Any technique using organisms and their components to make products, modify plants

and animals to carry desired traits, or develop micro-organisms for specific uses.

Table 2. Biotechnology: Simplified Conceptualization

Type Genetics Diagnostics Therapeutics Other

Humans HG HD HT HO

Plants PG PD PT PO

Animals AG AD AT AO

Table 3. Biotechnology: A Pragmatic Classification

H. HUMAN HEALTH

H.1 Genetic Manipulation (Gene Therapy)

H.2 Diagnostics

(a) Antibody-based

(b) DNA/RNA-based

H.3 Therapeutics and Vaccines

(a) Pharmaceuticals

(b) Vaccines

(c) Other

H.4 Immunoactive Agents (IL, IFN, etc.) and Immunotherapy

H.5 Hormones and Enzymes

H.6 Other

P. PLANTS

P.1 Genetic Manipulation

(a) Guided Classical Breeding

(b) Transgenic Plants (Genetic Eng.)

P.2 Diagnostics

P.3 Therapeutics and Vaccines

P.4 Propagation/Plant Tissue Culture

P.5 Biological Pest Control

A. ANIMALS

A.1 Genetic Manipulation

(a) Guided Classical Breeding

(b) Transgenic Animals (Genetic Eng.)

A.2 Diagnostics

A.3 Therapeutics and Vaccines

A.4 Propagation/AI and Embryo Transfer

A.5 Biological Pest Control

O. OTHER

O.1 Microbes and Fungi

O.2 Environmental Monitoring

O.3 Research and Development Methodology

O.4 Scaleup and Production Methodology

The following are some of the main applications of modern biotechnology:

Microbes: Biotechnology allows food scientists to improve the functionality of key food
ingredients, such as enzymes. For over a decade, we have consumed an improved cheese
enzyme developed through biotechnology. Other uses include improved types of yeast
for bread, better bacteria for yogurt, and new therapies to fight food-borne illness.
Genetically modified microbes are routinely used in industry (including detergents and
pollution clean-up).
Plants: Biotechnology has already been used to enhance to ability of plants to fight
disease and pests. Many new crops are under development that will have enhanced
nutritional content (such as rice enhanced with Vitamin A that will prevent childhood
blindness and/or with iron to reduce the occurrence of anemia). It will also be possible to
remove undesirable substances (such as allergens or saturated fats) from food. Such
plant transformation is a refinement of traditional breeding - with modern biotechnology
scientists can add or remove small pieces of genetic information in a very precise manner,
with a precise end result in mind.
Animals: Biotechnology makes it possible to enhance the ability of livestock and pets to
overcome disease and maintain health. This has already occurred through the use of
improved animal medicines and other methods of disease treatment (many of which
reduce the need for antibiotics, hormones, or other production tools.) It is now possible
to improve animal feed to ensure better nutrition and reduce the amount of animal waste.
Biotechnology has also been used for many years to improve animal breeding,
reproduction, and growth.
Humans: Through advances in biology, scientists can better determine what genetic
factors contribute wellness or disease. Using this information, it will be possible to
intervene earlier in a disease through new medicines, lifestyle changes, better nutrition,
and other approaches. Diagnostic tests will make it possible to better anticipate the
development of a disease before it either begins or becomes advanced. This will make it
easier to practice prevention.

1) frame shift mutation is change in DNA sequence due to addition and deletion of
nucleotides which in turn changes the code for aminoacids

2) In conventional breeding within species, it is said that "vertical transfer" of genes takes
place. However, biotechnology allows "horizontal transfer" of genes across species. Is'n it
such horizontal transfer unnatural, and therefore possibly unsafe, as well as unethical?

3)
in fermenter we maintained anaerobic conditions in order to grow
anaerobic bacteria used for fermentation while in bioreacter both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions are prevalent to grow both type of
organism.
fermentor is used for production of bioproducts using microorganisms.
bioreactors is also used for production of bioproducts using any living
organisms like plants , yeast etc..

Fermentor is a closed vessel(anaerobically maintained),restricted for

microbial,prokaryotic cells,and operated in small scale.
Bioreactor is used for Eukaryotic as well as other kinds of cells.It can be operated
aerobically and also in Industrial scale.

The lifespan of RBC is 120 days but that of WBC is less

because the our body has to fight against the germs that it
encounters daily which is primarily done by WBC. once it
encounters, the WBC destroys it and dies faster by secreting
certain substances like cytokines and lymphokines. But the
function of RBC is to supply blood to all parts of the body.

Clone is a collection of cells with the same genetic makeup.

Whereas identical twins are those with few similar
characteristics but not the entire genetic makeup.

FATHER OF THE TERM 'BIOTECHNOLOGY' IS KARL EREKY and FATHER

OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IS LOUIS PASTEUR

Any activity of industrial microbiology involves isolation of microorganisms from nature, their
screening to establish product formation, improvement of product yields, maintenance of cultures,
mass culture using bioreactors, and finally recovery of products and their purification.

