[Translations of Mathematical Monographs 26] Gennadiĭ Mikhaĭlovich Goluzin - Geometric Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable (Translations of Mathematical Monographs, Vol. 26) (1969, AMS Bookstore)

TRANSLATIONS OF
MATHEMATICAL
MONOGRAPHS
VOLUME 26
G. M. Goluzin
Geometric Theory
of Functions
of a Complex Variable
TRANSLATIONS
OF
MATHEMATICAL
MONOGRAPHS
Volume 26
GEOMETRIC THEORY
OF FUNCTIONS
OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
by
G. M. GOLUZIN
AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY
Providence, Rhode Island 02904
1969
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Translated from the Russian by

Scripts Technics
Standard Book Number 821-81576-0

Library of Congress Card Number 70-82894
Copyright © 1969 by the American Mathematical Society

Printed in the United States of America
All Rights Reserved
No portion of this book may be reproduced
without the written permission of the publisher
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A note on the author ...................................................................................................... 1
Preface to the second edition ...................................................................................... 3

Preface (to the first edition) ........................................................................................ 4
Introductory geometric considerations ................................................:........................5
Chapter I. The convergence of sequences of analytic and harmonic
functions .................................................................................................... 11
§1. The convergence of sequences of analytic functions ............................. 11
§2. The condensation principle ..........................................................................14
§3. The convergence of sequences of harmonic functions ............................
Chapter II. The principles of conformal mappings of simply connected
domains .................................................................................................... 23
§1. Univalent conformal mapping ...................................................................... 23
§2. Riemann's theorem ........................................................................................25
§3. The correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping ................ 31
§4. Distortion theorems ...................................................................................... 47
§5. Convergence theorems on the conformal mapping of a sequence
of domains ......................................................................................................54
§6- Modular and automorphic functions ............................................................ 62
§7. Normal families of analytic functions. Applications .............................. 67
Chapter III. Realization of conformal mapping of simply connected

domains ....................................................................................................76
§1. Conformal mapping of domains bounded by rectilinear and
circular polygons .......................................................................................... 76
§2. Parametric representation of univalent functions .................................... 89
§3. Variation of univalent functions ..................................................................99
Chapter IV. Extremal questions and inequalities holding in classes of

univalent functions ...............................................................................110
§1. Rotation theorems ........................................................................................110
§2. Sharpening of the distortion theorems ......................................................118
iii
iv
§3. Extrema and majorizations of the type of the distortion theorems ........ 128
§4. Application of the method of variations to other extremal
problems .............................................................. ......................................... 140
§5- Limits of convexity and starlikeness ...................................................... 165
§6. Covering of segments and areas ............................................................... 170
§7. Lemmas on the mean modulus. Bounds for the coefficients ................ 182
§8. The relative growth of coefficients of univalent functions .................. 190
§9 Sharp bounds on the coefficients .............................................................. 196
Chapter V. Univalent conformal mapping of multiply connected domains ......... 205
§1. Univalent conformal mapping of a doubly connected domain onto
an annulus ....................................................................................................205
§2. Univalent mapping of a multiply connected domain onto a plane
with parallel rectilinear cuts .................................................................... 210
§3. Univalent mapping of a multiply connected domain onto a helical
domain .......................................................................................................... 216
§4. Some relationships involving the mapping functions .................... ........ 222
§5. Convergence theorems for univalent mapping of a sequence of
domains ........................................................................................................ 228
§6. Univalent mapping of multiply connected domains onto circular
domains. The continuity method .............................................................. 234
§7. Proof of Brouwer's theorem ...................................................................... 244
Chapter VI. Mapping of multiply connected domains onto a disk ........................254
§1. Conformal mapping of a multiply connected domain onto a disk ..........254
§2. Correspondence of boundaries under a mapping of a multiply
connected domain onto a disk .................................................................. 262
§3- Dirichlet's problem and Green's function .............................................. 266
§4. Application to a univalent mapping of multiply connected domains .... 275
§5. Mapping of an n-connected domain onto an n-sheeted disk ................. 277
§6. Some identities connecting a univalent conformal mapping and
the Dirichlet problem ..................................................................................283
Chapter VII. The measure properties of closed sets in the plane .................... 293
§1. The transfinite diameter and Cebysvev's constant ..................................293
§2. Bounds for the transfinite diameter ..........................................................300
§3. The capacity of a closed bounded set ...................................................... 309
§4. Harmonic measure of closed bounded sets ..............................................314
§5. An application to meromorphic functions of bounded form ....................321
V
Chapter VIII. Majorization principles and their applications .............................. 329

41. An invariant form of the Schwarz lemma .................................................. 329
§2. The hyperbolic metric principle ................................................................ 336
§3. Lindeldf's principle .................................................................................... 339
4.Harmonic measure. The simplest applications ....................................... 341
§5. On the number of asymptotic values of entire functions of finite

order ..............................................................................................................351
§6. The hyperconvergence of power series .................................................... 356
§7. A nonanalytic generalization of the Schwarz lemma. A theorem
on covering of disks ....................................................................................360
§8. Majorization of subordinate analytic functions ........................................368
Chapter IX. Boundary value problems for analytic functions defined on a

disk ........................................................................................................ 380
§1. Limiting values of Poisson's integral ......................................................380
§2. The representation of harmonic functions by means of Poisson's
integral and the Poisson-Stieltjes integral .............................................. 385
§3. The limiting values of analytic functions ................. ............................... 393
§4. Boundary properties of functions in the class Hp ................................. 402
§5. Functions that are continuous on a closed disk ..................................... 409
Chapter X. Boundary questions for functions that are analytic inside a
rectifiable contour ..................................................................................417
§1. The correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping ................417
§2. Privalov's uniqueness theorem ..................................................................428
§3. On the limiting values of Cauchy's integral ............................................430
§4. Cauchy's formula .........................................................................................435
§5. Classes of functions. Cauchy's formula ..................................................438
§6. On the extrema of mean moduli ..................................................................441
§7. Approximation in mean and the theory of orthogonal polynomials ........448
Chapter XI. Some supplementary information ......................................................... 454
§1. Gluing theorems ...........................................................................................454
§2. Conformal mapping of simply connected Riemann surfaces .................. 461
§3. An extremum for bounded functions in multiply connected domains .... 467
N. The three-disk theorem ...............................................................................476
§5. Transformation of analytic functions by means of polynomials ............480
§6. On p-valent functions .................................................................................487
vi
§7. Some remarks on the Caratheodory-Fejer problem and on an

analogous problem ...................................................................................... 497
§8. Some inequalities for bounded functions ..................................................514
§9. A method of variations in the. theory of analytic functions ................... 526
The scientific works of Gennadii Mihailovic Goluzin ............................................ 545
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 549
Supplement. Methods and results of the geometric theory of functions ............. 563
Introduction ...........................................................................................................563
§1. Basic methods of the geometric theory of functions of a complex
variable .........................................................................................................565
§2. Univalent functions in a disk and in an annulus .................................... 577
§3. Functions that are analytic in multiply connected domains ..................629
Bibliography for the Supplement ................................................................................651
Subject Index ................................................................................................................673
A NOTE ON THE AUTHOR
G. M. GOLUZIN (1906-1952)
The author of the present book, Gennadii Mihailovic Goluzin, was born in
1906 in the town of Toriok. In 1924, he entered the Mathematics Division of
Leningrad State University. From then until his death, he never interrupted his
connection with the University. In 1929 he defended his graduation thesis, which
was then published in Matematiceskii Sbornik. After his graduation from the Uni-
versity, Goluzin began teaching; in 1936 he brilliantly defended his doctoral dis-
sertation and in 1938 he was appointed professor. From 1939 on, he held a chair
on the theory of functions of a complex variable at Leningrad State University,
where, with great energy and devotion, he taught young scientists and also super-
vised their scientific research. Over a period of years he conducted the basic
course as well as a number of special courses, and also led a seminar on the
geometric theory of functions of a complex variable.
From the founding of the Leningrad division of the Mathematical Institute of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1940, Goluzin simultaneously worked also
at that institute, where he carried on extensive scientific activity.
The outstanding scientific services of Goluzin were recognized by his being
awarded the first prize of the University in 1946 and the Government prize in
1947. The present book is another result of Goluzin's scientific and pedagogical
labors. Goluzin died January 17, 1952, about the time of the printing of the first
edition, after a long illness.
In one of his earlier works, Goluzin used Loewner's parametric representa-
tion for the class S of functions f(z) = z + c2z2 + . that are regular and uni-
1alent in the disk jzj < 1, to obtain the precise form of the so-called rotation
I
theorem, that is, a sharp bound for I arg f (z) I in the class S. For many years,
Mnathematicians had been unable to solve this difficult problem.
In subsequent works, 'Goluzin continued to develop systematically the method
Of parametric representations and devised a general method of investigating a
broad class of extremal problems.
1
2 A NOTE ON THE AUTHOR
Goluzin developed his own variant of the method of interior variations, and
with it obtained a number of profound results. His variational method became one
of the basic contemporary methods for investigating univalent functions.
Goluzin obtained extremely powerful results in the problem of estimating the
order of growth of the coefficients of univalent functions. In particular, he found
a solution, in a certain sense definitive, of the problem of the relative growth of
the coefficients of functions in the class S:
If I c,1 < A lna, where A l is a constant, a> 0, and n assumes values equal
to the terms of some arithmetic progression, then I c I < A 2n a for all n, where
A 2 is a constant depending only on A 1 and a.
For the coefficients of functions in this same class, he found the inequality
I en I < % en, which was the first advance in the problem of the coefficients since
the well-known result of Littlewood (1925).
To the pen of G. M. Goluzin belong a number of works in other divisions of
the theory of functions of a complex variable and also in mathematical physics.
We mention his investigations on conformal mapping of multiply connected domains
onto domains of the canonical type and his work dealing with the solution of the
Dirichlet problem for Laplace's equation in the case of domains bounded by circles
or spheres.
Even a simple listing of the numerous and valuable works of Goluzin would
require an excessive amount of space. The reader can get an idea of them by
reading the present book.
Gennadii Miha lovic` Goluzin was an extremely unassuming man, who made a
vivid impression of personal charm and outstanding ability.
June 7, 1966 Academician V. I. Smirnov
3
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The first edition of Goluzin's monograph was published in 1952, shortly after
the author's death. In the last decade, an extensive literature has appeared on
themes closely related to the content of this monograph, and many of these
results were obtained in the works of Goluzin's pupils. A survey of this literature
is given in a special supplement.
The text of the book has undergone only slight modifications, which we shall
'point out. In the beginning of the book, the well-known theorems of Runge and
walsh on the approximation of regular functions with polynomials have been omitted
since these are easy to find in the literature on the subject. The theorem on the
construction of a mapping function by means of orthogonal polynomials has also
been omitted. Additional material has been included in Chapters IV and XI. Speci-
fically, a few additional remarks have been inserted at the end of § 1 of Chapter IV.
In §2 of that chapter, some modification has been made in the arrangement of the
exposition: relations (3)-(5) from a 1951 article of Goluzin have been inserted
before the formulation of Theorem 1, and a corollary to Theorem 3 of Lebedev,
and Theorem 4 from a 1951 article of Goluzin, have been added. The material at
the end of §3 of Chapter IV has been extended on the basis of other works of
Goluzin 11946f, 1947, 1951d] and put in a separate section (§4). This has neces-
sitated a renumbering of the remaining sections of the chapter. Theorems 3 and 4
of Chapter V, §3 have been moved to §6 of that chapter (where they are num-
bered Theorems 6 and 7) and their proofs are omitted. Chapter IX has been
extended by the addition of the four sections 6-9, in which the articles by Goluzin
in (1940, 1946a, 1950, 19521 are incorporated almost without change. All the
additions not included in Goluzin's works are indicated by the angle brackets
Three bibliographic lists have been added to the book. One of these corre-
sponds to references made in the main text, another to the supplement. In addition,
it complete list is given of Goluzin's works.
1965 V. I. S.
4
PREFACE
(to the first edition)
This book is based primarily on lectures given by the author at Leningrad
State University in the course entitled "the geometric theory of functions of a
complex variable " and, in part, in the course entitled "supplementary topics in
the theory of functions of a complex variable." It includes an exposition of the
following topics: the theory of a univalent conformal mapping of simply connected
and multiply connected domains, conformal mapping of multiply connected domains
onto a disk, applications of conformal mapping to the study of interior and bound-
ary properties of analytic functions, and general questions of a geometric nature
dealing with analytic functions. In addition to various general problems in the
geometric theory of functions, many particular problems under study at the present
time are also considered. However, the book does not pretend to expound all ques-
tions related to the geometric theory of functions or to treat all topics with the
same degree of completeness. This would have been an impossible task for the
author. Therefore, it is only natural that certain questions in the theory of functions
have remained untouched, whereas the treatment of others has not been sufficiently
complete. In many such cases, the author has given appropriate bibliographic
references.
The book is intended for a reader who has already mastered the fundamentals
of the theory of functions of a complex variable as taught in most university
courses.
G. M. Goluzin
5
INTRODUCTORY GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS

The geometric theory of functions of a complex variable makes a study of
analytic functions defined by some geometric property or other and a study of
various geometric properties of certain classes of analytic functions. Therefore,
it naturally rests on a number of general geometric concepts that are encountered
in present-day mathematics. Here we propose to make some brief remarks about
these concepts, in order of their occurrence, that are associated with the complex
plane and that we shall need in our subsequent exposition.
Sets of points in a plane. We shall usually denote sets of points in the plane
by capital letters. We shall denote by lower-case letters individual points in the
plane and we shall note the complex numbers corresponding to them by the same
letters.
If a point a belongs to a set E, we indicate this fact by writing a E E. If
every point of a set E belongs to a set F, we write E C F and we say that E is
a subset of F or that E is contained in F.
Every point in the plane has a collection of neighborhoods. A neighborhood
of a given point a is the set of all interior points of some disk with center at a
(or sometimes any set of points containing such a set). A neighborhood is said
to be sufficiently small if the radius of the disk is sufficiently small. The com-
plex plane is supplemented with an ideal point o., called the point at infinity,
which is thought of as lying outside every circle. A neighborhood of the point
at infinity is the set of all points lying outside some circle. Such a neighborhood
is considered sufficiently small if the radius of the circle referred to is suf-
ficiently great. We note that the distinctive nature of the point o disappears if
'we map the complex plane onto the complex sphere by means of a stereographic
projection.
A set of points is said to be bounded if it lies entirely inside some circle.
A point a in the complex plane is called a cluster point or a point of accu-
mulation of a set if every neighborhood of a includes points of that set other
than a. A cluster point of a set may or may not belong to that set. A point in a
set that is not a cluster point of that set is called an isolated point of the set.
6 INTRODUCTORY GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS
An infinite set of points always has at least one cluster point. If an infinite
set is bounded, this assertion constitutes the well-known Bolzano-Weierstrass
theorem, and in this case all the cluster points are finite. On the other hand, if an
infinite set is unbounded, one of its cluster points has to be the point at infinity.
For any cluster point a of a set, there exists a sequence of points belonging
to the set that converges to a. A sequence of points may also converge to the
point at infinity. For a sequence to converge to a finite point, it is necessary and
sufficient that the distance between any two numbers in the sequence, from some
point on, be less than an arbitrary prenamed positive number.
A set of points is said to be closed if each of its cluster points belongs to it.
Corresponding to any set E is the closed set obtained by inclusion of all the
cluster points of E. We denote this closed set by E and call it the closure of E.
The distance between two disjoint sets (that is, without points in common)
is defined as the greatest lower bound of distances between two points, one
belonging to one set and the other belonging to the other set. We know that if
both sets are closed, this distance is positive and the greatest lower bound re-
ferred to is actually attained by some pair of points (one in each set).
Another important property of closed sets is given by the well-known Heine-
Borel covering theorem:
If a closed bounded set E is covered by a set of disks such that every point
of E lies inside one of these disks, then a finite number of these disks will also
cover the set E.
A closed set consisting of more than one point is called a continuum if it
cannot be decomposed into two nonempty disjoint closed sets. We shall call a
set consisting of one point a degenerate continuum.
A point is said to be an interior point of a set to which it belongs if some
neighborhood of it is contained in that set.
A set consisting only of interior points is called an open set. Obviously, the
complement of a closed set in the complex plane is an open set and vice versa.
Let us recall the definitions of union, difference, and intersection of sets.
Let E 1, E2, denote sets (either finitely or infinitely many). The set of points
belonging to at least one of these sets is called the union of these sets and is
denoted by E1 U E 2 U or UkEk. The set of points belonging to all the sets
E 1, E2, - , is called the intersection of these sets and is denoted by E1 n E2 n ... or
INTRODUCTORY GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 7
(lkEk. If a set E is contained in a set F, then the set of all points belonging to F
that do not belong to E is called the difference of these sets and is denoted by
f - E.
Set operations have the following properties: The union of a finite number of
closed sets and the intersection of an arbitrary combination of closed sets are
dosed sets; the intersection of a finite number of open sets and the union of an
grbitrary combination of open sets are open sets.
Domains and curves. One of the basic geometric concepts in the theory of
junctions of a complex variable is the concept of a domain. A domain is defined
its an open set any two points in which can be connected by a broken line con-
sisting entirely of points of that set (the property of connectedness). The bound-
ary points of a domain are those points in the complex plane that do not belong to
Sbe domain but are cluster points of it. If a domain is other than the entire plane,
it necessarily has boundary points. The set of all boundary points of a domain
is called its boundary. The boundary of a domain is a closed set . Those points
in the plane that are neither interior nor boundary points of a domain are called
exterior points of the domain.' Every exterior point of a domain has a neighbor-
hood containing no points of the domain.
The union of a domain and its boundary is called a closed domain. In contrast
with this, a domain itself is sometimes called an open domain.
A domain is said to be simply connected if its boundary consists either of a
continuum or of a single point or if -the domain itself is the entire complex plane.
Otherwise, a domain is said to be multiply connected. Specifically, it is said to
be doubly, triply, , n-connected if its boundary consists of 2, 3, , n dis-
joint continua (possibly degenerate). All these regions are said to finitely con-
nected and the continua (including the degenerate ones) are called boundary
continua
The role of domains in the study of closed and open sets is clear from the,
following theorem:
Every open set E in the complex plane is the union of finitely or countably
many domains.
Another basic geometric concept in the theory of functions of a complex
variable is that of a curve.
1) These concepts are meaningful for any open set.

A continuous curve is a set of points in the plane the rectangular coordinates

x, y of which can be written as continuous functions
X=T (t), Y=+(t) (1)
of a real variable t in some finite interval a < t < b. It is easy to see that this
set is a continuum.
However, the concept of a continuous curve is too general for our purposes.
There are continuous curves that do not at all correspond to our intuitive idea of
a curve as a one-dimensional figure. In fact, it is possible to construct a continuous curve
that passes through every point of a given square. On the other hand, if we require
that the curve have no multiple points, it will possess a number of clear-cut
properties. Such curves are called simple curves or Jordan curves.
Thus, the continuous curve (1) or, more briefly, the curve
z'=z(t), actcb, (2)
is called a Jordan curve if, for any two distinct values t and t" in the interval
[a, b) with t ' < t", we have z(t ') At ") and z (t") r< z(b). The points z(a)
and z(b) may or may not coincide. In the first case, the curve is called a closed,
in the second case a nonclosed Jordan curve.
We have the following important theorem (due to Jordan):
A closed Jordan curve C partitions the plane (including o.) into two simply
connected domains both of which have C as their boundary. One of these domains
is bounded and is called the interior of C. The other contains oo and is called
the exterior of C. The complement of a nonclosed Jordan curve C consists of a.
single simply connected domain containing oo and having C as its boundary. 1)
From nonclosed Jordan curves, one can construct continuous curves that are
not of the Jordan type. On the other hand, even a Jordan curve is sometimes too
general. Then, depending on our purpose, we introduce curves of more restricted
types, for example, smooth, piecewise-smooth, and rectifiable curves.
A curve (2) is said to be smooth if the function z (t) has a continuous non-
1) Whereas the proofs of the assertions made up to now are extremely simple and the
reader can reproduce them himself, the proofs of Jordan's theorem and of a number of
assertions that we shall make below present considerable difficulty. The interested
reader should consult special texts. With regard to Jordan's theorem itself, we note that
there are two new and comparatively simple proofs of it due to Vol'pert [1950] and
Filippov [1950].
INTRODUCTORY GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 9
zero derivative z' (t) everywhere in [a, b] (a one-sided derivative at the two
endpoints). The requirement of smoothness is obviously equivalent to the require-
&eat that the curve have everywhere a continuously turning tangent. A curve con-
$isting of finitely many smooth curves is called a piecewise-smooth curve. The
Definition of a rectifiable curve will be given in Chapter X. Finally, the simplest
type of continuous curve is an analytic curve. This is a curve defined by an
qquation of the form z = z (t) for a < t < b , where z (t) can be expanded in a
power series
z(t)=co+cl(t-to)+ ...,
orith c I 0, about each value to in [a, b]. A continuous curve consisting of a
unite number of analytic curves is called a piecewise-analytic curve.
Let us now look at certain questions dealing with domains.
Sometimes we make cuts along various Jordan curves in a domain. Let B
denote a domain. To make a cut along a Jordan curve L contained in B means
to delete from B all points of the curve L. We shall consider only cuts consist-
lag of finitely or infinitely many sets of analytic arcs. We shall consider the infi-
nite case under the assumption that the endpoints of these arcs cluster only at
the boundary of the domain. A. cut in a domain B is said to be transverse if it
Connects two (not necessarily distinct) boundary points of the domain B, which
serve as its endpoints and if all its other points lie inside B. It turns out that
if a transverse cut in a finitely connected domain connects boundary points on
different boundary continua but does not partition the domain into two parts, it
decreases the connectedness by 1; on the other hand, a transverse cut in a
simply connected domain always partitions that domain into two simply connected
parts. (This is a characteristic property of simply connected domains.) Analo-
gously, if a cut is a closed Jordan curve lying entirely in a domain B, it is called
circular cut. A circular cut always partitions a domain B into two domains. In
the case of a simply connected domain B, one of the domains bounded by a cir-
cular cut lies entirely in B (another characteristic property of simply connected
domains). Finally, a cut that is an open Jordan curve lying entirely in a domain
. except possibly for one of its endpoints does not partition B into two parts.
We note that, in a finitely connected domain B, it is always possible to make a
transverse cut connecting points of two given boundary continua (that do not
degenerate to Do) and also a circular cut encircling a given bounded boundary
continuum but no other boundary points. Moreover, if a closed bounded set E is
contained in a domain B, then one can make a circular cut in B that separates E
from the boundary of B, that is, a cut that encircles E but does not touch any
part of the boundary of the domain B. These results can be achieved by means of
cuts consisting of a finite number of rectilinear segments.
CHAPTERI
THE CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES OF

ANALYTIC AND HARMONIC FUNCTIONS
§1. The convergence of sequences of analytic functions

Many divisions of the theory of functions of a complex variable, and in
particular that division known as the geometric theory of functions, employ in
their proofs the basic properties of the convergence of sequences of analytic
functions. Thanks to these properties, such proofs are fairly simple and elegant
in comparison with the analogous proofs of real analysis.
Let us give some definitions. Let {fn (z)}, for n = 1, 2, , denote a
;sequence of single-valued functions defined on a set E of points in the z-plane.

This sequence is said to converge at a point zo E E if the sequence of numbers
fn (zo) converges. A sequence of such functions fn (z) is said to converge on E
if it converges at every point of E. In such a case, we may speak of the limit
function f(z) = (z) defined on E. The sequence (fn (z)( is said to
converge uniformly on E to a function f(z), which is finite on E, if, for every
e > 0, there exists an N > 0 such that the inequality n > N implies Ifn (z) - f (z)! <
for every z E E. On the other hand, if f(z) = 00 on E, the sequence 1fn (z)1 is
said, by definition, to converge uniformly on E to -a if, for every M > 0, there
exists an N > 0 such that the inequality n > N implies Ifn (z)j > M for all z E E.
It is easy to show that a necessary and sufficient condition for uniform conver-
gence of a sequence to a finite function is that, for every e > 0, there exist an
N>0 such that, for all m, n> N and all z E :E, Ifm(z) - fn (z)I <C-
If the functions fn (z) are defined on a domain B, we shall need, besides
the concept of uniform convergence of a sequence in the domain B, the concept
of uniform convergence of a sequence in the interior of the domain B; this means
uniform convergence of(fn(z)I on every closed set E C B. Uniform convergence
11
12 I. SEQUENCES OF ANALYTIC AND HARMONIC FUNCTIONS
in the interior of B is a weaker requirement than uniform convergence in B.

A single-valued function f(z), defined and finite on a set E not including co
is said to be continuous on E if, for an arbitrary point zo E E and arbitrary
c > 0, there exists a 8 > 0 such that the relations z E E and I z - zoI < S imply
If(z) - f(zo)I <e. For sequences of continuous functions, we have the theorem:
If a sequence f(z) of functions that are continuous on a set E converges uni-
formly to a finite function f(z) defined on E, this function f(z) is also continu-
ous on E. To see this, let zo E E. Then, for given t > 0, there exists a number
n such that, for all z E E, we have I fn (z) - f (z)I < e/3. Furthermore, there exists
a number 8 > 0 such that, for all z E E satisfying the inequality I z - zoI < S,
we have I fn (z) - fn (zo)I < E/3 (because of the continuity of fn (z) on E). There-
fore, for z C E and I z - zoI <8, we have
-{
if (z) (z0) I I !if (z) J n (z) I + I f (z) -f, (ZO) I
+ I fn (zo) -f (zo) I < er
which means that f(z) is continuous at the point zo E E. It then follows that,
if the functions fn (z) are continuous in the domain B and if a sequence of them
converges in the interior of B to a finite function f (z), then f (z) is continuous
in B.
In the case of analytic functions, we have the following fundamental theorem
of Weierstrass.
Theorem 1. If a sequence of functions fn (z) that are regular in a domain B
converges uniformly in the interior of B to a finite function f(z), then f(z) is
regular in B and each sequence (ffn)(z)I of derivatives (for k = 1, 2, - -) con-
verges uniformly in the interior of B to f(k) (z).
Proof. Let K denote any closed disk contained in B and let K' denote a
closed disk of greater radius, also contained in B, that is concentric with K.
Let y' denote the boundary of V. Then, from Cauchy's formula, we have, for
z E K,
fn (z) = 2i zn (z z dz
, (k) (z) - 2,ni S (z fn (z')dz , (1)
T'
k=1, 2, ...
On the other hand, since f (z) is continuous in B, the function
fu(x)=2ni t(?') dz'

1 z- z (2)
T'
§1. THE CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 13
is regular in K. From (1) and (2), we have, for n = 1, 2, ,
fn (z' (z')
fn (z) -.fo (z) =tat z
dz', (3)
7'
and similarly
t(k) kt fn (z') -f (1') dz'. (4)
(z) -f(k) (z) = 2n! S (z' - z)
But the sequence Ifn (z) I converges uniformly on y' to f W. Consequently, for
given e > 0, there exists an N > 0 such that, for n > N and z' on y ' , we have
I fn (z') - f (z' )I < e. In view of this, we obtain from (3) and (4) the result that, for
n > N,
ifnk)(z)-Jok)(z)I<
Ifn(z)--fo(z)ICr' r r E,
(rk E, (5)
where r and r' are the radii of the disks K and K'. The first of these inequali-
ties means that Ifn (z) converges in K to the function f o (z), which by hypo-
thesis, must coincide with f (z). Consequently, f (z) is regular inside K. But K
is an arbitrary disk contained in B. Therefore, f (z) is regular in B if B does
not include o. Thus, the second of inequalities (5) with f0'"1(z) replaced by
j(k)(z) shows that the sequence {f,I,kl(z)I, n = 1, 2, , converges uniformly in
K to f (k) (z) because the right-hand member can, by a suitable choice of e, be
made arbitrarily small for all z in K simultaneously. To prove the uniform con-
vergence of (z)1 in the interior of B, we note that every closed bounded set
E C B can be covered by a finite number of disks contained, along with their
boundaries, in B. Specifically, for every point c E E, there exists a closed disk
with center at c and contained in B. The set of these disks (that is, the disk
corresponding to all c E E) completely covers E. By the Heine-Borel theorem,
there exists a finite collection of these disks which also covers E. Let us denote
these disks by K. for m = 1, 2, , m0. Then, by what we have proved, for any
e > 0 and each m = 1, , mo, there exists a number N. > 0 such that for z E Km
and n > Nm we have If (k )(z) - f (k) (z)I < e. If N is the greatest of the numbers
Nm for m = 1, , m0, then, for n > N, the inequality I fnk) (z) - f tk)(z)I <C
holds for all points in the circles K. and hence for all z E E; that is, the se-
quence If (nk) (z)1 converges uniformly in E. If B does not include the theo-
rem is proved. If the domain B does include no, we still need to show that f (z)
is regular at oo and that the sequence Ifakl(z)1 converges uniformly in a domain
I z I > R, where R is sufficiently large. This can be shown in the same way by
using Cauchy's formulas for I z I > R (that is, formulas (1) with the first formula
applying also to f (a)) and considering the corresponding function fo (z). This
completes the proof of the theorem.
As regards uniformly convergent sequences of regular functions, we shall
prove another theorem, which has numerous applications.
Theorem 2. Let (f, (z) I, where n = 1, 2, - - -, denote a sequence of functions
that are regular in a domain B. Suppose that converges uniformly in the
interior of B to a regular function f(z) / const. Suppose that each of the functions
fn (z) assumes a given value a at no more than p (p > 0) points of the domain B.
Then the function f(z) assumes the value a at no more than p points of B.
Proof. Let us suppose to begin with that B does not include ce . Suppose
that f (z) assumes the value a at p + 1 distinct points zk E B, k = 1, 2, - - -, p + 1.
Around each of the points zk, k = 1, - - - , p + 1, let us draw a circle Yk C B suf-
ficiently small in each case that the circles do not touch each other and there
are no zero of the functions f (z) - a on them. Since f (z) J coast, this can be
done. Under these conditions, there exists an m > 0 such that if (z) - al > m on
all the neighborhoods yk. Since the sequence (f (z)} converges uniformly on the
circles Yk , there exists an n such that I fn (z) - f (z) I < m on each yk , k = 1, - - -
-, p+l. Since
f. (z)-a=(1(z)-a)+(f, (z)-f(z))
we conclude on the basis of Rouche's theorem, that the function fn (z) - a does
indeed have zeros inside each circle yk since the function f(z) - a does. Con-
sequently f (z) assumes the value a at no fewer than p + 1 points of the domain
B, which contradicts the hypothesis of the theorem.
If the domain B includes oe but is not the entire plane, we can choose a
suitable fractional linear function to map it onto a domain not including and
apply to the image functions the result just proved.
Finally, the case in which the domain B is the entire z-plane is excluded
because, in such a case, the function f(z) must necessarily be constant. This
§2. The condensation principle

In many branches of mathematical analysis in which existence questions
are answered, it is important to have an affirmative answer to the question whether
a given sequence of functions all defined on the same domain of definition con-
§2. THE CONDENSATION PRINCIPLE 15
rains a convergent subsequence. Several proofs in analysis are made more compli-
cated by the fact that this is not always the case. Not every sequence of functions
defined, continuous, and uniformly bounded on a given interval contains a conver-
gent subsequence, for instance the sequence (sin nq}, n = 1, 2, .
For an extremely broad class of sequences of analytic functions, however,

the answer to the above question is affirmative. As a preliminary to our discus-
sion, let us adopt some conventions on terminology. A family of functions 2 =
{f (z)l defined on a subset E of the z-plane is said to be uniformly bounded on E
if there exists a finite positive number M such that the inequality If (z) < M holds for
every function in the family and every z E E. If the functions f(z) are defined in
a domain B and are uniformly bounded on every closed set E C B, then the family
l is said to be uniformly bounded in the interior of B. Uniform boundedness in
the interior of a domain is a weaker requirement than uniform boundedness in a
domain.
Theorem 1 (the condens.ation principle). Let {fn (z)}, n = 1 , 2, - , denote
a sequence of functions that are regular in a domain B. Suppose that the sequence
is uniformly bounded in the interior of B. Then this sequence {fn (z)} contains a
subsequence that converges uniformly in the interior of B to a regular function.
Proof. The proof consists of four parts.
1°. Let us show first that the functions fn(z), n = 1, 2, , are equicontinu-
ous on any given closed bounded set E C B. This means that, for every r > 0,
there exists a S > 0 such that, for every pair of points z 1 and Z2 in E with
Iz 1 - Z21 < S, the inequality I fn (z 1) - fn (z 2) I <c holds for all n= 1, 2, . Let
us denote by S1 the (positive) distance between the set E and the boundary of
the domain B. Let E 1 denote the union of E and the set of all points whose
distance from E does not exceed 51/2. This set E1 is closed and it is con-
tained in B. The sequence {fn(z)I is uniformly bounded on it, let us say, by
some number M. Let z 1 and z 2 denote two points in E such that I z 1 - z 21 <
51/4. Let K denote the closed disk of radius S1/2 with center at z 1. This disk
together with its boundary y is contained in E1. In accordance with Cauchy's
formula, for n = 1, 2, - ,
f (z )
n t
(z')
lal J z'-zl dz', f (z t) = 12alCJ&(z-1
n z' - z, dz' .
I 7
Consequently,
16 1. SEQUENCES OF ANALYTIC AND HARMONIC FUNCTIONS
Z, Z'
fn (zi) - fn (z9) I = tai fn (z7 - zi) (Z dz'
z9) z,
a1
z
Z1-Zs
gal Iz1`t2I_4M
2, E t
Ifn(') (Z' - Z1) (Z' - z9) C 2 M 1 a1 1
I zi- 9Z2I,
2 4
that is,
If. (z1) -A (z2) I - 481 I z1- z9
Therefore, if 8 is the smaller of the two numbers S1/4, Sic/4M, then

Ifn(Z1) - I n(z2)I <E for all z1, z2 E :E such that Iii - z2I <S and for all
n = 1, 2, . This proves that the functions fn (z) are equicontinuous on E.
2°. Let us show that the sequence {fn (z)l, n = 1 , 2, , contains a sub-
sequence that converges at all points of B with rational coordinates. Since such.
points constitute a countable set, they can be arranged in a sequence rl, r2, - .
From the bounded number sequence {fn (ri) }, n = 1, 2, , let us choose a con-
vergent subsequence and let us denote by Ifn,1(z)l, n = 1, 2, , the corre-
sponding sequence of functions. This sequence converges at the point z = r1.
From the bounded number sequence {fn,1 (r2) 1, let us choose a convergent sub-
sequence and let us denote the corresponding sequence of functions by {fn,2(z)i,
where n = 1, 2, . This sequence obviously converges not only at z = r2 but
also at z = ri (because it is a subsequence of the convergent sequence {fn, i(z) l).
Proceeding as before, we choose from the function sequence {fn,2 WI a subse-
quence lfn,3(z)l, n = 1, 2, , that converges at the points z = ri, r2, r3.
Proceeding in this way, we obtain sequences lfn,k (Z)}, n = 1, 2, , that con-
verge at all the points Ti, r2, , rk. The diagonal sequence {fn, n (z)}, where
n = 1, 2, , is contained, except for a finite number of its initial terms, in each.
of the sequences {fn,k(z){ and hence it converges at each point r1, r2, , that
is, at all points of the domain B with rational coordinates. 1)
3°. Let us show that the diagonal sequence Ifn,n(z)l described above con-
verges uniformly on an arbitrary closed bounded set E C B. By virtue of the
Heine-Borel theorem, we need only prove this for an arbitrary closed disk K
1) For what follows, it is essential only that the sequence lfn,n(z)l converges on same count-
able set of points that is everywhere dense in B, that is, a set smrc points of which are included
in every neighborhood of any point z E B.
§2. THE CONDENSATION PRINCIPLE 17
contained in B. Since the set of functions In,n(z) is equicontinuous on K, it

follows that, for given c > 0, there exists a S > 0 such that the inequality
Ifn,n(zt)- fn.n(z9)I <
3 (1)
holds for arbitrary z I , z2 e K such that I z 1 - z21 < S and for all n. Let us
cover the z-plane with a grid of squares of side 8/2. In each closed square con-
taining points of K, let us choose arbitrarily a point with rational coordinates
belonging to K. Let us denote these chosen points, of which there are finitely
many, by r1, r2, , rp. Since the sequence I/n,n(z)I converges at these points,
for the same e > 0 as in (1) there exists an N > 0 such that the inequalities m,
n > N imply
lfm, m(rk)-fn,n(rk)I < 3 . (2)
for all k = 1, 2, - - , p. Now, let z denote an arbitrary point in K. It lies in one

of the (closed) squares of the grid that contain points belonging to K. Its distance
from the point rk (in the same square) does not exceed 8/f < S. Therefore,
from (1) we have
Ifm.m(z)-fm,m(rk)I \ s Ifn,n(z)-fn,n(rk)I \-g. (3)
Adding the three inequalities (2) and (3), we obtain, for m, n > N,
Ifm,m(z)- fn n(z)I<E.
Since N is the same for all z E K, this means that the sequence Ifn,n(z)I con-
verges uniformly on K to a finite function and by Theorem 1 of § 1 this function
is regular in B. If the domain B does not include -a, this proves the condensa-
tion principle.
4°. If the domain B does include the above proof must be supplemented
with a proof that the same sequence I/n,n(z)I converges uniformly outside some
circle IzI = R. Since the sequence I/n,n(z)I converges uniformly on IzI = R to a
finite function just as before, the sequence of the functions fn. n ( 1/z) which are
regular on the disk IzI < 1/R converges uniformly on IzI = 1/R. Consequently,
for given E > 0, there exists an N > 0 such that the inequalities in, n > N imply
I fill, _(1) -fn, n (z) È.

for I zI = 1/R. In accordance with the maximum modulus principle, this will also
be true in the open disk IzI < 1/R; that is, the sequence I/n,n(1/z)I converges
uniformly on the closed disk IzI < 1/R. Consequently, the sequence I/n,n(z)I
18 1. SEQUENCES OF ANALYTIC AND HARMONIC FUNCTIONS
converges uniformly on the set lzl > R to a finite function. This completes the
proof of the condensation principle.
By using the condensation principle, we can derive the following convergence
test for sequences of regular functions.
Theorem 2 (Vitali). Let {fn (z)}, n = 1, 2, - -, denote a sequence of functions
that are regular in a domain B. Suppose that l fn (z) { is uniformly bounded in the
interior of B and that it converges on a set of points zk E B, k = 1, 2, -, that
has a cluster point in the interior of B. Then, the sequence { fn(z)} converges
uniformly in the interior of B.
Proof. Let us suppose that the sequence {fn(z)} does not converge at some
point a E B. Then, the number sequence { fn (a) } contains two subsequences that
converge to distinct limits A and A'. Let us denote these subsequences by
If,,, 1(z)} and { fn,2(z)}, where n = 1, 2, . Thus we have fn, 1(a) -- A and
f n,2 (a) A' as n --+ -. The sequences { fn, 1(z)} and I fn,2(z)I are uniformly
bounded in the interior of B. Therefore, in accordance with the condensation
principle, these sequences have subsequences {fn ,1(z)} and { fn,2(z)}, for n =
1, 2, , that converge uniformly in the interior of B to finite limit functions
f i(z) and f Z(z). In accordance with Theorem 1 of § 1, these functions are regu-
lar in B. Since f n,1 (a) ---+ A and f n,2 (a) --- A' , we have f 1(a)= A and f 2(a) = A'
and hence f i(a) f Z(a). But since the sequences {fn,1(z)} and { f *n, 2(Z) I are
subsequences of {f(z)I, it follows that, for any point zk (k = 1, 2, - ), these
two sequences converge to the same limit, with the result that f,',,I(zk) -
f,. 2(zk) ----0 as n --a o. Therefore, f i(zk) - 12 (zk) = 0 for k = 1, 2, . The
function f 1(z) - f 2(z), which is regular in the domain B, must accordingly

vanish on any set of points that has a cluster point in the interior of B. Therefore, it
vanishes identically in B. But this contradicts the fact that this function is non-
zero at the point a. Thus, the sequence {fn(z)} must converge everywhere in the
domain B. The uniformity of this convergence in the interior of B now follows
from 3° and 4° of the proof of the condensation principle since, what has been
shown implies that the sequence { fn (z){ converges at all points of the domain B
with rational coordinates. This completes the proof of the theorem.
One can easily see that uniform boundedness of the functions fn (z) in the
interior of B is also a necessary condition for the validity of the assertion in
Vitali's theorem. This is true because the limit function f (z) is bounded on an
arbitrary closed set E C B and hence the functions In (z) are uniformly bounded on E.
§1. THE CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES OF HARMONIC FUNCTIONS 19
It should be noted that the condensation principle itself can be expressed in

a different way, in which it takes its final form: Let 9R denote an infinite family
of functions f(z) that are regular in a domain 8. For an arbitrary sequence of
these functions to contain a subsequence that converges uniformly in the interior
of B to a regular function, "it is necessary and sufficient that the family Tl be
uniformly bounded in the interior of B.
The sufficiency of the condition follows from what was proved above. Let us
prove its necessity. If the family 2 is not uniformly bounded on some closed set
'E C B, there must exist a sequence I& (z) } of functions fn (z) E .9 such that
max,EE I& n (z)I --+ oa as n -y o.. Then there must exist points zn E E, for n =
1, 2, , such that f,,(z,,) --+ oo as a - ao. But {fn (z)} contains a subsequence
if,, (z)}, k = 1, 2, . , that converges uniformly in the interior of the domain B
to some regular function f(z). In particular, from some k on we have
I fnk(z) - f (z)I < 1 for all z E E, and consequently
Iffk(x)1< +mExxlf(z)I=M<oo.
z
However, this is incompatible with the fact that fn k(znk) --b o. as k 00. This
completes the proof of the necessity.
We note that we shall return later to questions dealing with the possibility
of choosing convergent subsequences from various sequences of a given family
regular functions when we are dealing with the theory of normal families (§7,
Chapter II).
§3. The convergence of sequences of harmonic functions

The theorems proved above for analytic functions have their analogues for
harmonic functions.
We recall that a harmonic function in a given domain B of the complex plane
is a real single-valued function u (x, y) with continuous second derivatives that
satisfies Laplace's equation Au = a2u/axe + a2u/aye = 0. (We note that if B
includes o., then u (x, y) must be bounded in a neighborhood of oo.) if U (X, y),
or more simply u (z), is a harmonic function in the open disk I z - a I < R and
1) This property is called the property of compactness of the family 1R and the
principle stated is called the compactness principle.
continuous in the closed disk 1z - al < R, then Poisson's formula
2a
it (z) u (z') M Iz Z z gal

Fit z
da, z'= a + Reis (1)
where 2 means "the real part of", is valid in the open disk I z - al < R. This
formula reduces to a more familiar one if we note that, by setting z = a + rein,
we get
(z +z-2a _ RP-rt
z'-z R'-2Rrco (T-0)+r9 (2)
On the other hand, if u (z) is a harmonic function in the domain I z - al > R and
is continuous in k - a! > R, then the analogous formula
2x
it (z) - - 2a Suz(z+22do (3)
is valid in the domain I z - al > R.

