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Integrated system of phytodepuration and water reclamation: a comparative evaluation of four

municipal wastewater treatment plants.

PETROSELLI Andrea1,*, GIANNOTTI Maurizio1, MARRAS Tatiana1, ALLEGRINI Elena1

1
Department of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences (DAFNE), Tuscia University, Via San

Camillo De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.

*Corresponding author: PETROSELLI Andrea, DAFNE Department Tuscia University, Via San

Camillo De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo (VT), Italy, Tel: +39 0761 357348; Fax: +39 0761 357434,

petro@unitus.it

Abstract

In dry regions, water resources have become increasingly limited, and the use of alternative

sources is considered one of the main strategies in sustainable water management. A highly

viable alternative to commonly used water resources is treated municipal wastewater, which

could strongly benefit from advanced and low-cost techniques for depuration, such as the

integrated system of phytodepuration (ISP). The current manuscript investigates four Italian case

studies with different sizes and characteristics. The raw wastewaters and final effluents were

sampled on a monthly basis over a period of up to five years, allowing the quantification of the

ISP performances. The results obtained show that the investigated plants are characterized by an

average efficiency value approximately 83% for COD removal, 84% for BOD, 89% for total

nitrogen, 91% for total phosphorus and 85% for total suspended solids. Moreover, for three of

the case studies, the ISP final effluent is suitable for irrigation, and in the fourth case study, the

final effluent can be released in surface water.

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Keywords

Phytodepuration, water reclamation, ISP

Highlights

 Four integrated systems of phytodepuration applied to municipal wastewater were

analysed.

 Raw wastewater and final effluent samples were monitored up to five years.

 The final effluents can be reused for irrigation in three of the four cases.

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1. Introduction

In recent decades, water resources have become increasingly limited in terms of quality and

spatial availability due to both climatic change and anthropic uses. This issue particularly affects

the dry regions where water shortage can seriously influence the local economy, which is

primarily based on agriculture (Recanatesi et al. 2013). The use of alternative water resources is

considered a main strategy for sustainable water management according to the dictates of “water

reclamation”, i.e., the biological and/or chemical processes used to treat, recover and reuse

polluted water in a safe manner (Regelsberger et al. 2007).

One of the most viable alternatives to commonly used water resources is municipal wastewater,

which can be used in a number of applications, e.g., irrigation. Although an understandable

mistrust exists in public opinion related to the use of treated wastewater, the use of such a

resource has increased worldwide in recent years. In Mexico, effluents from a number of

properly treated municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are used in agricultural

irrigation (Zurita and White 2014). In Ghana, research is conducted to determine the most

effective species for use in phytoremediation for reuse of wastewater for improved irrigation

water quality (Anning et al. 2013). In India, grey-water recycling is used to avoid

overexploitation of groundwater (Pandiyaraja et al. 2013).

Focusing on the Mediterranean area, Suchova et al. (2015) investigated the possibility of

irrigation using wastewater from the Thessaloniki WWTP in Greece, and in Egypt, a recently

released national programme reused 2.4 billion m3 of treated wastewater to irrigate 84000 ha of

manmade forests in areas near the treatment plants and in the desert (Evett et al. 2011). Finally,

in Central Italy, Marras et al. (2014) described a case study on the reuse of effluents from a

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phytodepuration plant for irrigation of a cork oak plantation, and in Southern Italy, tomato crops

were irrigated with treated municipal wastewater (Aiello et al. 2013).

Indeed, the recent literature shows an increasing use of treated wastewater to reduce freshwater

consumption, but such wastewater can be reclaimed only if it is adequately treated with proper

depuration technologies. Such technologies should be inexpensive in terms of power

consumption, maintenance and chemical products required for their functioning, as in the case of

phytodepuration, which is a natural treatment technique that reproduces the natural purification

processes in a controlled environment (Olguin 2003). At the same time, such technologies should

follow adequate water quality standards for reuse of wastewater for irrigation, a circumstance

that has not always been guaranteed by conventional phytodepuration technologies (Wang et al.

2005).