Industrial microbiology has a wide variety of applications. They can be broadly categorized into
i. metabolite production
ji. biotransformation
iii. production of biofuels
iv. treatment of organic and industrial wastes v. recovery of metals
vi. production of microbial biomass (microbial protein or single
cell protein) for food and feed
vii. production of biocontrol agents and
viii fermentation of food products.

Table: Microbial products/activities of realized/ potential importance.

Product / Activity Examples

Products

Amino acids L-glutamic acid, L-lysine

Antibiotics Streptomycin, penicillin, tetracycline, polymyxin

Beverages Wine, beer, distilled beverages

Biodegradable plastic -polyhydroxybutyrate

Enzymes Amylase, proteases, pectinases, invertase, cellulase

Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate, nucleotides

Foods Cheese, pickles, yoghurt, bread, vinegar

Gases CO2, H2, CH4

Organic acids Lactic, citric, acetic, butyric, fumaric

Organic solvents Acetone, ethanol, butanol, amyl alcohol

Others Glycerol, fats, steroids, gibberellins

Vitamins B12, riboflavin, A

Recombinant proteins Insulin, interferon, subunit vaccines

Substrates A wide range of compounds used for chemical syntheses

of valuable products.

Cells / Biomass

Biomass Food and feed yeast, other organisms used as single cell
protein (SCP)

Vaccines A variety of viral and bacterial vaccines

Activities

Biotransformation Steroids, antibiotics, D-sorbitol

Degradation Disposal of biological and industrial compounds,

petroleum

Solubilization/ accumulation Improved recovery of oil and metals, discovery of new

oil reserves, removal of toxic metals.

Table: Microorganisms and their products.

Microbial products
Microorganisms Primary Secondary Enzymes Others
metabolites(1) metabolites (3) (4)
(2)
Algae
Chlorella SCP
sorokiniana
Spirulina maxima SCP
S. platensis SCP
Bacteria
Acetobacter aceti Acetic acid
Acetobacterirum Acetic acid
woodii
Bacillus brevis Gramicidin
B.polymyxa Polymyxin Amylase
B
B. popilliae Endotoxin
B.subtilis Bacitracin
B.tburingiensis Endotoxin
Clostridium Acetic acid
aceticum
Gluconobacter Vinegar
suboxidans
Methylophilus Glutamic acid
 methylotrophus
Pseudomonas Vitamin B12 Yoghurt
denitrificans
Actinomycetes
Micromonosporsa Gentamicin
purpurea
Nocardia Refamycin
mediterranei
Streptomyces Tetracycline
Aureofaciens
S. tradine Neomycin
S. griseus Streptomycin
S. noursei Nystatin
Fungi
Asergillus niger Citric acid
A. oryzae Amylase, SCP
cellulase
Candida lipolytica Lipase Soya
sauce
C.utilis SCP
Cephalosporium Cephalosporin
acremonium
Fusarium SCP
moniliforme
Gibberella Gibberellin
fujikuroi
Morchella SCP
esculenta
Penicillium Penicillun
chrysogenum
Rhizopus arrihizus,
R nigricans Steroids
Saccharomyces Ethanol SCP,
cerevisiae wine,
bakery
S. lipolytica Citric acid SCP
Trichoderma Cellulase
barzianum,
, ressei, T.viride Cellulase
Antibiotics have now found wide application in chemotherapy, plant pathology, food preservation,
veterinary medicine and are used as research tools in biochemistry and molecular biology. About
7000 antibiotics are known today and hundreds of these are produced commercially by microbial
fermentation.

Antibiotics produced by microorganisms.

Microorganism Antibiotics Applications

Bacteria

B. polymyxa Polymyxin B (AT) UTI, gastroenteritis

B. subtilis Bacitracin (G+) Dematitis, superfical pyogenic infection,

dtsentery

Actionomycetes

Micromonospora Gentamycin (G+, G-) UTI, abscess

purpurea

Nocardia mediterranei Rifamycin (My) Meningitis

S. aureofaciens Tetracyclines* (G+, G-) Cholera, tetanus, UTI

S. erytbreusa Erythromycin (G+) Choilera, tetanus, arthritis

Fungi

Cephalosporium Cephalosporins UTI, pneumonia,

acremonium (G+, G-) meningitis

Pencillium Penicillin (G+) Pneumonia, pharyngitis

cbrysogenum

What is a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)?

Microbial fuel cells, or biological fuel cells, use bacteria to convert chemical
energy in biodegradable materials such as wastewater pollutants into electricity.
The bacteria consume the pollutants, releasing electrons which flow through a
circuit and generate electricity. In this process of power generation, pollutants
are broken down, and clean water is produced.

“Bacteria have evolved to utilize almost any chemical as a food source. In the
microbial fuel cell, bacteria form a biofilm, a living community that is attached to
the electrode by a sticky sugar and protein coated biofilm matrix. When grown
without oxygen, the byproducts of bacterial metabolism of waste include carbon
dioxide, electrons and hydrogen ions. Electrons produced by the bacteria are
shuttled onto the electrode by the biofilm matrix, creating a thriving ecosystem
called the biofilm anode and generating electricity”.

For example, dissimilatory metal-reducing microorganisms such as Geobacterand Rhodoferax

species, have the novel ability to directly transfer electrons tothe surface of electrodes.