Since harmonic functions can be regarded as functions of a complex variable
z, the definitions of convergence given in §1 can be applied to them. Further-
more, using the same line of reasoning as in §1 for the proof of the Weierstrass
theorem, except that instead of Cauchy's formula we use formula (1) or (3), we
can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 1. Let fun (z)I, n = 1, 2,. , denote a sequence of functions that
are harmonic in a domain B. If fun (z) I converges uniformly in the interior of B
to a finite function, then the limit function is also harmonic in B.
Furthermore, by using the same line of reasoning as in §2, we can prove
Theorem 2. Let lun(z)}, for n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of functions
that are harmonic in a domain B. If lun (z)} is uniformly bounded in the interior of
B, it contains a subsequence that converges uniformly in the interior of B.
In contrast, Vitali's theorem in the form in which it was given in §2 for
regular functions is no longer valid. For example, the sequence defined by
u2 k (z) = 0 and u2 k _I (z) = y (imaginary part of z) for k = 1, 2, , converges
on the real axis but nowhere else. However, we do have
Theorem 3. Let lun (z)1 denote a sequence of functions that are harmonic
and uniformly bounded in the interior of a domain B. If fun (z)I converges in
some subdomain B' of B, it converges uniformly in the interior of B.
§1. THE CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES OF HARMONIC FUNCTIONS 21
Proof. Suppose that the sequence lun(z); does not converge in the domain B.
Then it contains two subsequences that converge in B to distinct limit functions
u(z) and u* (z) that are harmonic and that coincide in the domain B' . Conse-
quently, their difference in B' is zero. But then, the difference of their harmonic
conjugates v(z) and v" (z) must, by the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, be constant
io B'. 1) This in turn implies that the corresponding analytic functions whose
'real parts are u(z) and u` (z) coincide in B'. But these analytic functions will
,-then coincide throughout the entire domain B. Therefore, the supposedly distinct
,harmonic functions u(z) and u* (z) must coincide in B. This contradiction
'proves the convergence of the sequence f un(z)} in B. That the convergence is
;uniform in the interior of B now follows from 3° and 4° of the proof of the con-
densation principle for analytic functions.
We conclude this chapter with another important theorem.
Theorem 4 (Harnack). Let fun (z)), n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of
functions that are harmonic in a domain B. Suppose that, for each z E B, the
sequence {un(z)1 is a monotonic increasing sequence (that is, un+i(z) > u,, (z),
for n = 1, 2, ). Then, the sequence {un(z)j converges uniformly in the inte-
rior of B either to a harmonic function or to the function with constant value +D.
Proof. We may assume that all the functions un (z) are nonnegative since
otherwise we would consider not the functions un(z) but the functions un(z) -
ui(z) for n= 1, 2,---.
Consider an arbitrary disk Iz - al < r contained in the domain B and a
larger disk k - at < r' also contained in B. Since, in accordance with (2), we
always have
r'$ r z'+z-2a r'2 r
(r') 9 z' - z (r' - r):
whenever I z' - al r' and I z - at < r, it follows on the basis of formula (1) as
applied to the function un (z) (taking R = r') that
U. (a) r, r C ttn (z) < itn (a) r. ± r (4)
Now, let us set u (z) = limn_, un W. Because of the monotonicity of the
sequence {un(z)1, this limit exists for z E B. Inequality (4) shows that, if
1) The conjugate functions v(z) and v'(z) may not be single-valued in B, but this
fact is of no significance in the present case.
u (a) is finite for a E B, then the functions u (z) are uniformly bounded in a
sufficiently small neighborhood of the point a, and, if u (a) = then )u (z) )
converges uniformly in that neighborhood to +°. Consider the set of all points in
the domain B at which the function u(z) is finite and its complement, the set of
points- at which u (z) = From what has been said, both these sets are open.
But obviously, this can be true only when one of the two sets is empty. If the
function u(z) is everywhere finite in B, then the functions u, (z) are uniformly
bounded in the interior of B. By Theorem 3, the convergence of )u,, (z)) to u (z)
is uniform in the interior of B, and by Theorem 1, the function u (z) is harmonic
in B. On the other hand, if u (z) = +o in B, then Ian (z)) converges to +° uni-
formly in the interior of B. We note that if the domain B includes the point 00,
then we must, as usual, use formula (3). This completes the proof of the theorem.
CHAPTER II
THE PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMAL MAPPING OF

SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
§1. Univalent conformal mapping

One of the basic questions in the theory of functions of a complex variable
is the study of analytic functions based on the nature of the mappings produced
by these functions. Suppose that a function t; = f(z) is regular in a domain B
except possibly at certain points at which it has poles (in which case the func-
tion is said to be meromorphic in B). Then we. say that the function f maps the
domain B in the z-plane univalently onto some domain B' in the C-plane if it
sets up a one-to-one correspondence between points of the domains B and B' .
The domain B' is then called the image of the domain B under the mapping C_
f (z), and B is called the preimage of B'. If t = f (z) is a univalent mapping of
the domain B onto B', the derivative f'(z) is nonzero at all finite points of the
domain B at which f(z) is regular." To see this, suppose that f'(a) = 0 at
some point a E B. Then, the inverse function could be expanded in a neighbor-
hood of the point b = f (a) E B' in a series of fractional powers of (C - b) and
hence there would not be a one-to-one correspondence in neighborhoods of the
points a E B and b E B'. The nonvanishing of the derivative means that we are
dealing here with a conformal mapping. Therefore, a univalent mapping is also
called a univalent conformal mapping (and, in the case of simply connected do-
mains, it is called simply a conformal mapping) of the domain B onto the domain
B' : The function t; = f(z) defining a univalent conformal mapping is called a
univalent function. Its inverse is a univalent function defined on the image.
1) However, nonvanishing of the derivative everywhere in the domain B does not en-
sure univalence of the mapping. For example, the derivative of the function C = f(z) =
(z - 1)" with n > 3 is nonzero throughout the disk IzI < 1, but this function is not uni-
valent in that disk.
23
24 II. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
If a function ((z) that is univalent in a domain B is not regular in B, it obvi-

ously has only one pole (and that a simple one) in B.
The first question arising in the study of univalent conformal mappings is
whether a given domain can be mapped univalently into another domain. We men-
tion certain necessary conditions for this. In the case of finitely connected do-
mains, a necessary condition is that the connectedness of the two domains B and
B' be of the same order.' Let us show this. We may assume without loss of gen-
erality that the domains B and B' both include oo and that the mapping in ques-
tion maps oo into co. (we can always arrange for this to be the case by means of
suitable fractional-linear transformations). Let us enclose the boundary continua
of the domain B inside closed broken lines that have no multiple points, that lie
outside each other, and that enclose each a single boundary continuum. The map-
ping then maps these broken lines into closed piecewise-analytic Jordan curves
lying inside B' and outside each other. If B' is of lower connectedness than B,
then at least one of these curves will not include boundary points of the domain
B'. Since the function inverse to the original function is regular inside such a
curve and since the corresponding point describes a preimage C as it moves
around that curve, the interior of the curve will correspond to the entire interior
of the preimage C, which, consequently, must be completely contained in B. But
this contradicts the fact that there are boundary points of the domain B within C.
This means that the domain B' cannot be of lower connectedness than B. By re-
versing the roles of B and B', we can show that B' cannot be of higher connect-
edness either. In the same way we can show that it is impossible to map a domain
of infinite connectedness univalently onto a domain of finite connectedness.
Therefore, when we now pose the question of the possibility of univalent
conformal mapping of various domains onto a given simply connected domain, we can
confine ourselves to an examination of simply connected domains.
In order to know how to map a simply connected domain onto another simply
connected domain, we need only know their mappings onto any of the standard do-
mains, for example, a disk, since the required mapping can then be obtained by
first mapping one of the given domains onto the disk and then mapping the disk
onto the other domain.
The question arises whether an arbitrary simply connected domain can be
mapped onto a disk. It turns out that there are two cases when this is impossible,
namely when the domain is the entire plane and when it has a single boundary
§2. RIEMANN'S THEOREM 25
point (that is, when it is a punctured plane). Let us show that this is true. (In the
second case, we may assume without loss of generality that the boundary point
is 00.) If such a mapping is possible we have in both cases a mapping function
that is regular on the entire plane except possibly at oo and, in addition, bounded.
Such a function would have to be a constant, and a constant does not perform the
desired mapping.
However, we shall see below that, with the exception of these two cases,
every simply connected domain can be mapped univalently onto a disk. In fact,
there are infinitely many ways of doing this, that is, there are infinitely many
distinct functions that carry out the desired mapping. This last is a consequence
of the fact that there exist infinitely many distinct fractional-linear functions that
map a disk conformally into itself.
§2. Riemann's theorem

The following theorem of Riemann answers the question posed at the end of
the preceding section and thus is a geometric principle of formation of analytic
functions.
As a preliminary, we shall prove a simple lemma, which has numerous appli-
cations in the theory of conformal mappings.
Lemma 1 (Schwarz). Let f(z) denote a function that is regular in the disk
Izl <R. Suppose that f(O) = 0 and If W1 <M for IzI <R. Then, If Wj <(M/R)l zl
in the disk Izj < R; also, I f'(0)j < M/R. Equality holds in these two conditional
inequalities (in the first at points z L 0) if and only if f (z) = eà(M/R) z, where a
is a real constant.
Proof. The function O(z) = f(z)/z is regular in the disk tzI <R if we define
0(0) = f'(0). Since the maximum value of JO(z)I on any closed disk Izl <r,
where r < R, is attained on its boundary, we have JO(z)1 < M/r for Jzj < r. If we
fix z and let r approach R, we see that -10(z)I < M/R. This yields the two ine-
qualities asserted in the lemma.
Suppose now that 1cb (zo)I = M/R, where zo is a point in the disk Izj < R.
Then, 10(z)j attains its maximum at the point z0, which is possible only if
O(z) = const = (M/R) eà, that is, if f W = eà (M/R) z. This completes the proof
of the lemma.
Theorem 1 (Riemann).1) Let B denote a simply connected domain in the z-

plane that has more than one boundary point. Then, there exists a unique func-
tion C= f(z) that is regular in B and that maps the domain B univalently onto
the disk ICI < 1 in such a way that a given point zo E B and a given direction
at zo are mapped into the point t; = 0 and the direction of the positive real axis.
Proof. First of all, it is easy to map the domain B univalently onto a domain
contained in the disk I < 1. Specifically, if B has exterior points, let c de-
I
note a finite exterior point. Then the function C* = 1/(z - c) maps the domain B
onto a simply connected domain B* including the exterior point -. Since B* is
a bounded domain, we can use a similarity transformation to map it into a domain
contained in the disk I 'I < 1. On the other hand, if B has no exterior points,
then, since it has more than one boundary point and is simply connected, its
boundary consists of a continuum. Let a and b denote two finite boundary points.
Consider the function z* = (z - a)/(z - b). This function can be extended in the
(simply connected) domain B along an arbitrary path; hence, it is single-valued
in B. Since its inverse is a rational function and hence is single-valued on the
entire z*-plane, the function f maps the domain B univalently onto a domain B*
The domain B* has the property that, if a point c E B*, then the point - c is an
exterior point of B* since an arbitrary pair of points z*, - z* always corresponds
to the same point z. Since B* has exterior points, it can be mapped, just as be-
fore, univalendy onto a domain contained in the disk JCj < 1. On the basis of
this, it will be sufficient to prove Riemann's theorem for domains contained in the
disk ICI < 1.
Furthermore, we can always assume that the given point in the domain B and
the given direction at that point are the points z = 0 and the direction of the posi-
tive real axis since, in the opposite case, we could use a suitable fractional-
linear transformation to map the disk Izl < 1 into itself in such a way as to map
the domain B into a domain possessing this property.
Thus, it will be sufficient to prove that it is possible to map an arbitrary
simply connected domain, contained in the disk JzJ < 1 and including the point
1) This theorem was first stated by Riemann in his dissertation in 1851 though he
did not prove it until later. It was proved by Caratheodory [1912] and Koebe [1912] by the
methods of the theory of functions. The proof that we give here was presented by Fejer
and Riesz. See Rado [1922-1923a].
z = 0, univalently onto the disk ICI < 1 in such a way that the mapping function
J = f (z) is normalized by the conditions f (0) = 0, f '(0) > 0.
To prove this last, consider the family 11 of all functions C = f (z) that are
regular in the domain B, that map B univalently onto domains contained in the
disk ICI < 1, and that have the properties f(O) = 0 and f'(0) > 0. This set is
nonempty since, for example, the functions f (z) = az, for 0 < a < 1 helong to it.
Let us pose the following extremal problem: Out of all the functions belong-
ing to the family 11, find the one such that f'(0) is greatest. Let us first prove
that this problem has a solution. We note that there exists a positive number p
such that the disk I z I < p is contained in the domain B and hence that, in this
disk, the functions f(z) E J are regular and satisfy the conditions of the Schwarz
lemma with R = p and M = 1. This yields f'(0) < l/p; that is, the numbers f'(0)
are bounded above. Let a denote the least upper bound of all these numbers.
From the example given above, of functions in 9, we have a > 1. Let (fn(z)(,
where n = 1, 2, ... , denote a sequence of functions in 2 such that f" '(0) --+ a.
To this sequence we apply the condensation principle, which asserts that this
sequence has a subsequence that converges inside B to a regular function fo(z)
and that satisfies the conditions f0(0) = 0 and ff (0) = a > 0. By Theorem 2 of
§1, Chapter 1 (with p = 1), the function f0(z), since it is not identically constant,
assumes in the domain B an arbitrary value at no more than one point; that is,
f0(z) is univalent in B. Finally, since the inequality I f (z)I < 1 in B implies that
Ifo(z)I < 1 in B (for If0(z)I to be equal to 1 in B is impossible by virtue of the
maximum principle), we conclude that f0(z) E 11.
Let us now show that the extremal.function f0(z) maps the domain B onto
the entire disk ICI < 1. If this were not the case, there would exist a point a in
the disk IC I < 1 that would not belong to the image of B, which we denote by B0.
Consider the two-sheeted disk ICI < 1 with unique branching point at a
(that is, the Riemann surface obtained by taking two copies of the disk ICI < 1,
making,a cut in each of them along the portion of the radius extending from a to
the circle ICI = 1 and then gluing them crosswise along the cuts). Let us map
this disk onto the one-sheeted disk Itl < 1 in such a way that the point t = 0
and the direction of the positive real axis at that point is mapped into t = 0 and
the direction of the positive real axis. To do this, we first make a fractional-
linear transformation of the disk ICI < 1 into itself in such a way that the branch
point a is mapped into the origin. Then, by means of the function VS we expand
the two-sheeted circle thus obtained into the one-sheeted disk. Finally, by means
of a new fractional-linear transformation of the disk ICI < 1 into itself we estab-
lish the required correspondence of the coordinate origins. We denote the function
that carries out this mapping by t = c(C) and its inverse byC =,i (t). Then, c(t;)
can be extended in the domain B0 along an arbitrary path and hence it is single-
valued. The function 0(t), being a rational and hence single-valued function by
construction, satisfies the conditions of the Schwarz lemma with R = 1 and M = 1,
and it is not a linear function. Therefore, t = maps the domain B0 univa-
lently onto a domain contained in the disk ti < 1. Also, '(0) < 1; that is,
0' (0) > 1. The composite function t = 0 (fo(z)) _ 0(z), c (0) = 0, c'(0) > 0, maps
the domain B onto the same domain and hence it belongs to the family 19. But
V(0) = 0'(0) fo (0) > f 0(0) = a, which contradicts the definition of a. Thus, the
function C = f0(z) maps the domain B univalently onto the entire disk.
It remains for us to prove the uniqueness of the function mentioned in the
theorem. Suppose that there are two such functions fl(z) and f2(z)- Then, the
function F(C) = fl(fZ 1(L;)), which is regular in the disk ICI < 1 must map this
disk univalently into itself. Consequently, in accordance with the Schwarz lemma,
IF(C)I < ICI in the disk ICI < 1; that is, I fl(z)I I f2(z)I
in B. Consequently, I fl(z)I = I f2(z)I in B. Since the function f1(z)/f2(z) is reg-
ular in B and is of constant absolute value, it follows from the maximum modu-
lus principle that fl(z) = f2(z), which proves the uniqueness. This concludes the
proof of the theorem.
We have a few remarks to make concerning Riemann's theorem.
In the first place, we note, that, under the assumptions made regarding the
domain B, there exists a unique function '= F(z) that is regular in B, that is
normalized at a finite point zo C B by the conditions F(zo) = 0 and F'(z0) = 1,
and that maps the domain B univalently onto the disk with center at C= 0 (an-
other form of Riemann's theorem). This is true because the function F(z) = fo(z)/ fo(zo)
is such a function, where f0(z), with fo(zo) = 0 and f0 (z0) > 0, is the function mentioned
in Riemann's theorem and the radius of the disk onto which the function F(z)
maps the domain B is R = 1/f' (z0). If there existed a second function = Fl(z
with F1(zo) = 0 and Fl'(zo) = 1, that maps the domain B onto a disk ICI < R1,
then by Riemann's theorem, we would have Fl(z)/ R1 = f0(z) and hence 1/R1 =
fa (zo); that is, F1(z) = fo(z)/fo (z0) = F(z). This completes the proof of the
uniqueness of the mapping function t; = F(z).
The quantity R = 1/f o (zo) is called the con formal radius of the domain B at
the point zo.
Second, the proof of Riemann's theorem is based on one of the many extremal
properties of functions that map a domain B univalently onto a disk. It turns out
that a number of extremal properties of such functions hold not only in the class
of univalent functions but also in the class of all regular functions that are nor-
malized in a suitable manner. We shall now present two extremal properties of this
bind.
a) Minimization of the maximum modulus. Let B denote a simply con-
pected domain that includes z = 0 and has more that one boundary point. Let 9R
denote the set of all functions F(z) with F (0) = 0 and F '(0) = 1 that are reg-
¢lar in B. The quantity M (F) = Supze9 IF(z)I is minimized by a unique function
gnat maps the domain B univalently onto the disk I z I <R. This minimum is equal
to the con formal radius R of the domain B at the point z = 0.
Proof. Let C = f (z), with f (O) = 0 and f' (0) > 0, denote a function that maps
the domain B univalently onto the disk ICI < 1 and let z = c(t;) denote the in-
verse function. To find the minimum of the quantity M(F), we need consider only
the functions F (z) C YR for which V (F) is finite. Consider the corresponding
junctions A(C) = F (,(F). These functions are regular in the disk ICI < 1.
Also, h/(t(0) = 0 and Ir,(C)I < 1 in the disk ICJ < 1. By the Schwarz lemma, we
have P(0)1 < 1; that is, M(F) > 1/-'(O) = R. Here equality holds only for the
function A (0 _ C, that is, for the function F(z) = cf(z), where c = 1/f'(0).
This completes the proof of assertion a).
From this extremal property of the mapping function we get certain properties
of the conformal radius R of the domain B. In the first place, the conformal
radius of a domain B does not decrease under a dilation since the family K is
then decreased. In the second place, since M(z) is equal to the maximum of the
distances from the point z = 0 to boundary points of the domain B, the conformal
radius R of the domain B does not exceed this maximum. On the other hand, if
:R were less than the minimum of these distances, the function f(z) would be
regular in a disk I zl < R + c for some c > 0, F(0) = 0, and IF(z)I < R in the
disk I zI < R + E. In accordance with the Schwarz lemma, we would then have
IF'(0)I < R/(R + E) < 1, which contradicts the fact that F '(0) = 1. This, together
with what has been said above, shows that there are always boundary points of
the domain B on the circle I zI = R.
b) Lindelof s principle.11 Let 01(0 and (k2(C) denote two functions that
are regular in the disk ICI < 1. Suppose that S61(0) = 02(0). Suppose that 02([;)
is univalent. Suppose that 01(C) and 02(0 map the disk IKI < 1 onto domains
BI and B2 respectively, where BI is contained in B2. Then
1?1,(0)1 1?9(0)1,
with equality holding if and only if ¢1(0 = 02(E0' where IEI = 1.
Proof. Let t = f2(z) denote the function inverse to z = 02(x"). Then, the
function z = f2(01(0) maps the disk 1C1 < 1 onto a domain contained in the disk
I zl < 1. Also, it maps the point C = 0 into the point z = 0. Consequently
(ki (0)/¢2 (0)I _< 1 with equality holding if and only if EC, where
1Ej = 1, that is, if and only if ¢1(0 = 02(EO.
One immediate result of Lindelof's principle is the fact that the conformal
radius of a domain increases when the domain is increased
c) Minimization of area. Let B denote a simply connected domain that in-
cludes the point z = 0 and has more than one boundary point. Let R denote the
set of all functions F W with F (O) = 0 and F '(0) = 1 that are regular in B. Then
the same function F as in a) is the unique function minimizing the quantity
S(F)=551F'(z)I9da
B
(1)
where do is the element of area. 2)

Here, the integral (1) means the limit of a sequence of integrals over domains
B
n,
for n = 1 , 2, ... , with the following properties: limnB n = B; Bn C B; B n c
Bn+1; every closed subset of B is contained in some B. (and hence in all sub-
sequent Bn). It is easy to show that the value of the integral (1) is independent
of the choice of sequence {B [ of domains with these properties. For example,
we can take as the domains Bn the preimages of the disks ICI < rn, where each
rn < 1, under a univalent mapping of the domain B onto the disk ICI < 1 such
that z = 0 is mapped into C = 0. In the case of a univalent function F (z), the
integral (1) obviously gives the area of the image of the domain B under the map-
ping C = F (z). If F (z) is not univalent in B, the integral (1) gives the area of
1) KA more general form of Lindelof s principle is given in Chapter VIII, §3) .
2) Bieberbach [19141.
§3. CORRESPONDENCE OF BOUNDARIES 31
the Riemann surface with which the domain B is put into one-to-one correspond-
ence by the function C = F W.
Once again, in finding the minimum of the integral (1), we need only consider
functions F (C) E 31 for which X(F) is finite. Using the same functions C = f(z)
and z = 0(C) as in a), we transform the integral (1) to the variable reò:
l (F) = SItl't ao 9
that is, 21 (F) > nr I with equality holding only if al = a2 = ... = 0, that is,
a012,
only for the function F(z) = f(z)/f'(0). This completes the proof of assertion b).
The minimal property b) can then be used for an explicit construction of the map-
ping function.
§3. The correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping

Since the boundary points of a domain do not belong to the domain, we were
concerned in the preceding section with the establishment of a correspondence
between interior points of a domain and its image. To study the correspondence
of boundary points, we need to take up the more difficult question of investigating
the behavior of a mapping function as we approach the boundary of the domain in
question. This investigation leads to a number of remarkable results.
We first establish a few auxiliary propositions.
Lemma 1 (Koebe). Let lzn I and {zn I denote two sequences of points be-
longing to the disk IzI < 1 that converge to distinct points a and b respectively
on the circle Izi = 1. For every n, let k,, denote a Jordan arc lying in the disk
I:I < 1 but outside some fixed neighborhood of the point z = 0. Let f(z) denote
a function that is regular and bounded in the disk Izl < 1 and that converges uni-
formly to 0 on the sequence {hn I. Then f(z) = 0.
The uniform convergence of the function f (z) to 0 on the arcs X. is to be

understood in the sense that, for every c > 0, there exists an N > 0 such that the
inequality n > N on An implies the inequality I f (z I < E.
Proof. Let us suppose that f(z) 10. We may as well assume that f(0) 0
because, in the opposite case, we could consider the function f(z)/zP, where p
denotes the order of the zero at z = 0 of the function f (z), and one can easily
verify that this function also satisfies. all the conditions of the lemma and is non-
zero at z = 0.
On An, we have
If(z)I cmax If(z)I=En,
an
where c n -+ 0 as n . Let us partition the disk Izl < 1 into n equal sectors
such that the points a and b do not lie at the ends of the boundary radii. For m
sufficiently large, the points a and b will lie on the boundaries of distinct sec-
tors. If we now discard these sectors, the remaining portion of the disk will be
partitioned into two groups of adjacent sectors, in each of which there will be at
least two sectors. In each of these groups, let us choose one radius that serves
as the boundary of two adjacent sectors (see Figure 1). One of these radii, which
Figure 1
we.denote by or, intersects infinitely many of the curves An. Let us index these
intersected curves Ank, for k = 1, 2, . Beginning with some point of intersection
of the curve Ank with a, let us proceed along the curve \nk in either direction
till we get to the first point at which this curve meets one of the other boundary
radii, which obviously belongs to the boundary of the sector adjacent to a. We
denote by Ank the arc of the curve knk from this point to the first point at which
hnk touches or as we proceed along knk in the opposite direction. Except for
their endpoints, the arcs for k = 1, 2, , lie entirely in the two sectors
gdjacent to or. Let S denote whichever of the two sectors contains an infinite
IG,et of arcs Ank. For these arcs we keep the same notation for it = 1, 2, .
On Ank, we have If(z)I <Enk. We may assume that the sector S is symmetric
the real axis since we can always arrange this by considering not only the
function f(z) but the function f(eL°'z) with suitable choice of real a, which also
satisfies conditions analogous to the conditions of the lemma. Let a;;k denote
that portion of the arc Ank extending from the endpoint of lying above the
real axis to the first point at which A;,k meets the real axis. Let Ank denote the
arc symmetric to hnk about the real axis. On X nk we have I f (z )I < Enk. If we
assume that I f (z)I < 11 in B, we can now conclude that the function tA(z)
,f(z) (z--), which is regular in IzI < 1 satisfies the inequality IV'(z)I <MEnk on
the arc \;;kU A, k since one of the factors whose product is the function O(z) is
!always no greater than 4 and the other is less than Enk. On the other hand, the
function
1`' (z) _ (z) ii (,,z) ... (77m 1Z)+
is regular in the disk IzI < 1. Then, on the closed Jordan curve consisting of the
arc A, k U A;;k and the arc obtained from it by means of a rotation about z = 0
through angles 2a/m, 4a/m, , 2(m - 1) rr/m, we have, on the basis of similar
considerations,
EnkMIM-1
I F (z) I
The same inequality holds inside this curve and, in particular, at the point z = 0.
But F(0) = I f(0)12m. Therefore, If(0)I2m <EnkM2in-1 Since Enk -+0 as k -+80,
it follows that f(0) = 0, which contradicts the assumption made at the beginning
of the proof. This completes the proof of the lemma.
Lemma 2 (Lindelof). Suppose that the following holds: 1) The function f(z)
is regular in a domain B and I f(z)1 <M in B. 2) zo is a finite point of the do-
main B and r is a positive number such that the circle 1z - zo I = r contains an arc
of length (277/m)r, where m is an integer, lying outside B. 3) For arbitrary e > 0,

as we let z approach boundary points of B lying in the disk I z - zo I < r through
points belonging to B, all the limiting values of I f(z)I are less than or equal to
E. Then
If(zo)I`m
-am-' .
Proof. Obviously, we may take zo = 0. The common portion of the domain B

and the domains obtained from it by a rotation about the origin through angles
2rr/m, 4rr/m, , 2 (m - 1)77/m is an open set including the points z = 0 but not
including points of the circle IzI = r. It consists of domains among which is a
domain B1 including the points z = 0. This last domain lies entirely in the disk
IzI < r. Consider the function
2,ct
F(z)=f(z)f('qz)...f(,'4-'Z), (,l=e'"),
which is regular in B 1. If we let z approach the boundary of B 1 through points
of B1, then, in accordance with condition 3) of the lemma, all the limiting values
of IF(z)I will be no greater than N". But then, we shall have IF(z)I < eM"`-1
at all points of the domain B1. To see this, let M1 denote the least upper bound
of IF(z)I in B1. If M1 were greater than (M' -1 there would exist a sequence of
points zk C B1 such that IF(zk)I --, M1 as k -- oe, Let z0' denote a cluster
point of this sequence. It cannot be a boundary point of B1 because then M1
e M'_ 1. Therefore, IF(zo )I = M1; that is, IF(z)I attains a maximum at the
point z = z0', which is impossible. Thus, IF(z)I <efm-1 in B1. In particular,
since F(0) =[f(0)]'", we have If(0)Im <EMni-1, which completes the proof of
the lemma.
As a corollary of this lemma, we have the following
Lemma 3. If a function f(z) is regular and bounded in a simply connected
domain B that has more than one boundary point and if there exists a neighbor-
hood of a finite boundary point a such that the function f(z) approaches a con-
stant c as z approaches boundary points lying in this neighborhood through
points belonging to B, then f(z) = c in B.
Proof. Let us first suppose that a is also a cluster point of the set of ex-
terior points of the domain B and let the disk Iz - al < p denote the neighbor-
hood referred to in the lemma. Let zo denote an arbitrary point of the disk
l z - al < p/2. Then, there exists a disk l z - zo i < r contained in the disk l z - al < p
such that there are exterior points of B on the circle lz - zoI = r and hence there
exists an arc, lying outside B. Lemma 2 with t = 0 can be applied to the function f(z) - c.
Consequently f (zo) = c. Since zo is an arbitrary point in the disk l z - al < p/2, we have
f(z) = c in B. On the other hand, if the point ao is not a cluster point of the set
of exterior points of the domain B, let us denote by b a finite boundary point
distinct from a. Then, just as in the proof of Riemann's theorem, let us use the
function z* = (z - a)/ z - b) to map the domain B univalently onto the domain B*,
which, in an arbitrary neighborhood of the point z* = 0, will have exterior points.
The function f(z) - c will now be regular as a function of z* in B. and it will
have the property mentioned in Lemma 3 at the point z = 0. Therefore, using what
we have already proved, we again obtain the result that f(z) = c in B. This com-
pletes the proof of the lemma.
Accessible boundary points. Let us now examine the behavior of the function
J= f(z), which maps a given simply connected domain B univalently onto the
disk Ill < 1 close to the boundary of the domain B. Since such a domain can be
mapped univalently by means of elementary functions onto a bounded domain,
it will be sufficient in what follows to consider the case of a bounded domain B
and it is for such a domain that we shall prove all the theorems..
First of all we note that, as points z E B approach the boundary of the do-
main B, the corresponding points C in the disk ICJ < 1 approach the circle
ICI = 1 uniformly in the sense that, for every t > 0, there exists a S > 0 such
that, if a point z C B lies at a distance less than S from the boundary of B, the
corresponding point C lies in the annulus 1 - t < ICI < 1. Specifically, we may
take for S the distance between the boundary of the domain B and the closed set
constituting the preimage of the disk ICI < 1 - t. Analogously, we can show that
if points of the disk ICI < 1 approach the circle 1, then the corresponding
points z C B approach the boundary of the domain B uniformly.
For the next step in our investigation, we introduce the concept of accessible
boundary points of a domain. A boundary point c of a domain B is said to be an
accessible boundary point if it can be joined with an arbitrary interior point of the
domain B by a continuous curve 1: z = z (t) for a < t < b that lies entirely in B
except for the endpoint c = z (b). Such a curve l can be replaced by a Jordan
curve or even by a broken line with no multiple points that consists of a finite or
infinite number of segments, in the latter case with endpoints clustering only about
c. This is true because the arc z = z (t) for b - tk _1 < t 0 for
k = 1 , 2, .. , where Ek > Ek +11 and where Ek -. 0 as k --+ oe is a closed set and

hence lies at a positive distance 8k from the boundary of the domain B. There-
fore, it can be partitioned into a finite number of arcs sufficiently small that the
distance between any two points of any one of these arcs is less than 8k. Then,
the broken line consisting of segments joining successive points of this partition
will lie entirely in B. If we apply this for k = 1, 2, , we see that the curve I
can be replaced with a broken line consisting of an infinite number of segments. If
we discard any loops, we obtain a broken line without multiple points. This
broken line is a Jordan curve.
In connection with the concept of accessible boundary points, we have an
important supplement to Jordan's theorem (cf. introduction), presented by Schoen-
flies:' All points of a closed Jordan curve are accessible boundary points of the
domains defined by it. For continua of a more complicated type, there may not be
an analogue of Jordan's theorem and its supplement. For example, the curve
shown in Figure 2 and representing a spiral-shaped curve
without multiple points that approaches the circle C a-
symptotically partitions the plane into three simply con-
nected domains, and, for the two bounded domains, the
circle C consists entirely of inaccessible boundary
points. Analogously for the domains shown in Figures 3
and 4 and representing squares with rectilinear cuts that
cluster about the segment cd, all points of the segment Figure 2
cd (with the exception of the point d in Figure 4) are inaccessible boundary
points.
In these last two examples, the point e (see Figures 3 and 4) can be reached
along two continuous curves lying in the domain, one on either side of the cut. To
distinguish two boundary points at a point e, we identify the accessible bound-
ary point of the domain B not only by its position in the plane but also by the
continuous curve in B that joins this point with an interior point. Let 11 and 12
define respectively accessible boundary points at z1 and z2 . If z1 z2, these
accessible boundary points are distinct. On the other hand, if zl = z2, we take
the view that two curves 11 and 12 lying in B define at zl two distinct acces-
siblepoints if and only if there exists a neighborhood of the point z1 in which 11
1) See, for example, Caratheodory [19121.

and 12 cannot be connected by a continuous curve lying both in B and in that

neighborhood. If two curves li and 12 that terminate at a single boundary point
d
Figure 3 Figure 4
zi have common points in an arbitrary neighborhood of z 1, these curves neces-

sarily define the same accessible boundary points. Therefore, accessible bound-
ary points defined by a continuous curve and a broken line inscribed in that curve
coincide, as shown above. This enables us to define accessible boundary points
by means of Jordan curves only.
We have the following theorem 1) on the correspondence of accessible bound-
ary points:
Theorem 1. Given a univalent conformal mapping of a domain B in the z-
plane onto the unit disk ICI < 1, to each accessible boundary point z1 of the do-
main B we can assign a specific point Ci on the circle ICI = 1 such that, as z
approaches zi along an arbitrary curve 11 defining z1, the corresponding point
C approaches Ci, and also such that two distinct accessible boundary points of
the domain B correspond to two distinct points on ICI = 1 and the set F of
points on ICI = 1 corresponding to all accessible boundary points of the domain
-B is everywhere dense on fI = 1.
Proof. We shall carry out the proof in several stages.
10, Let us show that, as a point z approaches an accessible boundary point
z 1 of the domain B by moving along a curve l is z = z (t), for a < t < b, that de-
fines the accessible boundary point, the corresponding point C moves along a
continuous curve A1: J= f(z(t)) in the disk 1 and approaches a definite
point on the circle KI = I.
1) Koebe [19151.
Let us suppose the opposite. Then, there must exist on the circle IcI = 1
two distinct points S1 and S2 such that there is on Al a sequence of arcs with
endpoints that converge to S1 and S2 and the inverse mapping function z ='
converges uniformly on these arcs to z1. Since /(C) is bounded in the disk
ICI < 1, it follows from Lemma 1, as applied to the function 40(C) - z1, that
(W) - zl - 0; that is, -0 (0 a const in ICI < 1, and this is impossible. Conse-
quently, as C moves along A1, it approaches a definite point on IcI = I.
2°. Let us show that, as z describes two curves 11 and l2 defining the
same accessible boundary point z1 of the domain B as it approaches z1, the
corresponding point describes curves Al and A2 that terminate in a single
point on the circle ICI = I.
Let us suppose that the curves Al and A2 terminate at distinct points
and S2 on the circle ICI = 1. In an arbitrary neighborhood of z1, the curves l1
and 12 can be joined by a continuous curve and hence by a Jordan curve contained
both in the domain B and in this neighborhood. Therefore, as the neighborhood is
constructed to a point, the endpoints of the corresponding Jordan curves in the
disk ICI < 1 approach `'1 and CZ. On these curves, -O(C) approaches z1 uni-
formly. In accordance with Lemma 1, we again obtain (W) __ const in ICI < 1,
which is impossible. Consequently, S1 = CZ.
3°. Let us now show that two distinct points `'1 and S2 on the circle ill = 1
correspond to two distinct accessible points z1 and zZ of the domain B. Suppose
that z1 and z2 are defined by the Jordan curves 11 and 12. We may assume that
they issue from a single point of the domain B and that they have no other points
in common in B. Let Al and A2 denote the corresponding curves in the disk
ICI < 1. Let us suppose that they terminate at a single point S1 on ICI = 1. The
closed curve Al U A2 partitions the disk into two domains, of one of which it con-
stitutes the entire boundary. Suppose that corresponding to this domain in B is a
domain B1. The curve II U 12 is mapped into its boundary. If the complex num-
bers z1 and z2 are distinct, there exists on the boundary of the domain B1 a
boundary point a of the domain B that is distinct from z1 and z2 because,
otherwise, the boundary of the domain B1 would be the open Jordan curve 11 U 12
and thus would not be bounded, in contradiction with the assumption of bounded-
ness of B (see p. 35). In a sufficiently small neighborhood of the point a, all
boundary points of the domain B 1 are also boundary points of the domain B. Con-
sequently, as z C B approaches these points, the corresponding point C must
1
approach the circle ICI = 1, that is, the point 1. In accordance with Lemma 3,
this yields f(z) - S1 in B, which is impossible. On the other hand, if the com-
plex numbers z1 and z2 are equal, 11 U 12 is a closed Jordan curve which is
mapped into the boundary of the domain B1. In this case, if the domain B1 has a
boundary point distinct from points of the curve 11 U 12, this point must lie inside
the curve 11 U 12. Consequently, the hypothesis of Lemma 3 is satisfied in a suf-
ficiently small neighborhood of this point and we may again conclude that
coast in B, which again is impossible. This proves that the entire boundary of
B1 is the curve 11 U lZ. But then, in an arbitrary neighborhood of the point z1,
the curves 11 and 12 can be joined by a continuous curve lying in the domain B1
and hence in the domain B, and the curves 11 and 12 do not define distinct ac-
cessible boundary points of the domain B. This proves that S1 CZ.
4°. Finally, let us show that the set F referred to in the theorem is every-
where dense on the circle ICI = 1. Let us suppose that the circle JC1 = 1 con-
tains an arc y no points of which correspond to accessible boundary points of the
domain B. Let Co denote an interior point of this arc and let IC,, {, for n = 1,
2, ... , denote a sequence of points of the disk I I < 1 that converges to CO. The
corresponding points zn E B have at least one cluster point z0, which neces-
sarily lies on the boundary of the domain B. Let {znkI denote a subsequence
that converges to z0. Let us denote by Ink the straight line segment connecting
znk with the closest point of the boundary of the domain B. This segment defines
an accessible boundary point. From 1°, corresponding to this segment in the disk
JCj < 1 is the curve An extending from the point Cn to some point on the circle
!CI = 1 not on the arc y. Also, -O(C) approaches z0 uniformly on knk as k 00.
On each of the curves Ank, we can choose an arc such that the sequences of end-
points of these arcs converge to the point Co in the one case and to a point on the
circle ICI = 1 not on the arc y or to one of the endpoints of that arc in the other.
Then, we can apply Lemma 1 to the function O(C) - z0, and we conclude that
CI) - z6 in the disk IC` < 1, which is impossible. Consequently, the arc y de-
scribed above does not exist and the set F is everywhere dense on the circle
This completes the proof of Theorem 1.

Prime ends. To make a complete investigation of the correspondence of
boundaries under univalent mapping of a domain B onto the disk I < 1 , we in-
1
troduce the concept of a prime end. Suppose that we make a sequence of trans-
verse cuts Ck, for k = 1 , 2, ... , in the domain B. The cut C1 connects two
distinct accessible boundary points of the domain B and partitions it into two
domains, one of which we denote by B I. The cut C2 lies in the domain B 1, con-
nects two distinct accessible boundary points of the domain B that are not end-
points of C1, and partitions the domain B1 into two domains. Let B2 denote
whichever one of these domains has no points of the curve Cl on its boundary.
In general, the cut Cry+1 lies in Bn, connects two distinct accessible boundary
points of the domain B that are not endpoints of Cn, and partitions the domain
Bn into two domains. We denote by Bn+l whichever of these domains does not
have points of the curve Cn on its boundary. The closed domains Bn, for n =
1, 2, . , which are nested in each other, have a nonempty intersection, which
we denote by E.
Let us assume that the cuts Cn are always such that E contains only bound-
ary points of the domain B. We denote by Gn the domains in the disk ICI < 1
corresponding to the domains Bn. The closed domains Gn` also have a nonempty
intersection. If this intersection consists of a single point Co on the circle
C I = 1, the set E is called the prime end of the domain B corresponding to the
1)
point Co
It is easy to show that a prime end corresponding to a point CO on ICI = 1 is
independent of the sequence of cuts defining it. Let IC, ; and IC, I denote two
sequences of cuts defining two prime ends E' and E" corresponding to the same
point Co. Then the domains C' and Gn corresponding to the domains Bn and
B" defined by these cuts have a unique common point Co. Consequently, each of
the domains LR contains all C" beginning with some m; conversely, each of the
domains Gn contains all G' beginning with some m. This property carries over
to the domains B' and B", but then, E" C B' and E' C k' for all n; that is
E" C E' and E' C Ell. This means that the prime ends E' and E" determined
by the cuts C' and Cn consist of the same points, and this in turn means that a
prime end is completely determined only by the point Co corresponding to it.
A prime end can also be characterized independently of the sequence of cuts
C
n
defining it. Specifically, let us show that the prime end E of the domain B cor-
responding to the point C on ICI = 1 is the geometric locus of all cluster points
of sequences of points of the domain B corresponding to all possible sequences
1) (A prime end can be defined without bringing in the concept of conformal mapping,
as was done in the definition of accessible boundary points (cf., for example, Carathco-
dory [1912]).
of points of the disk I CI < 1 that converge to Co. Suppose that corresponding to
the points C. --' S0, where I' < 1 and 141 = 1, is a sequence of points zn E B.
I
Since any one of the domains Gn considered abodt)ontains all t beginning

with some m, any one of the domains Bn has the same property with regard to the
points Consequently, every cluster point of the sequence (znI belongs to all
$n, that is, belongs to E. Now suppose, conversely, that zo E E. Then z0 lies
on the boundary of all the domains Bn. In the domain B, let us choose a sequence
of points zn z0 such that zn E Bn, where n = 1, 2, .... Corresponding to
.them in the disk ICI < 1 are the points t;n E Gn where n= 1, 2,.... It follows
that n t ; that is, z0 is a cluster point of the set of points zn E Bn corre-
Isponding to the points n Co
The question of the correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping

is completely answered in terms of a prime end (see Caratheodory [1913a]):
Theorem 2. Under a univalent conformal mapping of a domain B onto the unit
disk ICJ < 1, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between points of the
circle ICI = 1 and the prime ends of the domain B.
Proof. It follows from the definition of a prime end that to every prime end of
a domain B there corresponds a unique point on the circle ICI = I. Let us prove
the converse, namely, that for every point Co on ICI = 1 there corresponds a
prime end of the domain B. Let us take two sequences (t n } and k 1, where
n = 1, 2, ... , of points on I C I = 1 distinct from C. which converge from opposite
sides to Co and to which correspond sequences of accessible boundary points zn
and
C.,'J zn of the domain B. We may assume that, for each n = 1 , 2, ... , the points
and Cn+1 lie inside the arc (n (n on Cl I= 1 which contains Co (see
Figure 5). Suppose zn and zn are determined by the curves In and In . We de-
note the corresponding curves in the disk ICJ < 1 by An and An. For every n,
we choose on the curves A n' and A"n arcs with endpoints Cn' and Cn such that
all their points are closer to the straight line passing through Cn and Cn than
they are to the line passing through Sn - 1 and C _ 1 or to the straight line pass-
ing through Cn+1 and Cn+1 Let us connect by a straight line segment the ends
of these arcs which lie in the disk Cl < 1. As we move from C, along An and
from Cn along An to the first points of contact with this segment, we replace our
original arcs with those just mentioned and we replace the straight line segment
with the line segment joining the endpoints of these arcs, which lie in the disk
ICI < 1. The cuts thus obtained in ICI < 1 are constricted, as n --, - , to the
42 11. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
point Co and have as preimages in the domain B the cuts C,, determining the
prime end corresponding to the point Co. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Figure 5
As a supplement to this, we have
Theorem 3. Let E denote the set of boundary points of a domain B defined
by the cuts CR as above. For E to be a prime end of the domain B, it is neces-
sary and sufficient that E contain no more than one accessible boundary point of
the domain B.
Proof. It follows from Theorems 1 and 2 that, if E is a prime end, it cannot
contain more than a single accessible boundary point. Suppose now that E con-
tains no more than one accessible boundary point. If E were not a prime end, the
intersection of the domains GR used to define E would contain an arc of the
circle (1 = 1. On this arc, let us choose two points S1 and S2 corresponding to
the admissible boundary points z1 and z2 of the domain B. Corresponding to the
curves 11 and 12 defining these points are curves Al and A2 in the disk W < 1
that terminate at (1 and C2.
Portions of the curves Al and A2 in sufficiently small neighborhoods of the

points S1 and S2 lie in C,,. This means that portions of the curves II and 12
in neighborhoods of the points z1 and z2 lie in B,,. This in turn means that the
points z1 and z2 belong to all the BR and hence to the set E, which contradicts
the hypothesis of the theorem. This completes the proof of the theorem.
In Figures 3 and 4, the segment cd is a prime end of the domain in question
since it is easy to construct a sequence of curves Cn such that the intersection

of the corresponding domains Bn is just this segment. In Figure 4 the segment
cd contains only the single accessible boundary point d; in Figure 3 it does not
contain any accessible boundary point at all. Analogously the spiral-shaped do-
main in Figure 2 has the entire boundary circle as its prime end, which does not
contain a single accessible boundary point.
Special types of domain. Up to now, we have considered the question of the
correspondence of boundaries of arbitrary bounded simply connected domains
under univalent mappings. For domains of special types, we can draw a number
of supplementary conclusions. Thus, it follows from the preceding theorems that,
if all the boundary points of the domain B are accessible, then a univalent map-
ping of this domain onto the disk ICI < 1 defines a one-to-one correspondence be-
tween boundary points of the domain B and points of the circle ICI = 1 because,
in such a case, every prime end of the domain B consists of a single boundary
point. Let us show that, in this case, the inverse function z = 0(C) is continu-
ous in the closed disk ICI < 1 if we define this function at a point Co on the
circle ICI = 1 as the limit of its values as ( approaches Co from the open disk
JCI < 1. We need only show that 4(t) is continuous on ICI = 1. If a sequence
{Sn1 of points Cn of the closed disk ICI < 1 that converges to Co, where ICol = 1,
contains only finitely many points of the circle ICI = 1, then the relation
limT(Cn)=p(Co)
n-+oo
follows from the definition of ¢(40). On the other hand, if infinitely many of the
%o lie on the circle ICI = 1, then these points themselves constitute a sequence
of points Tnk -+ CO and we need to show that for them
limp (Cnk) _ p*(Co)
Let c denote any positive number. Consider, in the disk IcI < 1, a sequence of
points Cnk satisfying the conditions
I tnk - Cnk I C T , I'f lànk) - 'P IC

Since nk --. Co, there exists a K > 0 such that, for k> K, we have -q5(CO)I <
c/2. It follows that, for k > K, (Snk) - (CO) I <E, and this means that
limk_-'0(Cnk) This completes the proof of the continuity of -0(T) at
the point Co.
If the boundary of the domain B also has the property that, for any
two distinct boundary points zI and z2, the complex numbers zI and
z2, are not equal, then the function f(z) is continuous in the closed
domain B. To show this, let zo denote a point on the boundary of the domain B.
If zn E B, where n= 1, 2, ... , and zn _` z0 , then the corresponding sequence
{cn } converges to a specific point Co on the circle ICI = 1 because, otherwise,
the sequence ICn E would-have two subsequences that converge to distinct points
on 141 = 1 and then the corresponding sequences of the points zn would converge
to distinct points on the boundary of the domain B. It follows that Co is inde-
pendent of the choice of sequence zn-a zU and this proves the continuity of f(z)
on B.
If we apply what has been said to domains bounded by Jordan curves, we ob-
tain by virtue of the properties of such curves
Theorem 4.1) A univalent con formal mapping of a domain B bounded by a
closed Jordan curve onto the disk ICI < 1 maps B bicontinuously onto the closed
disk ICI < 1.
Since the above considerations are of a local nature, we can conclude imme-
diately that the following more general theorem is valid:
Theorem 4 '. If a simply connected domain B has on its boundary a Jordan
arc y, no interior point of which is a cluster point for the set of boundary points
not belonging -to y, then the function C = f(z) mapping the domain B onto the disk
ICI < 1 is continuous in B including the interior points of the arc y and it maps
the arc y bicontinuously onto an arc y' of the circle ICI = 1.
In the case of domains containing analytic arcs on the boundary, we have
Theorem 5. If a simply connected domain B has on its boundary an analytic
Jordan arc y, no interior point of which is a cluster point of the set of boundary
points not belonging to y, then f(z) is regular at interior points of the arc y and
at such points f 0(z) l 0; that is, the mapping is conformal.
Proof. Suppose that the equation of the arc y is z = z (t) , where a < t < b.
Let to denote a point in the open interval (a, b). Let z0 denote z(to). The
function z(t) can be expanded in a power series in a neighborhood of the point
t = to. If we admit complex values for 1, this series defines a regular function in
1) Caratheodory [1913].
a sufficiently small neighborhood of the point to. Since z'(to) L 0 (by the defini-
tion of an analytic curve), we can choose a neighborhood sufficiently small that
it will be mapped univalently by the function z = z(t). The part gt of this neigh-
borhood lying in the upper or lower half of the t-plane is then mapped into the part
g s of the neighborhood of the point zo lying in B and having a common boundary
arc with y. The function C= f(z(t)) is regular in gt and it maps gt univalently
into the part of the neighborhood of the point Co = f(zo) lying in the disk JCJ < 1
and adjacent to the circle JC1 = 1. By Theorem 4', f(z(t)) is then continuous in
gt up to the real axis. By the symmetry principle, it can be extended in a neigh-
borhood of to across the real axis and, in particular, it is regular at the point to
itself and has a nonzero derivative at to. If t = t(z) is the inverse of the func-
tion z = z (t) , it is regular at zo and t'(zo) 0. Consequently, the function
f(z(t(z))) = f(z) is also regular at zo and f'(zo) 31 0. This completes the proof
of the theorem.
In particular, if a domain B is bounded by a closed analytic Jordan curve, a
function f(z) that maps it onto the disk 1 is regular in B and its inverse
is regular in the closed disk 1cj < I.

We conclude our investigation of special types of domain by noting that in
Chapter X, §1, we shall use the theory of functions of a real variable to
investigate in addition the correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping
of domains bounded by rectifiable and smooth boundaries. l)
We also point out that the preceding theorems lead immediately to theorems
on the correspondence of boundaries under univalent mapping of various domains
onto each other. For example, a univalent mapping of one simply connected do-
main bounded by a closed Jordan curve onto another is single-valued and contin-
uous, including their boundaries; in addition, if the boundaries of these domains
are closed analytic Jordan curves, the functions representing the direct and in-
verse mappings are regular in the closed regions.
In conclusion, we present another uniqueness theorem dealing with conformal
mappings. We saw above that if all the boundary points of a bounded domain B
Qre accessible, then a function z = '(C) that maps the open disk ICI < 1
1) Profound investigations of the correspondence of boundaries under conformal map-

ping have been made by the Moscow school of the theory of functions, which includes N.N.
Luzin, I. I. Privalov, M. A. Lavrent'ev and others. A detailed survey of the corresponding
results can be found in the book Thirty years of Mathematics in the USSR, pp. 324-332
(1948).
univalently onto the domain B is continuous on the closed disk < 1. In this
case, the boundary Cof the domain B has the representation z = (eit) = z(t),
for 0 < t < 2n, where z(t) is a continuous function, so that C is a continuous
curve. Furthermore, since log[0(() - O(0)]/C is obviously a regular function in
Jt;J < 1 and is continuous on ItI'< 1, it follows that arg[O(i) - x(0)1/4 is a
harmonic function in JCJ < 1 and is continuous on ICI < 1. This means that the
increment in this argument as C moves around the circle JCJ = 1 is zero. But
this means that, as C moves around the circle JCJ = 1 in the positive direction,
the increment in arg[95(0 - 0(0)] is equal to the increment in argC, that is,
equal to 227. We take as the positive direction around the curve C the direction
in which arg(z - z0), where z0 = 0(0), acquires an increment of 27r when z
completes one encirclement. By virtue of the continuity of the increment in
dz )
(arg (z - zo))c =
z zoJ
depending on z0 C B, the positive direction around C is determined independently

of the choice of z0 and hence independently of the choice of mapping function
95 (0 -
Theorem 6. Suppose that all the boundary points of a simply connected
bounded domain B are accessible. Then there is a unique univalent mapping of
B onto the disk ICI < 1 such that three given points z1, z2, and z3 on the bound-
ary C of the domain B indexed in order of their occurrence as one proceeds in
the positive direction are mapped into three given points C1, CZ, and C3 on the
circle JCJ = 1 similarly indexed.
Proof. Suppose that the function (J' = O(z) maps the domain B univalently
onto the disk KK'I < 1. Corresponding to the points z1, z2, and z3 on IC1 = 1
are three points and t;3 arranged in order of occurrence as one proceeds
around the circle in the positive direction. If we now map the disk JC' I < 1 uni-
valently onto the disk ICI < 1 in such a way that the points X1,.42, and C3 are
mapped into 1, CZ, and C3 respectively (which we know is possible and is
achieved by means of a fractional-linear function), then the composite function
will yield the required mapping. The uniqueness of such a mapping is proved, as
uniqueness is usually proved, by contradiction. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
§4. DISTORTION THEOREMS 47
§4. Distortion theorems

A considerable portion of the theory of conformal mappings deal with the
investigation as to what restrictions the requirement that a mapping be univalent
imposes on certain quantities connected with such a mapping (for example, the
modulus of a function or the modulus and argument of its derivative), that
is, on the degree of distortion produced by that function at various points in
a domain, etc.
These restrictions are expressed in various inequalities, the simplest of
-which will be given in the present section.
Our starting point for the derivation of a number of inequalities dealing with
univalent functions is
Theorem 1 (the area theorem)'). Suppose that the function F(C) = C+
Q'1/C+ - = C+ Y-k=1 Rk/Ck is regular in the finite plane, has a pole at C=
co,
and is univalent in the domain ICI > 1. Then,
ro
E
n=1
(1)
The name "area theorem" is due to the fact that this theorem is the analytic
expression of the following geometric fact: under a mapping of a domain ICI > P,
where p > 1, by a function w = F(C) , a part of the plane w = u + iv of positive
area remains uncovered (the area principle). This geometrical interpretation indi-
cates the course of the proof. Specifically, the circle ICI = p, where p > 1, is
mapped by the function w = F(t;) = u + iv into the closed analytic curve w =
F(pei°) = w(t) , for 0 < t < 277, which serves as the boundary of a domain of area
S calculated from the formula
2x 2n
S= uv'dt w(t)+w(t)
2
tv (t)TP1'(t)dt
2i
2is 00
rpest+Pe tt ane Int+anetnt
lj1 L 2 + n=1 2p
00 Co
rPeit + Pe-it
XL 2
n1
=
Wane-int + naneint
29A
9
'CP - I
n=1
nlan12
pen
1) Gronwall [1914-19151.
and this area is positive for arbitrary p > I. If we take the limit as p -i 1, we
obtain (1).
A similar theorem holds for the corresponding p-valent functions, that is,
functions that assume no value in the domain ICI > 1 at more than p points.`)
An important consequence of inequality (1) is the fact that I all < 1, with
equality holding that is, with al = et°' if and only if a2 = a3 = - = 0, that is,
if F(C) = C+ e'1/C: This last function maps the domain ICI > 1 univalently onto
the plane with a rectilinear cut from the point w = 2e"i "2 to the point w = -2e0,1'2.
Suppose now that the function
on
f (Z) = z + c2z2 + ... ,
Cnzn (2)
n=1
is regular and univalent in the disk I zl < 1. Then, the function
fP(Z)=P f(ZP)=z+ Z'9" +... (3)
(for p = 2, 3, ) is also regular and univalent in IzI < 1. The univalence follows
from the fact that, if we had ff(z1) = ff(z2), where z1 and z2 are distinct num-
bers in I z I < 1, we would have f(zP)
I
= f(zP)
2
and hence zP
1
= zP;
2
that is, z1 =
iz2, where i]P = 1. But then, since the series (2) contains only terms with powers
znp+1, where n = 0, 1, 2, , we would have ff(z1) _ iiff(z2); that is i] = 1, and
hence, z1 = z2, which contradicts the assumption.
It follows that the function
F(C)= 111 =C- 2 C +
f° c l
is univalent in the domain ICI > 1. Then, as a consequence of the area theorem,
we obtain the inequality Ice/21 _< 1, so that Ic21 _< 2 with equality holding, that
is, with c2 = 2eia, if and only if F(C) = C+ e`°' /C, that is, if and only if
w =f (z) = (I + ealz)a = Z - 2earz9 -I- ... (4)
The function (4) maps the disk Izi < 1 onto the plane with a cut along the ray
which issues from the point a-"`/4, and which would include the point w = 0 if produced
in the opposite direction. Thus we have obtained the result 2)
1) See Goluzin [1940] and Alenicyn [1947, 19501.

2) Bieberbach [1916].
N. DISTORTION THEOREMS 49
If the function (2) is regular and univalent in the disk izi < 1, then Ic2I < 2.
This is a sharp inequality.
With this bound for the coefficient c2, we can now easily obtain a covering
theorem for the same functions. Suppose that the function (2) is regular and uni-
valent in the disk I zl < 1 and suppose that c does not belong to the image of
that disk under the function (2). Then c # 0 and the function
f1(Z)=Ceff (ZL-=z+C9+ 1 Z9+...

is also regular and univalent in Izi < I. Hence
Thus, Icl > % with equality holding only when Ice + 1/cl = I1/c I - Ic2I = 2
and 1C21 = 2, that is, C2 = -2eò'. However, this will be the case only for the
function (4). Thus, we have obtained Koebe's covering theorem:
Theorem 2. If the function (2) is regular and univalent in the disk zI < 1,
I
then the disk Iwl < % (but not always a larger disk) is entirely covered by the
image of the disk IzI < 1 under that function. The circle Iwi = % contains points
not belonging to the image if and only if f(z) is the function (4).1)
Koebe's theorem can be put in a different form: If a function f(z) such that
f(0) = 0 is regular and univalent in I zI < 1 and does not assume the value c in
Izi < 1, then
(0) l 4c,
This follows from the application of the preceding theorem to the function f(z)/f'(0),
which does not assume the value c/f'(0) in Izi < 1.

If the, function
(5)
maps the domain ICJ > 1 univalently, if c does not belong to its image, then the
function
1) In this formulation, the theorem was proved by Bieberbach [1916]. Koebe[1907]

proved only the existence of such a disk as that asserted in the theorem. This covering
also holds for suitable p-valent functions (see Goluzin [19481).
Ft (z)= =z+(c-ao)zs+...
F(i)-c11
is regular and univalent in IzI < 1 and, consequently, Ic - a0I < 2. From this we
obtain
Theorem 3. If the function (5) maps the domain ICI > 1 univalently, then the
entire boundary of its image is contained in the disk Iw - aoI < 2.
Another important application of a bound on the coefficient c2 is the deriva-
tion of bounds on the modulus and argument of the derivative of a univalent
function.
Suppose that the function (2) is regular and univalent in IzI < 1. Then, for
arbitrary z in IzI < 1, the function
_f Z)
b (C) = f f(f'I(z)
I(+
(1C)
I I) = C -}- r2' -}- .. .

is also regular and univalent in ICI < 1. Calculation shows that
s=2 ((1-z2)f,(())-22).
z
Consequently, since I02I < 2; we have

zf' (z)
f, (z)
2rs
1-rs c 14r-rs' r= I z (6)
If we replace the modulus with the real and imaginary parts in this inequal-
ity and note that
at (f' ((z)) = r d_ log I.f' ( z ) f (z))) = r Fr argf' (z),

we obtain the two inequalities
4±rs,
14-r'rdr (7)
4 a 4
1 rs Car arg f' (z) rs .
If we integrate with respect to r from 0 to r, we obtain the inequalities

(11+ ), < (z) I < (I - r) a, (8)
arg f' (z) I <- 2 log 1 + r (9)

These conditional inequalities hold for arbitrary z in I zI < 1. Let us see pre-
cisely when equality can hold in them. Since they were obtained by integrating
inequalities (7) with respect to r from 0 to r, for equality to hold in (8) and (9)
for some function f(z) and some z in the disk IzI < 1, it is necessary that the
corresponding equality hold in (7) along the entire straight line segment from 0 to
z, and this means that equality must also hold in (6) on the same segment. In
particular, it follows that i C2 = % I f"(0)/f' (0)I = 2. But this can be true only for
the function (4). By direct verification, we see that equality does indeed hold in
the case of this function for suitable real a. Consequently, inequality (8) gives
sharp bounds for W WI as f(z) ranges over the class of functions that are uni-
valent and regular in I zi < 1. This inequality constitutes a distortion theorems'
for this class of functions. With regard to inequality (9), which constitutes a
rotation theorem, 2) we have, for the function (4) with z # 0,
argf (z)=arg -e¢zac4aresinizi

+etz)
(1
_IZI 4dr IZI 4dr=2log1+r

<
that is, for this function, equality cannot hold in (9) at any z # 0. Later, we
shall also give a sharp bound for Iarg f'(z)I (§1, Chapter IV).
By starting with inequality (8), we can easily obtain upper and lower bounds
for If(z)j. To obtain an upper bound, we integrate the second of inequalities (8)
over the line segment connecting the point 0 with the point z. We obtain
z
If (z)IcSI.f'(z)IIdzI
0
r dr = (1 z
lf(z)Idlxllzl 1
--r), I
I z I)s
.
b (l
To obtain a lower bound, we take the point on the image of the circle I zI = r
that is closest to w = 0 and we draw a line segment between it and the point
w = 0. If we then integrate the first of inequalities (8) along the curve L consti-
tuting the preimage of that line segment, we obtain
l)Bieberbach [19161.
2) Bieberbach [1919].
Izl
If(z)I=S If'(z)IIdzI: S 1-r dr= (l+IzlIz

(1+r)e
a 0
Thus, in I zI < 1, we have

r
(1+:r)a cI1(z)I_ (1 rr)a, r=I zI. (10)
Here, equality can hold for z # 0 only if f(z) is the function (4), as is the case
for suitable choice of a.
So far, we have considered functions that are univalent in a disk. Let us
now prove the general distortion theorem.
Theorem 4.1) Let B denote a domain and let E denote a closed subset of B.
Then, there exists a finite positive constant M such that, for every function f(z)
that is regular and univalent in B and for arbitrary z1 and z2 in E,
1-<ILz)I_M.
M f (z.)
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that E is a closed domain
contained in B. Specifically, every closed set can easily be included in some
closed domain contained in B and, if we prove inequality (11) for this domain, it
must also hold (with the same M) for any set E contained in it. Let us first
suppose that E is a closed bounded domain. Let d denote the distance between
E and the boundary of B. This distance is necessarily positive. Let us cover
the z-plane with a grid of squares of side d/4. The union of the closed squares of
the grid that contain points in E is a closed domain B'. We have E C B' C B.
Let z1 and z2 denote any two points in E. In the domain B', we can find an
n-tupl a of points 61= z 1, 621 * * " I n = z 2 such that any two consecutive points
lie in adjacent squares of the grid and the number n of them does not exceed the
number N of all squares constituting B'. The distance between the points Sk
and 6k+l (for k = 1, 2, . - , n - 1) does not exceed d/\12 < 3d/4. The disks
I z - ek I < d, for k = 1, 2, , n, all lie in the domain B. Therefore, the function
f (Ek + A) - f (Ek)
is, for each k, regular and univalent in ICI < 1. Consequently, in accordance
with (8) we have in I z I < 1
1)(Koebe [19101.)
f (Ek+dC) 1+ICI (12)

I f (Ek)
In particular for t; = (6k 11 - Sk)/d, with we have

3
f (Ek+1)
f (Ek)
c 1 + 43113 = M.
11 4/
Now, if we set k = 1, 2, . , n - 1 and multiply the inequalities obtained, we find
f (z9) c MI-A c m N-1= M.
f (z')
The number M depends only on the domain B and the set E; it is independent of
the form of the fraction f (z) and the choice of points z1 and z2. If we reverse the roles
of z1 and z2, we obtain the other inequality of the theorem. If the domain B
contains the point oc, we can, by using the fact that inequality (11) holds for
arbitrary points z1 and z2 on the circle I zI = R, where R is sufficiently large,
show that this inequality also holds for arbitrary z1 and z2 in the domain
IzI > R. This, in conjuction with what we have already proved, completes the
Analogously, we have
Theorem 51) Let B denote a domain and let E denote a closed set contained
in B. Then, there exists a finite positive constant L such that, for every func-
tion f(z) that is regular and univalent in B and for arbitrary points z1 and z2
in E,
I f (z9) I- I f (zl) I+ L I f (zl) I (13)
Proof. We use the constructions made in the proof of the preceding theorem,
again assuming E to be a closed bounded domain. Integrating inequality (12) and
using (11), we have
3
{
If (4,1) - J (4)I
(
4
\1 41
1) CKoebe [1910].)
54 II. CONFORMAL MAPPING ON SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
If we successively set k = 1, 2, ..., n - 1 and add the resulting inequalities, we

obtain
I f(z9) -f(zi)I 12Md(n- 1)I f'(zi)I12MNdif'(zt)1,

from which (13) follows with L = 12MNd. If B contains oo, we again use the max-
imum modulus principle.
From this last theorem we have a
Corollary. Let M1 and M2 denote two positive numbers. Let zo denote a
point in a domain B. Suppose that every function in a family of functions that are
regular and univalent in B is such that J f(zo)I < M1 and If'(zo)1 < M2. Then,
this family uniformly bounded in B and the condensation principle can be applied
to it.
§5. Convergence theorems on the conformal mapping of

a sequence of domains
An important question in the theory of conformal mappings is the question of
convergence of a sequence of univalent functions.
We present the following definitions. Suppose that we have a sequence of
univalent domains B1, B2,... in the z-plane, each including z = 0. If there
exists a disk Jzj < p, where p> 0, that belongs to all the domains in Bn, we de-
fine the kernel of this sequence of domains as the largest domain containing z = 0
such that an arbitrary closed subset of it belongs to all the domains Bn from
some n on. By "largest domain" is meant the domain containing any other do-
main possessing this property. If such a disk does not exist, the kernel of the
sequence of domains B1, B2,... is defined to be the pointz = 0. We shall say
that the sequence of domains B1, B2 , ... converges to the kernel B, and we
shall denote this by writing Bn --.. B, if every subsequence of these domains has
B as its kernel. In particular, if a sequence of simply connected domains B1,
B29 ..., Bn, ... that include z = 0 converges to the limiting domain B (also in-
cluding z = 0) in the sense that all boundary points of the domains Bn from some
n on are arbitrarily close to the boundary of the domain B and all points of the
boundary of the domain B are arbitrarily close to the boundaries of the domains
B,,, then this sequence has the domain B as its kernel and it converges to that
kernel. This applies also for a sequence of domains Bn that include z = 0 and
satisfy the condition B1 C B2 C B3 C ... or for a sequence of domains Bn that
§5. CONVERGENCE THEOREMS 55
contain a neighborhood of the point z = 0 and satisfy the condition B1 3 B2

B33 .
Theorem 1 (Carathi6odory).1) Suppose that we have a sequence of functions

z fn(C), where n = 1, 2, . , that are regular in the disk ICI < 1. Suppose that
fn(0) = 0 and fn '(0) > 0 for n = 1, 2, .. . Suppose that, for each n, the function
fn(C) maps the disk CI < 1 onto a domain Bn.
For the sequence ;fn(C)} to converge in ICI < 1 to a finite function, it is
necessary and sufficient that the sequence }Bn} converge to the kernel B, which
is either the point z = 0 or a domain having more than one boundary point. When
convergence exists, it is uniform inside the disk ICI < 1. If the limit function
f(C) i const, it maps the disk ICI < 1 onto the kernel B, and the sequence
ton(z)} of inverse functions On(z) converges uniformly inside B to the function
d7(z) inverse to f(C).
Proof. 1°. Necessity. Suppose that fn(S) -+ in ICI < 1. Let us consider
first the case f(C) - 0. We shall show that then B is the point z = 0 and that
B
n
.-. B. Let us suppose that this is not the case. Then, there exists a disk
'I zi < p, p > 0, that belongs to all the domains Bn. Consequently, by the Schwarz
lemma as applied to the disk IzI < p, we obtain I0, (0)l < 1/p, where 0n(z) is
the inverse of the function fn(C). This means that fn (0) > p. But then, according
to inequality (10) of §4 as applied to the function fn(S)/fn(0) in the disk ICI < 1,
we have p ICI/(1 + IC!)z < I fn(S)I. Consequently, the sequence of the functions
fn(C) does not converge to f(C) - 0, which contradicts the assumption. Since
the same reasoning can be applied to every subsequence of domains among the
B1, B2, ... , we have B n _, B.
Now, let us suppose that f (C) J 0. Then, it follows from the inequality
fn(0) (1 IIICD'CIfn(C)ICfn(0) (1 III I)y
that the numbers fn(0) are bounded and that the functions fn(C) are uniformly
1) Caratheodory [1912]; Bieberbach [1913]. Markusevic [1936] showed that the condi-
tions of 'Theorem 1 are also necessary and sufficient for convergence in mean of }fn(z)} to
f (z), that is, necessary and sufficient for
11m
n - ,:. S
I fn (z) -f'(z) I' da = 0,
where fn(z) is taken equal to 0 outside the domain 8 .
bounded inside the disk Kl < 1. Therefore, in accordance with Vitali's theorem,
the sequence of the functions fn(4) converges uniformly inside the disk ICI < I
to the function f(C), which is univalent in'KI < 1. Consequently, the function
z = f(C) maps the disk ICI < 1 univalently onto a domain B containing z = 0.
Let us show that B possesses the property that an arbitrary closed domain B"
is contained in all the domains Bn from some n on.
Let S > 0 denote the distance from B" to the boundary of B. Let us cover
the z-plane with a grid of squares of side 8/2 and let us consider the domain B,
constituting the union of all (closed) squares containing points of B". Then,
B" C B, and B, C B. Let A" and A" denote respectively the preimages of the
domains B" and B, under the mapping z = in ICI < 1. Then, A" C A,, and
A, is contained in the disk ICI < 1. Let S1 > 0 denote the distance from B" to
the boundary of the domain B". Then, on the boundary of the domain A,, we
have I f(C) - zol > S1 for any point zo C B". On the other hand, there exists an
N > 0 such that, for n > N, we have l fr(y) - f(C)l < S1 on the boundary of A,
since the sequence of the functions fn(C) converges uniformly inside the disk
lCl < 1. Consequently, for every n > N, Rouche's theorem can be applied to the
function
f, (Q - z0 = V n (W + VP - Zn).
In accordance with this theorem, fn(C) - z0 has a zero in the domain A,. This
means that the image of the domain A, under the mapping z = f(C), where n > N,
contains an arbitrary point z0 C B". Thus, every closed domain contained in B
and hence every closed subset of B is contained in all the domains Bn from some
n on. Let us show that B is the largest domain possessing this property.
Let B' denote any domain other than B that contains z = 0 and possesses
this property. Then, from some n on, each function 0n(z) is bounded on an
arbitrary closed subset of the domain B' and the set of such functions is uni-
formly bounded. It follows that the condensation principle can be applied to the
sequence lon(z) 1. Let us choose from the sequence 10n(z)l an arbitrary subsequence
lonk(z)1 that converges uniformly inside the domain B' to a regular function O(z)
such that 0(0) = 0 and 0'(0) > 0. Since
cp' (0) =urn p, (0) =1im 1 _ 1
n-m n-.mfn (0) f (0)

it follows that 0'(0) > 0, that is, that OW is nonconstant and, consequently,
univalent in B', Let us show that c(z) is the inverse of the function f(C). Let
Co denote an arbitrary point in the disk IQ < 1. Let Co (C B) denote the point
f(C0). Let t denote a positive number such that the circle IC- CoI = e is con-
tained in the disk 1. Let m denote a positive number such that 1g) - z0I > m
on that circle. On the other hand, for k > K, we have I fnk(S) - f(01 < in on the circle
K - coI = c. We again conclude from Rouche's theorem that the functions
fn zo for k > K each have a zero, which we denote by Ck, in the disk
'?- CoI <e. We have fnk(Ck) = zo, and C. = 0n (z0) for k > K. As k -- oc, the
Ck -+ O(z0), so that O(z0) belongs to the disk JC- CoI <e. Since a is an arbi-
trary positive number, we see that O(z0) = Co. Thus, we have shown that z0 =
f(r;o) implies Co = /(z0); that is, O(z) is the inverse of the function f(c).
Since this line of reasoning can be applied to any convergent subsequence of the
sequence {on(z)} and the limit function is always the function O(z) inverse to
f(r;), the sequence {0n(z)I itself converges in the domain B' to the function
0 W. The function J = 0 (z) maps the domain B ' onto a domain A. Since
ICbn(z)I < 1 in Bn, it follows that JO(z)1 < 1 in B '; that is, A is contained in
the disk ICI < 1.
This last fact enables us to show that B' C B. If z0 C B' and SD = o(z0),
then ICoI < 1 and, consequently, z0 = f(Co) C B; that is, every point in the do-
main B' belongs to the domain B also. Thus, B is the largest domain contain-
ing z = 0 that possesses the property that any closed subset of it belongs to all
domains Bn from some n on; that is, B is the kernel of the sequence of domains
B
n
. It follows that B has more than one boundary point.
Let us now take an arbitrary subsequence Bni, BnZ, .. , of the domains Bn.
If we apply the conclusion just obtained to the corresponding subsequence fn1(0,
fn2(J), of the functions fn(S), which converges to the function f(4) , we see
that the function z = f(C) also maps the disk 1 onto the kernel of the sub-
sequence JB }, and therefore this kernel coincides with B. This shows that
B --* B, so that we have proved the necessity of the condition of the theorem and
n
have also proved the supplementary conclusions mentioned in the theorem.
2°. Sufficiency. Now, suppose that Bn _., B and suppose that the kernel B
either consists of the single point z = 0 or is a domain having more than one
boundary point.
sy
First, let us suppose B consists only of the point z = 0. If f'n (0) did not
converge to 0, there would be a subsequence ifnk(S)l such that, for each k,
f ' (0)I > E, e > 0, and
>(1+IC
),
throughout. the disk I I < 1. Consequently, the kernel B would not consist of a
single point. But if f'(0) -. 0, then, for all ( in the disk ICI < 1,
Ifn(t)ICIfn(0)I(l.l
Consequently, fn(C) -+ 0 in ICI < 1. This proves the convergence of the se-
quence }fn(()}.
Now, let us look at the case when the kernel B is a domain having more
than one boundary point. In this case, the numbers Q0) are bounded, because
otherwise we would have a subsequence {fnk(0)} that approaches oo and we would
conclude from the inequality
' Iflk()I:Ifnk(0)I(1+Icl I{I)I.
that the images of the disk 141 < 1 under the mappings z = fnk(c), from some k
on, contain an arbitrary given disk I zI < R, which would contradict the conver-
gence of 1B.I to B. It follows from what we have proved that the functions fn(0
are uniformly bounded inside the disk ICI < 1. Let us suppose now that the se-
quence if,,(C) I does not converge at the point Co such that ItOI < 1. Then, there
exist two subsequences }fn,(01 and If ,,(0} that converge in ICI < 1 to two
distinct functions f+(C) and f«+(C).
If neither f+(0 nor f+«(0 is identically equal to zero, then, from the proof
of necessity as applied to the sequences and }f ,,(()}, we obtain the
result that the functions z = f+(0 and z = map the disk ICI < 1 onto the
kernel of the sequences }B.,I and {BR,, }, that is, onto the domain B. Note that
we have f+(0) = 0, f; (0) > 0; f++(0) = 0, f;+(0) > 0. Therefore, by virtue of the
uniqueness asserted in Riemann's theorem, we have f+(C) and this con-
tradicts our assumption.
On the other hand, if one of the functions f. (C), is identically equal
to zero, the other cannot be identically equal to zero or they would again be
identically equal to each other. By applying the necessity of the condition of
the theorem, we conclude that the kernel of one of the sequences {B,, }, }B,,,,}
consists of the point z = 0 and that the kernel of the other sequence is
some domain, so that the sequence {Br) does not converge to a kernel.
Again, we have reached a contradiction. Thus, the sequence {fY)I must
converge in the disk ICI < 1 to a finite function. Furthermore, in accordance with
Vitali's theorem, the convergence is uniform inside the disk CI < I. This com-
pletes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 1 gives the conditions for convergence of univalent functions only
in.the open disk ICI < 1. For the convergence of univalent functions in the closed
disk I CI < 1, we give the following theorem, confining ourselves to domains of the
Jordan type.
Theorem 2.1) Let {Bn } n= 1, 2, ... , denote a sequence of simply connected
domains each including the point z = 0 and each bounded by a Jordan curve. De-
note the boundary of Bn by Cn. Suppose that the sequence 1B n' converges to a
domain B (its kernel) bounded by a Jordan curve C. Let Ifn W I denote a se-
quence of functions fn(C) such that, for each n, fn(0) = 0, f'(0) > 0, and fn(O
maps the open disk C1 < 1 onto the domain Bn. For the sequence 1fn(C)} to con-
verge uniformly on the closed disk 1 to a function z = f(0 that vanishes at
0, has positive first derivative at 0, and maps the open disk ICI < 1 onto the do-
main B, it is necessary and sufficient that for every t > 0 there exists a number
N > 0 such that, for n > N, there exists a continuous one-to-one correspondence
between the points of the curves Cn and C such that the distance between any
point of Cn and-the corresponding point of C will be less than E.
Proof of the necessity. If fn(C) f(C) uniformly on ICI < 1, then, by con-
sidering the points zn = fn(C) and z = f(C) as corresponding points on the curves
C and C for each value of C on the circle ICI = 1, this establishes a one-to-
one continuous correspondence between Cn and C with the property stated in
the theorem.
Proof of the sufficiency. We first prove that under the condition of the
theorem, the set of functions fn(C) is equicontinuous on the circle ICI = 1. Let
us suppose the opposite. Then, there exists a S > 0, a sequence of positive
integers nk, k = 1 , 2, ... , increasing without bound as k increases, and two se-
quences and of points on the circle 1 such that when k
1) Rado [1922-1923]. In the case of domains with arbitrary boundaries, the question
has been thoroughly investigated by Marlcusevic [1936].
60 H. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
C' k
r 0, and
I fnk (Ck) _-fnk (Ck) I > 8.
We may assume that the sequences Irk I and I converge to a common

limit a such thaattI al = 1 because, if this is not the case, we can shift to a sub-
sequence Ifnk(( )I of functions satisfying this condition and keep the same nota-
tion for it. Analogously, we may assume that the sequences Iak I and 16k }, where
ak = fnk(Sk) and bk = fnk(converge, let us say, to points a and b. The
points ak and bk lie on Cnk and the points a and b lie on C. On each
curve Cnk, we denote by ak the arc akbk corresponding to the arc Ckk,
(which is constricted to the point a as k -+ o) and we denote by rk the
remainder of the curve C. Since we are assuming that, for sufficiently large k,
the distance between ak and bk exceeds S, there exists for such k a point ck
on ak at a distance no less than 8/2 from ak and bk. We may assume that
ck --+ C, where c E C because otherwise, we could shift to a subsequence
Ifnk(C)M We have I c - al > 6/2 and Ic - bI > 8/2. Consequently, c is an in-
terior point of one of the arcs into which the points a and b partition the curve
C. We denote this arc by a and the remainder of the curve C by r. Let a' de-
note an arc on C that includes c and that is contained, together with its end-
points, inside the arc a. Let 77 denote a positive number that is less than the
distance from c to C - a' and less than the distance from a' to r. Let K de-
note a positive number such that, for k > K, there exists a continuous one-to-
one correspondence between Cnk and C such that the distance between corre-
sponding points of Cnk and C is less than 77/2 and
Ia-ahI<2, Ib-bkI<2, Ic-ckI<2. (1)
Then, for k > K, there are no points rk in the open disk I z - cI <77/2.
To show this, let us suppose that, for some k > K, there exists a point
dk E rk that lies in that disk. Let ck and dk denote the points on C corre-
sponding to the points ck and dk. We have
Ck - C I CI Ck- CkI+I Ck - C \11

dk- cl dk - dk I + dk-C <71,
that is, c' and dk lie on the arc a'. Since Ck a ak and dk E rk, it follows that
ck and dk separate the points ak and bk on C. Therefore, corresponding to
the part of the arc a ' between ck and dk on Cnk is an arc containing one of the
points ak or bk, let us say, ak. Consequently, the point on C corresponding to
ak lies on the arc a' and its distance from a exceeds q, which contradicts the
first of inequalities (1). Thus, for k > K, every point of the curve Cnk in the disk
z - cl < rl/2 is a point of the arc ak.
For k > K, we define the function Ok(z) = Onk(z) - a, where Onk(z) is the
inverse of the function fnk(0. This function is regular in Bnk. Setting Ek =
we see that Ek -+ 0 as k -+ o. Now, let zo denote an arbitrary
point of B that lies inside the disk lz- cl < rl/4. Around this point, let us draw
the circle lz - z0l = 71/2. On this circle there are exterior points of the domain B
and hence an arc y lying outside B and having a central angle of 2n/m, where m
,js a positive integer. For k greater than some number K1 > K, this arc lies out-
side Bnk and z0 lies in the interior of Bnk. The limiting values of tk(z)l as z
l
approaches boundary points of the domain Bnk that lie in the disk i z - z0l < rl/4
do not exceed Ek since there are no points of the arc rk in the disk l z - z0l < q/4.
Lemma 2 of §3 is now applicable. In the present case, M = 2 and r = Ek. There-
fore, for k > K1, we have
l
7k z0) l C m Ek`Zm-1.
But as k -+ o, the sequence fik(zO) converges to O(z0) - a, where O(z) is a
function mapping the domain B onto the disk l zl < 1. Consequently, q(z0) - a = 0;
that is, ¢(z) = a for all points z C B in the disk l z - cl < 77/2 and hence every-
where in B, which is impossible. This contradiction proves the equicontinuity of
the functions fn(c) on the circle 1. The functions fn(C) are also uniformly
bounded on ICI = 1. Reasoning as in subsections 2° and 3° of the proof of the
:condensation principle, let us show that the sequence (fn(0 l contains a subse-
ltence that converges on some set that is everywhere dense on the circle
And then let us prove that this sequence converges uniformly on 1. Such a
`! oice can be made from an arbitrary subsequence of the sequence (fn(C){. This
Obables us to show that the sequence Ifn(O} itself converges on Kl = 1.
Specifically, if the sequence (fn(C)I did not converge at some point on
!, = 1, we could choose two subsequences of it that converge uniformly on the
!8 rcle 1 and consequently in the disk Kl < 1 to two distinct functions that
Ste regular in the open disk ICI < 1 and continuous on the closed disk
Out this is impossible because, by Theorem 1, the sequence ffn(o I converges in
ICI < 1 to a unique function. Having proved the convergence of the sequence
(fn(01 on the circle ICI = 1, we again keep in mind the equicontinuiry and uni-
form boundedness of the functions fn(s) to show, just as in subsection 3 of §2 of Chap.
ter I, that the sequence (fn(0j converges uniformly on the circle ICI = 1 and
hence on the closed disk ICI < 1. Obviously, the limit function is f(C). This
§6. Modular and automorphic functions

Among the different functions that map simply connected domains onto each
other, of great theoretical importance are the functions that map certain circular
polygons, that is, domains whose boundaries are arcs of circles, either onto a
disk or onto a halfplane. In the present section, we shall study the nature of such
mappings.
Let us consider first the case in which the domain B is the interior of a reg-
ular circular triangle with zero angles inscribed in the circle Izl = 1 (see Figure 6).
The sides of this triangle are obviously orthogonal to the
circle I zl = 1. Suppose that a function z =
halfplane NO > 0 univalently onto the domain B in such
a way that the points 0, 1, and oa are mapped into the
vertices of the triangle. Let C= µ(z) denote the inverse
of that function. Without knowingly the explicit expres-
sion for the functions A(C) and EL(z), we can, by using
the principle of symmetry, ascertain the essential prop-
erties of these functions in a purely geometrical manner. Figure 6
We denote the sides of the triangle by L1, L2, and L3
and the segments of the real axis corresponding to them by L, L2, and L' .
The function ft (z) , which is regular in B and continuous on B except at one
of the vertices, assumes real values on the boundary of the domain B. Conse-
quently, in accordance with the symmetry principle, it can be extended past the
sides L1, L2, and L3 into the domains (which we name B1, B2, and B3 respec-
tively) obtained from B by an inversion about the circles of which L1, L2, an d
L3 are arcs. The domains B1, B2, and B3 are also circular triangles with zero
angles inscribed in Izl = 1. Each of them is adjacent to B along one of the sides
1) An explicit expression for the function k( t) will be given in § 1 of Chapter III.

§6. MODULAR AND AUTOMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 63
L1, L2, L3. This is true because under these inversions, an arbitrary circle is
mapped into a circle and the circle I zl = 1, being orthogonal to all the circles
across which the extension is made, is mapped into itself. In the domains B 1,
B2, and B3, the function 4=µ(z) is regular and it maps each of these domains
onto the halfplane (4) <0. Consequently, Et (z) is regular in the domain B'
,constituting the union of the domains B, B17 B2 and B3. However, it is no longer
univalent in this domain since it assumes at three points of the domain B' every
value of the halfplane (C) < 0. If we think of three halfplanes ``(C) < 0 ob-
tained by mapping the three domains B1, B2 and B3 as lying one above the other
and connected with the halfplane Z(C) > 0 along segments L11, LZ and L' re-
spectively, we obtain a Riemann surface onto which the function C+ Et (z) maps
the domain B ' bijectively. On the boundary of B ', the function C= t (z) is real.
The domain B' is a circular hexagon with zero angles inscribed in the circle
JzJ = 1. The sides of this hexagon are orthogonal to that circle. Let us repeat
this procedure with the domain B'; that is, let us extend the function Et(z) past
the six sides of B' into the domains obtained from the domains B1, B2 and B3
by inversions about the corresponding sides. The function µ(z) is regular in each
of the six newly obtained domains and it maps them onto the halfplanes ` (c) > 0.-
Let us think of these halfplanes as being distinct and joined along suitable seg-
ments L 1, L 2' and L 3 of the real axis with the halfplanes NJ (C) < 0 that we al-
ready have. Consequently, the function C= Et (z) is regular in the newly obtained
domain B ", which is a circular duodecagon. It maps B " objectively onto the
Riemann surface consisting of seven upper and three lower planes connected in a
suitable manner along L1, L2' and L.
If we continue this extension process indefinitely, we get, on the one hand,
a "modular" grid in the z-plane composed of an infinite set of circular triangles
with zero angles all contained in the disk I zl < 1 and having sides orthogonal to
the circle Izl = 1 and, on the other hand, a Riemann surface lying over the c-plane
and consisting of an infinite set of halfplanes connected with each other along
suitable segments Li, LZ and L3 of the real axis.
Let us show that the domain B' consisting of the union of all triangles constitut-
ing the modular grid coincides with the entire disk I zl < 1. To do this, it will be
sufficient to show that the set of vertices of the triangle of the grid is everywhere
dense on the circle Izl = 1. Let us suppose the opposite, namely, that this circle
contains an arc y that does not include any vertex of any of the triangles consti-
tuting the grid. Then there exists a sequence i l n j , n = 1, 2, ... , of arcs of the
64 H. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
grid, each arc resting on a y-containing arc of the circle I zl = 1, that converges
to an arc L of that circle. Obviously, the arc L is orthogonal to the circle
I zl = 1 and it rests on an arc y' containing y. Then, there are no points of the
domain B* between y' and L. But this is impossible because, for sufficiently
large n, the inversion about the arc In of the entire polygonal domain Bck> whose
boundary contains this arc maps the point z = 0 into a point between y 'and L,
and hence there are points of B' between y' and L. This shows that the set of
vertices of the modular grid is everywhere dense on the circle Izl = 1 and hence
that the domain B* coincides with the entire disk I zl < 1. Therefore, the func-
tion µ(z) is regular in the disk Izl < 1 and it maps that disk bijectively and con-
formally onto the infinite-sheeted Riemann surface mentioned above. The function
µ(z) assumes every value other than 0, 1, and oe infinitely many times in the
disk Izl < 1. On the other hand, it does not assume these three values anywhere
in that disk. With regard to the points of the circle I zl = 1, these are all singular
points of the function µ(z) because an arbitrary neighborhood of each such point
contains infinitely many triangles of the modular grid and hence µ(z) assumes in
the subset of this neighborhood contained in I zl < 1 all values other than 0, 1,
and °°. Consequently, µ (z) cannot be extended outside the disk I zl < 1 and this
disk constitutes its entire domain of definition. In this case, we say that the
circle Izl = I is the natural boundary for µ(z). The inverse function A((), de-
fined by any element, can be extended to the (-plane along an arbitrary path that
does not pass through 0, 1, or oo. Here, IA(t) < 1 everywhere, though A(C) is
obviously a multiple-valued function.
The function µ(z) is called a modular function and the Riemann surface onto
which it maps the disk I zl < 1 bijectively is called a modular Riemann surface.
This name is due to the connection between µ(z) and certain quantities encoun-
tered in the theory of elliptic functions and called moduli.
The modular function µ(z) possesses the remarkable property of invariance
under a certain group of fractional-linear transformations of the argument. Specif-
fically, fractional-linear transformations composed of an even number of inversions
of the type encountered above constitute a group of transformations of the argu-
ment under which µ(z) does not change its values. Single-valued analytic func-
tions that remain unchanged under a certain group of fractional-linear transforma-
tions of the argument are called automorphic functions, Examples of automorphic
functions with infinite groups are trigonometric and elliptic functions. Next to
elliptic functions, a modular function is the simplest nonelementary example of an
§6. MODULAR AND AUTOMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 65
automorphic function with an infinite group. We obtain other very simple automor-
phic functions if we consider a mapping onto the halfplan e ` (C) > 0 of a domain
B contained in the disk Izl < 1, where B is an arbitrary circular triangle all sides
of which are orthogonal to the circle I zI = 1 and all interior angles of which are
nonzero. If the interior angles of this triangle have values it/ml, rr/m2, an d
rr/m3, where ml, m2, and m3 are positive integers, then, just as in the case of
modular functions, the function C _ 0 (z) , which maps the domain B univalently
onto the halfplane ` (C) > 0, can be extended to the entire disk I zl < 1. This extension
is regular in I zl < 1 except at points that are mapped into - and are poles of 0(z), and
it maps the disk IzJ < 1 onto a many-sheeted Riemann surface lying over the entire C-
plane. To prove the extendability of 0(z) to the entire disk I z I < 1, let us prove first that
the vertices of the triangular grid, all of which now lie in the disk I zI < 1, have
no cluster points inside the disk Iz) < 1 (see Figure 7). Let us suppose, to the
contrary, that zo is a cluster point of the set of vertices of the grid and let {zk i,
Figure 7
for k = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of distinct vertices of the grid that con-
verges to z0. Since these points zk are vertices of triangles Ak, for k = 1,
2, .. , obtained from B by an even number of inversions, that is, by certain
fractional-linear transformations z ' = Tk(z) , where k = 1 , 2, , of the disk
IzI < 1 into itself included in the group of transformations that leave the function
S6(z) invariant, it will be sufficient to show that the functions Tk(z) map the ver-
tices of the domain B into a set of points that has no cluster points in I zI < 1.
We may assume that the zk are such that the triangular grids with vertices at the
points zk for different values of k have no points in common, since otherwise we
could shift to a subsequence of the sequence {zk { for which this would be the
66 If. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
case. Let a denote one of the vertices of the domain B and suppose that the
disk I z - al < p, p > 0, lies entirely in a domain composed of triangles of the
grid with vertices at a. The functions z ' = Tn(z), n = 1, 2, . . , map this disk
onto disjoint disks Kn contained in I zI < 1. Since the functions
7ID- T. (a+pz)-Ta (a) =.Z-+- .. .

pTn (a)
are univalent in Izl < 1, the disk Iwl < % lies entirely in domains onto which
these functions map the disk I zl < 1. This means that, for each n, the disks of
radius not less than I Tn(a)/4I p lie in Kn. Since these disks are disjoint and are
contained in I z'I < 1, the sum of their areas is finite and, consequently, the
series 10=1I Tn (a)I 2 converges. Then Tn(a) -. 0 as n -. 00. If a = T (a), the
n n
function z' = T. (z) is obviously obtained from the equation
Z' -an èten Z-a
1 - anz' 1 - az '
where a n is a real constant. Therefore
Tn (a) eian
1
so that 1 and --. 1 as n --+ oo. This proves that the sequence lan I has no cluster
points in I zl < 1. The situation is analogous with the remaining vertices of the
domain B. Since each of the points zk is the image of a vertex of the triangle B
under one of the functions z' = Tn(z), it follows that the sequence lzk l also has
no cluster points in I z I < 1.
Let us show now that any point z in the disk I z( < 1 belongs to one of the
triangles of the grid or lies on its boundary. Let us suppose the opposite, that is,
that there exists a point z in the disk Iz1I < 1 that does not belong to any tri-
1
angle of the grid. Let us draw a line segment from zi to some point of the domain
B. We conclude that this segment contains points of an infinite set of triangles of
the grid since it would otherwise be possible to get from B to zI by means of a
finite number of inversions and the point zi would belong to some triangle of the
grid. From this infinite set of triangles, we choose a sequence of triangles such
that the sequences of their vertices converge to limits a, /3 and y, which must
necessarily lie on the circle I zl = 1. If all three points a, 8, and y are distinct,
the sequence of the triangles themselves must converge to a circular triangle with
vertices a, 0, and y and with sides orthogonal to I zl = 1, that is, to a triangle
§7. NORMAL FAMILIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 67
with zero angles, which is impossible. On the other hand, if only two of the points
a, 0, and y are distinct, the sequence of these triangles converges to some arc
of a circle orthogonal to the circle I z+ = 1, which again is impossible. Finally,
if a, 0, and y coincide, the triangles must be constricted to a point. But this
too is impossible since all these triangles contain points of the segment joining
z 1 with some point of the domain B. This contradiction shows that the triangular
grid entirely covers the disk I zl < 1.
§7. Normal families of analytic functions. Applications

The results obtained above on conformal mapping owe their generality in
many ways to the principle of condensation of analytic functions. But these re-
sults in turn lead to considerable further development of questions on the con-
vergence of analytic functions. To show this, we introduce the concept, proposed
by Montel, of a normal family of analytic functions (cf. Montel [1936]).
An infinite family Yk = If (z)f of functions that are regular in a domain B is
said to be normal in B if every sequence of functions belonging to that family
has a subsequence that converges uniformly inside B to a regular function or to
m. A family is said to be normal at a point z0 E B if it is normal in some neigh-
borhood of z0.
If a family 911 = jf(z)} is normal in a domain B, it is obviously normal at each
point z0 in B. Let us prove the opposite, namely that if a family 9R = If(z)1 of
functions that are regular in B is normal at each point z0 E B, it is normal in the
domain B. We may assume that B does not include DC. Let us take the set of all
points of the domain B with rational coordinates and arrange it in a sequence
Irk j, k= 1, 2, . , and let us denote by Pk the radius of the largest disk with
center at rk in which the family 911 is normal. One can easily see that the sub-
sequence {p,, k } can converge to 0 only when the corresponding points cluster
r"k
only on the boundary of B. Now, let (ff(z)I, n = 1, 2, - , denote an arbitrary se-
quence of functions of the family R. Since 911 is normal in the disk Iz - r11 < p1,
the sequence jfn(z)j has a subsequence {fR 1(z)j that converges uniformly in
Iz - r1I < p1/2 to a regular function or to oo. Furthermore, the sequence (f 1(z)}
in turn has a subsequence jf2(z) j that converges uniformly in I z - r21 < p2/2 to
a regular function or to w. If we continue the process indefinitely, the diagonal
sequence (fR R(z)1, n = 1, 2, , converges in the entire domain B to a regular
function or to - and the convergence is uniform in each of the disks Iz - rkl <
Pk/2, k = 1, 2,. .. Let us show that it also converges uniformly in B. If E is a
closed set contained in B, it is entirely covered by the disks 1z - rk I <

pk/2. By the Heine-Borel theorem, we can choose a finite set of these
disks that provide the same covering. But the sequence E f,, n(z)1 con-
verges uniformly in each of these disks. Consequently, it also converges uni-
formly on the closed set consisting of points of all these disks and, in particular,
on E. This proves the assertion.
If all functions of a family 9 that is normal in a domain B are bounded at
a single point z0 E B, they are uniformly bounded inside B. This is true be-
cause all convergent sequences of functions belonging to 9 can converge only
to regular functions, and then the assertion follows according to the condensation
principle stated at the end of §2 of Chapter I.
Let us now give some tests for the normality of a family.
Theorem 1 (fundamental test for normality (Montel)). 1) If a family l of func-
tions that are regular in a domain B is such that there exist two distinct values
a and b which no function of the family assumes anywhere in B, then 9 is
normal in B.
Proof. We may assume that a = 0 and b = 1 since, otherwise, we could con-
sider not the family 1 _ {f(z)I but the family 1(f(z) - a)/(b - a) I the normality of
which would imply the normality of R. Furthermore, it will be sufficient to prove
the theorem for the case in which B is a disk because, by virtue of what was
said above, we need only show the normality of l at each point of the domain B.
Thus, let us suppose that the domain B is a disk and that the functions
f(z) E R do not assume the values zero and 1 in B. Let w = X(C) denote the
function defined in §6 that maps the halfplane ) (C) > 0 onto a regular circular
triangle with zero angles inscribed in the circle I zl = 1. The composite functions
)f(z) = X (f(z)) , where f(z) E 9, can be extended to B along an arbitrary path
since the only singular points of the function X(0 are 0, 1, and ac and f(z)
does not assume any of these values in B. Consequently, the functions of are
regular in B and they satisfy in B the inequality I0/z)1 < 1. They do depend,
however, on the choice of branch of the multiple-valued function X(C). There-
fore, let us normalize Of (z) in such a way that the point Of (ZO) will, for given
z0 E B and an arbitrary function f(z) E fit, lie in the basic (regular) circular
1) Mantel [19271.
triangle or in one of the adjacent triangles. We apply to the functions 0 f(z) the
principle of condensation of analytic functions.
Now consider an arbitrary sequence [fn(z)j of functions fn(z) E R. Let us
look first at the case when the set of numbers fn(zo) has a cluster point a other
than 0, -1, or e. Let jfn,(z)I denote a subsequence of the functions fn(z) such
that fn, (zo) --, a as n' -. -. The sequence (difn (z)), where 0fn, (z) = X(fn,)) has a sub-
sequence {(kfnk (z)) that converges uniformly inside B to a regular function O(z).
We have I(k(z)I < 1 in B. Here, equality cannot hold at any point of the domain
B because we would then have O(z) = const = e" Y and, in particular, O(z0) = e`y,
that is, I.0 fn (z0)l ---+ 1, which in turn can be the case only if [fnk(z0)j converges
k
to 0 or I or 00. Thus, I¢i(z)I < 1 in B. Now, let E denote an arbitrary closed
subset of B. On this set, JO(z)1 <q, where q < 1. Let q' denote a number such
that g <q ' < 1. By virtue of the uniform convergence of the sequence 10 fnk(z)I
on E, there exists a positive number K such that, for k > K, we have
,cf (z) - O(z)1 <q' -q on E. Consequently, for k > K and z E E, we have
nk
IOfn WI <q'. But the function C= p(w) inverse to w = X(C) is regular in
k
Iwi < 1. Consequently, µ(w) is bounded for Iwi <q'; let us say ,(A(w)l <M.
Therefore, for k> K, we have IFL(X(f,, (z)) I <M on E; that is, I fnk(z)I <M.
This proves the uniform boundedness of the functions fnk(z) in the interior of B.
But now we can choose from the sequence If W I a new subsequence that con-
nk
verges uniformly in the interior of B to a regular function. Thus, in the present
case, we have succeeded in choosing from the sequence i fn(z) f a subsequence
that converges uniformly in the interior of B to a regular function.
Now, let us look at the case in which the sequence ifn(z0)I has no cluster
points other than 0, 1 and 00. Then, if 1 is a cluster point of the sequence, let
us consider a sequence of functions Fn(z) = fn (z) defined (by virtue of the
double value of the radical) in such a way that Fn(zo) *-1 as n --* oo. The
functions Fn(z) are regular in B and they do not assume in B the values 0 and
1. Consequently, they come under the case just considered with a = -1. There-
fore, the sequence IFn(z)) contains a subsequence (Fnk (z)I that converges uni-
formly in the interior of B to a regular function F(z). But then the sequence of
the functions [Fnk(z)]2 = fnk(z) also converges uniformly in the interior of B to
a regular function. Furthermore, if 0 is a cluster point of the set of numbers
fn(zo), then the functions Fn(z) = 1 - fn(z), which are regular in B, do not
assume in B the values 0 and 1, and the limit of the sequence of their values
at the point z0 is the number 1. Consequently, these functions come under the
case considered above, and we can choose from their sequence a subsequence
}Fn (z)} that converges uniformly in the interior of B to a regular function. The
k
same is true of the sequence of the functions fnk(z). Finally, if oo is the only
cluster point of the set of numbers fn(z), then the functions Fn(z) = 1/fn(z) are
regular in B, they do not assume in B the values 0 and 1, and the sequence of their
values at the point zo approaches zero. Consequently, the sequence of these
functions contains a subsequence }Fnk (z)} that converges uniformly in the in-
terior of B to a regular function F(z). Furthermore, F(zo) = 0. It follows that
the function F(z) is identically equal to zero because otherwise, just as in the
proof of Theorem 2 of §1 of Chapter I, we could show on the basis of Rouche's
theorem that all the functions Fnk(z) beginning with some n have zeros in an
arbitrary neighborhood of the point zo, which is impossible. Consequently,
fnk(z) -+ oo uniformly in the interior of B; that is, }fnk(z)} is the desired subse-
quence of the functions fn(z). This completes the proof of the fundamental
normality test.
Theorem 2 (generalized normality test).') Let -9 denote a family of func-
P
tions f(z) that are regular in a domain B. Suppose that there exist two distinct
finite numbers a and b such that not a single function in the family 111 assumes
the value a anywhere in B and no single function in t assumes the value b at
more than p points in B. Then 2 is normal in B.
Proof. Again, we may assume that the numbers a and b are 0 and 1. Let
I nf (z)} denote an arbitrary sequence of functions belonging to l P . Consider the
functions gn(z) = P+1 fn (z) with arbitrary choice of value of the radicals. These
functions are regular in B and do not vanish anywhere in B. Let ql, 'q2, ... ,
. . , ?P+1 denote the different values of the (p + 1) st root of unity. Then none
of the functions gn(z) assume any of these values in B because otherwise some
of the functions fn(z) would assume the value 1 at more than p points of the do-
main B. Suppose that gn(z) 'qnz in B. The functions h(z) = gn(z)/><,Rn, which
n
are regular in B, do not assume in B the values 0 and 1. Consequently, in accord-
ance with the fundamental normality test, the sequence }hn(z) } contains a sub-
sequence {hnk(z)} that converges uniformly in the interior of B to a regular
function or to o. The corresponding sequence } fnk(z) } also converges uniformly
1) Montel [1927].
in the interior of B to a regular function or to oo. This completes the proof of the
generalized normality test.
These two normality tests have a number of remarkable applications in ques-
tions regarding the behavior of analytic functions in a neighborhood of essential
singularities and in covering questions.
We present some of these applications.
Theorem 3.1) Let z = 0 denote an essential singularity of the function f(z).
Then the sequence lfn(z)I, where fn(z) = f(z/2"), for n = 1, 2, . , is not a
normal family in any neighborhood of z = 0 or even at the point z = 0 itself.
Proof. Let us take an arbitrary domain 0 < IzI < c in which f (z) is regular,
and let us suppose that the functions fn(z) = f(z/2") constitute a normal family
in that domain. If {fn(z) } contains a subsequence (fnk(z) I , for k = 1 , 2, . , that
converges uniformly inside the domain 0 < I zI < c to a regular function, then the
functions fnk(z) are uniformly bounded inside that domain and, in particular, on
the circle Izj = c/2. Suppose, for example, that I fnk(z)I < M on IzI = c/2. But the
functions fnk(z) assume on IzI =c/2 the same values as f(z) on IzI =E/2"k+1
n+k1+1
Consequently, the inequality I f(z)I <M holds on all the circles IzI = /2 1 ;
hence, it holds between them, that is, in the entire domain 0 < I zI < c/2 , and
this is impossible for the essential singularity z = 0. On the other hand, if all
convergent subsequences of ifn(z)l converge only to D, let us show that the point
z = 0 is not a cluster point of the zeros of the function f(z). Let us suppose that,
to the contrary, for any c > 0, there exists a sequence of distinct numbers zk
such that 0 < I zk I < c/2 and f(zk) = 0 for all k = 1, 2, . We may assume that
nk,
zk = zk %2 where c/4 < I zk I < c/2. The sequence {fnk(z) I cannot have a sub-
sequence that converges in 0 < IzI < c to oc since there are no zeros in the an-
nulus c/4 < I zI < c/2. Consequently, a convergent subsequence of this function,
which is also a subsequence of the sequence {fn(z)1, converges to a regular func-
tion and this in turn contradicts our assumption. Therefore, the functions (b n(z) _
l/fn(z) are, beginning with some n, regular in the domain 0 < I zl <,E , and the
subsequences {gnk(z)I converge to the identically-zero function. This implies,
as above, that the function O(z) = l/f(z) , 0 as z 0, so that f(z)
which is impossible. This completes the proof of the theorem.
1) Montel [1927].
72 R. CONFORMAL MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
Two other theorems are consequences of this one:

Theorem 4 (Picard). If zo is an essential singularity of a function f(z),
then f(z) assumes in an arbitrary neighborhood of zo all finite complex values
with one possible exception. 1)
Proof. Let us assume that zo = 0. Suppose that there exist two finite num-
bers a and b and a neighborhood of zero in which f(z) does not assume either
the value a or the value b. Then the functions fn(z) = f(z/2n), n = 1, 2,. , -
also do not assume the values a and b in that neighborhood. Consequently, they
constitute a normal family, which, by Theorem 3, is impossible.
Theorem 5.2) Let zo denote an essential singularity of the function f(z).
Then, there exists a ray 1 issuing from zo such that, for every neighborhood of
the point zo and every sector, with vertex at zo that is bisected by 1, the func-
tion f(z) assumes all finite values with one possible exception in the portion of
that neighborhood lying in that sector.
Proof. Again we can assume that zo = 0. Let I zj <r denote the given neigh-
borhood in which f(z) is regular except at z = 0. Since the family 9R of functions
fn(z) = f (z/2n), n = 1, 2, , is not normal in the domain 0 < I zI < e, there exists
a point z1 in the domain 0 < I z1I <e at which it is not normal. The ray 1 pass-
ing through z1 will meet the requirements of the theorem. To show this, let us
take an arbitrarily small angle with vertex at z = 0 and bisector I and let us
take a neighborhood U21 of the point z1 that lies entirely in that angle and in
the domain 0 < IzI <r. Since ) is nonnormal in UZ1, it follows that, for every
finite number a, with one possible exception, among the functions fn(z) there is
a function fn,(z) that assumes the value a in U. But fn, (z) assumes in Uz1
the same values as does f(z) in the disk obtained from 1
by means of the sim-
U.-
ilarity transformation z' = z/2n'. Since this disk is contained in the disk I zI < e
and in the angle indicated above, f(z) assumes the value a in their intersection.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
Let us now turn to the covering theorems. In §4, we proved Koebe's covering
theorem, which asserts that, if a function f(z) = z + c2z2 + is regular and
univalent in I zI < 1, then the image of the disk I zI < 1 under this function com-
pletely covers the disk JwI < 1; that is, the disk is one and the same for all
1) That there can exist one finite value never assumed by f(z) is illustrated by the
function f(Y) = e1/ z, which has a singularity at z = 0 and yet f(z) /0 for z 0.
2) Julia [19241.
functions of this kind. The corresponding assertion for the entire class of func-
tions f(z) = z + c2z2 + that are regular in I zl < 1 is not valid; that is, we
cannot exhibit a disk of positive radius with center at the origin that is entirely
covered by the image of the disk I zj < 1 under the mapping of each such function
because, for example, the function
f(z)=l-(l-z)R
n
=z+c$ z$-}-...
is regular in I zj < 1 for arbitrary given n 0 but it does not assume in I zl < 1
the value 1/n, which can be made arbitrarily close to zero for n sufficiently
great. On the other hand, we do have the following covering theorems:
Theorem 6.1) For the family of all functions w = f(z) = z + c2z2 + that
are regular in Izj < 1 and assume the value 0 at no more than p points of the
disk I zj < 1, there exists a p > 0 such that the image of the disk I zj < 1 under
an arbitrary function of the family completely covers the disk JwI < p.
Proof. Suppose that no p > 0 with the property described in the theorem
exists. Then there must exist a sequence of numbers an that approaches 0 as
n and a sequence of functions fn(z), for n = 1, 2, , of the family in ques-.
.lion such that, for every n, fn(z) 3L an. The functions on(z) = fn(z)/an, for n =
1 , 2, ... , constitute in i zj < 1 a family of functions that do not assume the value
1 at all and do not assume the value zero at more than p points of the disk Izl < I.
Consequently, in accordance with the generalized normality test, this family is
normal in I zI < 1. Since n(0) = 0, it is also uniformly bounded in the interior of
the disk Izj < 1. Let {onk(z)} denote a subsequence that converges uniformly in
the interior of the disk jzi < I to a regular function (k(z). Then, 9 nk ' (0) _
1/ank which contradicts the fact that ak -. 0. This completes the
proof of the theorem. .
Theorem 7.2) For arbitrary c in the open interval (0, 21r), there exists a
pF > 0 such that the image of the disk I zj < 1 under any function w = f(z) = z +
c2z2 + that is regular in j zl < 1 covers some circular sector of radius pE with
center at z = 0 and with central angle 2rr - e.
1) Fekete [1925]. For p = 1, the theorem was proved by Caratheodory with an indica-
tion of the best value for P. For more on this, cf. end of §1, Chapter III.
2) Valiron [1927]. Valiron proved only the existence of p . Bermant and Lavrent' ev
[1935] found by a different procedure the best values for pE depending on E. This value is
given in terms of an extremum of an expression consisting of a function inverse to the
modular function.
Proof. Obviously, we may assume that c < n. Suppose that no pE > 0 with
the property described in the theorem exists. Then there exist number sequences
{an I and ((3n ( that approach zero as n -+ oo such that the difference On =
argon - arg an lies, for each n, between c and it and a sequence of functions
fn(z) = z + . , for n = 1, 2, ... , that are regular in I zI < 1 and such that, for
every n = 1 , 2, .. and every z in I z+ < 1, we have fn(z) L an and fn(z) An . if
On < n/2, then, by dropping a perpendicular from the point an to the line segment
connecting the points 0 and fan, we see that lien - and is greater than the
length of that perpendicular, which is equal to I an' sin (S and therefore not less
than Ianl sin a. Consequently, we have INn - ani > Ianl sin c; that is,
Ian/( fan - an)I < 1/sin E. On the other hand, if On > n/2, it follows from this
same construction that Ion - an' > Ianl. Consequently, we again have
an/((3n - an)I < 1 < 1/slot. Let us now consider the functions on(z) _
[f(z) - an] /(on - an), where n = 1, 2,.... These functions do not assume the
values 0 and 1 in the disk IzI < 1. Consequently, they constitute a normal family.
Furthermore, the numbers On(o) _ -an/((n - an) are bounded. This means that
the family is uniformly bounded in the interior of the disk IzI < 1. Let 10nk(z)
denote a subsequence that converges uniformly in the interior of the disk I zI < 1
to a regular function O(z). Since On k(0) --. 0'(0), it follows that 1,(nk ark)
-
q'(0), which is impossible since ark and (ink approach zero. This completes
the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 8.1) Let K denote an annulus R1 < IwI < R2 and let p denote a
positive number. Then, there exists a positive number p such that the image of
the disk IzI < 1 under each of the functions w = f (z) = z + c2z2 + that is
regular in IzI < 1 either covers the disk IwI < p or assumes every value w in
the annulus K at no fewer than p points of the disk IzI < 1.
Proof. Let us suppose that the theorem is not true. Then, there exist se-
quences IanI and tonI such that an --, 0 as n - and INnI belongs, for each
n, to the interval (R1, R2) and a sequence ifn(z)l of functions fn( z) = z + - .
that are regular in I zI < 1 such that, for every z in IzI < 1, we have fn(z) # an
for every n and fn(z) = An for no more than p - 1 values of z. But the functions
On(z) = [fn(z) - a]/((3n - an) do not assume the value 0 in IzI < 1 and they
assume the value 1 in that disk at no more than p - 1 points. Consequently,
1) Montel [1933].
these functions constitute a normal family in I zj < 1. Since 0n(0) t

- an/(,8n - an) , 0 as n -+ or they are uniformly bounded in the disk zl < 1.
It follows that
I n(z){ contains a subsequence tonk(z)I that converges uniformly
in the interior the disk Izl < 1 to a regular function O(z) such that '(0) = 0.
The function o(z) must be identically equal to zero because otherwise, we could
show, by using Rouche's theorem, that the functions on (z) have, from some k
k
on, zeros in I zj < 1, which, however, is not the case. Consequently, 0' k(0) =
an) --. 0, which is impossible. Thus, the positive number p mentioned
in the theorem must exist, and the theorem is proved.
As a consequence of this theorem, we obtain
Theorem 9. 1) There exists a positive number p such that every function
f(z) = z + cZz2 + that is regular in I zj < 1 covers entirely some neighborhood
of radius no less than p with center at the origin.
I:urthermore, we have
Theorem 10. For the family of functions f (z) =.z + c2z2 + . . . that are
regular in Izl < 1 and that do not assume in that disk agiven finite nonzero value
a, there exists a positive number p such that the disk I zI < p is completely
covered by the image of the disk Izl < 1 under an arbitrary function in the family.
This theorem also follows from Theorem 8 if we take for K an annulus con-
taining the point a. 2)
1) Landau [1922].
2) A more profound study of the modular function led Bermant [1944] to a number of
generalizations and sharpenings of Theorems B-10.
CHAPTER III
REALIZATION OF CONFORMAL MAPPING OF

SIMPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
§1. Conformal mapping of domains bounded by rectilinear

and circular polygons
Although in Riemann's theorem we had a geometrical principle for forming
analytic functions (specifically, to every simply connected domain was assigned
a univalent function mapping that domain onto some canonical domain), neither in
this principle nor in the rest of Chapter I, did we touch on the question of more or
less explicit construction of these functions. In the present chapter, we shall
look at some questions of this nature.
Let us now look at domains of certain particular forms, for example, domains
bounded by rectilinear or circular polygons for which we can examine the analytic
nature of the mapping functions rather extensively and can obtain appropriate
explicit analytic expressions for them. The basic tool for studying these functions
in the special cases mentioned is the principle of symmetry.
Domains bounded by rectilinear polygons. Assuming that this case is already
familiar to the reader, we confine ourselves to formulating the generalized condi-
tions under which the final results hold and to deriving the results themselves.
Specifically, suppose that a simply connected domain B in the z-plane does not
contain o and is bounded by a rectilinear n-sided polygon with vertices at the
points A1, A2, , A. Suppose that the angles at these vertices are respectively
aa.l, rra2, . , Iran. Let us regard these vertices as accessible boundary points
of a domain B. Therefore, if several angular boundary points fall at a certain
point in the z-plane, there will be just as many vertices. We shall also consider
the case when one or several vertices lie at cc . Here, if the sides of the corre-
76
§1. DOMAINS BOUNDED BY POLYGONS 77
sponding angle are parallel, we assume the value of the interior angle to be 0. On
the other hand, if the sides diverge at a vertex Ak = oc but their extensions meet
at a finite point A k forming an angle of rrak directed toward the vertex A k, we
take nak = -nak . With these conventions, ak can also assume values from - 2
to + 2.
Of course, the cases ak = 2, - 1, and - 2 should be understood as limiting
cases.
Under these conditions, if the domain B is mapped univalently onto the half-
plane -`- (C) > 0 and if points ak, k = 1, 2, - - , n, on the real axis of the C_
Plane are mapped onto the vertices Ak , then, in the case in which these ak are
all finite, we can show by the reasoning usually employed herel) that the inverse
function z = f(c) is determined by the Schwarz-Christoffel formula
n
.f lt) = C J rl (C - ak)ak dC + C; (1)
k=1
where C and C' are constants. In the case in which one of the vertices, let us
say Ako, is mapped by this inverse mapping into the same formula holds for
f(O except that now, the product constituting the integrand is over all k = 1,
2, - , n excluding k = ko. Of course, formula (1) remains valid when the domain
B is mapped onto the disk I zl < 1. In this case, the points ak, the images of the
vertices Ak , are points on the circle C1 = 1.
We note that, in accordance with Theorem 6 of §3, Chapter II, we can choose
only three of the points ak arbitrarily. The remaining points ak and also the
constants C and C' are uniquely determined by the domain. 2) The absence of a
general method for determining the remaining unknown constants decreases the
practical significance of the Schwarz-Christoffel formula. Furthermore, it is only
n exceptional cases that we can evaluate the integral (1) in closed form in terms
k,of elementary functions. We cite as verysimple examples of the application of
;formula (1):
(a) Suppose that B is the interior of a regular n-sided polygon with center at
z = 0 and with a vertex at z = a > 0. Suppose that z = f (C) is a function mapping
the disk IC1 < 1 onto the domain B. Suppose that f(0) = 0 and f'(0) > 0. Then,
1) Of course, we use here the results established in Chapter II on the existence of

such an inverse function and its behavior on the boundary.
2) (We have Kufarev's method [1947b] for determining the points ak, which is con-
venient in certain cases.)
78 III. REALIZATION OF CONFORMAL MAPPING
the constants ak are easily determined from symmetry conditions. Specifically,

we have ak = e2nkc/n for k = 0, 1, , n - 1. From (1), we obtain
C
f G) = C -dC
v)2/41 (2)
where C is found from the condition f (1) = a.

(b) Suppose that the domain B is the z-plane with cuts along the rays
issuing from the points ae2rrkt/n for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, where a is a positive
number, in the direction opposite to the point z = 0. Suppose that z = f(C) is a
function mapping the disk I CI < 1 onto the domain B and that f(0) = 0 and
f'(0) > 0. Then, we can again determine the constants ak from symmetry condi-
tions. From (1) we have
fly)=C -
0(l-{- )i 2
n
dC= (3)
and C=a
Above, we have assumed that the domain B does not include oo. If the
domain B bounded by an n-sided polygon does include 00, then, for the function
z= that maps the disk ICI < 1 onto B in such a way that f(0) we
obtain the formula
with analogous values of the constants ak . Here, the rrak are the values of the
interior angles (with respect to the domain B).
Domains bounded by circular polygons. Now, let B denote a simply connected
domain in the z-plane with boundary consisting of a finite number n of circular
arcs or straight line segments. In the latter case, the segments can be regarded
as degenerate circular arcs. We denote the endpoints of the arcs, that is, the
vertices of the polygonal domain, by A1, A2, , An and we denote the values of
the interior angles (with respect to B) at these vertices by tra 1, ,rat, ... , nan.
We may assume that the domain B is bounded. We can always arrange for this to
be the case by means of a suitable fractional-linear transformation.
The domain B can be mapped conformally onto the disk ICI < 1, Let us
examine in detail the function z = f(0) inverse to one of the mapping functions.
We denote by ak, k = 1, , n, points on the circle I CI = 1 corresponding to the

vertices A k, k = 1, , n. The function f (C) is regular in the open disk C l < I
and continuous on the closed disk I CI _< 1. On an arbitrary arc y of the circle
I CI = 1, the values that this function assumes between adjacent points ak all lie
on some circular arc. Consequently, in accordance with the generalized symmetry
principle, the function f(O can be extended past y into the domain ICI>1 in
such a way that f(C) is regular (with nonzero derivative) on y.
Now, let us look at the expression
(4)
- f' (C) 21f
which is known as the Schwarz invariant or the Schwarzian. Obviously, it is a
regular function in I CI < 1 and also can be extended past an arbitrary arc y of
the type described above into ICI > 1. Furthermore, one can easily show that it
possesses the important property of invariance under an arbitrary fractional-linear
transformation of the function f that is, if
f (C) + d
then If,, 6=1f, C}.
Let us examine the behavior of If, Ci at the points ak, k = 1, 2, - , n. Let
us suppose first that the numbers ak do not include the numbers 0, 1, 2 and that
no circular arc of the boundary degenerates into a straight line segment. The
circles on which the boundary arcs lie, forming angles with vertex Ak, have a
second point of intersection Ak. The function t = ((z - Ak)/(z - maps
.the part of a neighborhood of the point Ak that lies in B onto the part of a neigh-
borhood of the point t = 0 in the t-plane that lies to one side of a line passing
through t = 0. According to the symmetry principle, the function ((f(O - Ak)/
ak
Ak))1 is therefore extendable from the part of the neighborhood of
the point ak lying in ICI < 1 to the part of the neighborhood lying in S I > I.
In particular, it is regular at the point ak itself and has a nonzero derivative at
that point. Consequently,in a neighborhood of J= ak, we have
rf (C) - Ak ak
f(C)-Ak) - b1 (C - ak) + ... , bl # 0,
from which we get
f (C) -AA
(C - ak)ak (Cl C1 # 0.
f (C) -Ak -
If we set up the expression (4) for this last function and keep in mind that it
is equal to (f, Ji we get, after some simple calculations, the expansion in aneigh-
borhood of eJ = ak :
(1 -a"t) {fC
if, C}=
1 k (5)
+C-ak-}-...,
(C-ak)9
where Ck is an unknown constant. This expansion shows that If, C1 has second-
order poles at the points ak.1) Therefore, the function If, JJ, originally defined
in the disk ICI < 1 and then extended to the entire plane, represents a meromor-
phic function with poles only at the points ak . The principal parts are determined
at these poles from formula (5). The difference
n1 Ck
G) =V, C}- (C-ak)' +C-ak)
(6)
k-1
has no finite singular points at all. Let us examine its behavior at oo. Since a
suitably chosen function
A R)= f(C)+dEA const
is real on each of the arcs y considered above and since f 1(0) it follows
oo ,
from the symmetry principle that this function can be extended from the disk ICI < 1
to the domain ICI > 1 by taking f 1 (S) = f1 In particular, it is regular at
the point oe; that is, in a neighborhood of S = oo, it has an expansion
f, (C) _ co + C + ... ,
where c 1 0 (by virtue of the conformality of f 1(C) at the point = 0). But then,
the corresponding expansion for If, J) has the form
if, C}= i; -F-... (7)
This means that { f, I has a zero of at least fourth order at oo . But then the dif-
ference (6) has a zero at the point oo; that is, this difference is regular on the en-
tire plane including oo . Therefore, it is identically equal to zero, so that we have
the identity
1) We note that, if a finite point to, I to, > 1, is such that f(C o) = oo, then in a neigh-
borhood of t o we have f (C) = b_ 1/(C- C o) + bo + , b-1 ji 0 so that If, t l is regular at
t = t o.
1. DOMAINS BOUNDED BY POLYGONS 81
n ( _ a) C
2 k
!. (8)
k=I
Our assumption up to now has been that none of the ak is 0, 1, or 2 and
that there are no straight line segments on the boundary of the domain B. However,
if these assumptions are not satisfied, we can still show that (8) is valid by re-
placing the domain B with suitable circular domains and then using the theorem
on the convergence of univalent functions (Theorem 1, §5, Chapter II).
Thus, equation (8) is proved for an arbitrary domain bounded by a circular
polygon. It represents a third-order differential equation in f(C). Its right-hand
imember includes the unknown constants ak and Ck , for k = 1 , 2, , n. There
are certain relationships between these constants. Specifically, since If, C1 has
an expansion of the form (7) in a neighborhood of w, the coefficients of 1/c, 1/
and 1/C3 must be equal to 0 in the corresponding expansion of the right-hand
member of (8). This gives us the three conditions
21 Ck=0,
k=1
n
(1 - ak) +
yy
Ckak = 0, (9)
2
kt
n
k=1
n
2] (1 - ak)+ 2] Ckak=0,
k-1 k=1
that the constants ak and Ck must satisfy. Furthermore, it should be noted that
three of the constants ak can be chosen arbitrarily on C1 = 1 by virtue of Theo-
I
rem 6, §3, Chapter II. In the case of a circular triangle, this is sufficient to deter-
.mine all the constants ak and Ck .
Similarly we can also show that, when the domain B is mapped onto the
upper halfplane (c) > 0, the inverse function z = f(C) also satisfies the differ-
ential equation (8), where, this time, the ak are points on the real axis corre-
sponding to the vertices Ak. The only difference is that if one of the vertices
A k , let us say A k o, is mapped into oc, then the summation in (8) is over all k =
1, 2, , n excluding k = ko.
Now, let us look at the nature of the differential equation (8). Since it is a
third-order equation, its general solution has three arbitrary constants. On the
other hand, if f (C) is a particular solution of equation (8), then, obviously, the
82 Ill. REALIZATION OF CONFORMAL MAPPING
fraction (af, (C) + b)/(cf, (C) + d) which already contains three arbitrary constants
(a/c, b/c, and d/c), is also a solution. Consequently, this is the general solu-
tion of equation (8).
Although we need to know only one particular solution of equation (8) to find
the desired mapping, the finding of that one solution is difficult because of the
nonlinearity of the equation. However, the problem of solving equation (8) can be
reduced to solving a second-order linear equation, owing to a single remarkable
property of the function If, C1.
Let w 1 and w2 denote two linearly independent solutions of the linear dif-
ferential equation
w"-}-q(C)w0 (10)
with given q(t). It is easy to show that w1w2 - w2w1 = const = c (the left-hand
member is the Wronskian of the two solutions). Therefore, if we set ri w2/w 1,
we have
C
(C) =Vii, C} _ - 2V;
d,
dC
!-L
Wt
2q ()
It follows that the ratio of any two linearly independent solutions of equation (10)
is a solution of the equation
{,q, C} = 2q (C). (10')
This shows that, if we denote the right-hand member of equation (8) by R(C),
set q (C) = R(C)/2, and solve the differential equation (10) with this q (C), then
the ratio of the two linearly independent solutions yields a solution of equation
(8). 1) Equation (10) with this R(C) belongs to the most intensively studied class
of linear differential equations with variable coefficients, known as equations of
the Fuchsian type. However, the use of this advantage is made difficult by the
fact that we do not have a general method for determining the constants ak and Ck.
1) Also, equation (10' ) can be reduced to equation (10) in another way, specifically,
by remembering that
-2 12 (I )
and setting 1/\(-i' = w. Then, if w1 is a particular solution of equation (10), the corre-
sponding particular solution 711 of equation (10') is obtained from -1 = 1/w 1.
§ 1. DOMAINS BOUNDED BY POLYGONS 83
Example. In conclusion, we present a simple but important example when we

can make a complete determination of the mapping function. Suppose that we are
required to map the disk I C < 1 onto the domain B consisting of the interior of
an n-sided circular polygon with center at z = 0, with one vertex at the point
z = 1, and with all the interior angles equal to nq, where 0 < q < 2. Suppose
that the mapping function z = f(C) is normalized by the conditions f(0) = 0 and
f '(0) > 0. To do this, we consider a mapping of the sector I C1 < 1, 0 < arg C <
277/n onto the circular triangle bounded by the two straight line segments extend-
ing from the origin z = 0 to the points z = e2n`/n and the circular arc contained
in the boundary of the domain B. According to the symmetry principle, the func-
tion executing this mapping will provide the required mapping of the disk <1
onto the domain B. It maps the points a 2nkd", for k = 1, 2, , n, onto them-
selves so that ak = e for k = 1, 2, ' 's A. Furthermore, by virtue of the
>
uniqueness of the mapping, we have the functional equation f (e2ni/n y_

e 2nilnf(C) in JCJ < 1. We see from this equation that the expansion of f(C) in a
neighborhood of C= 0 is of the form
W
f(C)
I CkCnk+1,
= k=0 Ct > 0,
and that the expansion of If, iI is of the form

dkCnk
If, C} - i
k-1
On the other hand, since, in the present case,
n 2 (1 -ak)
q)2 dC
_d o 1
( - ak)' 2 =C - ak
k=1 k1
- - 2 (1 - q2) d
C Cn n-11
n
2 (1 - q2)
an-s02 (n Cn 1) Ci '1
it follows from (8) that the summation

A
Ck
C-ak
k=1
in that equation must include only terms with powers ok-2; that is, this sum
reduces to CCn-2/(0'" - 1). But If, J I has a zero of at least fourth order at 0 .
Therefore, C = -(n/2) (1 -JJ q2). Therefore, equation (8) takes the form
ifs C}= 2 ( l -q2) Pnn pl)s (11)

The problem of finding f thus reduces to solving the linear differential equa-
tion
w" + 4
(1 - q9) (ca- I )a w - 0. (12)
In this equation, we make the substitution
=V, '2=(En- 1)p v,

where p is a constant. We obtain
(E-1)9Ev"+2(E-1)(E(2p+1- n)-(1- n))v'
11
+(P (P- nE+P(n-1)-}-I 4q )v-0.

Let us choose p in such a way that the coefficient of v in (13) has a root
This yields p = (1 - q)/2. With this choice, equation (13) takes the form
(2 -q- n)-(1- n))v'
1--q 1-q- 1n )v=U

or, if we set
+ 2 ( 2
= 1-q , T- -n,
= 2 -n,
I-q I p
2
1
GE
1 (14)
it takes the form

W_ - 1) v"+(((Z+ (i+ 1) E - T) v'+aPv= 0. (15)
This is the familiar differential equation of Gauss. Solution of it with the aid of a
power series v = In' _o cn6n shows that it is satisfied by the so-called hypergeo-
metric series 1)
F(a, , T, E)=1+ 1a7 E+a(1 21T(T } 1)I)E9+ (16)
which converges in the disk IKj < 1 for all a and P and all y> 0. To obtain a
second solution of equation (15), we make the substitution v = eI-'Yvi. The re-
sulting equation can also be put in the form of the Gauss equation if we set
a- y + 1 = a', 13 _ y + 1 = 13' , and 2 - y = y'. Therefore, this equation is satisfied
by v1 = F(a , 13 ', y, ). Then we obtain for equation (15) the second solution
v-Et-1F(a-T+1, P-T+1, 2-7, E),
1) For more on the hypergeometric series, see, for example, Smimov [1953, p. 381
of English translation.
§ 1. DOMAINS BOUNDED BY POLYGONS 85
and this solution is, as one can easily see, linearly independent of (16) for 0 <
y < 1. Thus, we have for equation (15) the two linearly independent solutions
-q__ l 1-q 1- 1n'
2 n' 2 ' E
and
1-q 1- q
+n' +n1
1
1 E
( 2 2 )
Returning to the variables and w, we conclude that the function
f(C)=C F(1
-q--1
F
2
2
q+ n'
n
-t
2 q
1q
2
1+ n' sl
- -1n Cn ) (17)
is a solution of equation (11).

The geometric series in (17) can also be expressed in terms of definite inte-
grals. Consider the integral
-Et)_dt,
1=S0-1 (1 --t) 1(1
0
which converges for 13 > 0, y - 13 > 0, and < 1. Let us.expand the factor
(1 - et)-" in a binomial series and then integrate term-by-term. We obtain
J=
t
0
tP-1(1--t)-P-1
m
k=0
-a(- 1
1)
2 k
...(-a-k+1)
00
a(a+1)...(a+k-1)
X1)ktktkdt= 1.2...k
k=0
00
a(a+l)...(a+k-1)
X S tP+k 1(1 -t)1 P Idt.tk=1
J 1
0 k=0
X r(P+k)r(1r-p),k=r@)r (1-P) F(a
r(1+k) r(1)
And, consequently,
F
(a' R' T' ) r r (T) ) S tP-1(1 - t)1
0
P-1 (1 - U)" dt. (18)
Let us use this formula to transform the function (17). Then, for 0 < q < 1 and
t;'I < 1, we obtain
86 111. REALIZATION OF CONFORMAL MAPPING
1 q+1
2
(1 -t)
= q
2
1 1
n (1
q -1
2
I
n
Sl -Cnt) dt
f(C)=cC0
1 q+i 0-1 I .-1 1

(19)
2
(1 -t) it (I - tnt) 2 a dt
St
Since the desired mapping function satisfies the conditions `(0) = 0 and f(1) = 1,
it is obviously contained in formula (19) with c = 1. This is the final result.
Furthermore, by making the substitution r= (1 - t)/(1 - Jnt) in the integrals in
(19), we obtain another form of the function f (C) for real values C and hence for
all complex values of C in the disk I C1 < 1:
2
q 2 1 + n dc
S q+1
f(C)=C- q-1 1
2
(20)
2 ds
s q--1
((1_.C)(1-C"T)) 2
in which the dependence on n is simpler. We note that none of the integrals in
formulas (19) or (20) can be evaluated in closed form in terms of elementary func-
tions.
The most interesting case is that of q = 0. In this case, equation (20) becomes
1
tl/ndt
(1 -Cnt)
fn(C)=Co
1 - nds
- ! (21)
J
with f(i) now being denoted by fn
Let us point out some very important properties of the function (21) and of
its inverse /n 1 (z). On the basis of the same considerations as in §6 of Chapter
II, the function C= [n1(z), defined inside the n-sided polygon with zero angles,
can be extended to the entire disk z < 1. It represents in that disk a meromor-
phic function that assumes only values in the domain Bn, which is the z-plane
with the points ak = eZnk'/n, k = 1, 2, , n, deleted. More precisely, the
function J= `,',1(z) maps the disk Izl < 1 bijectively onto the many-sheeted
Riemann surface constructed from the interiors and exteriors of the circle I z I = 1
in a manner similar to the construction of the modular surface in §6 of Chapter II.
On the other hand, the function z = f (C) can be extended in B along an arbi-
trary path and it assumes, when this is done, only values in the disk I z I < 1.
Let us see what we get if we take the limit as n -.-, oe. The function
can, if we begin at the point C = 0 with an initial element of the form c C+ - ,
be extended along an arbitrary path in the cplane that does not pass through the
points 0, 1, or no. From formula (21), we have
. I n
T In dT
1
n
oS T(1--T)(1-CT) =C (1 + n) , (22)
LfR G1/n)]" = C
i l/n dc
T(1-T)(1-CT)
where
Jim n (t l1n - ti 11n) dT 2 log z dT
yT(I-T)(1-CT) 0
T(1-T)(1 -CT)
Jim An=
n ao n- ao 'In dT dt
(((\\\1'''\
T (1 - T) (1 - CT) o YL (1 - T) (1 - CT)
This limiting operation is uniform on an arbitrary finite chain of closed disks not
containing 0, 1, or oo . In view of this, formula ( 22) yields the results that the
function
1
S
2Iogzdi
z (1-T) (1 -Cz)
0
1
d2
f(C)= lim (23)

A- CO
being regular in the disk ICI < 1, can be extended from CI < 1 along an arbitrary
path in the C -plane that does not pass through 0, 1, or no and that the extended
function satisfies the inequality If(C)I < 1. Let us denote by B' the image of the
disk ICI < 1 under the mapping z = )'(C). This image is a domain in the disk
IzI < 1. Let us show that the inverse function C_ `-1 (z), which is necessarily
regular in B' , is regular in fact in the entire disk I z I < 1. To do this, let us
clarify the boundary of the domain B'. The function z = 1`n (C) maps the disk
88 111. REALIZATION OF CONFORMAL MAPPING
CI < 1 onto a domain one arc of the boundary of which is given by the equation
z - 1 - i tan (a/n)I = tan (a/n) with I z I < 1. Consequently, the function z =
fn (C I /n) maps the disk C I < I univalently onto a domain bounded by the curve
IT- 1 - i tan (a/n)I = tan (a/n) with I z I < 1. As we let n approach no, this
curve becomes the curve I log z - is I = a with I z I < 1, which is also the boundary
of the domain B. If we shift to the t-plane by setting t = log z, then B' is mapped
single-valuedly into a domain B" with boundary determined by the system of
equations I t - ink a, k = t 1, t 3, . - . with R (t) < 0, that is, into the left half-
plane with cuts along semicircles. The function t = log f (C), which is regular in
0 < I C1 < 1 maps the circle I CI = 1 onto the boundary of the domain B" in such a
way that an arbitrary continuous image of the circle with the point C = 1 excluded
is the boundary semicircle of the domain B". The inverse function C= f-I(er),
which is regular in B", is, by virtue of the symmetry principle, extendable, just
as in §6 of Chapter II, to the entire halfplane 9t (t) < 0. This shows that the func-
tion C= f -I (z) is regular in IzI < 1. Also, it follows from the extension process
that C = f (z); does not assume the value C = 1 in I z I < 1 and that it assumes
the value C = 0 only at z = 0. The function f (C), on the other hand, can, by be-
ginning with an element defined in a neighborhood of C= 0, be extended along an
arbitrary path that does not pass through the points 0, 1, and 00. But along a path
passing through C= 0, its extension through C= 0 is possible only by means of
an original element of the function. We easily obtain from (23) the expansion
932
f(t)=16+ +... (24)
in a neighborhood of C = 0.1)
The following is a simple application of this last function f(C) to one of the
covering questions considered in §7 of Chapter II. Suppose that the function
F(z) = z9 + c1Z9+I + , for q> 1, is regular in IzI <1 and that it does not
assume the value 0 in 0 < I z I < 1. Let c denote a number such that F(z) c
in IzI < 1. Then, the composite function 4(z) = f(F(z)/c) = z9/16c + can be
1) In (23), we need to make the substitution r = sin20 for 0 <q <a/2. Then calcu-
lation of the coefficients reduces to evaluation of elementary integrals and integrals that
reduce to the integral
a
a
logsinydcp-- z log 2.
0
§2. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS 89
extended in I zi < 1 along an arbitrary path. Therefore, it is regular in zJ < 1 and

,O(z)1 < 1 in Iz) < 1. But then, just as in the Schwarz lemma, we easily obtain
the result that 11/16cl < 1. From this we obtain the inequality I cl > 1/16 with
.equality holding only in F(z) = cf(el z1). This result, which is the analogue
of Koebe's covering theorem for nonunivalent functions, can be formulated as
Theorem 1.1) Suppose that the function F(z) = z9 + c lzq+l + , where
q > 1, is regular in the disk I zi < 1 and has no zeros in the domain 0 < I zI < 1.
Then the image of the disk Izi < 1 under the mapping t;'= F(z) completely covers
the disk IC1 < 1/16 but not always a greater disk with center at C = 0.
A more profound study of the function (21) leads to the following theorem on
the covering of segments:
Theorem 2.2) Suppose that the function F (z) = z q + . , for q > 1, is regular
in the disk Izi < 1. Then the image of that disk under the mapping = F(z) com-
pletely covers some segment of arbitrary prenamed slope that contains the point
= 0 and is of length no less than A = 8n2/F(%)4 = 0.45 - - . The number A
cannot be increased without additional restrictions on F W.
§2. Parametric representation of univalent functions

In the present section, we shall give a parametric representation exhibited by
Loewner for an important class of univalent functions.3) Thanks to this represen-
tation, we can find the complete solution of a number of extremal problems in the
theory of univalent functions. This we shall do in the following chapter.
Let B denote a simply connected domain in the w-plane including the point
w = 0 but not the point w = -a. Consider the set of domains obtained from B by
making a cut along any Jordan curve that is contained in B, that has one end
point on the boundary of B, and that does not pass through the point w = 0. Let
us call these domains the domains (s). If the domain B is unbounded (that is, if -0
is one of its boundary points), this cut can extend to 00 . Then, in contrast with
the preceding situation, we understand by "cut" a curve defined parametrically as
follows: w = w(t) for a < t < b, where w (t) is continuous in a < t < b, w (t) L
w (t") for a < t' < t < b, and w (t) oo as t b. One can easily show that it
1) Caratheodory [1907]; see also Goluzin [.1948].

2) Bermant [1944] and Goluzin [1948].
3) Loewner [1922]; see also Goluzin [1939d, 1949c].
is possible to approximate an arbitrary simply connected domain B' contained in

B and including the point w = 0 with domains (s) in the sense that a sequence of
functions w = f(z), f (0) = 0, f' (0) > 0 that map the disk Izi < 1 univalently onto
the approximating domains converges to a function mapping the domain I zI < 1
onto the domain B'. To see this, note that the domain B' can be approximated first
by domains bounded by Jordan curves contained in B by mapping the disk Izi < 1
onto B' and considering the circular images in B'. Assuming B' bounded by a
Jordan curve C contained in B, we connect the boundaries of the domains B and
B' by a straight line segment contained in B but lying entirely outside B'. We
continue along it from the boundary of B to a point c E C and then proceed from c
along the curve C to a variable point d. If we let d proceed around C until it
returns to the point c, then, in accordance with Theorem 1 of §5 of Chapter II,
the domains (s) so obtained approximate the domain B'. By applying a diagonal
process, we can obtain the existence of the required sequence of domains (s)
approximating an arbitrary domain B' C B including the point w = 0.
Now, suppose that we are given a domain (s) obtained from the domain B
by making a cut L. By shortening the cut L, beginning with the endpoint lying
in B, we obtain a family of simply connected domains BL depending on a real
parameter t that varies continuously in the interval 0 < t < to. The domain Bo
is the domain B with the complete cut L; Bto is the domain B without the cut;
and, for t' < t", the domain B,, is properly contained in Be,,. Let
za,=== g(z,t), g(0,t)-0, g' s(0,t)>0, 0<t<to,
denote a function that maps the domain I zI < 1 univalently onto the domain B,.
For every z in the disk I z I < 1, this function is a continuous function of t in
the interval 0 < t < to by virtue of the theorem on the convergence of univalent
functions. Therefore, if we set
g(z, t) = P (t) (z + a, (t)z'+ ...), (1)
in I z I < 1, the function 8(t) is a positive, strictly increasing, continuous func-
tion of t in the interval 0 < t < to. The strict monotonicity follows from the
Schwarz lemma as applied to the function c(z) = g-1(g(z, t'),t") for t' < t",
according to which 0' (0) < 1. The form of the parameter t is at our disposal.
Let us choose it in such a way that
P(t)=Pet in 0`t<ta, P=const,
which, on the basis of what has been said, is possible.

Along with the function g(z, t), we define the function
.f (z, t) _ g'-t (g (z, 0), t) = et (z + .. - ). (2)
Like the function g(z, t), the function f(z, t) is a continuous function of t in the
interval 0 < t < to. Furthermore, one can easily see that, for every t in the inter-
val 0 < t < to, the function w = f(z, t) maps the disk z I < 1 onto the disk
I
w I < 1 with a cut along a Jordan arc, that is, onto a domain that, with respect
to the disk I w I < 1, is a domain (s). Let us show that, for every z in the domain
z I < 1, the function f(z, t) for 0 < t < to, satisfies the following differential
equation, known as Loewner's equation:
Of _ {1 +kf
(3)
dt - -' 1 - kf'
where k = k(t) is a continuous complex function of t such that I k(t)I = 1. Then,

remembering that the equation g (f (z, t), t) = g (z, 0) implies (ag/af) (a flat) +
ag/at = 0 we see that the function g(z, t) satisfies, for all z in the disk IzI < 1
and all t in the interval 0 < t < to, a second equation of Loewner:
ag _ ag I + kz (4)
dt - az z 1 - kz'
To prove (3), consider the function
g'(g(z,et'-t"(z-- ...). (5)
For arbitrary t' and t" such that t' < t", this function maps the disk I zI < 1
univalently onto the disk IwI < 1 with a cut along a Jordan arc. Consequently,
for such t' and I", it is continuous in the disk I zI < 1.
Let us adopt the following notation: let k(t) denote the point on the circle
zI = 1 mapped by the function w = g(z, t) into that endpoint of the cut lying in
B. Let S,,,,,, denote the cut in the disk IwI < 1 obtained under the mapping of
the disk IzI < 1 by the function w = h(z, t', t') and let Bt, t denote the arc
on the circle IzI = 1 corresponding to it. Then, the mapping w = h(z, t', t") obvi-
ously maps the point h(t) into the endpoint of the cut S,,,t in IwI < 1, and the
point Mt") is the endpoint of the cut St, . on the circle IwI = 1.
It follows immediately from what has been said that
1) for fixed t' = t, the arc Bt , ,t is constricted to the point h(t) as t" --- t;
2) for fixed t" = t, the arc S, I, t is constricted to the point h (t) as t --a t.
Let us show that under both these limiting operations, the arcs Btu i and
St, it,, are constricted simultaneously to the point A(t). If we extend the function
h(z, tt") past the arc B:, N, complementary to Bt,,t. with respect to the
circle z I = 1 onto the domain Izl > 1, we see that the function w = h(z, t, t ")
maps the entire z-plane with a cut along the arc Bt, t onto the entire w-plane
with a cut along the arc St, t and along the arc S, ,tt symmetric to St , t about the
circle I w I = 1. Since one of the arcs Bt , , t and St #.t if U S, is constricted to the
point A(t) in both limiting operations, the other must also be constricted to the same
point. This is proved on the basis of the principle of condensation of analytic
functions and the fact that, if the z-plane with a single excluded point is mapped
univalently by means of a function w = 0(z), where ,(0) = 0 and 0`(0) = 1, then
O(z) = z. On the basis of what has been said, under both limiting operations, the
function h(z, t `, t") converges to z uniformly on each closed bounded subset of
the z-plane that does not include the point A(t). In particular, it follows that A(t)
is continuous throughout the interval 0 < t < to.
What we are concerned with at the moment is only that, under both limiting
operations, the arc Bt, t,, is constricted to the point A(t). If we denote the end-
points of this arc by eiaand a°Q, where a< < a+ 2rr, then the function
(z) = log h (z, f"
(D 0 (0) < 0, (6)
is regular in the open disk I z I < 1 and continuous in the closed disk Izl < 1 and
its real part is zero everywhere on the circle I z I = 1 except on the arc (a, 0), on
which it is negative. On the basis of what has been said, if we apply the Schwarz
formula to the function (6), we have in I z I < 1
h (z, t',
log 2n ( (eò)) eie ± d9.
a
If we now replace z with the value [(z, t we obtain

P
log f (z, t") to eie ±f (z, t'

(q (e )) eie - f (z, t') d0.
(7)
f (z, t') 2n
a
For z = 0, this yields
Y - t' 2n S
((1? (eie)) dB. (8)
If we now apply the integral theorem of the mean to the real and imaginary
parts of the integral in formula (7), we obtain
(2, t')
r re+f
reiB" "+f (2,
log f (z, t"
)
-L1eIe'f(,t') l+ 1
eie
f(, e )l
X 2n S it ((D (e`)) d9, (9)
a
8
where 0' and are points in the interval (a, /3 ). If we divide (9) by ( 8), we
obtain
log f (z, t") -logf (z, t') _ r ete'-f-f(z, t')
l (e,e"---f(z,
-
t')'].
(10)
t" - t' \e10'-f(z, t')1+ 1el t'))J
Since a and /3 approach the same limlt, arg A(t), under both limiting opera-
tions that we are considering, the same will be true of 0' and 8". Consequently,
by taking the limit in (10), we obtain the differential equation
dlogf_ X(t)+f
of a (t) - f,
that is,
tf
dt - f '+ kf,
l - kf' k - k (t) _ (t)
1
Thus, equations (3) and (4) hold throughout the interval 0 < t < to.
This result shows that corresponding to every curve L contained in B is a
function k (t) that is continuous and equal to unity in absolute value in a suitable
interval 0 < t < to such that the function g (z, 0), where g(0, 0) = 0 and g= (0, 0) > 0,
which maps the disk jzI < 1 univalently onto the domain B with cut L is defined
as the limit
g(z, 0)=limg(z, t),
1-+0
where g(z, t) is that solution of the differential equation

dg _ dgdz z1-}- k (t) z
1-k(t)z
dt
that satisfies the conditions g (0, t) = 0 and gZ (0, t) > 0.
If the domain B is not the entire finite w-plane, the function
W=g(z, to)= lim
1-+10
g(z, t)
maps the disk I z I < 1 onto the entire domain B. On the other hand, if the domain
B has as unique boundary point w = oc, then, for any M > 0, the closed disk
I wI < M lies entirely in all the domains Br fort sufficiently close to to and,
consequently, for such values oft on the circle Izi = 1. Therefore, we also have
I z/g (z, t)I < 1/M in I zI < 1 since, in this case,

g(z, t)-+oo, g(0, t) ->oo
as t to when 0 < I zl < 1. This means that to has to be oo. Now, let us look
at the particular case in which the domains B, subjected to the similarity trans-
formation w' = e-tw, converge as t oo to a domain B' as kernel (in the sense
of §5, Chapter II). Then, the functions w = e-tg(z, t) converge as t - oo to a
function ((z) mapping the disk Izl < 1 onto the domain B`. For example, if the
cut L is such that, as we move the point w along it toward oo, this point ap-
proaches asymptotically a ray issuing from the point w = 0, then the function g(z, t)
that satisfies equation (4) also satisfies the condition
lime tg(z, t)_(1 IiI=1. (11)

1- 00
With regard to the inverse function z = g'1 (w, t), let us show that, for any
curve L that extends to oo, we have, for arbitrary finite w,
lim petg t (w, t)=w. (12)
I -. 00
In accordance with inequality (10) of §4 of Chapter II as applied to the function

/3-le`g(z, t), we have in the disk Izi < 1
(1P+IZI)2Clg(x, t)I(l_Pet
Z09.
Then, by setting z = g-1 (w, t), we obtain for arbitrary w E Bt
Set(w, t)I
(1-I-(w,
-w petIg- ` (w, t)1
(1-I g' (w,
t)1)$.
(13)
The first of these inequalities yields Pet lg-1(w, t)l < 4lwl and consequently,
limIg'(w, t) 0.
t -.co
But then it follows from the two inequalities (13) that, for arbitrary finite w,
t)
lim pet g 1 (w' = 1. (14)
t -. 00
Now, if (12) fails to hold for some finite point w0, there exists a sequence
{ tv } such that t1, - oa and Se'vg-1 (w, t,)/w0 - a If we choose from the1.
Net"9-1 (w, tv)/w
a subsequence that converges every-
sequence of the functions
where in the w-plane to a regular function OW, we conclude on the basis of
(14) that I 0 (w)I = 1 and, since 0(0) = 1, O (w) = 1. But O(w0) = a 1. This
contradiction proves (12) for arbitrary finite w.
Let us turn now to the function f(z, t). Since f(z, 0) = z, we conclude from
what was said above that f (Z' t) is a solution in the interval 0 < t < to of the dif-
ferential equation (3) that satisfies the initial condition f(z, 0) = z. If B has more
than a single boundary point, then, in addition, we have in the disk I zI < 1
li m f (x, t) = f (z, to) = g ' (g (z, 0), to). (15)
I-*10
In particular, if B is the disk Iwl < 1, then g(z, t0) = z and it follows from
what was said above that the function g(z, 0) can be represented as the limit
g (Z' 0) = li m f (z, t),
t - io
where f(z, t) is a solution of the differential equation (3) satisfying the initial
condition. This was Loewner's result.
On the other hind, if the domain B is the entire w-plane excluding the point
oc, then, in addition to the differential equation (3) and the initial condition
f (z, 0) = z, we have in accordance with (2) and (12)
g(z, 0) = 1im pe`f (z, t).
This result can be immediately generalized somewhat. Specifically, suppose

that the simply connected domain Bp has no exterior points and is, in fact, the w-
plane with cuts along a finite number of Jordan arcs that do not pass through the
point w = 0 and have no points in common with each other except possibly end-
points. Suppose also that at least one of these arcs extends to oo. Then the equa-
tion for the boundary L of the domain Bp can be represented as a single equation
w = w (t), for 0 < t < 00, where w (t) is a piecewise continuous function of a real
parameter t such that, as t varies from 0 to o, the point w(t) successively de-
scribes all the boundary curves in such a way that, for any value of t, the curve
corresponding to higher values of t bounds a domain B, of the same form as Bo.
Under these conditions, all our reasoning above obviously remains valid and equa-
tions (3) and (4) with all the supplementary conclusions hold for the corresponding
functions f(z, t) and g(z, t). The function k(t), however, admits a finite number
of points of discontinuity of the first kind corresponding to values of t at which
the point w(t) jumps from one boundary arc to another.
These results are vivid examples of the reduction of geometrical problems to
purely analytical ones. For example, the conclusion that we have just drawn can
be formulated in the form of the following theorem, which will play an important
role in what follows:
Theorem 1. Let B denote a simply connected domain without exterior points

that includes the point w = 0 but not the point w = -. Suppose that the boundary
of B consists of a finite number of Jordan arcs. Then there exists a complex
function k(t) of real argument t for 0 < t <+ -o that is continuous except at a
finite number of points of discontinuity of the first kind. Suppose that k (t)I = 1.
Suppose that the function w = f (z), where f(0) = 0 and f '(0) > 0, which maps the
disk I z' < 1 onto the domain B, can be represented in the form
f (z)= lim pet f (z, t), (16)
where f (z, t) denotes that solution of the differential equation

d f
at =-f' 1 + kf (0<t<00)
1-kf (17)
that satisfies the initial condition

f (z, 0) = Z.
Conversely, we have
Theorem 2. Let k(t) denote a function that either is continuous or has a
finite number of points of discontinuity of the first kind in the interval 0 < t <
Suppose that jk (t)I = 1. Then that solution of the differential equation
(18)
dt 1- k (t) w
that satisfies the initial condition w 1t=0 = z is a function w = f (z, t) such that
f (0, t) = 0 and fZ (0, t) = e -t which, for each t in the interval 0 < t < 00 is a
regular univalent function of z in the disk IzI < 1.1) Furthermore, the limit
f(z)= lim etf(z, t), f(0)=0, f' (0) = 1, (19)
t- 00
exists and is also a function with these properties.
Proof. Equation (18) with initial condition w W o = z is obviously equivalent
to the integral equation
t
-SI_kw dt
1-kw
w = ze 0
(20)
1) However, as Kufarev [1947c] has shown with an example, the function w = f(z, t)
does not always map the disk Izl < 1 onto the disk Iwl < 1 with a cut.
obtained from (18) by dividing by w and integrating with respect to t from 0 to t.

Let us solve equation (20) by making successive approximations:
I + hwn-1 dt
wo=z, wn=wn(z, t)=ze 0 , n=1, 2, .... (21)
Since l ((1 + kw)/(1 - kw)) > 0 for IwI < 1, it follows from (21) that Iwnl <
IzI for all n = 0, 1, . This means that all the w = wn(z, t) are regular func-
tions of z in the disk IzI < 1 and that w (0, t) = e-t. Let us
show that the sequence of the functions w converges uniformly inside the disk
IzI < 1 and hence in the interval 0 < t < to, where t0 < oo. From (21), we have
awn _ -- w I + kwn-1
Therefore, at u n1 - kttln_., '
own 0w'_1
at - at
(wn - W.-I) I ± kwn-1 - 27?1n-1 (1
- kwn 11) kwn-.)
CIW.-'wn_tI I-IZI TIWn-1-Wn-SI(1 )IIZI
= A I W. - Wn -.i + B I W.-1 wn-a I,
that is,
al wn-wn-1
at - `4 W. - P1R-1
B I wn.-1 - wn-S Ir
where A and B depend only on z. If we multiply this by a-At and integrate, we
obtain, for 0 < t < t0 (where t0 < oo),
t
wn - wn_1 I C eAto B 7FJn-1 - TQJn_9 dt.
0
Integration leads to the following inequality (with n = 2, 3, ):

(eAtoBt)n - I
wn-wn-1C (t1-1)1 + C-C(z),
from which the asserted uniform convergence of the sequence (wn} follows. The
limit function w = f (z, t) is regular in I z I < 1 and continuous in 0 < t < oc.
Obviously, it satisfies equation (18) and the conditions wlt=0 = z. Furthermore,
I f (z, t) I < I z 1. Let us show that the function f (z, t) is univalent in I zI < 1. Let
us suppose the opposite. Suppose that, for some II in the interval 0 < t 1 < 00
and for two points z I and z2 in the disk I z I < 1, we have f (Z 1, 11) = AZ 2, t I).
Then the functions f(z1, t) and f(z2i t) have the same value at t = t1. From an
easily proved theorem 1) on the existence of solutions of equation (18), it follows

that f (z 1, t) = f (z 2, t) everywhere on the interval 0 < t < t 1. For t = 0, this
yields z1 = z2.
It remains for us to prove formula (19). To do this, we substitute into equa-
tion (18) the function w = f(z, t) and write it in the form
Integration yields
a(logf+t)
at - 2kf
1 - kj'
1ogL(Z)+t- - I-kfdt. (22)
But the function etf(z, t) C S. Consequently, for I z I < 1, we have I f(z, t) I <
MZe-t, where Mz depends only on z for z I < 1. This shows that the integral
I
J 'o (k f/(1 - k/)) dt converges uniformly inside the disk I z I < 1. From this we con-
clude on the basis of (22) that, as t --, -, e° f (z, t) converges in the disk I zI < 1
to a univalent regular function f(z) such that f(0) = 0 and f' (0) > 0. This com-
pletes the proof of the theorem.2)
In conclusion, let us show how to obtain the coefficients in the expansion of
the function f(z) referred to in Theorem 2. To do this, we consider first the func-
tion f(z, t) for 0 < t < to, where to < uo. We define
gio (z, t) =f (1'-1(z, t), t0)= et -'o (z -f- c2 (t, to) zA + ...).
This function is regular at the point z = 0. From
gt0 (f (z, t), t) =f (z, to)
we have
agt0 of agto =0.
of dt at
Consequently, in accordance with (17), we obtain the equation

ag5o _ agio z 1l + k (t) z
at dz - k (t) z
1) One gets the result from a suitable inequality of the form
at
where fl = f(z1, t), f2 = f(z2, t), and Mz depends on z for I z I < 1.
2) Equations (17) and (18) were studied by Kufarev [1946, 1947, 1947a, 1947c, 1947d,
19481. In the article [19431, he studied the question of parametric representation from a
more general point of view.
§3. VARIATION OF UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS 99
in a neighborhood of z = 0. If we substitute into this equation the expansion for

gto (z, t) and equate coefficients of like powers, we obtain the system of equations
n-1
c., (t, to) _ (n - 1) cn (t, to) __f- 2 E Pt cµ (t, to) kn "(t),
=1
n = 2, 3,
From this system, we obtain, in view of the fact that g,o(z, to) = z and hence
cn (to, to)=O, for n = 2, 3, ... ,
to
2e(n-1) e f e (n t)t
nl
C. (t, to) 1cµ (t, to) kn-µ
eJ it
This formula enables us to calculate successively the coefficients to).

Furthermore, since gt0 (z, 0) = f (z, to), by setting
f(z, to)=e-0o(z+c9(to)z9+...),
we obtain
.f(z)=z+c9z9+...,
Cn (t0) = Cn (0, t0), cn = Jim c n (to) = Jim cn (0, t0).
io-oo to-o0
In particular, we obtain
co
cg=-2S a'k(r)dt, (23)

0
00
c., 2 S e-9' (k9 ('t) + 2k ('t) c9 (t, oo )) d r

0
00
= 2 S e-"W (2) d2 + 4 e'k (T) dt)a. (24)

0 0
These are Loewner's formulas, which we shall need in what follows.
§3. Variation of univalent functions

In solving extremal problems of conformal mapping, we often use different
variations of univalent functions. A fairly general type of such variations is
given by the
Theorem. 1) Suppose that a function w = f(z) such that f(0) = 0 is regular
and univalent in the disk I z I < 1. Suppose that the function w* = F (z, A) is a
regular function of both z and A in the region r < z I < 1, 1 A I < Ao and that, for
1) Goluzin [1946f].
each A in the interval 0 < A < Ao, it is univalent in the annulus r < I z I < 1. Sup-
pose that, for every z in the domain r < z I < 1 and small A,
F (z, A) =f (z) -}- Xq (z) -F 0 (XI). (1)
If we combine the image of the annulus r < I z I < 1 under the function w* _
F(z, A) with the domain interior to the image of the circle z I = r, we obtain, for
I
small A, a simply connected domain BA including the point w` = 0. For the func-
tion w* = r (z), where r (0) = 0, which maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto
BA, we have in i z I < 1
f* (z) =f (z) + X q (z) - Azf ' (z) S (z) + Azf' (z) S ( z) + 0(X$), (2)
where S(z) is the sum of terms with negative powers of z in the Laurent expan-
sion of the function q(z)/zf' (z) in the annulus r < I z I < 1.
The symbol 0(A2) in equations (1) and (2) denotes a quantity whose ratio to A2
is uniformly bounded for all z belonging to an arbitrary closed subset of the disk
IzI <1.
Proof. Our problem will be to find the function w* = f * (z) referred to in the
theorem, such that f * (0) = 0 (depending on the value of A). We can arrange for
this by making a suitable substitution for the variable z in the function w* _
F(z, A). Specifically, we set
00
a"w, w)
zz'e"=I (3)
where we assume the functions 0,,,( z ' ), v = 1, 2, - -, have been chosen so that
1) they are regular in the annulus r < z ' I < 1/r;
2) 2 (Ov (z' )) = 0 on the circle 1z' = 1 for v= 1, 2, . - ;
3) the series Av0v(z') converges uniformly in the annulus r < z
1/r for sufficiently small A;
4) when we substitute (3) into F (z, A) for sufficiently small A, we obtain
a function that is regular in the disk I z' < I and that vanishes at z' = 0.
When these conditions are observed, for small positive values of A the cir-
cles I z' I = p, where r < p < 1/r are mapped by the function (3) into curves close
to the circle I z I = p and the derivative dz/dz' differs on I z' I = p from 1 by a
quantity of the order of A. Therefore, for small positive values of A, the function
(3) maps the annulus r 1 are mapped respectively into the disks I z I < 1 and
z > 1 since I z = 1 on I z' 1. But then, for small positive A, the function
00
21 a"'P" lz')
'cv*=F(zre"=1 , A) (4)
maps a rather narrow annulus r' < I z' I < 1 univalently onto a doubly connected
domain whose outer boundary is the boundary of the domain BA. Since the function
(4) is regular in z' I < 1, we conclude on the basis of a familiar theorem that it
I
maps the disk I z' I < 1 univalently onto BA. Thus, the problem of determining
the function w"` = f *(z) which maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto the domain
BA will be solved if we can construct functions 0,, W) satisfying conditions 1)-
4).
To construct the functions (kn (z' ), we substitute the function (3) into F(z, A)
and expand the result formally in a series of powers of A:
00
E )p " z, -
n=0
where ID 0 (z') = f W ), and, for n > 0,
Do
"EIXp (s')
1 do
D F (z 'e
(z.) = n! W A) I k-0
n-1
_ 1 da a'v (z')
-nl d)lnF(z'e(1 +XV'P. (z)), 1`)I a-0
n--1
a"
_nl d (s), 1`)à-a zf W)'P.(z)
n-1
E ""
_ xf (z) [n! I do F(z'e" 1
- d+ Tn(z)J (6)
dtn z7' (z')
In particular, for n = 1, this gives
tilt
/ [Fi(zO)
(Z) = z f (z) Z, f, (Z,) -J P, (Z')] . (7)
But, for r < Iz' I < 1, we have the convergent expansion

(Z" 0)
F) 1, C(l)z k.
Z'f' (z') v k (8)
k--oo
If we define -1 -t -
T, (,Z'') ' C( )z'k l_ Y (9)
k=-co I kco
we satisfy conditions 1) and 2) with n = 1. We also satisfy in part condition

Iz,
4): specifically, the function '1(z') is regular in the disk I < 1 since the
bracketed expression in (7) has no negative powers of z' and $1 (0) = 0. (We note
that the function 01 (z') is precisely determined up to a purely imaginary constant
term by the conditions listed.)
for v = 1, 2, , n - 1, are
0v(zI),
Let us suppose now that the functions
defined in such a way that'conditions 1) and 2) are satisfied and the (Dv(z'),
for v = 1, 2, - -, n - 1, are regular in I z' I < I with 0v(0) = 0. Then, in r <
I z' I < 1, we have the expansion
n-1
Fi (z')
P. (z'e- 1
! do ,X)
n! dXn z 'f' (z'1 z-o^ Ckn1 z k. (10)
k=-oo
If we take
-1 -1
C(n)
n (Z)
h__-oo
C(k.)Z'k + Y
k--co
i,
then the bracketed expression in (6) will contain no negative powers of z' and,
hence, On W) will be regular in z ' I < 1 and On (0) = 0. Furthermore, condi-
I
tions 1) and 2) are satisfied for On (z' ). (Here, and in general, (bn (z') is
determined up to a purely imaginary constant term.) If we choose On (z ') succes-
sively, for it = 1, 2, , according to the rule given above, conditions 1) and 2)
will be completely satisfied and condition 4) will be formally satisfied.
We still need to investigate the convergence of the series appearing in condi-
tion 3), on which the satisfaction of condition 4) depends. To do this, we need
to prove the
Lemma. Suppose that the function O(A) has the expansion O(A) _ Yn=1an,1n
the coefficients in which satisfy the inequalities Ian I < 1/(n + 1)2 for n =
Suppose that the kth power of this function has the expansion [0(A)]k = F,°°_Iank)An
where k is a positive integer. Then the coefficients in this last expansion
satisfy the inequalities la(k)I < Ck/(n + 1)z, n = 1, 2, , where C is an absolute
constant.
Proof. If the coefficients in the expansions of the two functions
m 00
cp (X) = 2] a,A", 4 (X) = f bnX'
nc1 n_1
satisfy the inequalities
B
1an1 (n+l)s,
A bnIC(n+1)s, n= 1 , 2,
and if
co
u (A) (4) _ CE Cn4n
n=1
then
cn1 alb,,-1+aibn-s+ ... +an_lb1 AB
AB AB 2AB
(n_1)s'I- ... + ns2s(n+1)z 1 1
3, [22 s
( n
n+1J
n_],e + ... + n+1 s

1 1 1
(fl[n+1j+2y]
8AB / CAB
(n+ 1) 2
1
22 3! + ... = (n+
1
1)s
where C = 8 (2-2 + 3-2 +. ). If we apply this inequality successively to the

functions 95 (AA)k, we get the conclusion of the lemma.
Let us make a convention on notation. For any Laurent series X(z) _
cnzn we define
IIX(z)II= Icnl Izln.

n= 00
When such majorizing series converge, they possess the obvious properties
IIXI(z)+X9(z)11c11X1(z)II+11X2(2)11,
(12)
Let us investigate the convergence of the series Let us show
that the inequalities
DM-1
v=1, 2, ..., (13)
hold in the annulus r < I z' I < 1/r for suitably chosen constants D and M.
To prove the validity of (13) for v = 1, we need only take for D the maximum
of the quantity 4 11 01 (z' )1I in the annulus r < I z ' I < 1/r.. Let us seek, by choos-
ing M suitably, to satisfy inequality (13) for all v. Let us suppose that inequal-
ity (13) holds for v = 1, 2, - , n - 1 and let us find a bound for 11 On (z') 11. To
do this, we consider the function (10), which we denote by r(z'). We define
F (:, ).) = 21 AklzkXl. (14)

k=-00, 00
I -0, 00
This series converges for r < I z I < 1 and 0 < A < A0. From (10) and (12), we
have n-l
n k YWy (z/)
kale
II Tn (z) II C I zf (Z) nl dkn Aklz y l
I
x=0 II
k, I
n-I
I 1 d' jIAk!I kXlelklYEIx°II'Py(Z')Ilr
zf'(z') II
k, I
Iz'I x 0
Then, by (13) for v = 1, 2, , n - 1, we obtain on the circle I z' r,
zI A'DM°-'
n
Ikl
IITn(x')II<Bj,IAklIr knoI
I do l r-l (v+I)Y
k, I
x-o
n-l
IkID
c A'
I dln M Y
I Akl I rk
Mn-l
ale y t (V+I)
B a=0
k, I
B A kl I rkMn l 1 1 k J/DJ l
do l r jl l A'
\1
k,I
, I
J-o
jIM1 n. dlR l L.i -1)' f x=o (15)
(if we replace M f with A), where B = maxi YI

=rlI 1/z ' f' (z' )II.
Now, the terms with j = 0 and j = I for l = 0 and the terms with j = 0 for
l > 1, 1 n are equal to 0. Therefore, when summing with respect to k, 1, and j,
we may assume that 1 + j > 2 and, obviously, that 1 < n. Furthermore, since
n-l n-l
I do ( \1 XV 11,
_ 1 do
-if l 1v (v-)-1)`/ A=o 1-0
.-1
is the coefficient of An-l in the expansion
rn-i
cuix"
V=I
we obtain, by applying the lemma, cJ/(n - 1 + 1)2. Therefore (15) yields,
for z 0 on the circle I z' r,

IIT; (z) II C B 1 I k J1DhC1

I Ak1 I rkMn (n_1+1)
k,t,J II
=B Aki (f+ 1)9 rkMn-l-I I k -JDICI

k. l.! J!((t-f 1)(n-1+01i
NM"
+ I 1)2 I Akr I (1- l)9
rkM-1-11 k jIDIC!
(16)
k, [.J
where N is independent of z . If in the last sum we drop the requirement that

1 + j > 2, this sum will be equal to
/ IkIDC
AN I (1-I- 1)Q rkM-h!
k. l
and this series converges for sufficiently large values of M since the series (14)
is a regular function for r < I z I < 1 and I AI < A0. Therefore, this last sum in (16)
with large values of M is of the order of 1/M2. Consequently, the right-hand mem-
ber in (16) is, for sufficiently large M (though independent of n), less than
DMn-1/2(n
+ 1)Z. Thus, for such M on the circle I z' I = r, we have
In particular,
II T. )II2( +1)s
k:.-oo
C(klllz kc2D(17) n-1
Furthermore, since the majorant series of the second sum in (11) does not
exceed the majorant series of the first sum, for Iz ' I < 1, it follows that (17)
yields the inequality
DMn-t
(z) II ` ( + 1) (18)
on the circle Iz' r and hence in the annulus r < I z I < 1/r.
For M chosen independently of n, we conclude by induction that inequality
(13) holds for all v in the annulus r < I z ' I < 1/r. This shows that the series
converges uniformly in the annulus r< Iz ' i < 1/r if IAI < 1/M,
and this proves the validity of condition 3) and hence of condition 4).
Thus the functions 0v(z ') satisfy all conditions 1)- 4) and function (4)
constructed from them does indeed map the disk W I < 1 univalently onto the
domain BA. This function f *(z') is, for every z' in the disk I z ' < 1, an analytic I
function of A in a neighborhood of the point A = 0. We have the expansion
DO
Ia (z) = 1 (19)
.=o
where (Do (z ') = f (z '). Furthermore, keeping (1) in mind, we obtain from formulas
(7) and (9)
411(z')=q(z')-zf'(z')(S(z)-SCZI ,
)).
From (19), we obtain (2). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Let us give some examples of the application of this theorem. Let us con-
sider first the function
w*=w+Aw(A+ Iin
L ryAkYplk
k=1
\1
(20)
where A and A k are complex constants and w I, wm are finite points in the
w-plane.
For arbitrary given p > 0 and for sufficiently small A > 0, the function (20)
is univalent in the infinite domain consisting of the exteriors of the m circles
I W - wk = p, k = 1, , in, because, for distinct points w' and w " in this
domain,
I w* (w') - w* (w') I m
= I (w' - w') (1 + A), + k I Ak m, u,' -f - task (tai' + t°''))

k=1 M
(' Wk) W - wk)
Iw -w'I(1-A%-Xmax 'W'I i wklklIIw'+W'I

a' wk-1 W'-W
where the maximum, taken over all pairs w' and w", is obviously finite. There-
fore, for sufficiently small A, the last expression in parentheses is positive, and
hence w" (w") / w" (w ").
Now, suppose that the function w = f (z), where f(0) = 0 and f'(0) = 1, is
regular in the disk 1 z I < 1 and that it maps that disk onto the domain B. If the
points w l, , wm are all exterior points to the domain B then, for any positive p
less than the distance between any of the points wk and the boundary of B, we
conclude that, for small A > 0, the function (A = 0)
M
( z) (Z),s
=f* (z) =J (z) +
k- f (z)
(21)
is regular and univalent in the disk I z < 1 and that it is normalized by\,the con-
dition f* (0) = 1. On the other hand, if the points w1, all lie in the inter-
ior of the domain B, then, for sufficiently small A> 0, the function (21) is regular
and univalent in some annulus r < I Z I < 1.
If Z1, , zm are points of the disk jz I < 1 such that wk = f (z k), k=
-
1, 2, - , m, then (21) can be rewritten

in
Akf (Z)'
w* =f (z) + A k _ f (z) -f (zk)
The theorem that we have proved is applicable to this function. Since the function
m
4 (z) _IA f (z)' 1
zf (z) `k=1 k T77 (z) f (z) -f (Zk)

has only simple poles in the disk z I < 1 at the points zk, k = 1, , m, with
residues Ak f(zk) 2 /zkf )2 , k = 1,
, m, it is obvious that
m
S+ (z) _ Ak r f (Zk) `9 Zk
l (zkf' (zb)) Z - Zb
k=1
Consequently, the formula yields
in in
AjLf
J * (Z)
=J{
(Z) + x I () (Zk) - AZf' (Z) 11 Ak (Zkf (Zk) ll9 Z ZkZk

k=1 T k=1
m
XZp
(X9 )
(z ) aAk Zkf (Zk) Q 1
(22)
Here, we have
m
f* I +X
(0) L Ak (zkf((zk) 19 + °
k=1 1
(23)
If we again wish to obtain a variational function f= (z) satisfying the condi-

tion f' (0) = 1, we need only divide (22) by (23). We then have
in
f* (z) =.f (z) + A I f (z) XP Z) I Ak (1 zk f (zk) /l $

k=1
f (zk) - AJ (z) k-1
m
- aZ f' (z)) f (Zk)
Ak (.Zkf 119 Zk
Z - Zk
k1 (Zk)
+ Xz!
J (Z) I
k-1
in
Ak
k
(Zk)
( Zkf' (Zk))
Ì9 -*kZ
1 - 2kz + 0
(k2). (24)
Formulas (21) and (24) are the desired variational formulas. 1)

From these formulas we can easily obtain the corresponding variational
formulas for the function
which is univalent and regular in the domain > 1 except for the pole
C _ 00 and which does not vanish in that domain. To do this, it is sufficient to
apply (21) and (24) to the function
f(z)=
and set
1 (C)= I I =C+ao + ...,
(We note that F, (') 0 in > 1.)
Simple transformations lead to the following formulas:
in
)F (C)
(C(C-Wk
F* (C) = F (C) I Ak + O (X9),
Fwk
(25)
k=1
m
(C)k:) F((tk)
F* (C) = F (C) + A A k
k-1
M M
+ AF (C)
k=1
Ak (C,yF((Ck)l Je - CF (C)
I Ak
)s
( l
C lr
F ltk) (26)
+ ),CF C m A( i
(Xi),
CkF' GO
where the wk in formula (25) are arbitrary fixed points all exterior to the image
of the domain ICI > 1 under the mapping by the function w = F(C).
As our next example, illustrating the theorem on the variation of a univalent
function, let us consider a function w = f(C) that is regular and univalent in
z < 1 and that does not assume in I z I < 1 certain given finite values al.
am, where m > 1. Following the lead of the preceding variational formulas,
we can construct univalent varied functions with the same property, that is, not
assuming the values a 1i , am in I z I < 1.
Specifically, if B is the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping
1) Formula (24) was first stated by Schiffer [1943].

§3. VARIATION OF UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS' 109
w = f (z), then, for arbitrary wk either lying inside B or external to B, for arbi-
trary A and for sufficiently small A > 0, the function
m
II (w - ak)
w*=w+AAwkM1 (27)
11 (w - wk)
k=1
will, as was shown above, map the portion of some neighborhood of the boundary
of B that lies in B onto a doubly connected domain and it will map the boundary
itself into the boundary of some simply connected domain Bx that includes w* = 0.
Furthermore, the doubly connected domain referred to above will lie in BX. Since
the points al, , am do not lie in B and are mapped by (27) into themselves,
it follows that, for sufficiently small A, they will lie outside BX. Therefore, the
function w* = f* (z), which maps the domain z I < 1 onto the domain Bk does
I
not assume in I z I < 1 the values al, - , am . This function is constructed in

the same way as before. In the case in which the wk all lie inside B, that is,
when
Wk=f(zk), IxkI (1, k=1, ..,, nr,
it is convenient to put (27) in the form
m
zm*-zee-{-Xw(A0+
k=1
I W A ,k),
M
77
11 (wk -a,) (28)
Ao=A, Ak=A" m I
11 (wk-w,)
Then, we find the formula for f * (z):

M
II (f (Z) - ak)
P (z) =f (z) + AAf (z) Mk-1
IT (f (Z) --f (--k))

k=l
m
- AAzf' (z) Akf (zk)
k_1Zkf (Zk)' (Z - Zk)
m
+ AAz2f (z) Akf (Zk)
(29)
J k=1 i kf' (Zk)' (1 -ZkZ)
CHAPTER IV
EXTREMAL QUESTIONS AND INEQUALITIES HOLDING IN CLASSES

OF UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS
1. Rotation theorems
As we noted in Chapter II and as will again follow from Chapter V, extremal
questions for various classes of univalent functions are of prime importance in
the theory of univalent conformal mappings. When these questions are answered,
it turns out that the requirement of univalence of the mapping influences the in-
crease in various quantities characterizing to some degree or other the amount
of distortion of the domain being mapped. In §4 of Chapter II, a number of extre-
mal problems dealing with inequalities involving the initial coefficients of the
mapping functions, and covering and distortion questions were solved by
an elementary procedure. In the present chapter, we shall concern ourselves
specifically with these questions, this time using more powerful methods, for
example, the method of parametric representation of univalent functions and the
method of variations. 1)
For convenience, let us adopt some notational conventions regarding certain
classes of univalent functions with which we shall be dealing in what follows.
Specifically, let us denote by S the class of functions ((z) = z + czz2 + ... that
are regular and univalent in the disk I z I < 1. Let us denote by I the class of
functions FW = C+ ao + a1(-1 + .. that are meromorphic (with pole at Do)
and univalent in the domain ICI > 1.
As a supplement to the sharp bounds on the modulus of a function belonging
to the class S and the modulus of its derivative that were established in §4 of
1) The reader wishing to become more familiar with extremal questions regarding
univalent functions is referred to the author's articles [1939d, 1949c] .
110
§1. ROTATION THEOREMS 111
Chapter II, we shall give in the present section the corresponding sharp bounds on
their arguments. In particular, we shall establish the final formula for the rotation
theorem for the class S consisting of a sharp bound on the argument of the deriva-
tive. The parametric representation of univalent functions given in §3 of Chapter
III will provide us with these bounds.') Let us denote by S' the subclass of the
class S that consists of functions ((z) having a representation of the form
f (z)= lim etf (z, t), (1)
t-m
where [(z, t) is a solution of the differential equation
df _ _f 1-F kf
dt 1 -kf' (2)
satisfying the initial condition

f(z, 0)=z (3)
that, for fixed t, is a regular function of z in I z I < 1 such that If (z, t) I < 1 in
that interval, f(0, t) = 0, and [' (0, t) > 0. Here, k = k(t) is an arbitrary piecewise-
continuous function that is equal to unity in absolute value in the interval 0 < t < no.
In order to find a bound for any of the quantities that we shall consider below
for the entire class S, it will be sufficient for us to do this for the subclass S'
because, as was shown in §3,of Chapter III, an arbitrary function ((z) of the class
S can be approximated by functions [, (z) such that [, (0) = 0 and [' (0) > 0 each
of which maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto the w-plane with cut along a
Jordan arc that goes out to no and does not pass through w = 0, and consequently
by functions [, (z)/[n (0) E S'_. When this approximating procedure is carried out,
the sequence of bounded quantities for the approximating functions converges to
the same quantity for the function 1(z).
A bound for arg [I (z)/z] and arg [zI' (z)/I(z)]. We divide the identity
df (z t)
at - f (z' t) 1 k (t) f (z, t) '
by I(z, t) and separate the real and imaginary±parts. This gives us the two iden-
tities
dIP2, t)1=-If(z, t)I1-If(z, t)I4
at 1 1-- k (t) f (z, t) 1s (4)
1) See Goluzin [1936] and a number of subsequent articles by the author in Mat.
Sbornik, for example, [1939c, 1946c].
112 IV. EXTREMAL QUESTIONS
dargf(z, t) 23(k(t)f(z, t))

(5)
at 1- k (t) f (z, t)
It follows from (4) that I f (z, t) I decreases monotonically from IzI to 0 as t
increases from 0 to o c. This enables us to take as our independent variable the
quantity I f (z, t) I instead of t. Now, from (5), we have
I di argf 1 12' k f12 dt
(where we write for brevity f and k instead of f(z, t) and k(t)) or, eliminating
dt with the aid of (4) and keeping in mind that arg f = arg erf,
I dt arg e f I 1I
2d
l
l 1,
If we integrate this with respect to t from 0 to - or, consequently, with respect
to I f I from I z I to 0, we obtain, by virtue of (1) and (3)
argfZZ) I (6)
Here, the argument is defined by the formula

00
arg f i Z ) _ dr argf Z, t)
Consequently, it represents that branch of this multivalued function that approaches

0 as z---- 0.
Inequality (6), which we have proved for the class S `, holds also for the
entire class S by virtue of what was said above.
Let us show that the bounds for arg Lf(z)/z] given by inequality (6) are
sharp. To do this, we show that there exists a function k (t) of absolute value I
which is continuous in the interval 0 < t < 00 and for which f (z, t) defined by
equation (2) and condition (3) will also satisfy the condition
(k (t) f (zo, t)) _ - I f (zo, t) I (7)'
for arbitrary t such that 0 < t < oo and given zo, where Izol < 1. If (7) is
satisfied, then from equations (4) and (5), which are equivalent to equation
(2), we have for z = zo
dlfl if 11
at - Ifl1+IfP,
dargf
tt
- 21f1
1+lfj'.
(8)
If we integrate the first of these equations, taking If(zo, 0)I = Izol, we

obtain
1. ROTATION THEOREMS 113
I IffI'=eel-I go Zo18 (9)
From this we determine I f I as a positive function o ft that decreases monotoni-

cally from I zo I to 0 as t increases from 0 too . Furthermore, by eliminating
dt from equations (8), we have
dargf=- 1-if
2difI l
from which we get
f(zo, t)-lo I+Iz°I -log
ar
g zo - g 1-IzoI g 1-If1' (10)
which, on the basis of (9), can also be expressed in terms of t. Then, k(t) is
determined from
argk(t)-}-argf(zo, t)_- 2
Since all these operations are reversible, we have equation (10) for the func-
tion f(z, t) defined from the function k(t), which is a solution of equation (2)
evaluated at the point z = zn Z. Here, as t -4 a the rieht-hand member approaches
log (1 + Izo j)/(1 - Izo I) . Consequently, the upper bound for arg [f (z)/z]
given by inequality (6) is the least upper bound. In the same way we can show
that the lower bound for arg [f(z)/z] given by inequality (6) is the greatest lower
bound.
Since the function
f (C+z
l l -}-
zC) -f (z)
g(,)= f'(z)(I-Iz12) =C } ..., (11)
where z is an arbitrary number in the disk I z I < 1, belongs to the class S when
f(z) does, by applying inequality (6) to this function with J_ -z, we obtain the
following inequality: 1)
arg zf (z)
f(z) <log1-1zI'
(12)
.which holds for an arbitrary function belonging to the class S and for an arbi-
trary point z in I z I < 1. By arg [zf '(z)/f (z)] we mean the branch defined by the
equation
1) Inequalities (6) and (12) were first given by Grunsky [1932]. For information on
their generalization to univalent functions in multiply connected domains, see Goluzin
E19371.
114 1V. EXTREMAL QUESTIONS
=-z
`1±zi --f z)
o
f iz)
argzfO d arg
Cf
f O( II)
= S
d arg f(C)-z(z)
'
that is, the branch that approaches 0 as z -- 0. The bounds given by inequality
(12) are also sharp because, when we apply (12) to the function (11) at the point
z, we again obtain (6).
A bound for arg f '(z). In an equally simple manner, we can find a bound for
arg f'(z). Specifically, from (2) we have
from which we get

df'___ f 1 (1+2kf-k'f
.
_k f)a
=df(z,dzt) , f-
d arg f
at - (1+2kf- k'f91 _ 2,1 ((1-- kf)')
l (l-kf)' J- I1-kfI'
and, consequently,
dtargf,= 2 ((1-kf)2) -dlfl
But
Il -kfI' IfI(1-Ifl$)'
1-kf12 =I sin2arg(1-kf)I
sin 2 arc sin f1=2 for
1 for I fl
Therefore,
4dlfI
l-IfP
for ifI<y
_ 2difl for
If1>_y2
Ifl(1-IfI2)
Integrating this with respect to t from 0 to we obtain for I z I < 1/V
Izl
argf'(z)I< 4difI -4 arc sin IzI,
1-Ifr
and, for I z 11 1/\/-2,
I
Ir-2
If I IS+ 2d If
-If Y
Ifl=)'
)r2
that is,
9
Iargf'(z)J-iiv log
1
Izlzl'
Consequently, for functions f (z) in the class S, we have 1)
4aresin IzI for JzJ<y2'

arg f" (z) s
I
-x -- log zllz for JzI Y2 . (13)

I9
l
That this inequality gives a sharp bound on I arg f'(z)I for I z I < 1// is obvious
from the fact that, for a function
z
f(z) 1-e'az dz=z+csz2--I-...> a=arccosp,

0
in the class S, we have
Iargf'(p),I=4aresin p
for every p <
The sharpness of the bound (13) (for arbitrary z in I z I < 1 in fact) can be
seen by showing that there exists a function k(t) of absolute value equal to 1
that is continuous in (0 <.t < oo) for which f (z, t) defined by equation (2) and the
condition f (z, 0) = z satisfies the condition
-2If1Y l-IfI' for IfI<Y2,
-sin2arg(1-kf)^
1-kf18 1
-1 for If 1 2
or, what amounts to the same thing, the condition
3 (kf) - sin ar (1 - bf) -

- Ill for
1 for (14)
Y2
for arbitrary t in the interval 0 < t < oo and given z = zp in the disk I z I < 1.
From (14), we obtain by simple calculations
IfI(IfI- l 1 -Ifls) for IfIv-2,
kf= I:t 21f1'-1 _i1+y21fI"-1 for IfI> 1
2 2
1) Inequality (13) was proved by the author (see Goluzin [19361 ). That it represents
a sharp bound for I z I > 1/\/Z was shown by Bazilevic [1936a1.
Here, we can take either of the signs ±. Now that we have found k f expressed in
terms of I f I, let us substitute the result into (4) and (5). Then, from (4) we obtain
t as a continuous monotonic function of if i and, consequently, I f I as a continu-
I
ous and positive function of t. From (5) we then have a representation of

arg [f(zo, t)/zo] as a function of t. Knowing arg kf, we find arg k(t) and thus
k (t) itself.
For the function (1) constructed from this k(t), we have, as we can see from
the proof of inequalities (13),
argf'(zo) =
4arc sin z0 for I z 0-
I
1
it
+ log z0I'
t-IZoI' for IzoI,V-2
This shows that the upper bound for arg f ' (z) given by inequalities (13) is the
least upper bound for arbitrary z in I z I < I. In the same way we can show that
the lower bound given by inequalities (13) is the greatest lower bound.
We note that, reasoning as above, we can prove the inequality
arg f(2)') I - log (1 - I z I9), (15)
which gives sharp bounds for arg Lz 2f ' (z)/f (z)Z] at an arbitrary point z in
z I < 1. Therefore, by shifting from f(z) to the function F(t) = 1/f(1/0 +
const, we immediately obtain sharp bounds in the class for arg F '(c):
IargF'P I<`log(l- (16)
We note that, by modifying slightly the preceding derivations, we can some-
times obtain stronger results. For example, if we divide equation (2) by f, dif-
If, we obtain
ferentiate with respect to z, and then divide by f '
dlogf
2kf
kf)"
from which we get
Eliminating dt here and in equation (4), we arrive at the equation
---l-IfI"
Idlogf 2dlfl
f
On the basis of this equation, we have for arbitrary real 0, which we assume inde-
pendent of t,
e-" d log
f) - 1-jf'
If we integrate both sides of this last inequality with respect to t from 0 to oo,
we obtain
zf'(z) Elzl 2dif_.-lo I+IzI
e 1B to
g f(Z)) 1-IfI gI-IzI
Consequently, for all f (z) E S we have in I z I< 1
(e!° log
f (z))) - log I + z . (17)
Since 0 is arbitrary, this is equivalent to the inequality

Zf (z)
log C log I + I z
l-IzI' (18)
f(z) l
If we apply (17) to the function (11) with = -z, we obtain another inequality'
logLZZl--log(1-IzI')IC1og1+1zI (19)
which also holds for all f(z) E S and all z in I z I < 1. We note that we can show
by a procedure like the one used above that inequality (17) is sharp for arbitrary 0.
In the same way we can show that for the functions F (C) E E in the domain
> 1 we have the sharp inequality
I log F* G) I <--log (1 - IIIIt) . (20)
Furthermore, this inequality, from which one can get the inequality
1 I 1 9 (21)
1-IOI2
constituting the distortion theorem for the class 1, will be derived later by a
different procedure.
(We give the following definition: suppose that a functional 1g is defined
on a certain class of functions g(z). The set D of values w that the functional
w = Ig assumes on the given class of functions is called the range of values of
the functional Ig in that class of functions.
1) Inequalities (18) and (19) were obtained by Grunsky [1932] by a different procedure.
As will be shown in §3, p. 133, inequality (20) determines the range of

values of the quantity log F '(C) in the class 1. By the same reasoning, we can
show that inequalities (18) and (19) determine the ranges of values of
log [z f '(z)/ f (z)] and log [ f (z)/z] respectively in the class S. For more on this
point, see also Lebedev [1955a].)
§2. Sharpening of the distortion theorems

As another application of the method of parametric representation, we now
present sharpened forms of certain inequalities constituting distortion theorems
for the classes S and 1 .1) Let us first show a number of relationships that hold
in the parametric representation of univalent functions and that play an important
role in questions concerning bounds.
Consider an arbitrary function f(z) E C ' defined in accordance with formula
(1) of §1, where f (z, t) satisfies in the interval 0 < t < o the differential equa-
tion (2) and initial condition (3) of §1. For the function f (z, t), we have a num-
ber of interesting relationships. Specifically, let us take in I z I < 1 arbitrary
points zvfor v = 1, , n and let us write for brevity fv = f(zv, t). By using the
equations
()f"
we obtain by direct calculation the relations
d e tt f"-f", 2
kf" kf
dt log [f"f z" 1 - kf, - 17- kf
(1)
( kf N
Nlog(1-ffv,)=21 kfkf" 11-kf".)

(where k = k(t)). If zv = zv,, the expression (fv- f,.,,)/(z, - z,,) in (1) should
be understood to mean f (zv).
If we integrate equations (1) with respect to t from 0 to - and keep (1) and.
(3) of §1 in mind, we obtain the following integral formulas-
W
F(C")-F(C kf" kf
log C" C",
2
f 1- kf, ' 7- kf", dt
0
,
(2)
kf
2 f fkf, (1-kf k yr
log
g I dt,
C"C"' co
1
` 0
1) Goluzin [1948b, 1951a].

§2. SHARPENING OF DISTORTION THEOREMS 119
where we set
Z,
(-1-)
}.
We introduce the expansions
-
00
log
F(C) F (C') ak,:C_ ICI>1,
,
IC'I>1,
k, 1=1
(3)
00
k(t)f(z, t)
l-k(t)f(z,t) I bk(t)zk, z<1.
k=1
When we substitute these expansions into (2) and identify the resulting equations
with respect to C. and we arrive at the formulas
00
ak.1= - 2 S bk (t) b, (t) dt (k, 1=1, 2, ...), (4)

0
Co
0 for 1,
bk (t) bt (t) dt- (k, 1= 1, 2, ...). (5)

0 2k
for k -
Formulas (5) express the important property of orthogonality of the functions
bk(t) for k= 1, 2, .
We shall now prove two theorems dealing with the applications of formulas
(2) to inequalities.
Theorem 1. Let F denote a function belonging to 1. Let av. for
v, v' = 1, 2, .. , n, where n > 1, denote real numbers such that In
,, mIa'v v'x v'
is a positive quadratic form. Then, for arbitrary C., v = 1, 2, , n, the
inequalities
n
I1
Vl=1 V
f, V
V,
it F(Q-F(tv)
CV - Cy,
1
(6)
n
ay
1 1 vl
CCy,
Y, V' = 1
hold throughout the domain I I > 1, where we should understand the factor
IF' (Cv)I in the second product when Cv = Cv'
Proof. Let us first prove inequalities (6) for the functions F(t;) = 1/f(110,
where f(z) E S'. In this case, if we set
kfY
1- kfY
=XY+IYY, , =1, ..., n,
and take out the real parts in (2), we obtain
60
F(CY)-F(CY,)
log I CY - CY = - 2 f (X.,X,, - Y., Y.,,) dt,
0
log 1-CC,I 2 f (XYXY

rY
0
Then, by adding and subtracting, we arrive at the following formulas

CO
F(C,)-F(C,,)
log
CY - C,
=- log -4f XYXv dt,
0
F(C,)-F(C, )
logI c - CY, = log + 4f YYr' dt.
0
We multiply these formulas by the numbers a v, and sum each of them with
with respect to v, v ' = 1, , n. Then, remembering that for numbers av v, that
satisfy the conditions of the theorem, we have
n
r.y VIXYXYI ' O, "`Y, V' YYYY J O
Y V'=t Y
We then immediately obtain inequalities (6). But these inequalities, which were
proved for the functions F(C) E represented in the form F(c) = 1/f(1/0, where
f (z) E S', obviously remain valid for arbitrary functions F(C) E that can be
represented in the form F(C) 1/f(11C) + roost, where f(z) E S, and conse-
quently they remain valid for the entire class . This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Theorem 2. Let n denote a positive integer. For v = 1, , n, let yv denote
arbitrary complex numbers and let Cv denote complex numbers in the domain
I C) > 1. Then
F(Cr)-F(C,)
T'TY' log
C -C
n
1YT: log (1 } (7)
- Y1
C CY,/
for F(C) E E.1)

Proof. Just as above, it will be sufficient to prove (7) for the functions
F (C) = l/ f (1/C), where f (z) E S'. But, in the present case, we have from the
first of formulas (2)
n F (CY) - F (C,.)
y
IYTY' log
n 00 n
kf"
Co 1
kfY' kfY 19
2 dt 2 dt
IYTY' 1 - kfY 1-kfY, \ TY
1 - kfY l
0 =1 V
and, consequently,
n n 9
F (C") - F (CY,) kfY
TYT:Iog _< 2 TV I - kf dt
CY-CY, Y
V=1
M n
Rj"'
= 2 Y '1 ' 1--M,kfY 1 - kfY,
dt
!
From the second of formulas (2) applied to the last integral, this yields (7) and
As will be shown in §3, inequality (7) is sharp for arbitrary yr, and and
determines the range of values for the summation on the left .
In an analogous manner, we can prove the more general
Theorem 3. Let n and n' denote two positive integers. Let yr,, v = 1, , n,
and v'= 1, , n ' , denote n + n' complex numbers . Let , v = 1, , n,
and v r = I, , n) . denote n + n ' complex numbers in the domain > 1.
Let F denote a function belonging to E. Then,
A6.d
J,TYT,'IogF(C")-F(C")
V, CY' - C
Y-1 Y'=1
1) The expression log F (C ) -F (C) with t and C in the domain I C I > 1 always
refers to that branch (single-valued in this domain) of the multivalued function
log
F (C) - F (C') that approaches zero when at least one of the points approaches
co. For I = C' , this quantity becomes equal to log FP(C) and then it can be understood
as the value of that branch of the multivalued function that vanishes at C = W.
17,T,' log 11 - 1 7;,1og (8)

/
(If we write inequality (8) for F2(t;) E 12, replace n and n' with 2n and 2n',
and set yn +y = - yy and Sn+v = - Sv for v= 1, , n and y.,+,, = Yv and ,,,}v =
- Cv for v = 1, , n', 'we obtain the
Corollary. Let n and n' denote positive integers. Let yy for v = 1, ,n

and y,; for v' = 1, , n' denote complex numbers. Let Cv, for v = 1, . , n
and tv, for v'= 1, , n', denote complex numbers in the domain C] > I. Let
F2 denote a function belonging to 1 2. Then,
tJ`n1'
`J1 F,(Cv)-F2(Cv')Cv+Cr'
7riv log F. (Cv) + F. (Cr,) Cr
v l r'=1
n1
"
c 7r7r, log
CrCr, +
IX- - 1
CSC,, +
7,7" log C'XY,
-1 (9)
Theorem 3 and its corollary were first obtained by Lebedev [19511, who
started with the area principle.)
We mention some special cases of Theorem 3. In the first place, if n = n'= 1
and S I = I S I = P > 1, then (8) gives the sharp inequality (the subscripts are
omitted for t;)
Ilog F(CC-C (C') <-log (1-(10)
with equality holding for the function F(C) = t;+ e`L/t;.E E, where a is a real
constant (Goluzin [1947]).
Second, if n = n' = 2, YI=Y2 =1, Y2 YI 1, C2 C1, and t`Z =-SI,
we obtain the inequality
log (F (C) - F (Cl)) (F (-C}-F-(- C')) (C + C')' (F(C)-F(-C'))(F(-C)-F(C'))(C-C')s

2 log 11-+ Pe
1
which, if F(t;) is an odd function, yields the sharp inequality of Bazilevic [19511
and Milin (see Lebedev and Milin [19511):
l+
log (F (C) - F (C')) (C + C') log Pp . (11)
g (F (C) + F (C')) (C - C') I 1 1
P'
§2. SHARPENING OF DISTORTION THEOREMIS 123
with equality holding for the same function F()). (Inequality (11) also follows
= n' =1 and
from(9)for n=n' I b1 I = 161 I =P> 1.)
The applications of formulas (4) and (5) are effectively used.
Theorem 4. Suppose that f(z) = In E S. If we set
F(C)=
((Ill
ICI>landlog F(C «')
C
;(C)'
00
E ak, t (: ICI / l I,I l

k, 1=1
where the ak,t are rational functions of the coefficients ck, then, for arbitrary
values of the complex variables xk (where k = 1, 2, , n with n > 1),
n n
( 12)
, ak,I xkxr k l9
k,1=1 k=1
In the case of real values of xk, equality holds in (12) for the functions f(z) _
z/(1 ±z)2.
Proof. We can confine ourselves to functions f (z) E S'. In this case, the
ak,1 have an integral representation (4) with the functions bk(t) subject to condi-
tions (5). Therefore,
n oo n oo n
E ak, txk,xt = - 2 E bk (t) b, (t) xkxldt = -2S (E bk (t) xk\2 dt
k, 1=1 0 k, 1=1 0 h=1 /J
and, consequently,
n 00 n 2 ao n (t)xk_xidt.
Y ak,1XkXI 2S E bk (t) Xk dt = 2 S E b, (t) bt (13)

k, 1=I 0 k=1 0 k, 1=1
On the basis of (5), this yields inequalities (12). In the case of functions f(z) _
z/(1 ± Z)2, we have k (t) = ± 1 for 0 < t < so that the functions b k (t) for
k = 1, 2, - -, corresponding to them are real. Therefore, equality holds in the
conditional inequality (13) for these functions when the values of xk, k = 1,2,
, n, are real. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Schiffer [19481 proved the sharpness of inequalities (12) for arbitrary complex
values of xk.
As a generalization of inequality (12), let us prove, under the same condi-
tions,
M n
I Yak, exkxe
k=I1=1
AMW
J Ixkl' k=1
k
l=1
x18
1
where in > 1, n > 1, and xk and x1' are arbitrary complex numbers (for k = 1,
2,---,m and l= 1, n.)
Let us prove two more theorems for functions in the class .
Theorem 5. For functions F (,'') E I and arbitrary v = 1, , n, where

n > 2, on the circle I C1 = p, p > 1, we have
2
H
F (C,) - F (C,,)
CY - CY
}(1-:)2(n_I)II CYCyr
n (14)
Y$Y Y#Yr
In the derivatives, v and v range over all pairs of values v, v' = 1, ,n

except coincidental ones (v = v' ).
Proof. In (6), let us take for a v, two systems of numbers av v, and av v,
satisfying the conditions of Theorem 1 and let us divide the resulting inequalities
one by the other. We then obtain as one of the inequalities the following:
R
F(CY) I,% 1 aY' Yr - Yr aY' Y V,
-Y /
n
Yr Vr=I
CY __ CVr II 1
Y, Yro1
CYCY.
1
(15)
In particular, since the forms

xi--+...+xng
+xjx8-,-...+xn_1xn.= (xl+...-}, xn)

X; + ... + x'R-n-1 (xtx9 + ... + xR_lxn) = 2 (n I 1
) I (xV
Y$Y'
xY,)
are both positive, we can set

= 1, v, v' = 1, ..., n,
1 for v=v',
n.
aY, Y _
- n-1 1 for v -A v;
We then obtain the inequality

F (CY) - F (Cv,) - I l a )2- 2 2
11
V # V.
CY - CYr
Ycl
\l nil
YY `
(Y(,
I
1
n
(16)
with I v I = p, v = 1, , n, this yields inequality (14). This completes the

Theorem 6. Let n denote an integer > 2. Let Ev denote distinct numbers
such that Ie, = 1, v = 1,
I , n. Let F denote a function belonging to I. Then,
on the circle k 1 = p, p > 1,
max (17)
n p
where A is positive and depends only on n and cv, v = 1, 2, , n.

Proof. We apply inequality (14) for Sv = ev C, v = 11 , n, and I I = P.
Denoting by M the maximum on the left-hand side of (17), we have
f' 5'r F ( t) I 2n(n t)M4(n 1).
Y#Y
Furthermore, on the circle I I = p, we have
I=Arpn(n-t),
Y#r rjIE,C-e.CI=p'(n-1)TTIEv-`v
V:;1-V'
I1. 1- _1 f 1 min lI 1--

I<P<00 Y#r,
1
r$r evev P VEV'P
Here, A 1 and A 2 are positive and they depend only on n, a 1, , Ev.

Keeping all this in mind, we obtain from (14)
2n(n- t)Mn(n-t) AjAQpn(n-1) (I
19 )S(n-t)
P /
which yields inequality (17). This completes the proof of the theorem.
We now have the following sharpened bounds on the modulus of a function
belonging to the class S:
Theorem 7. Let n denote an integer > 2. Let cv, v = 1, . . . , n, denote
distinct numbers such that IEvI = 1. Then, for functions f(z) E S on the circle
z I = r, where r < 1,
Ar
min If (EYz) I C (]
V=I,.. n - r)2/n' (1S)
where A is finite and depends only on n and Ev.
Proof. Inequality (18) is obtained from (17) if we apply the latter to the func-
tion F(C) = l/f(z), where J= 1/z, and to the points Ev = l/zv and then replace
C. with F V.
We note that the exponent 2/n in the right-hand member of inequality (18)
cannot be replaced with a smaller number without additional restrictions on the
function f (z). To see this, consider the function

z
f (z) _ n
11 (1-a-0) 2/a
k=1
In I z I < 1, we have
dargf(z)
dR
-+ 2 k- n
n
I/
tkz
2
a -
1+ 2
(1_z)= k=1
z I
n
I
1-Iz12
Ekz l
>0
where z re `s. Consequently, as z moves around an arbitrary circle I z r,
where 0 < r < 1, in the positive direction, the function arg f (z) increases mono-
tonically by an amount 2n; that is the point w = f (z) describes (one time around)
a closed Jordan curve. But then the function w = f (z) maps the disk I z I < r
univalently for any r in the interval 0 < r < 1. This means that f (z) E S. Now,
for 0 < r < 1, we have
r Ar
If(Evr) I- n
(1 - r)2/a
Ii I I - -8.,r I21n
km1
where A is a positive number depending only on n and e, v = 1, - - -, n. This

proves what was said regarding the sharpness of inequality (18).
We note that, for n = 2, we obtain from inequality (14) the following inequal-
ity for F (C) E 1:
F(C1)-F(ra) (19)
C1-C,
where CI and C2 are arbitrary points on the circle ICI p, where p > 1. Ine-
quality (19) is called the theorem on the distortion of chords under mapping of
the domain CI > 1 by functions belonging to the class 1. This theorem, which"
was proved by the author, l) has found numerous applications. Here, we mention
the direct elementary derivation (given by Milin) 2) of inequality (19) and also of
inequality (10).
Specifically, the function'() = log [F(O - F(io)], where ICO I > 1, is
regular and univalent in I< I CI < I CO I, and its expansion in that annulus has
1) Goluzin [1946e].
2) Lebedev and Milin[1951], inequality (11.1).
the form
log
F(C)-F(Co) +log(-Co)+ log (1- )
C Co Co
-
Co
_
- ` Cn an (Co)
}- log (- Co)
1
a (Co
C n
n=l n=l
Therefore, the area S of the bounded domain bounded by the image CP of the
circle I z I = p, where 1 < p < 1 Co I, is 4\qual to
00
S- a-
\ Il
n I an
p
fn l n ( 1 1 )
2nl
10
CIO 0
ICoI/2n
11
log(1-Iol9}
n=1 n=1
If we now let p approach 1, this yields

Co
nan(C0)I9c-log(1- IC )
n=1
Now we have, for 1 < I 1 < Co 1,

00 00
l F(C)-'F(C0) t5:_ lan(Co)I n an

log C - Co _ _I C In
I C In
I
n-l
nIa_(Co)14' nJC1 n
n- -
n-
(1 - - C7
C Is) log (1
which, as we let I Co I approach I I = p, yields
log F (CC (Co)

c- log (1- P9),
_F ICI=ICoI=P>1.
If we now replace the absolute value with the real part taken with a minus sign,
we obtain inequality (19). We note that inequality (11) can be derived in the same
way.
§3. Extrema and majorizations of the type of the distortion theorems

The method of variations also enables us to establish a number of results of
the distortion-theorem type and to calculate completely the extremal functions. 1)
Furthermore, in the investigation of extrema of certain quantities, we are able to
ascertain their ranges of values.
We shall stop here to go into only one theorem in detail.
Theorem 1. Let n denote a positive integer. Let y,,, v = 1, , n, denote
n complex numbers, not all zero. Let S1, Cn denote distinct complex num-
bers in the domain ICI > 1. Let F denote a function belonging to E. Then, we
have the sharp inequality
/
I\
j
n
-1
7Y7 109
n
.,--1
7,7y, log (1 - (1)
Equality holds in (1) only for functions defined in the domain > 1 by the
equation
n jjn
logF(C -C (C.)_-L7, (2)

.=1 1 1og11-
y
These functions map the domain > 1 onto the entire w-plane with a cut along
the curve defined by the equation
(2]n
7, log (zap - F (C )))=const. (2')
Furthermore, for I CI > 1, we have the inequality
n n
log F (C') - F (C,.) < 7y7V-log 1
_ l ,), (3)
Cy - C, C,t,
.,=1
.' -t
which defines the range of values for the summation on the left. Thus, for arbi-
trary given yv and t;',,, v = 1, 2, , n, this range of values is a disk.
Proof. Let us find the maximum of the quantity
n
IF = (L 7'7y' log F (CIJ _ 1 (C 1))

., v'=I
C' C,
(4)
for given y and [;v, v = 1, 2, , n, and for F(t) ranging over the entire
class 1.
1) Goluzin [19471.
§3 EXTREMA AND MAJORIZATIONS 129
Since the quantity IF has the same value for functions that differ from each
other by a constant amount, this maximum coincides with the maximum IF in the
subclass E0 of functions F(J) of the class I such that F(O 0 in ICI > 1.
That this maximum is attained follows from the normality of the class 7.0. Suppose
that w = F(t) E !0 is one of the a'tremal-functions. Let us suppose that the
image B of the domain I CI > 1 under the mapping w = F (C) has an exterior
point w0 . Then, let us form the varied function F. (0 E 10 by using formula
(25) of §3 of Chapter III with m = 1 and with w1 replaced with w0.
For this function, we have
n (F,-Fy,)(1-AA1
IF*= at( E 7r7r' log C - C' I
V, V-1
IF-X ( Al 7r7r'
(Fv -- W0) (P"' - tD0)
.
)+ (4)
[Here and in what follows we shall write for brevity, Fv instead of F(Cv).]
Since w0 can always be chosen in such a way that the last sum is nonzero, we
obtain IF. > IF for small ,A > 0 and suitable arg A 1. But this contradicts the
extremality of the function F(J). Consequently, the domain B cannot have
exterior points.
Let us now turn to the varied function (26) of §3 of Chapter III with m = 1
and with t 1 replaced with CO , where ICI > 1. For this function we have
a
F'2
IFS =1F Al 17r7r'
(Fv - FO) (Fr' FO)
v,r'-1
C'FF C''F'y'
It
l9 F 4
n
_ Y
Al 7r7,' (C0 F 0 J - Al (C F v' Lr

0
7,7"
r' - 1
0 F-F.v r
C,F, C"F",
1
A1(Ca COC, -1 toC,, -1 I+ 0 (A2).
+ 0 9 n 7r7r' Fy - Fr. l 1
r,r'-1
(Here, all the ratios representing indeterminate forms must be replaced with the
ratios of derivatives.) If we replace the last term in the large parenthetical ex-
pression following $2 with its complex conjugate, we conclude on the basis of
the arbitrariness of arg A 1 and the extremality of F (C), that the quantity in the
parentheses following R after we divide by the common factor A 1 must be equal
to zero because otherwise, for suitable choice of A 1, we would have IF. > 1F,
which would contradict the extremality of the function F(C). This leads to the
condition
n it
00 (Fv - Fo)
-1
n vFr
C2 1F. Cv"F"r"
-}- N TT, C, - Cr Co-Cr,

v v
F,
V r'_1 - Fv,
C. FY Cr,F;,
- r _1
TrTr'
Cc-I Coc,, - 1
Fr-F," (5)
Since 4 in this equation is an arbitrary point in the domain I CI > 1, if we

replace Co with C, we obtain the differential equation that the extremal function
F (C) must satisfy. We denote the right-hand member of this equation by A (c).
Let us show that A(C) > 0 everywhere on ICI = 1. To show this, let us consider
a function t = z/i(Z) where 1/1(00) = 00 and 1/i' (oo) > 0, that maps the domain
I CI > 1 univalently onto the domain t I > 1 with a small radial cut issuing from
I
the point t = e'`B. This function is obviously obtained from the equation
teie-}- to=(1 +h) (Cete-+ -'Ceie) +2h
with h > 0. From this we obtain, for small h,
1-Ceie+0("' COO)=1+h.
By means of the function l/i(C), let us define the following function in the class
(
Fl (C) _ F (C) - h (F (C) + CF (C) I, 0 w).
For this function,
n
IF.=1F-h(Y TvTv
n CYF'r+Y -Cr"F'r" C+Cy"

C-C ,) + 0(h2),
+ 7r7y Fr - Fr.
r, r1 = 1
where r= do.
Then, by virtue of the extremality of FW, we obtain, for all t on the circle 1
§3. EXTREMA ANP MAJORIZATIONS 131
n n C F' C+CY -Cy,F',,C

+C,,
r
IVIV
V, Y1= 1 V, V1
If we denote the left-hand member of this inequality by B (0, we have B 0

on the circle I CI = I.
On the other hand, on this circle we have
n
A (C)-B (C)=12
C"F', -C"F'y,))
TvTy'(1- F, - F, , JJ (6)
Y, 1
Let us show that the right-hand member of this equation is equal to zero. To
do this, let us again consider the function F0 = e-`BF(e`B/') E E0 for different
real values of 0. The quantity IF, attains its maximum on the interval 0 < 0 <
2rr at 0 = 0. Therefore, (dIF6/d0)I B=o=0, which, in expanded form is equivalent
to vanishing of the right-hand member of ( 6). Thus, on the circle 1, we have
0.
It follows from this result that, if the rational function A (C) has zeros on
the circle CI = 1, all these zeros are of even multiplicity because the increase
in arg A (4) as C moves around a small circle with center at any of these zeros
will, by virtue of the principle of symmetry, be equal to twice the increase in
arg A (C) as C moves around an arc lying in ICI > 1 and this last increase is
equal to an integral multiple of 27r. Therefore, the function VrjT?) is regular and
real on ICI = 1. Turning now to the differential equation (5) (with CO replaced
with C), we note that twice the sum in its left-hand member can be represented in
the form
n
( TY
1
Consequently, this equation can be written in the form

n
C. I F, T' F = A (C) .
V=1
If we solve it we get the following dependence of F(O on j_
v.1
7, log (Fy -F) -- S A (C) CC = C (C), (7)
which holds in I CI > 1.

If we take an arbitrary boundary wo of the domain B and denote by Co the

corresponding point on ICI = 1 under the mapping C = F -1(w), we conclude by
passing to the limit that equation (7) holds (with wo instead of F) holds between
o and wo. In this sense, equation (7) also holds on 1. Also, since
51 (C(C)) _ ( ae)) _ (1CC (-)) _ f (I i/A (C)) = 0,
on the circle 1, where C= ee, it follows that the right-hand member of

equation (7) and, hence, the right-hand side of the transformed equation
rsl lT,log Cy-C +7ylog(1 finI
( 11
C (C) -
V=1
(7, log G., - ) - 7ylog \ 1 - (8)
will have a constant real part on ICI 1. But this means that the sum on the left
side of (8) has a real part that is constant everywhere in the domain I C1 > 1
because it is a harmonic function in ICI > 1 and hence it cannot attain its maxi-
mum or minimum in I C1 > 1. From this we conclude that the left-hand side of (8)
is a constant everywhere in I C1 > 1. Then, by considering its behavior at
we conclude that this constant is equal to zero.
Thus, for an extremal function, we have proved equation (2) in > 1 and
we have proved equation (2') for the boundary of the domain B.
Let us now set C= Sv, in (2), multiply both sides by and sum over
v' = 1, , n. We then obtain for the extremal function
n
/
1p=- log (I 1
(The sum on the right is, of course, real.) This proves inequality (1) with the
supplementary conclusion regarding the equality sign. Furthermore, if we replace
-
yv for v = 1, . , n in (1) with yve`B, where 0 is an arbitrary real number, we
obtain the following sharp inequality,
n n
e T-a" log F (Cy) - F (C,,) log

C'-Cy% / L+ 7y7y' CyC y
r, .1=1 V. V-1
which, by the virtue of the arbitrariness of 0, implies inequality (3). But this
also shows that the set of values of the quantity
§3. EXTREMA AND MAJORIZATIONS 133
F (CY ")
WF log F (C°) -
Gr Cy
V. r'=l
for given yv and v = 1, 2, . , n, and for F(C) ranging over the entire class
1, completely covers the circle
I wl=-
V,
7Y7,' log(1 - CyC,,)
(9)
WF,p= I ii,'1ogF(pC) pCy(PC,,) (10)

r'ml
with the same yv and Cv and with given p > 1. From what we have proved, as
FM ranges over the entire class F,, the values W = WF.P cover the entire circle
IW
V, %'ml
7J,'log( 1 - 1
P'CYCY, )
But from the construction of the quantity (10), we can easily see that
WFtC),p WF(PC)'
where F(pC)/p E F, if F(O E I . This shows that the set of values of WF as

F(C) ranges over the entire class F, also covers the circle (11). As p ranges
from 1 to oo, the corresponding set of circles (11) covers the entire disk
I
n
WI- V. V'= l
7y7Y'log(1-C
l
which, therefore, is the range of values for WF. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
For n = 1, inequality (3) takes the form
IlogF'(C)I-1og(1-IClla), (12)
and inequality (1) takes the form, with yl = e'a

ffI(e9=alogF(C))c-log (1-I I2
1
- 2 cac 2 . (13)
Here, equality holds in (13) with C= S1 only when Lcf. (2')] the function F(O
maps the domain I CI > 1 onto the w-plane with cut along an arc of the curve
defined by the equation
ffi (e' log (w - F (Ci)) = const. (14)
But equation (14) defines a logarithmic spiral with asymptotic point at w = F(CI)
such that rays issuing from that point intersect the spiral at an angle 77/2 - a. In
the special cases a= 0 and a= rr/2, this spiral degenerates respectively into a
circle with center at the point F(C1) and a ray issuing from F(C1).
For a= 0 and a= rr/2, we obtain from inequality (13) the distortion theoreml)
for the class E:
I- F'(C)I< 1 (15)
I C12
From what has been said above, the least upper bound is attained for = S1 only
by a function w = F (C) that maps the domain 141 > 1 onto the w-plane with cut
along an arc of the circle with center at the point w = F(CI) and the greatest
lower bound is attained only by a function F(C) that maps the domain I CI > 1
onto the plane with cut along a segment of the ray issuing from the point F(J1).
Here, F(C1) obviously can be chosen arbitrarily.
We give yet another application of Theorem 1.
Let us apply inequality (1) in the case n = 2, first for y j = e and Y2 - ei a

and then for yj = ieà and y2 = -ie", where a is a real number. Then let us add
the results. We obtain
F (C3 r
1 (e2" log =e(C.))c - 2 log [(1 IC
r i, )
Cl
1
Cl i,)
9
log
F(tl)- (CQ) I<- 2 1og[(1 l((
- I I$1
(16)
8 ) ! I C, 19)]
.
Equality can hold in (16) only if the functions F(C) E E for which equations of
the type (2) hold simultaneously in the domain I CI > 1. If we add and subtract
these equations, multiplied respectively by 1 and i, we obtain the following
two equations:
F(C)-F(C,)_(1_ 1 -e-2ia
C-C. 1,2,
CC'
or
1 -e - 2ia v=1, 2.
F(C)=F(CY)+(C-CY)(1- Cc,) ,
In particular, from (16) with a= rr/2 and IC1I = IC2I = P, where p> 1, we again
obtain the sharp inequality
1) Loewner [19191J.
§3 EXTREMA AND MAJORIZATIONS 135
F(C2)
(17)
C, - Cs
Here from what was said above, equality holds only for the function
QiO
F(C) =C- +const,
argC1-}-argC2.
Furthermore, for a i and C1 4 C2, inequality (16) will not be sharp because,
if it were, the extremal function F(C) would, as follows from the corresponding
equations of the type (2'), map the circle I CI = 1 onto an arc of a logarithmic
spiral with asymptotic point simultaneously at F(CI) and at F(C2) or ( for a= 0)
onto an arc of the circle with center simultaneously at F(C1) and F(C2), which
is impossible.
With regard to the complete answer of the question that we have touched on
here, we present the following theorem:
Theorem 2. Let a denote a real number and let C1 and t 2 denote distinct
complex numbers outside the disk ICI > 1. Then, among the functions F(O E Y,
the function maximizing the quantity
legta iog
F (L8) 1 (18)
(C )- F
maps the domain ICI > 1 onto the entire w-plane with cut along the curve defined
by the equation
w _ F1±Fs+ F1-F2 (e(c+ioe to (c+il)e-à
2 2 + C (19)
where t is a real parameter defining points of the curve. For a= 0, this will be
a cut along the ellipse with foci at F1 and F2. For a= n/2, it will be a cut
along the hyperbola with foci at F 1 and F 2,
Proof. Following the same reasoning as in the proof of Theorem 1, let us
show that extremal functions exist, that each of them maps the domain ICI > 1
onto a domain B without exterior points, and that each of them in I I > 1 satisfies
a differential equation of the form
efia
Cg F e
(F- F=
s)
Q C(F-F1)
where Q(C) is a rational function that is real and nonnegative on I4I=1.

When we solve this equation, we get the following dependence of w = F(C)
on C:
which also holds on the circle IC I = 1. From this we conclude, just as above,
that all boundary points of the domain B satisfy the equation
eialog( w-Fl- w-F9)=c+2lt,
where c = const and t is real.
When we solve this equation for w, we obtain a parametric representation of
the boundary of the form (19). This completes the proof of the theorem.
We mention without proof 1) that the quantity
W- =log F (Cl) -F (Cs)
Cl - CA
has, for arbitrary C1 and C2, a disk for its range of values. But neither the
radius nor the center of that disk can be expressed in terms of S1 and S2 by the
use of elementary functions.
Theorem 3.2) For functions F(C) = C + a1/C+... E E, we have the sharp
inequality
F(C) -}- 1 - I
C A- -2 -<:: 2-2 (20)
in I Cl > 1. Here we use the notation
K (k) _ c dx
- (1- x$) (1- A'x')'
(20')
1 - k9x9
E (k) = SJ dz.
1 - x9
0
Inequality (20) defines the range of values for the quantity F(0/C for arbitrary
given C in the domain ICI > 1. Consequently, this range is a disk.
Proof Let us look at the problem of maximizing the quantity
(e91a F
IF = Rt (C))
1) Goluzin [1947 I.
2) Theorems 3 and 4 were proved by the author (see Goluzin [1943a1 ).
for given where >.h.nd for F(C) ranging over all the functions
F(C) = C+ aI/C+ E Obviously, this maximum coincides with the maximum
of the quantity
rF = R (ells (F (Ci)
- an))
among all the functions F(0 E E. ( Here a0 is the constant term in the La urent
expansion of F(C).) But I`" has equal values for nonconstant functions F(0 EE.
Therefore, among the extremal functions of this last problem there are functions
without zeros in Icl > I. Let F(C) denote one of them.
By applying the varied function (25) of §3 of Chapter III, let us show that the
image B of the domain ICI > 1 under the mapping w = F (C) does not have exterior
points. If we then apply the varied function (26) of the same section, we get the
following differential equation for F (C) in ICI > 1:
C9F'4 Fe9i F1= Q (C),
where Q (0 is a rational function such that Q (C) > 0 on ICI = 1. If we now

solve this equation, we conclude that the extremal function F(C) satisfies on
J C I = 1 the equation
Rt(e'a F(C)-F(C1))=c, c=const. (21)
Resting on this circumstance, we can construct an explicit expression for the

function F(C). We need only consider the case 6 > I.
Then, we have, on 16 = I.
I4=(C-C1) (I-C,C)
IC-C, C
If we divide (21) by I4- S1 I, we get

C (F (C) F
t(e ,a (C-C,)(1-C1C))-c
(C-C1)(1-C,C)
(22)
Since the function
V (C-C1)(I-C1C)
is regular in CI > 1 and, obviously, continuous on I CI > 1 and since its real
part on ICI = 1 is given by formula (22), this function itself in ICI > 1 is deter-
mined by the Schwarz formula (the integral is taken in the counterclockwise
direction):
C(F(C)-F(C1)) c C'+ Cdt'
e
to
V (C - C1) (1-C1C) ttIt'I S
C'
(C'-C,)(1-C,C')C'-C C' -{ ict (23)
From this we obtain F(C). To determine the real constants c and c1 and also
F(C) - ao, we use the normalization of F(O. Specifically, if we understand
the radical appearing in (23) as referring to that branch that approaches 1 as
V o and equate the constant terms and coefficients of 1/C in the expansions
of the two sides of (23) about = we have
e1' c dC'
2xl`, k1 (24)
t C,
=1 C7(C1-C')(1-C1C')
is
(
+'ao(Ct))=- (25)
2i 1C1-{-C1 C'(C, CC)(1-C1C')
IC'I=t
Let us make cuts along the real axis of the C'-plane from 0 to 1/C1 and
from C1 to 0o and if we take for
_00 - C1C')
YC' (C1-
that branch that is positive on the right-hand side of the cut (0, 1/r;'1). Since the
integrands in (24) and (25) are regular in the cut planes, we can deform the paths
of integration and, in particular, we can constrict them to the path extending from
1/C1 to 0 along the upper side of the cut and then from 0 to along the
lower side of the cut (0, 1/C1).
As a result, we obtain
ti
I
ele
C1
c
n JC'
dC'
(1 -C1C')
+ 1C , (26)
I
era II 2c ' C'dC'
2i
C'+ + -ao- F (C1))=n C'(C1-C')
(27)
where the radicals are understood to mean their positive values. By equating the.
real (and imaginary), parts of the two sides of (26), we determine c and c I. We
then obtain from (27) an expression for F (C) - ap :
C1
C'dC'
`
O VC'(C1-C')(1-C1C')
9ia - 1)
,F (CI)-Qo=CI- 1
C1+2(e 1
dC'
3/ C' (C1- C') (1- C1C')

If we make the substitution -xs SjS' in these two integrals and use the
notation (20 ') for complete elliptic integrals, we obtain
r1
F(C,)-ao=Ci+C +2C,(e-sta-1)r 1-E1C/
T,
K(
For the maximum that we are seeking, we have
(Ci
E (1 _E 1
IF=OR (e2'% CI)+2CI .+2Ct 1
K K \C,
From this it follows that for all the functions F(C) _
From + aI/C+ E E and arbi-
trary given a, we have
-E(C1l
(F)+C-
1 1
es;a 2C 1 (28)
K1C/
for t> 1. By virtue of the arbitrariness of a in (28), we obtain inequality (20).
That this inequality also holds for complex C in the domain ICI > 1 follows from
examination of the function The remaining conclusion regarding the
range of values of F(C)/C is proved just as in Theorem 1. This completes the
Theorem 4. For functions F(0 E I in > 1, we have the sharp inequality
E(ICI /1-E\ICI/
CF"(C) 41C 1--2
IC19-1
41CIO c 4101' Ir
KÌCII I (29)
P(C) + ICI'-1 K11Cl/
Inequality (29) determines the range of values of the function V"(0/P(C)
for arbitrary given C in ICI > 1. Consequently, this range is a disk .
Proof. When the function F(C) belongs to the class so does the function
0 F )
FI ( C )
F 1±.ICLC I')
r
+ 2 (1 - I Ct Is) \ =c -I +...
for every CI in ICI > 1 and conversely.
If we apply inequality (20) to FI(C) at the point C= ZI , we obtain inequal-
ity (29) for C_ CI . Conversely, from (29) we can obtain (20). To do this, note
first that, if f(z) E S, then, by applying (29) to the function F(O ^ 1/f(11C), we
obtain in I z I < 1 the inequality
z f " (z) 2 z f ' (z) + ' 4 - 2 1 z 1' + 4 E (I z 1)

2
f' (Z) f(Z) l -IzI' 1-IZ13K(IZU
4Iz12(1-K(Izl) (30)
Second, if f(z) = z + c2z2 + E S, then, by applying (30) to the function

f1fc+z
g(c)= f-(Z)(1-Iz12)
...Es
(where I z I < 1) at the point t; = - z, we obtain in I z I < 1 the inequality
If(z)+c2z+1-Izj2-2 (31)
(LO
Finally, if F(C) = C+ a1/C+ E I and F(0 1 c in C1 > 1, then, by apply-
ing (31) to the function f (z) = 1/[F (1/z) - c] E S, we obtain inequality (20) in
CI > 1. From this we get the conclusions on the range of values. This completes
§4. Application of the method of variations to other extremal

problems
In all the cases considered in §3, the method, of variations led to complete
solution of the extremal problems. This method can also be applied to various
other extremal problems. However, final solution of the problem frequently de-
pends on the determination of a certain number of unknown constants. We shall
now stop to look at certain problems of this type. l)
Let us now apply the method of variations to the investigation of the extremum
of the average diameter of the boundary of the image of the domain > 1 under
functions of the class . .2)
Theorem 1. Let F(0 denote a function belonging to I. Let n denote an
integer > 2. Let PF denote the least upper bound of the product
Ia, - avI (1)
V$YI
over all systems of n points av, v = 1, -, n, located on the boundary of the
image of the domain ICI > 1 under the function w = F(O. (The product (1) is
1) See Goluzin [1946f, 1947, 1951d].

2) Goluzin [1947, 1949c].
§4. METHOD OF VARIATIONS 141
taken overall pairs of distinct-numbers v, v' taken from 1, , n.) Let Pdenote
the least upper bound of the quantity PF over all functions F E Y'. Then P is
attained by some function w = F (C) that maps the domain I ' > I onto the entire
w-plane with analytic cuts and that satisfies the, differential equation
C2
[F1p12
1 1
(F(C) - a") (F (C) - a",)

-n1
(n - ) (2)
in 1.
Proof. In addition to the quantities Pp and P mentioned in the statement of

the theorem, we define the following: for a given function F(C) E L_ we denote
by PP ' F the maximum of the product
[1 I F (C P) - F (C",. P) (3)
V:f V,
over all possible systems of points C"P1v = 1, , n, on the circle ( = P,
where p > 1, and we denote by PP the maximum of PPP. F over all F (C) E 1.
By virtue of the normality of the class 1, the maximum PP obviously is
attained. Let FP(C) denote one of the extremal functions. We denote by C"'P,
for v = 1, , n, the points on the circle p for which the quantity (3), set
up for the function FP(C), attains its maximum PP. For the system of these
points Cv, P, let us consider the extremal problem of Theorem 1 of §3. One of
the extremal functions in that problem is obviously FP(C). It follows from the
proof of Theorem 1 (equation (5) with y,,,, v = 1 for v v' and y v, = 0 for
v = v') that the function FP(S) must satisfy in the domain > 1 the differen-
tial equation
[CF (C)]9 I
V :Pl
v
(F(C) - F", P) (F(C) - F"',P)
C'V.FF"P
F'
=n(n- I)+2 1
11 (F",P - Fv'. P) (C - Cv,P)
CV, PF". P
v,P-Fv, p) (ft,, , - I) (4)
where F,"P= FP(CvI P).

The right-hand member of this equation can be simplified further. Note that,
if we replace one of the values Cv, P with Cv, Peta in the expression (3) written
for FP(C) and for the values Cv, P, where v = 1, , n, we obtain a function of
a defined in the interval - rr < a< rr that attains its maximum at a= 0. Therefore,
the derivative of the logarithm of this function vanishes at a= 0 and this leads
to the condition
Cv,P.F, P _ o,
V1=1
Fv,P-Fv'.P
v,
where the summation is over all v' = 1, , n excluding = v. Since this
equation holds for all v = 1, , n, we conclude that the numbers
n
v Cv, PFv, v=1, n,
F, P - , -P
V'=1
are all real. Therefore, the last term on the right side of equation (4) is equal to
Cv, PFV. P
v v'
(Fv,p-Fv, P)(CCr,p-1)
Then, it can easily be combined with the preceding term. As a result, equation (4)
takes the form
1
[CF' (C)]'
VI (F (C) - F, p) (F (C) - Fv',P)
=n(n-1)-2C 1
}, (FY Fv,
1)
) (C - Cv, p)'pFr'P
(C-C, p -1)
(5)
vt-v'
for w = FP(C) in ICI > 1.
Now, by virtue of the normality of the class 1, the condensation principle

can be applied to the functions FP(C), treated as functions of the parameter p > 1.
Thus, we can choose a sequence of functions that has the following properties as
p --> 1:
1) FP(C) converge in > 1 to a function F(C) E 1,
2)
Sv, P,
v = 1, , n, converge to some Cv, v= 1, , n;
3) Fv, P, v = 1, , n, converge to av (points on the boundary of the image of
the domain > 1, under the mapping w = F(J));
4) 1) IF, (Cv,dI converge to certain finite numbers. This last is
possible, because, for example, from the second of inequalities (15) of §3 for
F (C) e I in I C1 > 1 we have (1 - 1/I CI ) I F'( C) I < 1. We note that the points
av, for v = 1, , n, are all distinct because, otherwise, for the chosen p ---, 1
we would have PP --+ 0, which is impossible since it is easy to find a positive

lower bound for PP that does not depend on p (calculating, for example, PP, F,
where F (C) _ e .
If, for the sample made, we take the limit in equation (5), written for F =
FP(C), as p -- 1, we obtain the following differential equation for F(C) in
ICI>1:
[CF'V'2 \ Y#Y
1
(F(C)-a,,)
n
=n(n- 1)+C
Y=I
I C,
9, cY = const. (6)
It is now easy to show that cv = 0 for v = 1, - - , n: We write equation (6) in inte-

gral form:
1
a,,) dF
S
Y#Y
(F- aY) (F-
A I
nn-1 cY
]
Y=1
If some cv 10, then, in a neighborhood of the point the left-hand member of
(7) is bounded whereas the right-hand member behaves like log which
is impossible. Thus equation (7) reduces to the form (1).
We need also to show that the function FW that we have obtained is the
extremal function in the problem mentioned in the formulation of the theorem. To
do this, we note that, for given c > 0 and fixed pI sufficiently close to 1 but
greater than 1, we have P > PP1 F - c. Furthermore, for a sequence p' -- 1, p' > 1,
such that FP, (J) --+ F(C) we have, from some point on PP1,F - c > PPI,FPS -
2c > PP, F , - 2c = PP, - 2c. Consequently, P > PP, - 2E. On the other hand, for
these same values of p ' , we have PP, _> P. This shows that PP, --+ P; that is,
the function F(J) exhibited above is extremal.
It remains to show that w = F(C) maps the domain > 1 onto the entire
w-plane with analytic cuts. The analyticity of the arcs constituting the boundary
of the image follows from equation (2). We denote this image by B. That B does
not have any exterior points follows from the fact, that, if it did, we could, with-
out changing PF, add on to B a two-dimensional segment and then for the func-
tion w = F. (c), with IF'(-) I < 1, mapping I CI > 1 onto the modified domain B'
we would have I F. (..) i < 1, by Lindelof's principle. But then the function w =
F' (01F*(-) E I would give PF a higher value than the function F (c), in
contradiction to the extremality of F(C). This completes the proof of the theorem.
The problem considered in Theorem l with n = 2 constitutes the problem of
the extremum of the ordinary diameter of the boundary of the image of the domain
16 1 > 1 under the mapping w = F (C) E Y.. Its solution is well known: P = 4, and
the extremal function is the function F (C) = £+ ??IC + const, where l1l = 1. This
same result can easily be obtained by solving equation (2) with n = 2. The com-
plete solution of this problem for arbitrary n is laborious. We note that the func-
tion F(0 = C(1 + rl/C")21n E E, satisfies equation (2) for arbitrary n > 2 also,
for this function av = 22/net n"il" for v = 1, - , n. However, for the case n = 3,
we can carry the solution through to the end.
Theorem 2. Let F(C) denote a function belonging to E. Then, for arbitrary
points a1, a2, a3 on the boundary of the image of ICl > 1 under the mapping
w=F(C),
l (at-as)(at-aa)(as-aa) 12, (8)
with equality holding for the function
2
F()=C(I+to IT11=1. (9)
Proof. Let us consider the extremum of the left-hand member of inequality

(8) over the points a1, a2, and a3 mentioned in the theorem and all functions
F(C) E E. We arrive at the problem considered in Theorem 1 with n = 3. One of
the functions providing this extremum must, in accordance with Theorem 1, satisfy
the differential equation (2), which for n = 3 can be written in the form
F
(C)-a1+a,+a8
3
`2 [F (Q]9 (F(C)-a1)(F(C)-a9) (F(C)-a.)=1. (10)
Here, a 1, a2 , and a3 are boundary points providing the corresponding maximum

for the left-hand member of (8).
The fraction on the left side of (10) cannot be reduced further. To see this,
suppose, for example, that (a1 + a2 + a3)/3 = a1, that is, that (a2 + a3)/2 = a1.
Then, since lag - a3 l < 4, we would have j al - a2 l < 2, la, - a3 1 < 2, and,
consequently, P < 16, whereas for the function (9), which maps the disk lCl > 1
onto the w-plane with three rectilinear cuts extending from the point w = 0 to
the points 22/3i71/3e2rrv`/3 for v = 1, 2, 3, the maximum of the right-hand mem-
her of (8) is equal to 12/3, which exceeds 16.

But if the fraction cannot be reduced, the function F(C) must have expan-
sions of the form
F(C) = av + c9( - C + ... , c2/:O,
in neighborhoods of the points for v = 1, 2, 3, on ICI = 1 corresponding to

,
the points a 1, a2, a3. These expansions show that av , for v = 1, 2, 3, are the
endpoints on the boundary of the image of the domain I z I > 1 under the mapping
w = F(C) and the point (aI + a2 + a3)/3 is a multiple boundary point out of which
issue the boundary arcs extending to av for v = 1, 2, 3.
Since the extremality of the function F (C) is not lost when we add a constant
to it, let us normalize the function in such a way that a1 + a2 + a3 = 0. If this
extremal function has an expansion
then, by substituting it into equation (10) (with a1 + a2 + a3 = 0), we find that

a,a,aa.
a0=0' a t= - - alas+alas+a9aa
4 ay= 6 (11)
Suppose now that x3 + px + a is a polynomial with zeros x= a 1, a2, a3. Then,
p = alai + alas + alas = - 4alr
q= - ala2as = - 6;.
With regard to the left-hand member of (8), its square is the absolute value
of the discriminant of the equation x3 + px + q = 0, which is equal to 4p3 + 27g2,
so that we have
(at - as)(at - as)(aa - aa) I9

44,al + 30.4al I < 4(431 a, Is + 311 w 19) (12)
Now, let us find a bound for
Q=41 IaiI1+311as11 (13)
over all the functions C+ aI + in the class Y.0 to which our ex-
tremal function belongs. Let us denote by C' the image of the circle ICI = p, for
p > 1, under the mapping w = F(C). From inequality (4) of §7, we obtain, by con-
stricting the curve C to the point w = 0,
SR14): 0, x > o.
C'
146 1V. EXTREMAL QUESTIONS
From this we get, just as in §7, for A> 0 and p > 1,

2x
I F(pei) Iado -- 0.
dP
Let us apply this result with A = 3. We set

F(C)3 C3/3 (I c c
3 3
cg=2a1, c8=2aQ..
For p > 1,
00 \\
r 3 9 -2 (n- 2
Zp.
n-2
If we take only the first two terms of the series, we get, by letting
Iel11+31c911 3,
that is,
Ia112+31a2 12
Therefore, 31 a2 12 < 4/3 - I a 1 12. Consequently,

(681
QC481a',18+33.4-31 1al11=38.4-4a11 4-Ia11
Since I al 1 < 1, so that the parenthetical expression on the right is positive, we
have Q < 33 4. Therefore, in accordance with inequality (12), we have (8) with
equality holding for the function (9) with suitably chosen a1, a2, and a3 in (8).
This theorem leads to a number of corollaries.- We present one of them that
deals with the class S.
Corollary. Let f (z) denote a function belonging to S. Then, for an arbitrary
triple of points c1, c2, c3 that lie on three rays issuing from w=0 forming
equal angles with each other and that belong to the boundary of the image of the
disk I z I < 1 under the function w = f (z), we have
cl c9 c3 > 4 (14)
with equality holding for the function
f(z)= z
(1 +, za) a/a III=1. (15)
Proof. We may assume that all the cv are finite. Consider the function
F(0 = 1/f(1/t) E E0. Then, the points av = 1/cv, v = 1, 2, 3, lie on the bound-
ary of the image of the domain I CI > 1 under the function w = F (C) and, in fact,
on three rays issuing from w = 0 at equal angles with each other. From Theorem
2, we have inequality (8). On the other hand, for v v' (v, v' = 1, 2, 3, we have,
a,-a, -I a,, I9-2cos23 Ia,a,,
a,12+ Ia,,11+Ia,a,'I =31a,a,,I
and, consequeently,
(a1 - a9) (a1 - a3) (a3 - a3) I i 3 V3 I a1aSa3
This last inequality, together with (8), yields I a 1 a2 a3 l < 4, which is equivalent
to inequality (14). We verify directly that equality holds for the function (15) and
the points cv = 2-2/3q-1/3e217vi/3, v = 1, 2, 3.
Without going into detail, we mention the following. By using Schiffer's
studies [19381, one can show first that equation (10) holds in the domain ICI > 1
for an arbitrary extremal function of the type mentioned in Theorem 2 and then
that equality holds in (8) and (14) only for the functions (9) and (15) respectively.')
Let us look at the following problem on the extrema of the coefficients in
the class S.
Theorem 3. Among all the functions w = f(z) = X,°=1cvz' E S, the maximum
of the quantity
Tyco (16)
for arbitrary given n > 2 and arbitrary given complex numbers y,, for v = 1,
, n, where y,, X 0, is attained only by functions that map the disk I z I < I
onto the entire w-plane with analytic cuts that extend to w = oe without finite
multiple points and that form an angle less than n/4 with the corresponding radial
direction at each point.
Proof. The existence of extremal functions is obvious. Suppose that f (z) is
one of these. The function f (z) also maximizes the quantity
JI = t (e`, T,cy) (17)
r=1
1)(Theorems 1 apd 2 and the more general corollary of Theorem 2 have recently been
proved by Reich and Schiffer [19641 with the additional assertion that the extremal func-
tions are unique.)
where 0 is a real number, out of all functions of the class S.