Recently, the use of an integrated system of phytodepuration (ISP) has been proposed (Giannotti

2000). ISP combines phytodepuration techniques and conventional depuration technologies and

is characterized by the possibility of recovering pre-existent depuration structures with modest

costs for construction and maintenance of the system. Petroselli et al. (2015a) evaluated one of

the first ISPs for the treatment of water effluent from a municipal WWTP, and Petroselli et al.

(2015b) compared three ISPs designed to release effluents from different agricultural industries

into surface waters.

The objective of the current work is to analyse four different ISPs located in Northern Italy using

a comparative evaluation with a particular focus on reuse of treated wastewater for restricted

irrigation. All four ISPs presented have been designed to treat and reuse effluents derived from

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municipal WWTPs, and their performances are evaluated by determining the final effluent

quality according to the recommendations of current legislation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Integrated system of phytodepuration technology

The ISP analysed in this work is an Italian patented biotechnology (Giannotti 2000) in which

phytodepuration and conventional depuration technologies are combined in three stages.

Stage A consists of primary sedimentation in which solid material falls to the bottom of a tank

and the liquid portion flows to stage B. Stage B consists of biological treatment with a

conventional oxidation system. In the investigated case studies, the technology applied is the

floating activated sludge process, i.e., an aerobic process that converts complex molecules

dissolved in the wastes into simpler inorganic compounds. In particular, the biological matter

floating inside an oxygenation tank is characterized by both submerged oxygenators, which

allow digestion of the organic substances, and a fixed biological film system, in which the

biological mutter is adhered to an inert support to form a uniform film (percolation system).

From stage B, water is routed to stage C via an overflow pipe.

Stage C is the core of the phytodepuration system and consists of a shallow pond with four

separate sections. The first section is an equalization tank, the second is an area with rooted

plants, the third is characterized by the presence of fish and phytoplankton activity, and the

fourth uses a pumping system for internal recirculation.

In stage C section 1, an equalization tank creates internal recirculation between the water flowing

from Stage B and a portion of the water from stage C section 3, as expressed in the following

description.

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In stage C section 2, plants are grown on an inert substratum to which wastewater is

continuously added. The area consists of a concrete tank divided into parallel channels covered

by special panels that sustain a small gravel stratum where plants are hydroponically cultivated.

Eleagnus, Laurus and Pittosporum are the vegetable species used in the investigated case

studies. The selection of the species used in the current case studies was based on two principles,

i.e., autochthonous and evergreen, thus maintaining the same performances of the ISPs in

different seasons.

Stage C section 3 consists of an aerobic lagoon in which microalgae absorb nutrients, produce

oxygen through photosynthesis, and reduce pathogenic bacteria without the need for tertiary

systems such as chlorination or flocculation, which are not present in the ISPs analysed in this

work. Fish prevent eutrophic phenomena and proliferation of troublesome insects. Both

herbivorous species, that feed on microalgae and organic sediments, both predatory species, that

feed on larvae and insects, can be cultivated in the pond. In the current case studies, the selected

fish species that are present are Gambusia affinis, Ameiurus melas and Carassius auratus. Since

they are present in a small number, they do not worsen the water quality with the produced

effluents.

Stage C section 4 presents a pumping system installed in the pond that allows water recirculation

at the head of stage C and oxygen distribution. Finally, the purified effluent flows outside the ISP

and can be reused for the desired purposes, as described in the following section.

The functional scheme of the investigated ISP is illustrated in Figure 1. It is noteworthy that the

presented ISP is characterized by limited sludge production, with a reduction of up to 90% with

respect to the standard WWTP with the same number population equivalent (PE). This last

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characteristic is possible because the majority of the activated sludge produced in the biological

reactor is reintroduced and reabsorbed within the aerobic lagoon of the ISP instead of being

withdrawn and routed to final disposal, and this process decreases the maintenance costs.

2.2 Investigated case studies

All four investigated ISP plants are located in the Cremona Province in Northern Italy in the

municipalities of Drizzona, Gabbioneta Binanuova, Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti, and Tornata and

are briefly described in the following sections. A general view of the ISP plants is shown in

Figure 2, while the ISP main characteristics are reported in Table 1.

2.2.1 Drizzona

A new plant based on ISP technology was built in 2005, when the decision emerged from the

need for urban wastewater depuration in the existing mixed sewage system. Moreover, because

the Oglio River Natural Park is located near the municipality border, quality and technology

were strongly required, which did not permit the use of traditional plants. The aim of the project

was to create a simple and efficient WWTP that functions under any climate condition and

combines both low operational costs and ease of management without the use of chemical

products or biological sludge that must be properly disposed. Considering the presence of the

“Laghetto” irrigation canal that pours water into the Oglio River, good-quality effluent must be

ensured for compliance with wastewater discharge standards. After water reclamation, the

effluent can be reused for restricted irrigation in the fields nearby, where poplar cultivation is

conducted for biomass production.

The Drizzona ISP plant is designed to serve 600 PE and is characterized by a total inflow of 150

m3/d, a maximum flow rate of 37.5 m3/h, a power of 9 kW, and a total organic load of 39 kg/d

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for BOD. The total surface of ISP stage C, i.e., the core of the phytodepuration system, is near

500 m2, and the average depth is approximately 1 m.

2.2.2 Gabbioneta Binanuova

In 2006, the municipality of Gabbioneta Binanuova built a traditional phytodepuration plant to

treat urban waste. The plant did not operate properly since the beginning, thus requiring the use

of a different technology. Hence, the ISP technology was adopted in an attempt to recover the

existing old system. More specifically, the components for stage B were completely reused, and

new structures were created for stages A and C. The plant was completed in 2013, and after

water reclamation, the effluent can be reused for restricted irrigation of corn and barley

cultivation.

The Gabbioneta Binanuova ISP plant is designed to serve 700 PE and is characterized by a total

inflow of 210 m3/d, a maximum flow rate of 50 m3/h, and total organic loads of 49 kg/d and 98

kg/d, respectively, for BOD and COD. The total surface area of ISP stage C is approximately

600 m2, and the average depth is near 1 m. It is noteworthy that the municipality of Gabbioneta

Binanuova is characterized by a problem with the sewer system, which suffers from infiltration

of groundwater, and thus the organic load concentration in the raw effluent is diminished with

respect to the other case studies, and this circumstance affects the plant efficiency, as discussed

in the following.

2.2.3 Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti

In 2006, the municipality of Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti built a new phytodepuration plant for urban

wastewater originating from its territory and the community of Brugnolo. The ISP approach was

adopted because it represents a simple and efficient technology that functions in every climate

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condition and is able to treat different types of wastewater, including (as in the current case)

blackwater and rainwater in a mixed sewage system. After treatment, water can be reclaimed for

irrigation in an experimental plant nursery with a surface area of 8000 m2.

The Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti ISP plant is designed to serve 2500 PE and is characterized by a

total inflow of 2500 m3/d, a maximum flow rate of 120 m3/h, a total power of 20 kW and total

organic loads of 162 kg/d and 324 kg/d, respectively, for BOD and COD. The total surface of

ISP stage C is near 3600 m2, and the average depth is approximately 0.8 m.

2.2.4 Tornata

In 2003, the municipality of Tornata decided to build a standard phytodepuration plant for urban

waste treatment. Considering that the plant did not operate properly since the beginning, the

municipality shifted to the ISP technology in 2009 by renovating and partially converting the

older existing structures. More specifically, the ISP plant included the existing stage A and B and

completely modified the components of stage C. The plant was completed in 2012, and after

water reclamation, the effluent could be reused for restricted irrigation of grain and wheat

cultivation.

The Tornata ISP plant is designed to serve 950 PE and is characterized by a total inflow of 240

m3/d, a maximum flow rate of 60 m3/h, and total organic loads of 62 kg/d and 150 kg/d,

respectively, for BOD and COD. The total surface of ISP stage C is approximately 760 m2, and

the average depth is near 1.2 m.

2.3. ISPs analysis

For all of the investigated case studies, samples of raw wastewater and final effluent were

collected at monthly intervals from 2011 to 2014 for Drizzona, from 2014 to 2015 for

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Gabbioneta Binanuova, from 2010 to 2014 for Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti, and from 2012 to 2014

for Tornata. The samples were stored at 4 °C during transportation to the laboratory and analysed

to determine the following parameters: chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen

demand at 5 days (BOD), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and total suspended solids

(TSS). Moreover, the number of Escherichia coli (EC) colonies in the final effluent was also

determined.

The distributions of the samples were analysed with Origin Pro 8 software, which allowed

determination of maximum, mean, standard deviation, minimum and 75th, 50th and 25th quantile

values. The obtained values were used in analysis to evaluate the efficiency of the investigated

ISPs according to the recommendations of the European Standard and Council Directive for final

disposal (EU 1999). The final effluent was analysed with respect to the European and Italian

legislation to assess possible reuses for the treated effluent according to the water reclamation

framework.

3. Results

For each of the investigated case studies, Figures 3 through 8 show the main statistics for the raw

wastewaters and final effluents. For the raw wastewater COD values (Figure 3), the three

investigated case studies of Drizzona, Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti and Tornata present similar

values ranging from 300 to 600 mg/L, with average values equal to 500, 400 and 450 mg/L,

respectively, and Gabbioneta Binanuova presents lower values, with a maximum of 210 mg/L

and an average value of 107 mg/L.

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For the final effluent COD values (Figure 3), all of the presented case studies showed strong

abatement, with similar average values for Drizzona, Gabbioneta Binanuova and Tornata (34, 37

and 36 mg/L, respectively) and a greater average value for Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti (70 mg/L).

For the raw wastewater BOD values (Figure 4), behaviour similar to that of the raw wastewater

COD values was observed, with greater average values for Drizzona, Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti

and Tornata (216, 175 and 220 mg/L, respectively) and a lower value for Gabbioneta Binanuova

(45 mg/L).

For the final effluent BOD values (Figure 4), we found the lowest average value for Gabbioneta

Binanuova (7 mg/L), intermediate and similar average values for Drizzona and Tornata (17 and

14 mg/L, respectively) and the greatest average value for Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti (30 mg/L).

For the raw wastewater TN values (Figure 5), again we note three similarly high average values

for Drizzona, Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti and Tornata (35, 38 and 37 mg/L, respectively) and a

lower average value for Gabbioneta Binanuova (16 mg/L).

For the final effluents TN values (Figure 5), a lower average value was found for Rivarolo del Re

ed Uniti (1 mg/L), an intermediate average value for Gabbioneta Binanuova (3.1 mg/L), and

higher average values were found for Drizzona and Tornata (4.9 and 4.3 mg/L, respectively).

For the raw wastewater TP values (Figure 6), the lowest average value can be found for

Gabbioneta Binanuova (4.2 mg/L), followed in increasing order by Tornata (10.2 mg/L) and

Drizzona (13 mg/L), but this parameter was not analysed for Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti. For the

final effluent TP values (Figure 6), all three investigated case studies show the same results, with

average values ranging from 0.9 to 1 mg/L, although Gabbioneta Binanuova presents a higher

dispersion, with maximum values exceeding 3 mg/L.

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For the raw wastewater TSS values (Figure 7), we observe behaviour similar to the raw

wastewater TP values, with the lowest average value for Gabbioneta Binanuova (64 mg/L), two

intermediate average values for Drizzona and Tornata (145 and 152 mg/L, respectively), and the

highest average value for Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti (217 mg/L). For the final effluent TSS values

(Figure 7), all of the investigated case studies show similar results, with average values ranging

from 13 to 19 mg/L.

Finally, for the final effluent average EC values (Figure 8), the lowest value can be found in

Gabbioneta Binanuova (840 units/100 mL, although the sample was limited to three values due

to problems in the measurement campaign), followed by the other three investigated case studies

with average values ranging from 1090 to 1260 units/100 mL.

From the aforementioned values, we can determine the ISP efficiency (for each case study and

for each month for each parameter), which is defined as the ratio of the difference between the

raw wastewater and final effluent values divided by the raw wastewater value. For the

investigated case studies and analysed parameters, Table 2 shows the percentages of removal

efficiencies in terms of minimum, average, standard deviation and maximum values.

In brief, the Gabbioneta Binanuova ISP plant produced lower removal efficiencies compared

with the other three ISP plants in terms of COD, BOD and TSS abatement. Instead, referring to

TN and TP removal efficiency, this plant showed results similar to those of the other ISP plants.

