and qw in Equation 14-16 with those of Equation 14-17 gives:

Multiply by ko/𝜇𝑜 on both sides:

 To increase water viscosity, we need to add some polymers.

RELATIONSHIPS FOR FRACTIONAL FLOW OF WATER AND WATER OIL RATE

Print page 948 to 954

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen