SEVENTH ASSIGNMENT – SOLUTIONS

(1) Spivak, no. 4-23:

For R > 0, and n an integer, define the singular 1-cube cR,n : [0, 1] −→
R2 \ {0} by
cR,n (t) = (R cos 2πnt, R sin 2πnt).
Show that there is a singular 2-cube c : [0, 1]2 −→ R2 \ {0} such that
cR1 ,n − cR2 ,n = ∂c.
Solution: Define c : [0, 1]2 −→ R2 by
c(t, s) = ((sR1 + (1 − s)R2 ) cos 2πnt, (sR1 + (1 − s)R2 ) sin 2πnt).
This looks simpler in complex notation for R2 = C as
c(t, s) = (sR1 + (1 − s)R2 )e2πint .
Its boundary consists of four 1-cubes, up to sign. Namely:
∂c(t) = c(1, t) − c(0, t) − c(t, 1) + c(t, 0) = cR1 ,n (t) − cR2 ,n (t)
since the last two 1-cubes are actually the same.
(2) Spivak, no. 4-24:
If c is a singular 1-cube in R \ {0} with c(0) = c(1), show that there is
an integer n such that c − c1,n = ∂c(2) for some 2-chain c(2) . Hint: First
partition [0, 1] so that each c([ti−1 , ti ]) is contained on one side of some line
through 0.
Solution: We define a continuous function θ : [0, 1] −→ R so that
(1) c(t) = (|c(t)| cos(2πθ(t)), |c(t)| sin(2πθ(t))) ∀ t ∈ [0, 1]. ∈ R2 \ {0}.
To do so, let L be the line through the origin and c(0), then let L± be the
two halves of L \ {0} so that c(0) ∈ L+ . As the hint suggest we can choose
t0 = 0 and then choose t1 to be the first point at which c(t) ∈ L− , t2 the
first later point at which c(t) ∈ L+ and so on. At the last step, either
t2N = 1 or else t2N < 1 and there is no later point at which c(t) ∈ L− ; in
this case set t2N +1 = 1. This gives a partition of [0, 1] so that on [t2i , t2i+1 )
c(t) does not hit L− whereas on [t2i+1 , t2i+2 ) it does not hit L+ . Set
c(t0 ) = (|c(t0 )| cos(2πθ0 ), |c(t0 )| sin(2πθ0 ))
for some θ0 ∈ [0, 1). Now for each i there are unique continuous functions
τi : [t2i , t2i+1 ) −→ [− 12 , 12 ] and τi0 : [t2i+1 , t2i+2 ) −→ (0, 1) so that
c(t) = (|c(t)| cos(2π(θ0 + τi (t))), |c(t0 )| sin(2π(θ0 + τi (t)))) t ∈ [t2i , t2i+1 ),
c(t) = (|c(t)| cos(2π(θ0 + τi0 (t))), |c(t0 )| sin(2π(θ0 + τi0 (t)))) t ∈ [t2i+1 , t2i+2 ).
It follows that
lim = τi0 (t2i+1 ) + ni and lim = τi+1 (t2(i+1) ) + ni
t↑t2i+1 t↑t2i+1

with ni , n0i ∈ Z.
1
2 SEVENTH ASSIGNMENT – SOLUTIONS

Now the function θ : [0, 1] −→ R can be defined by insisting that θ = θ0 +τ0

on [0, t1 ) and that only later intervals θ(t) = θ0 +τi +qi or θ(t) = θ0 +τi +qi0
for some integers qi , q;i and that it be be continuous at each ti . Necessarily
θ(1) = θ(0) + n, n ∈ Z. Clearly (1) holds.
Now define a 2-cube by
d(t, s) = ((s|c(t)| + (1 − s)) cos(2π(sθ(t) + (1 − s)nt)),
(s|c(t)| + (1 − s)) sin(2π(sθ(t) + (1 − s)nt))), (s, t) ∈ [0, 1] × [0, 1].
This 2-cube takes values in R2 \ {0} and
∂d = c1,n (t) − c(t)
since the two terms from t = 0 and t = 1 cancel. Thus c(2) = −d has the
desired property
[Notice this actually gives a cube d(t, −s), with boundary c − c1,n ; you
were only asked for a chain c(2) so you could do it in pieces.]
(3) Spivak, no. 4-25:
(Independence of parameterization.) Let c be a singular k-cube and p :
[0, 1]k −→ [0, 1]k a 1-1 function such that p([0, 1]k ) = [0, 1]k and det p0 (x) ≥
0 for all x ∈ [0, 1]k . If ω is a k-form, show that
Z Z
ω= ω.
c c◦p

Solution: By definition
Z Z Z
ω= c∗ ω = [0, 1]k f, c∗ ω = f (x)dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxk
c [0,1]k

and similarly
Z Z Z
ω= (c ◦ p)∗ ω = g,
c◦p [0,1]k [0,1]k

(c ◦ p)∗ ω = p∗ (c∗ ω) = p∗ (f (x)dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxk ) = gdx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxk .

Thus
g = (f ◦ p)| det p0 | = (f ◦ p) det p0
0
since det p ≥ 0 by assumption. Now, since p is 1-1 it follows from the
change of variable formula that
Z Z Z
0
g= (f ◦ p)| det p | = f.
[0,1]k [0,1]k [0,1]k

(4) Spivak, no. 4-26:

R
Show that cR,n dθ = 2πn and use Stokes’ theorem to conclude that
cR,n 6= ∂c for any 2-chain in R2 \ {0}. Here
−y x
dθ = 2 2
dx + 2 dy
x +y x + y2
is a smooth 1-form on R \ {0} which, despite the notation, is not exact.
Solution: If we substitute the definition of cR,n , x = R cos 2πnt, y =
R sin 2πnt we find that
d cos 2πnt d sin 2πnt
c∗R,n dθ = − sin(2πnt) + cos(2πnt) = 2πndt
dt dt
 SEVENTH ASSIGNMENT – SOLUTIONS 3

Thus Z Z Z 1
dθ = c∗R,n dθ = 2πndt = 2πn.
cR,n [0,1] 0
It follows that cR,n 6= ∂c for any 2-chain c in R2 \ {0}, if n 6= 0, since by
Stokes’ theorem this would imply
Z Z Z
dθ = dθ = d(dθ) = 0
cR,n ∂c c

since dθ is a well-defined closed form.

(5) Spivak, no. 4-27:
Show that the integer n of Problem 4-24 is unique. This integer is called
the winding number of c around 0.
Solution: If c is a closed 1-cube in R2 then with n from Problem 4-24
above, using Stokes’ theorem
Z Z Z
dθ = dθ + dθ = 2πn
c c1,n ∂c(2)

which shows that n is unique, since it is determined by integration over c.

(6) Spivak, no. 4-28:
Recall that the set of complex number, C, is simply R2 with (a, b) = a+bi.
If a1 , . . . , an ∈ C let f : C −→ C be
f (z) = z n + a1 z n−1 + · · · + an .
Define the singular 1-cube cR,f : [0, 1] −→ C \ {0} by cR,f = f ◦ cR,1 and
the singular 2-cube c by
c(s, t) = t · cR,n (s) + (1 − t)cR,f (s).
(a) Show that ∂c = cR,f − cR,n and that
c([0, 1] × [0, 1]) ⊂ C \ {0}
if R is large enough.
(b) Using Problem 4-26 above, prove the Fundamental theorem of algebra:
Every polynomal = z n + a1 z n−1 + · · · + an with ai ∈ C has a root in
C.
Solution
(a) By definition ∂c is the sum of four 1-cubes
∂c = c(s, 0) − c(s, 1) − c(0, s) + c(1, s).
The last two are the same 1-cube with opposite signs, since both cR,n
and cR,f are closed.
(b) We can estimate f by
(2) |f (z) − z n | = |a1 z n−1 + · · · + an |
≤ |a1 ||z|n−1 + · · · + |an | ≤ C|z|n−1 , in |z| ≥ 1.
This shows that f (z) 6= 0 on cR,1 for R large enough. Moreover for
each s ∈ [0, 1] consider
t 7−→ tcR,f (s) + (1 − t)cR,n (s)
= tf (Re2πis ) + (1 − t)Re2πins = tRn (e2πins + τ ) + (1 − t)Re2πins .
4 SEVENTH ASSIGNMENT – SOLUTIONS

Here |τ | ≤ C/R is very small by (2). Thus the straight line given by
varying t ∈ [0, 1] does not pass through the origin, so c([0, 1] × [0, 1]) ⊂
C \ {0}.
(c) Since cR,f and cR,n differ by an exact 2-chain in C \ {0} it follows from
Problem 4-16 that
Z
cR,f dθ = 2πn.

Now suppose, to get a contradiction, that f (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ C. In

particular, an 6= 0 since otherwise f (0) = 0. Then
d(s, t) = f ◦ cRs,1 (t) ∈ C \ {0} ∀ (t, s) ∈ [0, 1] × [0, 1].
Since ∂d = cR,f −c0 where
R c0 (t) = an is constant it follows from Stokes’
theorem that 2πn = c0 dθ = 0 which is a contradiction. This proves
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, that f (z) must have a zero.