In detail, referring to the COD removal efficiency, the highest average value was shown by the

Drizzona ISP plant (92.1%) and the lowest value was reported by the Gabbioneta Binanuova ISP

plant (68.2%). For BOD removal, the highest average value was reported by the Tornata plant

(92.5%) and the lowest again by Gabbioneta Binanuova (70.4%). For the TSS removal, the

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highest removal efficiency value was reported by the Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti plant (94.8%) and

the lowest by Gabbioneta Binanuova (67.3%). For the TN average removal efficiency, Rivarolo

del Re ed Uniti showed the highest value (96.6%) and Gabbioneta Binanuova the lowest

(83.8%), although all of the investigated ISP plants showed similar results for this parameter.

Finally, for the TP removal efficiency, the Drizzona plant showed the highest value (93.2%), the

Gabbioneta Binanuova and Tornata plants offered similar and slightly lower results (respectively

90.7% and 90.6%). No data were available for the Rivarolo del Re e Uniti plant.

4. Discussion and comparative evaluation of ISPs

The investigated raw wastewaters are typical of towns without industrial effluents, with average

ratios of BOD and COD near 0.4 (although with fluctuations in the range 0.12-0.51), indicating

wastewaters with high biodegradability. Indeed, in Petroselli et al. (2015a), a similar ISP was

applied to civil wastewaters characterized by a BOD/COD ratio with an average value of

approximately 0.4 (and fluctuations in the range of 0.21-0.5).

The first general comments arising from the results described in the previous paragraph address

comparison of the presented ISPs in terms of performance with respect to other WWTPs based

on phytoremediation techniques, such as Free Water System (FWS), Subsurface Water

Horizontal Flow System (SWF- H or HF), Subsurface Water Vertical Flow System (SWF- V or

VF) or Constructed Wetlands (CW). It must be highlighted that before comparing the

performances of the IPS and more common WWTPs based on phytoremediation techniques in

terms of the analysed parameters, it is not aim of the current research to compare the ISPs and

conventional phytoremediation plants in terms of technologies, which can be widely different

and based on different processes. Our purpose in this study is to show that it is possible to

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reclaim wastewater for irrigation purposes that fulfils the legislation requirements in a number of

situations that differ in size and other characteristics with the use of ISP technology.

For the COD removal efficiency, the ISP results are comparable to others available in literature,

as in the case of Haghshenas-Adarmanabadi et al. (2016), which reported 80% COD abatement

in the case of four large pilot-scale horizontal-vertical hybrid constructed wetlands (CWs) in

Iran. Similar results were described by Kurniadie (2011), referring to a constructed wetland

designed to treat wastewater from a farm house built in Indonesia (78%), and also by Zurita and

White (2014) for two-stage hybrid ecological wastewater treatment systems with combinations

of horizontal flow constructed wetlands, vertical flow and stabilization ponds (79%). Pandiyaraja

et al. (2013) reported a COD removal efficiency of 85% in the case of grey water treated with

biofiltration and rhizodegradation, similar to that of Abou-Elela and Hellal (2012) for a vertical

flow constructed wetland unit near a wastewater treatment plant in Egypt (88%) and Abou-Elela

et al. (2014) in the case of two horizontal flow constructed wetlands (88%). Rivas et al. (2011)

investigated a multi-stage municipal wastewater treatment that reported a high COD removal

efficiency of up to 93%. However, all four analysed ISP plants are more efficient if compared

with many examples available in the literature, as in the case of Wang et al. (2005), who reported

only 24% COD abatement for a pond-constructed wetland system in China, or in the case of

Maucieri et al. (2016) that reported a 58% COD abatement for a pilot hybrid constructed

wetland.

For the BOD removal efficiency, the ISPs are characterized by values similar to those reported

by Morari and Giardini (2009) (86%), Abou-Elela et al. (2014) (91%), Abou-Elela and Hellal

(2012) (90%), Haghshenas-Adarmanabadi et al. (2016) (85%) and Kurniadie (2011) (76%).

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Conversely, better performances were reported by Zurita and White (2014) (95%), Pandiyaraja et

al. (2013) (97.5%) and Rivas et al. (2011) (94-98%). In conclusion, for BOD removal, the

investigated ISP plants demonstrated performances similar to those of equivalent case studies

retrieved from the literature.