Let us suppose that the image B of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w =
f (z) has an exterior point w0 . Let us form the varied function f (z) in accord-
ance with formula (21) of §3 of Chapter III with m = 1. Let us denote by (00}n
the coefficient of z' in the expansion of an arbitrary function 96(z) that is regular
at z = 0 in a neighborhood of the point z = 0, taking AA I = h. We have
"-1
f (E)
{f» (E)}" = c" + h
f () Tao J + O (hs) = c" + h I if (Ek +1 }
+ 0 (hs),
k=l °
and, consequently,
n "-I
7"1 {f(E)k+,} `+
i,» = Jj + FR llh"=11 k=1 tyk
°
J
(hs).
Since the expression in parentheses is a polynomial in 1/w0 and the coefficient

of 1/w0"'1 in that expression is equal to y / 0, this polynomial is, for the value
of w0 that we are considering and wo arbitrarily close to w0, .also nonzero for
the corresponding function f. (z) with small I h I and suitable arg h, J1- > Jf,
which is impossible. Thus B has no exterior points.
Let us now consider the varied function (24) of §3 of Chapter III with m= 1
and arbitrary z0 in the disk I z < 1. We/ have
+hf
" -hf
fI(E)' fo 'C
tf# ()}" - " l f (E) - f (Zo) ` Zo ) "
fo 1' (zof' (E)1 _f _ h-( fo ) '

-h (
zafo J 1 E- Z. f" Z 'A 1
1,
zOE'f (E) 1
1- 2°E J" + Q (I h Is)
and consequently,
n n
((ef(zo)1"-
Jf.=Jl+51 (eteh I17"(E) eieh Goofo )"Y1T"e"
- eiBh Zofo
(fo 1'
f
n
r=1
" Jzo`f' (E)1 + e'oh. (foo 1'"=f" J oE'f' (E)l)
1 Ezo J" Z' ( 3 EJ + 0(1 hIs)
n
1
1
The condition of extremality of the function f(z) requires that the inequality
Jir. < Jf hold, that is, that
(ereh f (E) re fo 1'

e h (zto fo 1'
- e reh (z too z Ef
7V
IRE) -f(zoJ., l I1TVc,
/
71{E - zo J,
a
+eie)i,(
T,l 1oE' (E)
For small IhI and arbitrary arg h, this can be true only if
ere
(r
zT
f
If
l9
/ 11
n
f (E)'
f(E)-f(zo)
}
(ere,(Yc. + et0T
v
IzE
Since (18) holds for arbitrary zo in I z I < 1, we can by replacing z0 with z

in equation (18), obtain a differential equation for f(z):
I zo)1Y-ereTV { i Eef'(E) }Y) = 0. (18)
n
ere (zf' (z)1' J f (E)' 1
f(z) f(E)-f(z)
n
(ere,(YcY JzEf (E)1 ere f zE'f (E) 11
.=t 11 + et0
1 E-Z V 7° l 1-3E lYl (19)
It follows from this differential equation that the boundary of the domain B con-
sists of a finite number of analytic arcs and that equation (19) holds for w = f(z)
on the circle I z I = 1.
Let us show that the right-hand side of formula (19) is negative for z I.
We note that a function w = O(z) that satisfies the conditions t/i(0) = 0 and
i/i' (0) > 0 and that maps the disk z I < 1 univalently onto the disk w < 1 with
I
radial cut of length r issuing from the point w = e-`q6, can be determined from the
equation
9
werI-{- were - (1 h) zero -}-
sere
)+2h, h - 4 T__8
1
For h, we obtain
yr(z)=z-hz i+zer ; +0(h9), 4+' (0)=1-h, h>0. w
Let us use this function to define a function in the class S:

zzeil
fk (z) =f ,+(((z)) =f (z) + hf (z) - hzf' (z)1 + erlp + 0 (h9).
For this function we have
n n
Jf.=Jf+hUt(e;e T+c+-e 1- Eet 0(h9).
y
Consequently, by virtue of -the extremality of f (z), we have on I z I = 1

n n
t (eie Y + efe {Ef' (E) ±E
+-1
,
v=1
17+
l i < 0. (20)
The difference between the right-hand side of (19) and the left-hand side of (20)
is equal to n n
ye+ ete
+=1 l.
But this quantity is equal to zero, as is shown by comparing its value for the func-
tion f (z) with its values for the functions e-"-"f (e àz) E S with real a. This
proves that the right-hand side of (19) is negative for z I = 1.
Let us now show that, if our extremal function w = f (z) does not map the
disk I z I < 1 onto the w-plane with rectilinear cuts that would include the point
w = 0 if extended in the opposite direction, then the real part of the quantity
n
Q zm= e;eI J f(E)°
+-I
which appears in equation (19), is positive at all finite boundary points of the
domain B. Let w0 denote an arbitrary finite point on the boundary of B. The
function
-f( )(Z
0
f*(z)=wo1Of (z)=f (z) 'w0 (21)

belongs to the class S and for this function we have
Jr. = Jf - ;7t (Q (two)) .
This shows that 92 (Q (w0 )) > 0. If 92 (Q (w0)) were equal to zero, the function
(21) would also be extremal both for the quantity (17) and for the quantity (16).
This requires that Q(w0) be equal to zero.
Let us write for the function f* (z) the equation corresponding to (19):
n
f*(E)*(E)
R* (Z), (22)
*(z)
4. METHOD OF VARIATIONS 151
This R* (z) must again be negative on I z I = 1. But

f* (E)2 _ P02 f (e),
f (z) f (E) - wo
and, consequently,
n
e"I J fs (E)'
}
v=1
f* (E)-f* (z) = Q (f (z)) - Q (wo) = Q (f(z))
7y
1
Therefore, if we replace f* (z) in (22) with its expression in terms of f (z), we

obtain
1'(Zf
1 \ww )QQf)=R*(z). (23)
If we divide (23) by (19), then, for z = 1, we have
wo
wo -f (z)1
P
=,t:- 0, 1-Y=
117
-
where T is a real number.
This last equation shows that all boundary points lie on the straight line
passing through w = 0. Since this was excluded, the contradiction that we have
obtained shows that 5 (Q (w )) > 0 at all finite points on the boundary of B. But
then we also have l2 (1/Q (w)) > 0 and we see from equation (19) that
Zf (Z)1°1< o (24)
f (_) J J
at all points on I z 1 at which f (z) is finite.
The additional conclusions on the boundary of the domain B follow from
equation (19) and inequality (24). We can see this as follows. If the boundary B
consists only of radial rays, everything is proved. On the other hand, if this is
not the case, then Q (w) 0 at all finite boundary points w and it follows from
equation (19) that none of these points can be a multiple or an angular point of
the boundary. Consequently, the boundary of the domain B consists of analytic
arcs that extend out to ° . Furthermore, it follows from inequality (24) that, for a
suitable value of the argument, we have
arg
zf (z) + < 71
f (z) 2 4
on the entire boundary of the domain. But the quantity on the left-hand side of
this inequality measures the angle between the tangent to the boundary of B at
the point w = f(z) and the ray passing through the points w = 0 and w = f(z).
Consequently, this angle must be less than it/4. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Let us now apply the method of variations to the investigation of a particular
extremal problem for the class S. of functions
f (z)=clz+c%Z%-{-...,
that are regular and univalent in the disk I z I < 1 and that do not assume m given
finite values a 1, , a,,, , where m > 1. Let us look at the problem of maximizing
-
Icn I for given n > I with respect to functions of the class Sa (see Goluzin [1946f]).
Theorem 4. A function w = f(z) = c1 z + c2 z2 + C Sa for which I c I, where n is
a given integer > 1, attains its maximum maps the disk I z I < 1 onto the entire
w-plane with cuts along a finite number of analytic arcs and satisfies in the disk
I z I < 1 the differential equation
n.-1 _
R((1(z)) z2f''(z)9=n+ om \Cv
l/ Z -v
V( )) l L..I (n - V) Cn CCnv zv), (25)
V - I
where
m m-3
P(w)= II(w-ak), R(w)_ E bkwk,
k=1 k=-n-1
the bk being constants. In equation (25), the right-hand member is real and non-
negative on the entire circle I z I = 1, and the boundary cuts referred to are with
a suitable parametric representation w = w(t) (t real), the integral curves of the
differential equation
R(n') (26)
P (w) dt
Proof. The existence of extremal functions is obvious. Specifically, the
quantity I c I has a finite upper bound because, if f(z) = I' k=1 ck zk E Sa, we
k
have the well-known inequality I c I _< en for the function f (z)/c 1 =1 c k z
and consequently, I c I < en I c 1 I . If we apply the familiar inequality If (z)/c 11 >
I Z I/(1 + I Z I ) 2 to a point z on the circle I z I = r at which If(z)I < I a11, we obtain
I C 1 I< ((1 + r) 2/r) I a I. It follows from this that c 1 I< 4 I a 1 a s r -+ 1. Conse-
I
quently,
Icnl<4enIa1
By virtue of the normality of the class Sa , this upper bound is attained.
If f (z) is an extremal function, the function f (e C1L z) for arbitrary real a,
which has the same image B, will also be an extremal function. Therefore, there
exist extremal functions such that c > 0 and they exhaust all extremal functions
in the sense of the characteristic of the images B.
Suppose that f(Z) = 17_1 Ck Zk is one of the extremal functions such that
cn > 0. Let B denote the corresponding image. By using the varied function
obtained from equation (27) of §3 of Chapter III, when we replace w with f(z)
and take w I = w2 = .. - = wn = 0, we can show, following the same reasoning as
in the proof of Theorem 3, that the domain B does not have exterior points.
Nov\We can easily obtain a differential equation for the function f(z). Since
the functioa\(29) of §3 of Chapter III is a function in the class S. for arbitrary
distinct z 1, j , z,, in the disk I z I < 1 and sufficiently small A, we have, set-
ting AA = /Y in that formula
m
(f (E) - ak) m
t{g E -CC.+h {(E) k-l hI Akf(Zk) '(E
1J
! k= lZkf' (Zk)9 E - "Z n
(f (E}-f(n
k=1
m
+ + 0 Q h 9)
Akf (Zk) f WI (E)
1 -2kE n
k= Zkf'(Zkr
where (0())In denotes the coefficient of z in the expansion of the function
O(z) about z =0. But since $2((f" <c,,, we have
m
(f (E) - ak)
Akf (zk) IEf' (E) I
f (E) km I h
E - Zk n
II (f(C)-f(Zk)) n k-1 kf (k)9
k-1
m
+W J Akf(Zk)
k=l zkf'(Zk)9 1- ZkCJJn
If we replace the next to the last term with its conjugate (which leaves the
real part unchanged), we obtain
m
R (f (E) - ak) m
k=1 Akf(zk) Ef' (E)
f (E) (it - Zk In
lh zkf' (Zk)s
IT (A0 -f(Zk)) n k=1
k=1
-{1'f 2kEIn/J/+0(1 h19)=0.
Because of the arbitrariness of arg h, this leads to the condition
m
J1 (f (E) - ak) m
f k=1
m
II (f (E) f(zk)) ln
- 1
Akf (zk) (fEf' (E)
kf' (zk)'
IE'f' (E)
ll- kEIn)
l = 0. (27)
Since the first term on the left does not vanish identically for all values of z1,
, zm, we can choose_ z 1, , zm such that this term is nonzero. Now, fixing
z 2, ,zm, let us change z 1 , considering it a variable z. Then, the A k take
the form
Al __ P (f (z)) (k = 2 , ... , m) ,
Q (f (z)) Ak - f (z) Bkf (zk)
where
m in
P (w) = lI (w - ak), Q (w) _ fl (w -f (xk)),
k=1 k-2
and the Bk are constants. Therefore, condition (27) can now be written in the
form
m
(f (E) - ak)
f(E)
k=1 _ P (f (z)) f (z) Ef' (E)
l (a - 2
'" Q (f (z)) zf' (z)9
R MO -f (zk)) n
k=1
in
Il1f, (01")
- 3E +1
k=2
f(z) -f (zk)
Ck 0,
,
or, in view of the fact that

m
(f (E) - ak) -1 in
J (E) °1 = Bkf (z)k,

Ch
h-2f (z) -f (zk)

in
H (f (E) -f (z))) Jn k=_R
k=1
m-2
(Z) k'
we have Q (f (z)) k Dkf
JEE ' ( In - JiYfE In
z [zrtl + i + ncn + (n - 1) cn_1Z -}- ... + ctx"-t] ,
so that we finally obtain

R- -z$f'(z)'= Rl,
z- (28)
P(f(z))
where
m-3
R (w) _ }J bkwk.
k=-n-1
Thus, the function f(z) satisfies the differential equation (28) in the disk
z I < 1. Admittedly, this differential equation contains the unknown constants
ck aril bk, We conclude, therefore, from the analytic theory of differential equa-
tions,that f(z) is regular not only in the disk I z I < 1 but also on the circle
I Z I = 1 except at a finite number of points. Consequently, the boundary of the
domain B consists of a finite number of analytic arcs.
The differential equation for the boundary of the domain B can be put in a
simpler form. To do this, let us consider a function w = 1r(z) where 4i(O) = 0 and
0'(0) > 0, that maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto the disk I w I < 1 with a
small radial cut issuing from the point w = e-'8. For this function, we have the
expression in I z I < 1
W=t (z) = z - hz 1+ zeie

1-zero `} 0 (w).
The function
1-I zeie f,
()z + O(g)
h
obviously belongs to the class S,,. By setting f 1 (z) = k=1 c (1) zk , we have
n-1
C(,) = cn - h (ncn +2 E kcke(n-l)re) + 0 (h9).
k-1 /
From the extremality of the function f (z) we have Y (c;11) < c,, , which,
because of the smallness of h, leads to the condition
n-1
ncn + 251(E kcker(n -k) e 1 ! 0.
k=1
If we now set e`8 = z, we obtain an inequality expressing the nonnegativeness of
the right-hand member of equation (28). Thus, on the circle z 1,
R (f (z)) z1 f, (z)9 ':- 0.
P (f (z))
It follows that, with a suitable parametric representation w = w(t), where t is
real, of the boundary of the domain B, we have for this boundary the differential
equation
R (tai P(w) I dw\ ,+ 1 _0'
where L dt
m m-3
P (w) = ft (w - ak), R (w) _ 2] bk wk.
k=1 n-1
Consider the function f (z) with c = I c I e-`0. Let us apply the above
reasoning to f (e `B/6 Z). If we replace z with a-`0" z In the formulas obtained,
we obtain the assertion of the theorem (I c I is included in the coefficients bk ).
Let us stop for the important special case of n = 1; that is, let us find a
bound for I c 11 = I f ' (0) 1. This quantity represents the radius of the disk onto
which the domain B containing the point z = 0 is mapped univalently by the func-
tion z = 95(w) normalized by the conditions 95(0) = 0 and 0'(0) = 1. It is called
the con formal radius of the domain B (cf. Chapter II, §2). The results obtained
above concerning the bounds for the coefficients with n = 1 thus apply to the
extremum of the conformal radius for domains B not containing oe and a given
finite system of points a1, , am. The corresponding extremal function belong-
ing to the class S. satisfies the differential equation obtained from (25) with n = 1:
Rt ( f ' (z))
P (f' (z))
_
(Z )
f (z) 1
1,
where R 1(w) = lk =0 bk wk. If Z = O(w) is the inverse function, we obtain the

differential equation
p' (w) -_ R, (w)
,f (w) w'P (w)
in B. Consequently,
incp(w)= S bo+b,w+...+bm_rwm-r
I/-W1
- (w - ar) (w - a9) ... (w - am) dw --f- b,n. (29)
This yields an explicit analytical expression for the function O(w). The con-
stants B0, B 1, , Bm remain undetermined.
A formula of the form (29) was proved earlier by Lavrent ev (1934] by starting
with the principles of Lindelof and Montel.l) These principles lead to the
1) Grotzsch L1930] studied the extremum of the conformal radius for the class S. on
the basis of other considerations. He also pointed out the analytic form of the extremal
function in a certain particular case.
uniqueness of the extremal function f (z) normalized by the condition f ' (0) > 0.
We note that, in the case of the extremum of I c I for n > 1, the function
f (z) normalized by the condition c > 0 does not always have a unique extremum.
Let us show this with an example. Suppose that ak = ae21rki/m (k = 1, 2, , n),
where n > 1 and n i 1 (mod m). If f (z) is one of the normalized extremal func-
tions, then the function f1(z) = f(ze2ni/m) e-err`/m belongs to the class S. and is
-also a normalized extremal function for I cn I. This function is distinct from f(z)
bec"µse f'(0) = e-2n(n-1)i/m f'(0)
f'(0).
Ijt is also easy to show that Lindelof's principle does not apply to Icn I for
n > 1, that is, that I c i does not necessarily increase when the domain B is
I
broadened.
In conclusion, let us examine the following problem on disjoint domains: Let
a, a2 , , an, where n > 2, denote n distinct finite points in the w-plane.
Functions w = fk (z), k = 1, 2, , n, that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 map
that disk univalently onto disjoint domains Bk including the points ak , for k =
1, 2, , n, respectively in such a way that fk (0) = ak for k = 1, 2, - , n, The
question arises: can we speak of the maximum of the product
rt
J_HIfk(0) I
k=l
over all possible functions fk (z), for k = n?
In the case n = 2, the answer to this question was given by Lavrent rev
L19341 (on the basis of his variational method). It consisted in the sharp ine-
quality
If (p)f;(0)Icla,-al I9,
in which equality holds only for the functions f 1(z) and f 2,(z) that map the disk
I z I < 1 onto the halfplanes about the common boundary of which the points a1
and a2 are symmetric.
The existence of extremal functions is easily proved. Specifically, since the
function gk (z) = (fk (z) - ak )/ fk (0), belongs to S for k = 1, 2, , a, and does
not assume in the disk z I < 1 the values (ak 1 - ak )/fk (0), where k 1 L k, it
I
follows from Koebe's theorem that (ak 1 - a0 f; (0) > %; that is, I fk (0)I
4I ak 1 - akI . This proves that the quantity I has a bound independent of the form
of the functions f k (z) for k = 1, 2, - , n. From this and the normality of the
family of functions fk(z) that we are considering, we conclude that the least
upper bound J0 of the quantity J is attained.
Now, let w = fk (z), for k = 1, 2, , n, denote a system of extremal func-

tions and let Bk denote the corresponding extremal domains. On the basis of
Lindelof's principle ( p. 30 ), the domains Bk are such that the union of their
closures Unk=1Bk coincides with the entire w-plane.
Let us prove certain variational formulas that we shall need. Let n denote
an integer greater than 1. For fixed points ak, where k = 1, 2, .. , n, consider
the function
n77
11 (w-a,)
w*=w+h v=1 1 kon,
n
II (w-w")
V=1
v#ko
where A is a complex number and the wv, for v = 1, 2, . , n, v / k0 are distinct
points. This function can be represented in the form
n
w*=w+h w+ xo+ I au-1
v#ko
From this we easily see that, for sufficiently small the function w` is uni-
valent on the entire plane from which sufficiently small neighborhoods of all points
wv, for v = 1, 2, , n, v / k0 are removed. Therefore, if wv = fv(z,,), for v =
1, 2, , n, where z v I .< 1, then the function
I
n
1I (fk (Z) - av)
f k (z) =fk (z) + h n"
-I 1 kon, (30)
11 Vk (Z) -A (Z,))
V=1
v#ko
is, for k = k0, regular and univalent in the disk I z I < 1. For k / k0 , the function
(30) has a simple pole z = zk in the disk z I < 1. Consequently, the theorem in
I
§3 of Chapter III can be applied to it. As a result, we obtain the function
H (fk (z) - av)

f *k (z) =fk (z) 4-h n
II
`
(fk (Z)
-
-fv (zv))
V=1
v= ko
n
17
1 (A (4) - av)
zfk (z) V=1 1
Zk V; (zk))9 n z
(fk (zk) -fv (Z9))
v=1
v#k, ko
n
17
1 (fk (zk) - av)
i°fk (z) -I
T 0 (I h I9) (31)
+h xk (fk (zk))2 n 1
1 Zkz
(fk (zk) -fv (zv))
v=1
-,#k, ko
which is regular and univalent in the disk I z I < 1 for small values of I A I: also
f k (0) = ak . The functions w = f k(z), k = 1, 2, , n, thus defined now map the
disk I z I < 1 for small I A I onto disjoint domains and f k(0) = ak ,. k = 1, 2, ; n.
Equations (30) and (31) are the desired variational formulas.
From the functions f k (z) for k = 1, 2, , n; k ko , let us now construct
the varied functions (31) with z 0 for v = 1, 2, . , n, v / k0 , which, together
with the function fk0 (z) constructed in accordance with formula (3), are also
admissible functions of the extremal problem that we are considering. Now, we
easily obtain the equation n
(ak - av)
v=1
ko
J*_ ft Ifk (0)I=Jo 1+9Z I h
k=1
y111 (ak -fv (zv))
of k
n
7n
11 (fk (zk) - av)
+21 Zk (f(zk))9 n
+ O (I h Is) .
k-1 (fk (zk) - fv (zv))
k*ko v=l
v$k, ko
By virtue of the arbitrariness of arg A and the extremality of the functions fk (z)
for k =.I, 2, , n, this last relation can hold only if the expression in the large
square brackets is equal to zero, that is only if
n 11 (ak
vl
v$k
av)
I
n
1
11 (fk (zk) - av)
v=1
= 0. (32)
zk (fk (zk))9
k=1 lI (ak ---A (Z9)) T k_ 1 11 (fk (Zk) -A (zv))
_ ' k - k v=1
9 -/'ko ° v#k. ko
Consequently, this condition must be satisfied for an arbitrary choice of the points
z k , for k= 1, 2, - . , n in the disk I z I < 1 and for arbitrary k0 = 1, 2, - - - , n.
It follows from (32) that the functions fk (z) are piecewise-analytic on the
circle I z I = 1. To see this, let us fix all the points zk, k = 1, 2, - -, n; k k0,
with the exception of one of them zk 1 = z (where 1 < k 1 < n). We see that condi-
tion (32) becomes a differential equation for fk 1(z):
z9 (f"k, (z))9 = R (.fk, (z)),
where R (w) is a rational function. Our assertion then follows from the analytic
theory of differential equations.
Let us look at some particular cases. The case n = 2 can be carried through
to its completion without difficulty and we shall not stop to do this.
Now let us look at the case n = 3. In this case, equation (32) with 'k0 = 1
yields
(a,- a9) (a, - aa) _L (a3 - a,) (a, - a,)
(a, - f, (z8)) (a, f a (za)) (a9 -f2 (23)) (a8 -f8 (23))
1=1(
a
v2 z 9)- a,)
(aa-a,) +
(as -f9 (za)) (aa -fa (za)) f, (z9) -fa (za) 3 s (f2 (z9))'
l II (fa (za) - a,)

fa (za) - f9 (z9) zi v a (za))a
- ()
If we multiply through by the difference f2 (z2) - f3 (z3) and decompose the first
three fractions into partial fractions, we arrive at the form
A (fs(za)) = A(fa (z3)), (33)
where A is an operator defined by
A (f (z)) - (a, - a9) (a, - as) _L (a, - a,) (aa - as)

a, -f (z) a9 -f (z)
a
II (f (z) -a,,)
(a8-al) (aa-a9) _l y-1
as -f (z) T za V, (z))9
Analogously, for k0 = 2, we obtain from equation (32)
A (f, (z1)) = A (fs (za)) (34)
Since equations (33) and (34) hold for arbitrary Z1 , Z2, and z3 in the disk
Iz I < 1, it follows that in the disk I z I < 1 we have A (fk (z)) = C = const for
for k = 1, 2, 3; that is, the functions w = fk (z) for k = 1, 2, 3 are each a solution
of the differential equation
a
II (ak-w)
k=1 _ (a,-a,) (a,-a,) + (a,-a) (a,-as)
a, _W a, -w
z°w'9
+ (a, - a,) (a, - a+ C, (35)
a, - w
C=const.
1
Of cdurse, the constant C may depend on al, a2 and a3 However, we are not
able 'to determine its value.
Let us consider separately the two cases C / 0 and C = 0.
In the first case, equation (35) reduces to the form
YP(w)w' Z,
7J=±'1, (36)
3
11 (ak - w)
k=1
where p (w) is a polynomial of exactly third degree, and its zeros are distinct
from a1, a2, and a3. For extremal domains Bk, the union UJ=1 Bk coincides
with the entire w-plane. Therefore, the. point w = oe lies on the boundary of cer-
tain of these domains Bk , let us say, for example, on the boundary of B 1 . Let us
denote the point on the circle I z 1 corresponding to it under the mapping w =
f 1(z) by z = z 1. Then, in a neighborhood of z = z 1, we have
f; (A+ B-f-...)
3 fi
_'z A t- 0.
f,2
Consequently,
1(A'-}-+...)=_71ogz_ z-z,+ c,(z-z1)",
f, z,
fa z, v-2
This means that, in a neighborhood of z = z
00
ray =fi (z) = L b, (z -- z1)

v--2
b_9 t- 0. (37)
If the point w = oe were also a boundary point of some other domain Bk (k 1),
the same would be true about the corresponding function fk (z). But this is impos-
sible since the domains Bk, k = 1, 2, 3, are disjoint. Thus, in the present case,
the point w = oo lies on the boundary of only one of the domains Bk. The other
two domains must be bounded.

Let us turn now to the case C = 0. Let us suppose first that the points ak
are vertices of an equilateral triangle, that is, that ak = aek, k = 1, 2, 3, where
f = eZnl13. Then, equation (35) (with C = 0) reduces to the form
3 a'ww'
w8-a° z' (36)
When we solve it, we obtain explicit expressions for the fk (z):
fk(Z)=askl -+ckz)3,
ckz
\\\ 1
ck=const, k=1, 2, 3.
For the functions fk(z) to be regular in the disk I z I < I and for the union
U jc=1 Bk to coincide with the entire w-plane, we must have ck = e 1k for k =
1, 2, 3, so that we finally obtain
2
fk (Z) = l I +e i¢kz 3 k=1,2,3. (39)

\ I - etakz
From this we conclude that each of the domains Bk is the domain between two
rays with an angle of 2n/3 between them with vertex at w = 0, and with bisector
passing through the point ak . Calculation then shows that J = (64/27)1 a 13 or,
what amounts to the same thing,
Jo = 816 I (at - a.) (al - as) (a2 - as) I (40)
3
Thus, for an arbitrary system of functions fk (z), for k = 1, 2, 3, that satisfy the
condition fk (0) = ak , that are regular in the disk I z I < 1, and that map this disk
univalently onto disjoint domains, we obtain the sharp inequality
3
fk (0) c gl
Y 8 I (a1- a3) (at -- as) (as - as) I (41)
Now, let ak, k = 1, 2, 3, be arbitrary. Equation (35) with C = 0 has the

property that if we subject the unknown function w and the constants ak to the
same fractional-linear transformation, that is, if we set
W
cw
+d, ak cak + d , k =1, 2, 3, (42)
ti
then w as a function of z satisfies the same,differential equation
a
k=l (a1-a9) (al-as) I_ (a,- a1) (a3-a8) (a]-al) (a8-a9)

zew'4 a1-w , aq-w ay - tat
This is easy to verify directly by substituting the expressions (42) for w and the
ak into equation (35). Using this property, we choose the transformation (42) in
such a way that the points ak, k = 1, 2, 3, are mapped into the points ak = atk,
where e = e 2n`13. Then, the equation for w reduces to the form (38). Consequently,
ti ti
its solutions are functions w = fk(z), with f k (0) = a k of the form (39) that map
the disk I z I < 1 onto the three angles mentioned above. The functions w = fk (z),
with Ak (0) = ak , that satisfy equation (35) with C = 0 are then of the form
%
fk (z) = afk (z) -F b k = 1, 2, 3, (43)

cfk(z)+d
and the domains Bk corresponding to them will possess the property (obvious but
important for what follows) that the point w = o is a boundary point of at least
two of the three domains Bk. Since we can verify directly that
3 3
k=1
fk (0)
(a, - a.) (a, - al) (a. - a3).

-
_ H fk(0)
k=1
(a. - a2) (a, - a2) (a2 - a.)
Ip can be calculated in the present case from formula (40). Consequently, again
in this case we have inequality (41).
The case C = 0 does not always hold. For this case to hold, it is necessary
and sufficient that the point w = -d/c corresponding to the point w = oo underti the
transformation (42) lie on the boundary of one of the corresponding domains Bk ,
for k = 1, 2, 3, because it is only then that regularity in the disk I z I < I is
ensured for all the functions fk (z) defined by formulas (43).
However, inequality (41) always holds, that is, even when the ak are such
that C 10. To show this, let us examine the question of the maximum of the
quantity
3
(0)
11 fk
I_ k=1
(fl (0) -f2 (0)) (fi (0) -fa (0)) (f2 (0) -fa (0))
over all possible systems of functions fk (z), for k = 1, 2, 3, that are regular and
univalent in the disk I z I < 1 and that map this disk onto disjoint domains. Since
I does not change when we replace the functions fk(z) with cj:k(z), where c is
a constant, we can confine ourselves to functions fk(z) that satisfy the condi-
tion Ifk (0) I < 1. Now, just as above, let us show that
I ff (0) I 4 Ifr (0) -fa (0) I, Ifa (0) J C 4 Ifs (0) -f3 (0)
If9(0)1-4If3(0)-fr(0)I
From this we conclude that the family of functions fk (z) that we are considering
is normal and that I < 83. Consequently, the least upper bound of the quantity I
is finite and is attained by some system of functions f k (z), for k = 1, 2, 3.
Let us set f k(0) = ak , for k = 1, 2, 3, and let us look at the question of the
maximum of the quantity
J= 6 fk (0)
k=1
over all systems of functions fk (z), for k = 1, 2, 3, that satisfy the condition
fk (0), that are regular in the disk I z < 1, and that map that disk univalently
onto disjoint domains. According to what was said above, this maximum is attained
by the functions f k(z). Therefore, on the basis of the exposition above, we con-
clude that the images Bk of the disk z I < 1 under the mappings w = f k(z) are
such that the union Uk=lBk coincides with the entire w-plane. Therefore, there
exists a point a that lies on the boundary of at least two of the domains Bk.
Let us define new functions
k = 1, 2, 3.
These functions also map the disk I z < 1 onto disjoint domains, and the quan-
tity I has the same value for them as for the functions f `(z) for k = 1, 2, 3 since
I is invariant under a single fractional linear transformation performed on all the
functions fk (z) for k = 1, 2, 3. This means that the functions f (z), for k =
1, 2, 3, are extremal under search for the maximum of the quantity 1. If we set
rr
f k (0) = 1/(ak - a) = ak , we conclude that the functions f k`(z) are extremal also
for the maximum of the quantity
J'=
Ik=1 I
with respect to all of the functions fk (z), k = 1, 2, 3, that satisfy the condition
fk(0) = ak , that are regular in the disk Izj < 1, and that map this disk univalently
onto disjoint domains. Since the point w = o lies on the boundary of at least two
of the three domains onto which the disk I z I < 1 is mapped by w = f k* (z), it
follows in accordance with the analysis made above that the functions w = f%`(z)
are solutions of a differential equation of the type (35) with C = 0. But then, the
maximum Jp of the quantity J is calculated, in accordance with (40), from the
formula 64
4 81 Y g
1 (a; -- Q (al - as) (a; - ay) I
§5. LIMITS OF CONVEXITY AND STARLIKENESS 165
This fact, in conjunction with the fact that the maximum of the quantity l is
attained by the .functions f ` (z), leads us to the conclusion that this maximum is
equal to 64/81 /. But then, for an arbitrary system of functions fk (z), k = 1, 2, 3,
that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and that map this disk univalently onto dis-
joint domains, we have I < 64/81 vl_, which is equivalent to inequality (41). We
note, finally, that, since l is invariant under an arbitrary fractional-linear trans-
formation of the functions fk (z) (but the same transformation for all three values
of I), inequality (41) holds also when one of the functions fk (z) is meromorphic
in the disk IzI <1.
We formulate the results of this section in two theorems:
Theorem 5. If points a1 , a2, and a3 are vertices of an equilateral triangle,
then the maximum of the quantity j = ink-lfk (0)1 out of all possible systems of
functions fk (z) for k = 1, 2, 3 that satisfy the condition fk (0) = ak, that are
regular in the disk I z < 1, and that map that disk univalently onto disjoint do-
mains is attained by the functions w = fk (z), k = 1, 2, 3, each of which maps the
disk z I < 1 onto the domain between two rays at an angle 21r/3 with vertex at
the center of the triangle and with bisector passing through the point ak . On the
other hand, if the points al, a2 and a3 are not all situated in such a position,
then the same maximum is attained by the functions fk(z), for k = 1, 2, 3, one
of which is bounded in the disk I z I < 1.
Theorem 6. For functions fk (z), k = 1, 2, 3, that map the disk I z I < 1
univalently onto disjoint domains, we have the sharp inequality
6
4
k=1
fk (0) 81 3
I (fr (0) -.ff (0)) (ft (0) -fa (0)) (f9 (0) -f9 (0)) I (44)
Equality holds in (44) only for functions (39) and for the functions obtained from
them by any fractional-linear transformation (the same transformation for k = 1,
2, 3).
§5. Limits of convexity and starlikeness

The degree of distortion of a conformal mapping can be indicated in another
manner, one that is easier to grasp, by means of what are called the limits of
convexity, the limits of starlikeness, etc. These tell us which of the disks
z I < r < 1 are mapped by an arbitrary function of the class S into domains of a
specified type, for, example, convex domains, starlike domains, etc.

Limits of convexity. We define the limit of convexity for the class S as the
least upper bound of the radii r of the disks I z I < r that are mapped by every
function of the class S onto a convex domain, that is, onto a domain such that the
tangent at the boundary points of the domain always turns in the same direction
as we move around the boundary. The limit of convexity proves to be nonzero. We
denote it by R,. To determine its value, we note that if we take a point z = re`'
on the circle z = r, then the tangent to I z I = r issuing from that point forms an
angle 77/2 + q with the real axis. Consequently, the corresponding tangent to the
image of the circle z I = r under a function w = [(z) E S forms an angle 77/2 +
I
0 + arg ['(z) with the real axis. It follows that I z I < r is mapped into a convex
domain if and only if
'(2 +,p+argf'(z)) 0
on the circle I z I = r or, what amounts to the same thing, if and only if
zf " (z)1 + 1 : 0
f' (z) /
(
on that circle. But inequality (6) of §4, Chapter II yields, when we replace the
absolute value on the left with the real part taken with minus sign
1-4IzI+Izl2
f (Z) Z 11,
It follows- that I z I < r is indeed mapped onto a convex domain if r2 - 4r + 1 > 0,

that is, if r < 2 - v. Since this is true for an arbitrary function w = f(z) E S, we
see that R, > 2 - g. On the other hand, for the function 1(z) = z/(1 - z)2 E S,
we have
zf'(z)+l= 1-4z+z2
f (z) 1 - z2
This means that the disks z I _< r, where r > 2 - J3 are not mapped by every
I
function w = [(z) E S onto convex domains. Thereforel)

R,-2-Y3=0.26.... (1)
Analogously, if we denote by R' the greatest lower bound of radii of circles

= p, where p > 1, that are mapped by an arbitrary function w = F(O E I
onto convex curves, we can show by the same reasoning, but using only Theorem 4
1) R. Nevanlinna [1919-1920].
of §3, that R, is a root of the equation
E( ) 7
KI 1) T 8P,=0.
1
lP
Calculations show that R' = 1.78 .
The limit of starlikeness. We define the limit of starlikeness for the class S
as the least uupperr bound R., of radii r of disks I z I < r that are mapped by an
arbitrary function td,= f(z) of the class S onto domains that are starlike about
w = 0, that is, onto 4omains possessing the property that arg w always increases
as a point w moves around the boundary of such a domain in the positive direction.
To determine R5 , we note that the disk I z I < r is mapped onto a starlike domain
if and only if
0argf(z) =s1 (zf'z(z)10
fO
where z = re `(P, everywhere on the circle Iz = r, or, what amounts to the same
thing,
zf (z) C a
arg f (z)
By virtue of inequality (12) of §1, which gives a sharp inequality for
arg (zf ' (z)/f(z))I for arbitrary z in I z I < 1, it now follows that R5 is a solu-
tion of the equation log [(1 + r)/(1 - r)] = rr/2; that is, 1)
x
R5 = 1 - e 2
_ tanh 4 = 0.65... . (2)
1+e 2
Limits of generalized starlikeness. It is also possible to show what analytic

properties are possessed by mappings of disks of the form I z I < r by means of
functions w = f(z) that belong to the class S when r exceeds R5 .2) To do this,
we introduce the concept of generalized starlikeness.
We shall say that a closed domain is of the type D (a) if every point of it
can be connected with a point a by a broken line that lies entirely inside it and
that consists of no more than n rectangular segments. Thus, a domain of the type
D1(a) is a domain that is starlike about a point a.
1) Grunskyj1934].
2) Goluzin 19351.
Now, let us denote by D. (where n = 1, 2, ) the least upper bound of all

p such that an arbitrary function of the class S maps the disk I z I < p into a
region of the type D (0).
Obviously, from the definition itself, we have
D1-Ds<Da<...
Furthermore, Dn < 1 for arbitrary n because there exist functions of the class S
that map the open disk z I < 1 onto spiral-shaped domains. Furthermore, DI = RS
I
and, consequently, we have from (2)

D1= tank 4 . (3)
The exact values of D,, for n > 1 are unknown. We shall give the greatest
possible lower bounds for L), . We use the following
Lemma. The closed disk
z1 (ld,'nE'< (n= /
d1 d.2jTll9)' IEIC1, do<Dn
n
1, 2, ...) (4)
is mapped by an arbitrary function w = f(z) C S into a domain of the type Dn(f(.))
Proof. If f(z) belongs to the class S, so does the function
(C+El fl1+EC-f(E)
g(C)= =c+b9C9-}-...
f (E) (IC0
for arbitrary 6 in tI < 1.. Consequently, this function maps the closed disk
ICI : do , where d < D,, , into a region of the type D. (0). Therefore, the function
w = f(z) maps the closed disk
(5)
z=1+EC, Itl=d,,,
that is, the disk I(z - l;)/(1 - Tz)I < d,, onto a domain of the type
From (5), we get in succession
Iz-EI9<dnII-Ez
zl9-A(Ez)+IEI' dR-2POR(Ez)+dnIEz12,
IZI9(1-d'jEI')-2T(Ez)(I-da-dn - IEll,
$- 2 Z1-dJIE
r (1-da 1 E1'(1-d,i)
IZI + 1-dnjEl-
d'-IEI' IE1'(1-d:)'
dn(1-IEfs)s
1-d,EI' (1-dnIEI2)' (1-dnIEI')s,
from which (4) follows immediately.
We shall now use this lemma to prove the inequalities
\\ 1- Din < (1- Dn \ 1- Dsn+m < f l - Dn I - Dm (6)
11+Dsn_ \1+DnI ' 1+Dsn+m 1I +DnI 1+Dm
for arbitraril m > 1 and n > 1.
To derive the first inequality, we set 6= adn in (4), where I a 1 and
n > 0. We then see that every function w = f (z) C S maps the closed disk
adn do
z-1+ dnI C +d.-,
dn< Dn (7)
1
onto a domain of the form Dn(f (adn)). The disk (7) includes the point z = 0 on
its boundary. If we let a move around the circle I a I = 1, then the disks (7) cover
completely the disk I z < 2dn/(1 + An arbitrary point in the image of this
disk can be connected with the point f (0) = 0 by a broken line that lies entirely
in it and that consists of no more than 2n rectilinear segments because there
exists an a of modulus unity such that the image of the disk (7) includes
both these points, with the result that it is possible to connect them with the
point f(ade) by broken lines lying entirely in it and consisting of not more than
n rectilinear segments. We conclude from this that 2dn/(1 + d 2 ) < D2n . Since
this is true for arbitrary d < Dn, by taking the limit as do -+ Dn, we see that
2Dn/(1 + Dn) < D2n and hence that
2Dn
1-Din 1+Dt (1-D. l9
1+DsnC1 + 1 +D'n
2Dn 1+Dn1 '
which proves the first of inequalities (6).
To prove the second of inequalities (6), we set = ar in (4), where I al 1,
do < r < 1, and n > 0. Since
_ IEI do
I E I (1-dx) }dn(1-IEII) _1
1-djIEls - 1-dnjEj' i-dnIEI '
we conclude on the basis of geometrical considerations that the disk (4) is con-
tained in the annulus
IEI - dn C I z C IEI+dn (8)
1 - dnIEI I
- 1+d aIEI'
and is tangent to both its boundary circles. If we now let a move around the
circle I a I = 1, the disks ( 4) completely cover this annulus. Let us now choose
6 in such a way that (161 - dn)/(1 - d,, 16I) = D. , where m > 0. This yields 161 =
(Dm + dm)/(1 + d,Dm) < 1. Then, by the same reasoning used to derive the first of
inequalities (6), we see that the image of the disk I z I < (161 + do )/(1 + do 161)
is of the type Den+m (0) and consequently that (I 61 + dn)/(1 + do 19) < Den,.-
This yields
1-Dm_1+dnl-
1+Dn-I-dn1+
1-D2n+m
I+Dnn+mC1+dn1+IEI .
If we now take the limit as do -+ Dn and divide the inequality by the equality, we
obtain the second of inequalities (6).
From these inequalities with n = 1, we have
I-D ((1-D
1+D, < 1+D,) '
1 -Din r1-D l+Dm-s
I+DC `1+D,) al-D , m >2 .
From these we find by iteration that, for arbitrary in,
1 -D (I -D m
1+DmC 11+D, ) (9)
Noting that D1 = tanh (n/4) we obtain from (9) for arbitrary m > 0
I- Dm<e T2
I+Dm
that is,
am
D. :-:- tanh MIC
- > 1 - 2e 2
This is the desired lower bound for Dm. In particular, D2 > 0.91 and D3 > 0.98.
§6. Covering of segments and areas

In §4 of Chapter II, we showed that the image of the disk I z I < I under an
arbitrary function of the class S completely covers the disk I w I < 1/4. We now
pose the question of determining the length of the longest of the segments with
ends at w = 0 that lie on n arbitrary rays issuing from w = 0 at equal angles
from each other and that belong entirely to the same image. The answer to this
§6. COVERING OF SEGMENTS AND AREAS 171
question is given by the theorem on p. 174. The proof of that theorem is based on
two lemmas, which we shall now prove.
Lemma 1 (Grotzsch's principle)." Suppose that we have a set of n disjoint
simply connected domains Sk, for k = 1, 2, , n, that are contained in the
annulus r <t, I < R, where r = 0 and R and that are bounded by Jordan
curves each of 'which has a nondegenerate arc (i.e. an arc not consisting of a
single point), in common with each of the circles z = r and I z = R. (The
I
Sk can be regarded as strips extending from the inner to the outer circle.) If
these domains are mapped onto rectangles in the C-plane with sides equal re-
spectively to ak and bk in such a way that the arcs referred to are mapped into
sides of lengths ak, then
n
T ak 2n
1ikC k
(1)
kt log r
with equality holding only if the Sk are domains of the form r < I z I < R, ok <
arg z < ck+1 completely filling the annulus.
Proof. Let us cut the annulus r < I z I < R along an arc belonging to the
boundary of one of the strips Sk and let us map the
simply connected domain obtained onto the plane
t = log z = u + iv (see Figure 8). This mapping
maps the strips Sk into strips S1," that extend from
the line u = log r to the line u = log R (see Figure
9). Let z = gk (t) denote the functions inverse to
those mentioned in the lemma. These functions map
the strips Sk onto the rectangles Rk : 0 < 6 < bk ,
0 < 71 < ak (see Figure 10). Then the functions t =
log gk(t) = fk(') map Rk onto the strips Sk . The Figure 8
images of the sides of length ak under this mapping
lie on the straight lines u = log r and u = log R.
We denote by Ik the area of the strip Sk . Then, we obviously have
r
I Ikc2rtlogR.
k=t
r
1) Grorzsch[19281.
On the other hand,

ak bk ak bk
jk- S Ifk(C)I9dEd i= S ( S Ifk(C)I'dE) d- IfkG)I
dE)9A,
ek(
the inequality being obtained on the basis of the Schwarz inequality. But the
integrals
bk
S I A (c) I dt
0
are the lengths of the images of the sides parallel to the sides of length bk ; that
is , they are the lengths of certain curves extending from the line u = log r to the
line u = logg R. Therefore f 0k f k (C)d> log (R/r ), and, consequently, Ik >
(ak /bk) (log (R/r))2. If we substitute this into ILI Ik < 2 n log (R/r) and divide
by (log (R/r))2, we obtain (1).
For equality to hold in (1), it is obviously necessary that the strips Sk com-
pletely fill the annulus r < I z I < R and that the images (referred to above) of
all the lines parallel to the sides of length bk be lines parallel to the real axis,
that is, that the Sk be of the form r < I z I < R, ck < arg z < ck+1. A simple
check shows that in this case equality does indeed hold in (1).
R, a
lOgr logR
Figure 9 Figure 10
Lemma 2. Suppose that we have a set of n disjoint simply connected domains