For the TSS, similar results in terms of removal efficiency were described by Haghshenas-

Adarmanabadi et al. (2016) (79%), Abou-Elela et al. (2014) (92%), Abou-Elela and Hellal

(2012) (92%), Rivas et al. (2011) (93-97%), Zurita and White (2014) (92%), which also state the

proposed technology performed well and equivalently to other technologies in terms of this

parameter.

For removal of TN, all four ISP plants showed better results than those found in the literature,

Kurniadie (2011) reported a 71% TN removal, Rivas et al. (2011) reported removal efficiencies

in the range 56-88%, and other available cases reported values ranging from 22% to 58.5%

(Wang et al., 2005; Zurita and White, 2014).

Finally, for TP abatement, the ISP performances are better than in many case studies found in

literature, with TP removal efficiencies ranging from 20% to 52% (Wang et al., 2005; Herrera-

Melián et al., 2010; Rivas et al., 2011). Indeed, few case studies reported results higher than

60%, as in the cases of Abou-Elela and Hellal (2012) (62%), Haghshenas-Adarmanabadi et al.

(2016) (74%) and Verma and Suthar (2014) (82%). The difficulties for common constructed

wetlands in removing TP can be related to the need for multiple removal mechanisms, both

organic and inorganic, and regeneration of P from organic matter back into the water column. In

fact, in the case of single or hybrid systems, TP removal rates are quite low (Wu et al. 2011), and

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better performance can be attained by creating wetlands with multiple plant species able to

increase the uptake of phosphorus (Klomjek and Nitisoravut 2005).

After comparing the performances of the ISPs with other those of standard WWTPs based on

phytoremediation technologies, we proceed with selected comparative comments on the four

investigated case studies. First, we look at two ISPs designed in 2005 and 2006 (Drizzona and

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti, respectively), and two designed recently in 2012 and 2013 (Tornata

and Gabbioneta Binanuova). The performances of the four ISPs are indeed quite similar,

although certain differences emerge from one parameter to another, and thus we state that this

technology is not influenced by the years of operation. This circumstance is due to the brief

stabilization time needed for the system, which can be roughly quantified into 3 months for

bacterial and phytoplankton activity and 1 year for plant growth in stage C. After the first year of

operation, the ISP is fully stabilized, and indeed the performances for Drizzona and Tornata are

highly similar.

The second comparative comment addresses the number of PE served by the ISPs. We examine

at three ISPs with a similar number of PE (600 for Drizzona, 700 for Gabbioneta Binanuova, and

950 for Tornata) and a fourth ISP with a greater number of PE (2500 for Rivarolo del Re ed

Uniti, i.e., 3 or 4 times the previous values). In examining the performances, again no sensible

differences are found between few or many PE if the ISP is correctly designed. Obviously, the

dimensions of the system are different (we can roughly state that the area of stage C is computed

as 1 m2 for each PE), and the costs are also different. Broadly speaking, the specific construction

cost of an ISP (i.e., related to 1 PE) is inversely proportional to the increasing total number of

PE. Indeed, we consider 300 euro/ PE for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 100

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PE, 150 euro/ PE for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 1000 PE, and 100 euro/ PE

for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 3000 PE. In addition, the specific

maintenance cost of an ISP diminishes with the increasing number of PE. As a rough estimate,

we consider 50 euro/ PE /year for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 100 PE, 30

euro/ PE /year for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 1000 PE, and 20 euro/ PE

/year for an ISP serving a total number of approximately 3000 PE. Overall, the described results

show no differences in terms of removal efficiencies for hundreds or thousands of PE.

A final comparative comment is related to the removal efficiencies obtained for the Gabbioneta

Binanuova case study, which indeed appear sensibly lower with respect to the other three case

studies, particularly for COD, BOD and TSS. As expressed in paragraph 2.2.2, Gabbioneta

Binanuova is characterized by a lower concentration of input organic load due to infiltration of

groundwater inside the sewer system, and this circumstance diminishes the system efficiency,

although the final effluent legislation values are fulfilled.

5. Evaluation of effluent quality for final disposal

According to the literature, many attempts to reclaim wastewater effluents have been made to

reuse water resources for irrigation purposes, particularly in arid or semiarid regions. In Southern

Italy, Cirelli et al. (2012) investigated municipal wastewater treated for vegetable crop irrigation

(eggplant and tomato crops), while Castorina et al. (2016) monitored horizontal sub-surface flow

constructed treatment wetland system to reuse water employing micro-irrigation techniques to

irrigate vegetable crops (lettuce, zucchini and eggplants). In Tunisia, Houda et al. (2016) used

treated municipal wastewater to irrigate poplar trees and increased the biomass production by

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36%, and Kihila et al. (2014) used constructed wetland ponds to treat effluent for agricultural

production in Tanzania.

The quality of the final effluents from the four ISPs was evaluated in this work with

consideration of the EU (EU 1999) and Italian law limits (D. Lgs n° 152/2006). The results are

shown in Table 3. European law contains fewer details than Italian law, which states different

limits for three types of wastewater release, i.e., surface water, sewage (i.e. the particular case of

a missing or not working WWTP) and water into soil. The European limits and Italian limits for

releasing wastewater directly into surface water are similar. Instead, the limits imposed for

releasing water into the soil are lower than the European ones, whereas those for release into

sewage are higher. Finally, it is noteworthy that the EU directive does not determine legislation

of quality requirements for pathogenic contamination and micro-organic pollution.

The average values of COD, BOD, TSS, TN and TP are referred to the four ISPs with respect the

European limits with the exception of the average BOD value of Rivarolo del Re e Uniti ISP,

which slightly exceeded the prescribed limit. Instead, considering the maximum values, the

Drizzona, Rivarolo del Re e Uniti and Tornata ISPs exceeded European limits only for BOD,

whereas the Gabbioneta Binanuova ISP exceeded the limits only for TSS. Considering the Italian

law limits, all of the final effluents were suitable for direct release into surface water or in

sewage. For direct release into soil, the situation is different. The Drizzona ISP produced the

maximum values for BOD and TSS, higher than the Italian law limits, but considering the

average values, such requirements were fulfilled. The Gabbioneta Binanuova ISP exceeded the

lawful limits only for the maximum level of TSS and TP. The Rivarolo del Re e Uniti ISP did

not meet the limitations for the BOD, neither for the maximum value nor the average value.

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Finally, the Tornata ISP produced COD and BOD maximum values that exceeded the lawful

limits, even if the average values of the same parameters were less than the threshold.

Concerning the EC limits, all of the values from the investigated case studies were strongly

under the threshold determined by the Italian legislation, and for such a parameter, the regulation

does not discriminate among release in surface water, sewage or directly into soil.

Therefore, the effluents could be considered partially suitable for irrigation purposes, although if

we consider the average values and not the maximum ones, we can state that only Rivarolo del

Re e Uniti did not fulfil the requirements, whereas the final effluents of the other three ISP plants

can be reused for irrigation.

6. Conclusions

The use of alternative water resources, such as the effluents of municipal wastewater treatment

plants, is considered one of the main strategies in sustainable water management and Integrated

systems of phytoremediation (ISP) appear to be highly promising for the treatment of such

effluents. In the current manuscript, the performances of four ISPs were evaluated by analysing

the raw wastewater and final effluent characteristics for a period of up to five years. All of the

ISPs showed an average removal efficiency value greater than 83% for COD removal, 84% for

BOD, 89% for total nitrogen, 91% for total phosphorus and 85% for total suspended solids.

Moreover, the ISP final effluents are characterized by a quality suitable for release into surface

water and also suitable for irrigation, at least in three case studies out of four, whereas for the

other case study, it is possible to release the final effluent into surface water.

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From this evaluation, it can be concluded that the investigated ISPs are highly efficient. In all of

the presented case studies, the final effluent represents an important alternative water resource

that can be considered a possible response to the challenges of fresh water demand.

It is noteworthy that all four presented ISPs are characterized by the same vegetation species and

comparable climatic conditions, and thus future research should address testing of different

vegetation species subjected to different climatic regimes to define the full impact of this mixed

technology on water reclamation.

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Table 1: main characteristics of the investigated ISPs: population equivalent (PE), total inflow

(TI), maximum flow rate (MFR), BOD total organic load (BOD TOL), surface and depth of

stage C. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R: Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata.

parameter D G R T
PE (-) 600 700 2500 950
TI (m3/d) 150 210 2500 240
MFR (m3/h) 37.5 50 120 60
BOD TOL 39 49 162 62
(kg/d)
ISP stage C 500 600 3600 760
surface (m2)
ISP stage C 1.0 1.0 0.8 1.2
depth (m)

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Table 2. Removal efficiency minimum, average, standard deviation and maximum values (%) for

the investigated parameters. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R: Rivarolo del Re ed

Uniti; T: Tornata.

I removal
S efficiencies
P (%)
COD B T T T
O N P S
D S
min av s. m m av s. m m a s. m m a s. m m a s. m
d. a in d. a in v d a in v d a in v d. a
x x . x . x x
D 75.5 92.1 6. 9 7 91 5. 9 7 8 7 9 9 9 1 9 7 8 6. 9
4 7. 5. .3 8 7. 3. 8. . 9. 1. 3. . 6. 3. 6. 7 6.
6 7 4 9 3 3 6 7 2 8 2 0 7 3
G 24.2 68.2 2 8 3 70 2 9 7 8 8 9 9 9 0 9 1 6 3 9
7. 7. 7. .4 4. 0. 1. 3. . 0. 0. 0. . 1. 6. 7. 1. 3.
3 7 5 8 2 8 8 4 0 0 7 9 8 7 3 5 9
R 74.3 83.1 5. 9 7 82 3. 8 9 9 3 9 - - - - 9 9 1. 9
3 0. 7. .1 6 5. 0. 6. . 9. 1. 4. 8 8.
5 1 9 5 6 1 7 7 8 2
T 65.2 90.6 8. 9 7 92 5. 9 7 8 5 9 8 9 5 9 8 9 2. 9
8 6. 6. .5 8 6. 8. 8. . 2. 1. 0. . 3. 7. 1. 0 5.
4 7 8 3 1 0 5 7 6 0 5 9 9 3

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Table 3. Maximum, average and legislation values for final effluent. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta

Binanuova; R: Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata.

Italian
law
limits
parameter D G R T EU surf. sewages soil
limits water
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
COD 96.0 60.0 94.0 110.0 125 160 500 100
max
COD av 34.5 36.5 69.5 36.2
BOD 37.0 14.0 36.0 34.0 25 40 250 20
max
BOD av 17.7 6.8 29.6 14.5
TSS max 35.0 56.0 20.0 20.0 35 80 200 25
TSS av 18.7 19.0 13.0 12.8
TN max 12.8 14.7 2.3 6.3 15 50 60 15
TN av 4.9 3.1 1.0 4.3
TP max 1.3 3.2 - 1.7 10 10 10 2
TP av 0.9 1.0 - 0.9
EC max 2500 860 1310 1680 - 5000 5000 5000
EC av 1260 840 1090 1190

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Figure 1: Investigated ISP functioning scheme. A: primary sedimentation; B: biological

treatment; C: mixed phytoremediation pond; 1: equalization tank; 2: plant sector; 3: aerobic

lagoon; 4: recirculation system.

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Figure 2: General view of the investigated ISPs: a) Drizzona; b) Gabbioneta Binanuova; c)

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; d) Tornata.

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Figure 3. Raw wastewater and final effluent COD. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R:

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the maximum, mean and

minimum of the distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th quantiles of the

distribution. All values are given in mg/L.

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Figure 4. Raw wastewater and final effluent BOD. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R:

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the maximum, mean and

minimum of the distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th quantiles of the

distribution. All values are given in mg/L.

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Figure 5. Raw wastewater and final effluent TN. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R:

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the maximum, mean and

minimum of the distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th quantiles of the

distribution. All values are given in mg/L.

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Figure 6. Raw wastewater and final effluent TP. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R:

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti (no data available); T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the

maximum, mean and minimum of the distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th

quantiles of the distribution. All values are given in mg/L.

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Figure 7. Raw wastewater and final effluent TSS. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R:

Rivarolo del Re ed Uniti; T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the maximum, mean and

minimum of the distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th quantiles of the

distribution. All values are given in mg/L.

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Figure 8. Final effluent EC. D: Drizzona; G: Gabbioneta Binanuova; R: Rivarolo del Re ed

Uniti; T: Tornata. Points in the box chart indicate the maximum, mean and minimum of the

distribution, and lines denote the 75th, 50th and 25th quantiles of the distribution. All values are

given in CFU/100mL.

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