Sk, for k = 1, . , n, contained in a rectangle with sides of lengths A and B
(see Figure 11). Suppose that the boundary of each of these domains is a closed
Jordan curve that contains a nondegenerate segment (that is, a segment not con-
sisting of a single point ) of each side of length A. (The domains Sk can be
regarded as strips extending from one side of length A to the other.) If we map
these domains onto rectangles in the ic-plane with sides equal respectively to ak
and bk in such a way that the line segments referred to are mapped onto sides of
length ak, then
n
Y bk_ (2)
kal
E.gv,ality holds only if the Sk are rectangles entirely filling the rectangle of sides
A and A,
Proof `(analogous to the preceding). Let z = fk (C) denote the functions inverse
to those mentioned in the lemma. These functions fk(C) map the Sk onto rec-
tangles Rk : 0 < e < bk , 0 < q < ak . Let 1k denote the area of Sk . Then, on the
one hand, we have
Ik -,c-- AB
kl
and, on the other,
d'i ak bk ak
Ik =SSA (C)19 A
Rk
S bk
0
1)0 fia (C) dE)9 d > B9
bk
d l = ak B9
bk
Consequently, Y,k=1akB2/bk < AB, from which we obtain (2). That equality holds
in (2) only when the Sk themselves are rectangles completely filling the rectangle
of sides A and B is proved just as in Lemma 1.
The possibility of conformal mapping of the z
strips asserted in Lemmas 1 and 2 follows from
the fact that every simply connected region having
more than a single boundary point can be mapped
onto some rectangle in such a way that four given
accessible points on the boundary are mapped into 01 8
the vertices of the rectangle. We prove this last Figure 11
assertion as follows: Let us first map our domain onto the upper half plane and
let us denote by a 1i a2 , a 3 , and a4 the points on the real axis into which the
four given boundary points are mapped. (We can arrange for all the ak to be
finite.) We then map the upper halfplane onto the rectangle by using the function
C
- dC
(C - al) (C - a1) (C - a1) (C -- a4)
Then, the points a I , a2, a 3, and a4 are mapped into the vertices of the rectangle.
As a consequence of Lemma 2, we obtain the result that the ratio of the sides of
the rectangle is determined uniquely by the mapped domain and the points that are
mapped into the vertices.
Theorem. 1) Let f(z) denote a member of S. Consider n rays issuing from
the point w = 0 forming equal angles each with the next. On each of these n rays
consider that point of intersection of the ray with the boundary C of the image of
the disk z I < 1 under the mapping w = f(z) which is closest to the point w = 0.
I
Then, at least one of these n points is at a distance no less than l/4

5/7- from
w=0.
Proof. Let us suppose first that the boundary C is an analytic curve and
that the theorem is not valid. Then there exists a system of rays Lk, k = 1, , n,
that issue from w = 0 at equal angles such that the boundary points on them that
are closest to w = 0 are all at a distance not exceeding d < n 1/4 from w = 0.
The function
w=fo(z)=dY4 -Z2 =az+..., a=di/4<1,
(1 +etazn)n
for suitable a maps the disk I z I < 1 onto the plane with cuts in the form of n
halflines lying on the rays L k issuing from the points Ak = e-(a+2kn)i/n for
k = 1, . , n that include the point w = 0 on their extensions. Since a < 1, it
follows that for r sufficiently small, the image s of the circle I z I = r under the
function w = f (z) contains in its interior the image so of a circle I Z I = Qr,
where Q > 1, under the function w = fo W. Let us now partition the annulus
Qr < I z I < 1 into a system of strips by drawing an arbitrary set of rays issuing
from z = 0 in such a way that the following three conditions are satisfied: 1)
The set includes all rays lk containing segments that the function w = fo (z)
maps into segments OAk and all rays that are bisectors of the angles between
adjacent lk (see Figure 12); 2) it includes all rays that the function w = fo(z)
maps into curves tangent to C; 3) if this set includes a certain ray, it also
includes the ray symmetric to it about the closest of the rays lk. The system of
strips Sk constructed in this way can be partitioned into pairs of symmetric
v
1) Lavrent'ev and Sepelev[1930, 1937](Rengel [1933 ]).The proof presented here was
given by the author [1939d] .
The theorem can be generalized to the case of p-sheeted functions (see Goluzin
[1948]).
strips Sk, and Sk"" whose images Ik' and Ik " under the function w = fo (z)
will have a common boundary segment on the rays Lk and will together constitute
Figure 12
a strip Ik ' U lk which extends from so and returns to so . The entire w-plane
exclusive of so and, consequently, the image of the annulus r < I z I < 1 under
the function w = f (z) is partitioned into subsets contained in the strips Ik'U 1k"
Also, by hypothesis, the number of such subsets of the image in question that lie
in each strip 1k' U Ek" will not be less than two. Consider the pairs ak , and
ak of these subsets contained in the strips Ik'U Ik" and adjacent to s. Let
us denote by ak ' , bk ' and ak, bk " the sides of the rectangles into which
they are mapped in accordance with Lemma 1 and let us denote by sk ' and sk
their preimages under the mapping w = f(z) lying in r < z I < 1.
Then, in accordance with Lemma 1, we have
a'kr ak 2a
bk, + bkl 1og-
1 (3)
r
Now, let us denote by Ak' and Bk' (Ak "" and Bk ") the lengths of the
sides of the rectangles into which the strip Sk' (Sk ), and hence the strip 1A,
(ak 11) is mapped (as described in Lemma 1). Obviously, we may assume that
AA, , = AV and B k ' = B k . Then, the strip I k ' U E k " is mapped into the rec-
tangle Rk ' k with sides Ak ' and 2Bk ' such that corresponding to sides of
length Ak ' are the parts of the boundary Ik ' U Yk lying on so. These last
mappings ak , and ak are mapped into strips contained

in Rk' k and extending from one side of length 2Bk
to the other. If we map these strips into rectangles as
indicated in Lemma 2 and if we take for the continua on
the sides of length 2Bk, segments on £k' U IV' corre-
sponding to the segments that, in turn, correspond under
the mapping w = f (z) to the parts of the boundaries s k
and s k N contained in Qr a_b, where
a and b are both positive, we obtain
ak, + a,:,--,, 2 ak, a ,, _ 2
bk, bk
V ak, akr,
4 2Ak, Ak, Ak
bk bk Bk, Bkr B4r,
dkr + ak
But, in accordance with Lemma 1, we have
(Ak, Ak.) _ 2a
Bk,+Bk" log Qr
Consequently,
(g_L, ak" 2S
bk, + log 1
Qr
When we compare this with (3), we obtain
2z' 2n
1
1
log log
r Qr
But this contradicts the fact that Q > I. This proves the theorem for the case in
which C is an analytic curve.
In the general case, we need only apply this result to the function f(pz)/p C
S, where p < 1, and then take the limit as p --' 1. By the same method we can
also prove the following theorem on the covering of the segments.
Theorem 2.1) Let f(z) denote a member of S. Then, in the image of the disk
z I < 1 under this function there are n rectilinear segments issuing from w = 0
at equal angles (2rr/n) to each other the sum of the lengths of which can be made
arbitrarily close to n.
Proof. Let us look at the image B of the disk z I < R, where R < 1, under
I
the function w = f(z). We define the star of the domain B as the largest domain
cdgttained in B that is starlike about w = 0, that is, that has the property that a
straight line segment containing an arbitrary point in it with w = 0 is contained
in it.', Corresponding to the annulus r < (z I < R in the w-plane is a doubly con-
nected domain the inner boundary s of which will, for small r, lie outside the
disk J w < r (1 - Sr) = p, where Sr -- 0 as r --p 0. Let us partition the part of
the star lying outside s by drawing a finite system of rays issuing from w = 0
that have the following properties: 1) the system contains all tangents to the
boundary C of the domain B: 2) it is mapped into itself by a rotation about w = 0
through an angle 21rk/n for k = 1, -, n; and 3) the fluctuations in I w I on the
portion of C between two adjacent rays (though not on the rays themselves) is
less than a given t > 0. Since C is an analytic curve, such a system does exist.
There are nm such rays, where m is an integer. Let us denote them in order by
ll , 12, , l nm . Here, lm k+ q is obtained from lq by a rotation through an angle
2rrk/n (see Figure 14). Let us denote by pk (k = 1 , 2, , nm) the greatest
distance between w = 0 and points of the part gk of the star lying between lk
and lk+1 and outside s (for k = 1, 2, - , nm, gnm+i = gl) By means of the func-
tion J= log (w/p), we transform this system of domains gk into a system of do-
mains hk lying respectively in rectangles with sides of length log (pk/p) and ak .
lK,F
Figure 14
1) Goluzin [1936a1. A generalization of this theorem was obtained by Bermant [1938,

19441.
Here, Gk"` , ak = 2n where amk+ 1 = a'1. On the horizontal sides of each of these
rectangles is a boundary segment (see Figure 15).
I
dK
Figure 15
When the domain hk is mapped onto a rectangle with sides ak and bk such
that the boundary segments mentioned above are mapped into the sides of length
bk, we have, in accordance with Lemma 2,
ak : ak
bk J log Pk
P
Therefore,
nm m n-1 m n-I
amk+1
Yk at
Pmkl
Aftj bk
k-l l-lk=olog Pmk+1
P
J
1=1 k=o log PT
But the system of domains gk is the image of a system of strips contained in

the annulus r < I z I < R under the mapping w = ((z) and the rectangles mentioned
above with sides ak and bk are the rectangles mentioned in Lemma 1. Conse-
quently, from what was said above, we obtain on the basis of Lemma 1
M n-1
2n
al
i1
1=1 k=o log Pmk+1
log R
Therefore, since 1'1=1 a1 = 27r/n, we have
n-1 in n-1
2 2n
log R
r
' min L
k-o log-P 1=I Pmk+1
U1
mI n
k=olog
Pmk+l
P
(4)
If we now use twice the familiar inequality

n n` n
I Ck Ck, Ck 0, (5)
n k_1 Y k
we obtain
n-I
1 nz
I
k=0 log Pmk+i
n-1n n-1
P
I1. log
k=o
Pmk+i
P
I
k=0
log Pmk+l
P
Consequently, (4) yields

n-I
R max log Pmk+i
n log
1 P
k-0
or
n-1
(f n/ < max Pmk+l
l k=0
Therefore, by taking the limit as r ---p 0, we obtain for some l1 in the closed
interval 1 < l1 < m
n-1
Rn c II Pmk+ii (6)
k=0
or, again using (5),

n-1
nR c I Pmk+1i-
k=0
Let us now take an arbitrary system of n rays issuing from w = 0 at equal
angles (2a/n) with each other and intersecting respectively gi 1 , 9m+11 , '
, 9(n-1)m 1 1 . The parts of these rays lying inside the star are of lengths
X1 , A2 , . . , an and hence are respectively greater than P11 - e, Pit - e, ,
' P(n-1)m+11 E. Consequently,

n n-1
E 4 -- E Pmk+l, - nE ! n (R - E)
k=1 k=0
For R sufficiently close to 1 and a sufficiently small, this is arbitrarily close
to n. This completes the proof of Theorem 2.
As a special case (with n = 2) of this theorem, we obtain the result that
there exists an interval of length arbitrarily close to 2 that passes through the
point w = 0 and that lies entirely in the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the
mapping w = f (z) E S. Furthermore, when we rewrite inequality (6) in the form
n-1
2n
log Pmk+1, log R
k=0
and take the limit as n --1, 00, we obtain the following inequality: 1)
1
2a
log R,
S
where w = pe`g' and the integral is over the boundary of the star of the image of the
disk I z < R under the mapping w = f(z).
On the other hand, if we raise (6) to the power 2/n and if we apply inequality
(5) to the right side of the resulting inequality, then, when we take the limit as
n = oe, we obtain the inequality
1
2 S p'd
where the integral is over the boundary of the same star. This integral is equal
to the area of the star. By letting R approach 1, we obtain
Theorem 3.2) if f (z) is a member of S, then the area of the star of the image
of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f(z) is no less than rr.
Starting with other considerations, we can obtain the stronger result:3)
Theorem 3 '. If f (z) is a member of S, then the product of the area of the
star of the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f (z) and the area of
the preimage of this star is not less than n2.
Proof. Consider the star of the image of the disk I z I < R, where R < 1,
under the mapping w = f(z) and let h denote its boundary and l the curve corre-
sponding to it in I z < 1. This last curve is a closed Jordan curve. The function
F (x) =log f Z) = U-}- l V, F(0)=0i
is regular in I z I < 1. Consequently, from Green's formula, we have, taking z =
x + iy and using the Cauchy-Riemann conditions
UdV= S Uadx+Uydy
a 1
_ I SR /du av OU dV`
Ty dz dz dy = I
5 IF (x) I9 dx dy,
S, l az ay S,
s
1) Goluzin_[1917a .
2) Goluzin
3) Bermant[1938a].
that is, by setting z = re`d` and f (z) = pe`g',
or
log
r
d0
log pd + log rd +logpdy. (7)
x 1 A 1
On',the other hand, if we integrate by parts, we obtain
0= 3 (1S ZZ) dz) = S log P- d'f + `P) d log r
log I dp - S log rd( log p dy - log r
i.e.
logpdp=S logrd+.
But this last integral is equal to 2a log R because v' = const on the radial seg-
ments lying on A and log R on the remaining arcs. On the basis of this, inequality
(7) takes the form
log pdq+log rdp:-:- 4nlogR. (8)
Let us now consider the doubly connected domain B. bounded by the curve
A and a small circle y: w = e. From Green' s formula, we have, just as above
log p
dt
- J=2I
log p 5
du dv
WI P (9)
with a double integral taken over the domain BE . Now, if we denote by SR the
area of the domain B bounded by the curve A (that is, the area of the star) and
note that the integrand in. the last integral in (9) is no less in the part of the disk
w < SR/7r not belonging to the domain B than in the part (of equal area) of
the domain B lying outside that disk, we conclude that
du dv du dv
SS
B`
I'- SS i' SS
R
Pdp1
< i h<Imi<
= 2n ( log - log e) .
Remembering that
we obtain from (9)

logpd it logs. (10)
Analogous reasoning is applicable to a doubly connected domain bounded by

a curve l and a small circle I z I = E . Thus, if we denote by s R the area of the
domain bounded by the curve 1, we have
logrdylog -R S
7C.
From (9)-(11), we obtain

is log -}- r log s l 4a log R,
that is,
SR . SR > OR'.
As we let R approach 1, the area SR approaches the area S referred to in the

star theorem and sR approaches the areas of the image of the star, and we obtain
S. s 7t9,
which completes the proof of the theorem.
As a consequence of this result and of the property of minimization of the
area under a mapping (see §2 of Chapter II), we obtain a supplement to Theorem 3:
the area of the star mentioned in that theorem is equal to it only if f(z) = z.
We note that all these theorems except Theorem 1 remain valid for an arbi-
trary function f(z) = z + that is regular in I z I < 1. 1) The only difference is
that, in this case, instead of the univalent image of the disk I Z I < 1, we need to
consider the Riemann surface onto which the disk I z I < 1 is mapped bijectively
by the function w = f(z) and, consequently, the star located on that Riemann sur-
face. All the above reasoning is valid word for word in this case.
§7. Lemmas on the mean modulus. Bounds for the coefficients

Let us now investigate the influence of the univalence of a mapping on
the values of the coefficients of the mapping functions. To do this, we need to
1) Goluzin [1937a] and Bermant [1947].

§7. LEMMAS ON THE MEAN MODULUS 183
know bounds for certain moduli. These bounds are provided in the following lemmas.
Lemma 1.1) Let f(z) denote a function belonging to S. For A > 0 and 0 <
r<1,
2a r
If (reie) Ix A A M PP)' dp,

(1)
27C
where
M (p)= max I f (z) I
IzI=P
Proof. We have
2% 2a 2x
d1f ie) I' d log I f(rets) I
d S If (re") Ix d9
d d9 = l If (reie) 1a A
But, from the Cauchy-Riemann conditions,
dlogr
Therefore, when we set f (z) = Re`' , we obtain
-
d log I f (reie) t_ d arg f (re`B)
dB
dr
2w
If(reie)I" d9 r RAdI, (2)

6r
where Cr is the image of the circle I z I = r under the mapping w = f(z). Now,
let C and C' denote two closed analytic Jordan curves in the w-plane, where
w = u + iv, such that C encircles the point w = 0 but is itself encircled by C.
Denote the polar coordinates of points in the w-plane by R and 0. If we apply
Green's formula to the doubly connected domain B bounded by these curves and
then use the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, we obtain successively
Rad(D - Rad(D = S RX du du+Ra" dv'

1
C c--c
C S XRa rd log R d _ d log R O'I du dv
J LOU dv du du l
B
__ CBS duR )s + ('0V
Ra [ (d-'O dil dv= l cBc Ra-s du dv;
`l
JJ 1
aJ
that is, we obtain the formula
1) Prawitz [1927-19281. See also Goluzin [1949d].

SRAdI-S R'd(D =ASSR'-9dudv. (3)

C' C B
From this formula with A > 0 (it obviously holds also with A < 0) we get the ine-
quality
SR'd(Dc5R'd(D. (4)
C C'
In particular, if C' is the circle w I = R0 , then (4) yields

R'd(D _2itRo. (5)
C
If we apply inequality (5) to the case in which C is C, and R0= M(r) + e,
where c > 0, and then let a approach 0, we obtain from (2) the inequality
29
M rr)l ,
I f (re") I' dO 2aa
dr
integration of which with respect to r from zero to r leads to inequality (1). This
completes the proof of the lemma.
Lemma 2.1) Let f(z) E S. For 0 <r < 1
2+c
I'
2a "If (T era) - I f (re'°) I de'
21+
2p(1±a)-2 a
..
1//TM(1)(M(P))2
1
dP, (6)
r e 1-r P
8
where
M(P)=maxIf(x)I,
IZI-a
p is a positive integer, and A + 1 - p-1 > 0.
Proof. Let us consider the function
w
fv (Z) = P Z5 _ 1, (7)
n-0
which, as we showed in §4 of Chapter II, belongs to the class S.
From ( 7), we have
1) Goluzin[1949c].
G (z) = z" f (zP)P - 1 f (z"),

so that
f(z) = zP -1 f (z)1 P fa (zP).
Let us denote the left-hand side of ( 6) by I, replacing f' (z) in it with the
above expression. We obtain
1 -1 2x 1
I+ -1
rp If (rel8) P I f; (z P) I d9,
2a
from which we get

2x 21+2- 2 2x 2
I< r b)
I f (Tete) I P d9.2 us rP If (zP) Is d9. (8)
Let us find a bound for each of the integrals under the radical. Lemma 1
provides a bound for the first of these:
2x da+2- 2 cr 2A+2- 2
If (re')
12,+2-
P dO < (2a + 2 -
p2) l dp (9)
2a .) M (P) p
0
With regard to the second integral, we have from equation (7)
2x 1 00
Ifp(ZP)I'd9=
Y(nA+1)$IcR'I9r2a.
(10)
2a
a-0
But, for 0<x<1 and m>0,
mm
xm(1 x)----0 max (xm(1 -x))= 5M-+1)m+i
1 1 1
-m 1 m+1Ct'1 I
(1+ ml
from which we get
m< ex-(I- x) O<x<l, m>0. (11)
If we now set m = (np + 1)/p and x = r, we obtain
np+1 P
nP+ l
er P (1-r)
Equation (10) yields
186 M. EXTREMAL QUESTIONS
c2i 2 m
1
nP+I
A \ Iff(zP)IsrPdO a (1- r)
o1cPc(P)nisr
P -}- ) I P (12)
j5
But the last summation is equal to (1/7r) times the area of the image of the disk
z I < r1 /'2p under the mapping w = fp (z). Consequently, it does not exceed
(max,z!=r1/2pIfP(z)I)2; that is;.it does not exceed max I f(z)I2lp 2/p .
Thus, it follows from (12) that
2n
Ifp(zI1P)Isr2/PdA< T U -
P M(J ' )2/1, (13)
2n r)
Using inequalities (9) and (13), we obtain inequality (6) from (8). This completes
the proof of the lemma.
Lemma 3. Let f(z) denote a member of S such that, in the disk I z I < 1,
MIZI (14)
If(z)I C(1-Iz1Y,
where M and a are independent of r and where a> 1/2. Then, for 0 < r < 1,
2n
2a I f'(re'e) I drr< (1M'

-r)a (15)
where M 1 depends only on M and a.

Proof. Since, by (14),
M(P)=ImIxPIf(z)I< (1MPP)"'
O<p<l,
by applying Lemma 2 with A = 0, we obtain, for 0 < r < 1,
2m+1
2+c 1
, 1- 2
2p
2a ` I f Crete) I A< 1 r Mere dP (16)
(1 - r) p (1
-p \ 2--
P)
P P
a
Let us now choose p > 1 in such a way that (2 - 2/p) a > 1 (which is pos-
sible since a > %). We then have
r 2 r 2-2
f
2
P
P t-- dp M'r P
d p -< r P
(1-P)(2 -
P)a 0
0-P)(2 P)
a
(1-r)(2-P) -1
where M' depends only on a and p.
By using this last inequality, we obtain from (16)
2+c
2a+1 _ 1 1
2p
:e p MIM12 v r p
1
29 f'(re )Id9< 1-r (1 r)fa -(1-r)a

Here, M" depends only on a and p. Inequality (15) then follows for % < r < 1.
But (15) obviously holds also for 0 < r < % when M1 is suitably chosen. This
completes the proof of the lemma.
Now, we have some theorems on bounds for the coefficients of functions
belonging to the class S.
Theorem 1.1) For functions f(z) = z7=1 c z" E S, we have
cnI < en, n = 2, 3, .. . (17)
Proof. Beginning with the integral representation of the coefficients
Cn-2ai y(z) dz, n = 2, 3, ..., 0 < r < 1, (18)
we have Izl=r
2c
cC. I c 2nrn If (reie) I A
If we now apply Lemma 1 with A = 1, we obtain
1 M (P)
CnIC rn P dP
But, from inequality (10) of §4 of Chapter II with 0 < p < 1, we have M(p) <
p/(1 - p) 2. Consequently,
r
1 dp
IC.I< 1
Here, r is an arbitrary number in the interval 0 < r < 1 . If we set r = 1 - 1/n, we

have
CnIC(nnn n-1
1)n-1=n (i+n 1 1) <en.
Thus, we have obtained inequality (17). This completes the proof of the theorem.
1) Littlewood[1925].
Theorem 2.1) For an odd function f(z) = Y-n=lc2n_1z2n-1 F S

I 1 1
Ic,,\<2432e2=3.39.... (19)
Proof. We have
' f (z)
ncn = Tai1 Zn dz, n=2, 3, ..., O<r<1.
(=1=r
From this we get
2n
nI cnl S I1'(fefe)I dA.

2Rrn
0
Consequently, from Lemma 2 with A = 0 and p = 4, we have
n I C. I C
n I6e
r
kf (/' r )1/l
r
M (P) '/A dP'
p
(20)
But if the odd function f (z) is a member of S, then so is the function g(z)
f (z 54)2. To see this, suppose that g (z 1) = g (z 2), where z 1 and z 2 are points in
the disk I z I < 1. We can easily show then that z 1 = z2. If we now apply inequality
(10) of §4 of Chapter II to g (z), we obtain If(z) I < I z I/(1 - I z I2) for I z I < 1.
Consequently, for 0 < p < 1, we have
M(P)c 1 -p
P
When we substitute this into (20), we obtain

r p9dP
fICnI 1r t e
(1-r)'/, (1 -pS)e/.
1 __ dp
r' /s.
66 (1-r)°1t
Crn , e (1-p,)s/,
6 r`/4 r l1/B
e
rn--2(l -r) l
6 (1 l1/a 2" 31' a ins

T/ rn- 2(1 -r)
e
1
41 - l
rn 2(1-r)
1) The existence of an absolute constant bounding `cn I was proved by Littlewood
and Paley [19321. For the numerical value of the constant, see Levin [19351.
Let us take r = (2n - 1)/(2n + 1). Then, remembering that

1
2
( 1
1 _ 1 (2n + 1)'"+' l1 + 2n/

-T T2n l1- 1 n_ a
r 2(1-r)
l 2n)
nen(1+2n)log(1+2n) n(1-2n)log(1_in)
1 1 I \ l l
= ne" (1 2 (2n)y+ 3 (2n)s + ".)+(1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2n)( Tn 2n)( 2n + 2 (2n)y + 3 (2n)s+"').
l
c net + 3 (2n)9 + 6 (2n)
1 1 1
+...)
1 1 l 1
- (2 (2n)9 + 4 (2n)' + ...) en,

we obtain
n{c,,K2`/, 3'/ 2 e" n,
that is, we have obtained inequality (19). This completes the proof of the theorem.
The functions
00
z
(1-z)' nzn, (21)
n=1
1- z8
_ Ltl zsn-1,
00
(22)
n=1
which belong to the class S, show that the bounds on the coefficients given by
Theorems 1 and 2 with regard to order are sharp. However, in many extremal
problems dealing with the functions that we have been considering, the functions
(21) and (22) are extremal. In connection with this, mathematicians came to feel
that these functions are also extremal in the problem of sharp bounds on the coef-
ficients, that is, that the inequality Icn I < n provided the answer to the question
in the case of the entire class S and that the inequality Icn I < 1 provided the
answer in the case of the subclass of odd functions. The first inequality with
arbitrary n for the entire class S has not at the present time been proved either
true or false. This question constitutes a widely known problem today. Except
for the inequality Ice I < 2, we have only succeeded in proving so far that
C 3 I <- 3.1) In the general case, all that we have are various improvements in the
0 1) Loewner [1923] . (At the present time, it has been shown that I cn l< e (cf. §2,
3 of the supplement))
inequality, for example, the inequalities 1c,, I < % en and I c,,, I < (e/2)n + 2.
With regard to odd functions in the class S, it has now been proved that there
exist functions for which Ic2n_1I exceeds unity for given n> 3 (for Icy I see
§9). Furthermore, there even exist functions of this kind with real coefficients. 2)
§8. The relative growth of coefficients of univalent functions

Now, let us look at the question of the relative growth of the coefficients of
univalent functions. As a preliminary, let us prove the
Lemma. All the minors of the µxµ Vandermonde determinant, where it > 2,
composed of the numbers q = e2 , where v µ are nonzero.
Proof. We set
7jj1 ... ,
V
We denote by Av rV, the cofactor of the element 'q v'
of this determinant. In
accordance with the properties of determinants,
(0 for k=v',
L 71k k= 1, .,µ
=t l 0 for k v'.
if we multiply these equations respectively by rlkv, for k = 1, - , µ, and add

the resulting equations, we get, the properties of the roots of unity,
p.Av, = O,1.r
Since A L 0, it follows that A v v 0 for v, v ' = 1, , µ . This completes
Theorem 1.33 Let f(z) denote a function belonging to S. Let it and v
denote a pair of natural numbers with 1 < v < µ. Suppose that the inequality
1) Goluzin [1948a]. Bazilevic [1951] and, independently, Milin (see Lebedev and
Milin [19511) have given a sharp bound for Icnl in the class S. The bound given in the
text was found by Milin (see Lebedev and Milin [1949] ). (In 1964, Milin showed that
Icn I < 1.243 n(see §2 of the supplement).) For an improvement in the bounds for the
coefficients of odd functions, see Alenicyn [19511. (In 1951, Gong Sheng (Kung Sheng =
Kung Sun) showed that, for the coefficients of odd functions, Icn I < 2.55 (see §2 of the
supplement).)
2) Schaeffer and Spencer [ 1943] and also Goluzin [1949c].
3) Goluzin [1948b].
§8. THE RELATIVE GROWTH OF COEFFICIENTS 191
Ic nI < cna, where a> 0, holds for all n = µk + v for k = 0, 1, . Then, the
inequality Icn I < c ' na, where c ' depends only on c, a and ft, holds for all
n = 2, 3, . For a< 0, this assertion does not hold for all p and v.
Proof. We define
co
1al i- "
n=0
Then,
J (x) V, (z). (1)

v!=l
Now, from the conditions of the theorem, we have in the disk I z I < 1
Co 00
I fw. I (z) I C I Cµn +. I rµn + v C cr ' (µn + V)a rµn

n=0 n=0
`°O ooo
crp.a 7, (n+ 1)arµn <cr(la 1 + 2a L narµn)

n=0 n=I
where r = zI. It then follows for a = 0 that
cr _ clr
fµ, y (z) I 1-rµ 1-r
On the other hand, if a> 0, when we apply inequality (11) of §7 with in =
µn/2a and x = r, we obtain
a
(2a)a
-1 µn
r2(1-r)a
Consequently,
(z) cr (µa .
2saQa
- r)a
jr
W
n=1
2`
)
C Mlr
(1 - r)'+a
Thus, in the disk- I z I < 1 we have

M,r
Ifµ (z)IC -r)'+Q (2)
where M 1 depends only on a, c, and It.

Let us show now that satisfaction of inequality (2) in the disk I
z I < 1 implies
satisfaction of the inequality
(z) Mgr (3)
with the same M2. We set 77, e

277V
2
`'1 , v' = 1, p. For fixed z in the
disk z I< 1, let us look at the values of I f(r7,, z)I, v' = 1,

I , 1L. Suppose
that the greatest of these absolute values is obtained for v ' = vI . Then, from
Theorem 7 of §2 ( with n = 2) applied to I f(rit,I z) I and I f(riv, z) 1, where v,i i
we obtain the .t - 1 inequalities
Mr
If (,q." Z) I < 1 V Vt, (4)
where M depends only on- µ
It follows from (1) that
f (i . z)=Tlv'fµ.I (z)- Ylyfµ.a(z)+ ... +mmfP. µ
Therefore, inequalities (4) can be written in the form
Mrr
17Wfµ. t (z) +a (z) + ... + (z) 1
(5)
Now, let v, denote any of the numbers 1, , µ distinct from v. Consider
the system of it - 1 linear equations with the P. - 1 unknowns y,,, , where v =
1, , iC and v' j v I :
I for
7y ply _ S= 1, ..., p., S V. (6)
.'#.1 0 for S V*,
According to the lemma, this system has solutions. Let us denote these solutions
by y,, . For each v' , we multiply inequality (5) by I y , and add, replacing I
the sum of absolute values on the left with the absolute value of the sum. We then
obtain the inequality
fµ. V. (z) + afµ. (z) I C 1Ml r (7)
where Mil and a depend only on P. . Using (2), we obtain from (7) the inequality
M
Ifµ. V. (z) I ` (1 )l+a (8)
where M 1 depends only on µ, a, and c. This is true for all v, = 1, , P. but
v, # v. But in accordance with (2), such an inequality holds for v. = v. In view
of this, we obtain from (1) inequality (3) with M2 depending only on µ, a, and c.
But now that we have proved inequality (3), it follows immediately on the
basis of Lemma 3 of §6 that Icn I < c' na, where c' is the c' of the theorem.
Thus, the assertion of the theorem is proved when a> 0. That this assertion is
not valid for all P. and v when a < 0 is shown by the example of the function
(22) of §7 for which c2n = 0 for n = 1, 2, . Consequently, when a< 0, the
inequalities Ic,, I < cna are satisfied for arbitrary even .t and v for all n = µk +
v with k = 0, 1, , whereas the coefficients c do not even approach zero for
odd n. This completes the proof of the theorem.
We note that, in the simplest case of µ = 2 and a = 0, this theorem is a di-
rect sharpening of Theorem 2 of §7 in the sense that it establishes the relative
boundedness of the even and odd coefficients of functions in the class S. We now
give bounds on the relative growth of successive coefficients of functions in the
class S.
Theorem 2.1) For functions f(z) = E7=1 c z" belonging to the class S, we
have
1
Ilcn+1 n = 2, 3, ..., (9)
where c is an absolute constant.

Proof. Here, we shall need a more definite form of sharpening of the dis-
tortion theorem than that provided by Theorem 7 of §2 (with n = 2). Specifically,
let f (z) denote a member of S and suppose that the maximum value of I f (z)I on
the circle I z I = r, where 0 < r < 1, is attained at the point z 1 . Then, by apply-
ing inequality (16) of § 2 to the function F (C) = l/ f (1/0 E E and to the points
I
C,=zl, Cs= , IzI=Iz1I=r,
we have
Ix, -zI 1-rs 1 1 l 1 2
r2 f (Z,) T (Z) T f (2,)1 If (2) I I f (Z) I
that is, we have
I z -- Z,IIf(z)I2rr, (10)
This is the sharpened form of the distortion theorem that we shall need.
Let us now prove inequality (9). From
(z - zt)f' (z) = - z, + [- (n + 1) cn+izt + nc5l zn

n=1
we have
- (n + 1) cn+1z1 + ncn -tat S

(z - zi)f' (z) *
and, consequently,
1) Goluzin [1946e]. (This result has been improved by Hayman (see §2 of the supple-
ment)-)
I(n+ I)Icn+tlr-nIcnll --- 27c n S

I(z`z,)f' (z) I d0.
Izl=r
Let A denote any number in the interval -1 < A < 0 and set µ = - A, so that
A + µ = 0. From (10), we have
2a
I (z - zt)f (z) I d0
S
Izl=r
1S Iz- IIf(z)I"'If(z)I'If (z) I dA
Izl=r
2t-µ (12rsr2)
obtain`` J/ . 2n If (z) I ' If- (z) I A.
I z 1= r
If we now apply Lemma 2 of §7, we
r"I(n+1)Icn+iIr_-n lcnI I
_ 2r 2x+2- 2
vi M(Yr)P
(1-r)µ r 1-r
M(P)
p
dp, (11)
2 I
where A and p are connected by the condition A + 1 - 1/p > 0. But
Vr)9 <(1
-2
M (P) C (l P p)e, R1 (Y r) c 0 4 r)p, ,
so that the right-hand member of inequality (11) does not exceed

2 VP
2 P p
r0 P dp (12)
r(1-r) ++P
4(1+t_P\
(1-p) \\ )
Now, let us choose A so that 4(A + 1 - 1/p) = 1; that is, let us set A = -% + 1/p.
Then, the quantity (12) takes the form
21+ P
log 1
1-+Yrr (13)
6+1
r(1-r)4 P
Furthermore, if we set p = [log (1/(1 - r))] and assume r to be such that p > 1,
(13) reduces to the form
Cr log 1 1
r,
r(1-r)4
with I cT I < c, where c is an absolute constant. As a result, inequality (11) yields
(n+1)Icn+IIr-nIcnIIrn+I (1c r)6/,log l 1 r. (14)
Finally, if we set r = n/(n + 1), we obtain inequality (9) from (14) for n suf-
ficiently large and hence for all n = 2, 3, - - . This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Theorem 2 '. For odd functions f (z) = En =I c zn_I z 2n-I belonging to the
class S, we have
Ilcn+tl-Icn_iIICcn 4 logn, n=2, 4, ..., (15)
Proof. Let us represent f(z) in the form f(z) = g(z2), where g(z) _
[f(z%)]2 E S. Suppose that the maximum value of Ig(z)I on I z I = r, 0 <r< 1, is
attained at z = z 1. Then, just as above, we have inequality (10) on I z r with
f (z) replaced by g (z). We now have
(z9
00
- zt)f'(z) = -zt + Ei I- (n+ 1) cn+tzt + (n

n=2
- 1) cn--tl zn+t,
from which we get

- (n + 1) cn+Izt + (n - 1) cn_t
(Z9-zI)f,
-2x1 (z) ZsZ9

S
Isl=Yr
(z9 - zi) g (_) !G (z'j i
2n!
Isll,
S
Let X denote an arbitrary number belonging to -1 < A < % and set µ = -Jt - so
that A+ µ = -%. Then,
I(n+l)lcn+Ilr-(n-1)Icn III
1 z' ztIIg(z9)IV--Ig(z$)I'Ij(z2)Id1
S
2ar2 Isl=l'r
n 2 g(z)(z)IdO.
S
2ar2(1--r)w IzI=r
196 N. EXTREMAL QUESTIONS
We get a bound for the last integral just as in the proof of Theorem 2. As a
result, for r sufficiently close to 1, we have
(n+l)1cn+lI r
1 r = (n - 1)/(n + 1), this yields inequality
(15), proving the theorem.
The inequalities given by Theorems 2 and 2 ' are undoubtedly not sharp, but
they are the best that have been obtained.
§9. Sharp bounds on the coefficients

As we stated above, in addition to a sharp bound for the second coefficient,
we have a sharp bound for the third coefficient for functions in the class S. To
illustrate the nontrivial nature of solving certain problems on the extrema of the
coefficients, we now present a more general result. Its derivation is based on
Lemma 1. Let A(r) denote: an arbitrary real function that is continuous for
0 < r < o. except possibly at a finite number of points at which there are discon-
tinuities of the first kind. Suppose that JA(r)J <e-r for r> 0. Then, by setting
00
1,2 (,t)dT=(v >0, (1)
we have
00
SX(t)dv (v+l)a (2)

0
Inequality (2) is sharp for each given v with equality holding only for the func-
tion a(r) = ±z(r), where p(r) = e-" for 0 < r< v and p(r) = e-r for r> v.
[We note that a v satisfying condition (1) always exists because the left-
hand member does not exceed f p e- Zrdr = %, and the right-hand member decreases
from % to 0 as v increases from 0 to oe .]
Proof. That the function µ(r) belongs to the type of functions A(r) with
given v is easily verified. Specifically,
CO 00 00
l19(T)dr- eAVdT+ a 9`dt=(v+ 2)e-1"_ X (T)dr. (3)

JD b) r
Now, for an arbitrary function A(r) of the type in question, we have for r > 0
§9. SHARP BOUNDS ON THE COEFFICIENTS 197
(EL(T)-IA(r)I)(2e`"-p(t)-IA(r)1):0,
(e_v
because the left-hand memher is, for 0 < r( v, equal to
e_v
- IA(r)I)2 and, for
r> v, we have > µ(r) > I A(r)I. From this we obtain
E.'('r)-A'(t)<2e-' (p.('c)--IA(c)I). (4)
Integrating equation (4) from 0 to c-, we obtain in accordance with (3)

co m 00
SI (r)IdT<S (t)dt=Se-"dr+ Se`dt=(v+1)e-',
0 0 0 r
Consequently we obtain inequality (2). From what was said above, we easily see
that equality holds in (2) only for the function A(r) = ±p(r). This completes the
proof of the lemma.
Theorem 1. 1) For functions
f (z) 00
_ 21 C,,z"
nel
belonging to the class S and an arbitrary real number a in the interval 0 < a < 1,
we have the sharp inequality
26
Cs -act' 2e I--- + 1. (5)
In particular I C31 < 3.

Proof. It will be sufficient for us to consider a function f (z) C S' (see § 1).
For such functions, formulas (23) and (24) of §2 of Chapter III are valid. On the
basis of these formulas, we have
co
CS - acy = 4 (1 - a) r10S e 'k (c) dr - 2 S e-' k9 (r) dc. (6)
0 0
Since the function e`13 f(e-` 3z) for arbitrary real 13 belongs to S' whenever f(z)
does, the maximum value of Ic3 - acZ I in the class S coincides with the maximum
of the quantity R (c 3 - acZ).
Now, we have from (6), by setting k(r) = e`0(r),
co
DI(ca-aqj =4(1-a)K S e 1cos0(t)d-rJ9
0
00 co
-(S a sin 6(t)dt)', -4 S e-9' cos'6(t)ds+1
0 0
1) Fekete and Szego [1933]. See also Bazilevic [1936].

00
4 (1 - a) (S
"0 e cos 6 (t) dr )t - 4 e-2" cos' 0 (t) dr + 1'
0 0
00 co
= 4 (1 - a) \ k (T) dT)t
- 4 10 kt (T) dr + 1, (7)
0
where X(r) = e-T Cos 0(r). Since IA(r)I < e-T, by representing the last integral in
the form (1), we have from (2)
(c3-aes)<4(1 -a)(v-f-1)2e 2'-4 (v+ 2)e +1
=4 [(1 -a)vt-(1 -2a)v+ '-a] e-t"+1. (8)
It remains for us to find the maximum of the right-hand member of inequality

(8) for v in the interval 0 < v < o . This maximum is attained at v = a/(1 - a).
This maximum is attained at v = a/(1 - a). Consequently, we obtain the inequality
2a
31(c8-ac;)<2e I-a+l, (9)
and, hence, inequality (5). Now, for equality to hold in (9), it is obviously neces-
sary and sufficient that k (r) be such that
00
Se' sin6(r)dT=0'. (10)
0
and that A(r) = e-rcos 0(r) coincide, in accordance with the lemma, with the
function ft(r) (with v = a/(1 - a)), that is, that
I
e-('--0 ±j 1-e-2('-z) for rev,
k (t) (11)
S` 1 for t ] v.
It is easy to show that we can satisfy condition (10) by choosing the sign ±
properly in (11). Specifically, if we take the plus sign in (11) for 0 < r < S < v
and the minus sign for 13 < r < v, then, by virtue of ( 11), condition (10) can be
written in the form
"
e-` 1-e dT -- e` Yl--e dt=0. (12)
0
For f3 = 0, the left-hand member of (12) is negative and, for f3 = v, it is positive

Consequently, there exists a 8 in the interval 0 < 0 < v such that (12) is satis-
fied for the corresponding function k(r) in (9) and equality holds in (9). This
Corollary I. For functions
00
fP (z) 21 c ` + lzk+1 E S,
k=0
where p > 1, we have the sharp inequality
ap=
IC e - P+1 +p
2
(13)
In particular, Ic ;2)1 < e-2 /3 + 2'1 = 1.013 .
Proof. The function f, (z) can be represented in the form f, (z) = n f(zp),
where f(z) _ l,°, =1 c z" E S. We have
c2P+1= (c3-PZPI c9 (14)

P
But, in accordance with Theorem 1, we have the sharp inequality
-2p-1
c3-P2P c9 1
2e P+1+
This together with (14) yields (13).
For certain special subclasses of functions of the class S, sharp bounds for
the coefficients c" have been obtained. For this, we need
Lemma 2. Suppose that a function f(z) = 1 + a1z + a2z2 + ... is regular in the
disk I z I < 1 and satisfies in that disk the condition l(f (z)) > 0. Then, Ian I < 2
for arbitrary n = 1, 2, .
Proof. The condition 32 (f (z)) > 0 is equivalent to the inequality I 1 + f (z)I

11 - f(z)j. It follows that the function
B(f (Z)- 1
z)f(z)-}-12 z+... al
is regular in the disk Iz I < 1 and satisfies the condition I g(z)I < 1 in that disk.
It then follows on the basis of the Schwarz lemma that Ia, I < 2. If we now denote
by rlk, for k = 1, . . , n the nth roots of unity, we have
1 n t
n
k=t
f Ìkz0
Consequently, the function
n I
jf(1kzn)=1 az
k=1
also satisfies the conditions of the lemma. Therefore, Ian 2 for all n = 1,
2, . This completes the proof of the lemma.
Theorem 2.1) For functions f (z) £'n =1 cn Zn C S with real coefficients, we
have the sharp inequalities
IC.I_n, n=1, 2, .... (15)
Proof. By virtue of the univalence of f (z) in I z I < 1, we have, for arbitrary

z1 and z2 in IzI <1
00
f(zi)-f(z.) =1+ Cnz"-4 0.
zl - z,
nil zl-z,
In particular, for z 1 = re ò and Z2 = re-'O , where 0 < r < 1, this shows that the
expression
00
I (r, p) =1 + I ckrk-1 sin sin

kcptb
k-2-
is real and nonzero, that is, that it retains sign for 0 < r < 1 and arbitrary values
of 0.
Consequently, the function
2 sin' TO (r, p) = I + c5r cos y + (car' - 1) cos 2p
+ (ckr' - c9) r cos 3p +.. -k- (ckr' - ck_2) rk-a cos (k- 1) cp -j- ..
-
also retains sign. Since this expression is positive at r = 0, the sign is plus.
On the basis of this, the function
F (z) =1 + csrz + (car' - 1) z' + (ckr9 - c9) rza
+ (Cnr' - cn_9) rn-8zn-1 +. ,
is regular in the disk I z I < 1 and satisfies the condition l (F(z)) > 0. In accord-
ance with the lemma, we have
Ic9I<-2, Icar' -II<2, Ic4r'-c511 2, ..., Icnr'-cn_5I2, ...
or, taking the limit as r 1,
Ic9I-2, Ica-II<2, Ic4-c5lc2, ..., Icn-crt-9I<2. (16)
Itfollows by induction that I cn I < n for arbitrary n. This completes the proof of
the theorem.
1) Dieudonne [19311; Rogosinski [19321.

Theorem 3.1) For odd functions

co
-1
f(z) _ C9n_1z9n
ES
n-1
with real coefficients,
_1
4logn, n =2, 4, ..., (17)

Proof. Since inequalities (16) are applicable both to the function f(z) and to
the function
0
i f (Lz).= I (- 1)n-'
n=1
9n-1z9n
1ES
we have
Icn±cn-s1-2, n=3, 5, ... .
Consequently,
cn.1+ICn-%1<2, n=3, 5, .... (18)
On the other hand, Theorem 2' of §8 can be applied to f (z). According to this
theorem,
_ 1
Cnl-ICn-21I<cn 4logn, n=3, 5, ... (19)

Adding (18) and (19), we obtain (17).
In connection with Theorem 3, we state without proof 2) that there exists a
function f(z) satisfying the conditions of this theorem for which Ic2n+1 1 with
arbitrary given n > 2 is greater than unity.
In §5, we gave definitions of convex and starlike domains for the case of
domains with analytic boundaries since we were then speaking of the images of
disks I z I < r with r < 1 udder functions of the class S. We shall now give defi-
nitions of convex and starlike domains that do not involve properties of the bound-
ary of a domain.
A one-sheeted domain is said to be convex if the segment connecting any two
points in it is entirely contained in that domain.
1) Goluzin [1949c].
2) This was mentioned on page 190 with bibliographic references.
A one-sheeted domain is said to be starlike about a point if the segment con-

necting an arbitrary point in the domain with the point in question is contained
in that domain.
Let us now look at functions f(z) = z + c2 z2 + E S that map the disk
z I < 1 onto domains that are starlike about w = 0. Let f (z) denote such a func-
tion and let B denote the image of the disk I z < 1 under the mapping w = f (z).
Let us show that, in this case, the domain B, of the disk I z I < r, where
0 < r < 1, is also starlike about w = 0. For any point w that belongs to B, the
point tw, where 0 < t < 1, also belongs to B. Consequently, the function f -1(t f (z)) =
i/i(z) with 0 (0) = 0 is defined and regular in the disk I z I < 1 and I(A (z)I < 1 in
that disk. Therefore, ItA (z) I < I z I in I z I < 1. Now, let w1 denote a member of
of B,. Then, w 1 = f (z 1), where z 1 is a point in the disk I z 1 I < r. Consequently,
V(z1)I <Iz1I; that is, I f-1(twl)I <r. But twl E B, so that twi = f(z0), where
z0 I < 1. When we substitute this into the preceding inequality, we obtain Iz0 I < r;
that is, tw1 E B,. This shows that the domain B, is starlike about w = 0.
A consequence of this is that, if a function w = f (z) maps the disk I zI < 1
onto a starlike domain, then, as z moves around the circle I z I r, 0 < r < 1, in
a specified direction, arg f (z) changes in the same direction, and, in accordance
with §5, this is equivalent to satisfying the inequality
Zf (Z) (20)
_ f(Z))>0,
in the disk I z I < 1. In accordance with the maximum principle of harmonic func-
tions, equality cannot hold here.
We now have
Theorem 4. For functions f(z) =I n=i
ES that map the disk IzI<1
onto starlike domains, we have the sharp inequalities 1)
IcnICn, n=2, 3,..., (21)

and under the additional assumption that f (z) is an odd function, we have the
sharp inequalities 2)
n=3, 5,... (22)
1).Loewner [1917].
2) Privalov [1924]. The requirement that the function f (z) be odd can be replaced
with the condition c2 = 0 (see Goluzin [1938]).
Proof. If we set
zf (z)
atz (23)
7 (2)
we have, in accordance with the lemma, I a.,, I < 2 for n = 1, 2, . On the other
hand, comparison of the coefficients in (23) yields
(n - 1) C. = an_t + an-acs -I" ... + atcn_t,
from which we get
IcnI°n-sl an-,I
n-1
1C21+...+[I I'Icn-il:
_21+II+...
n-1
For n = 2, it follows that I
C2 < 2. Let us assume that I ck I < k for k < n. We
then conclude that
2+...+(n-1)_n,
ICnIc21+ n-1
so that inequality (21) holds for all n. Inequality (22) is proved in an analogous
manner.
Consider the functions f(z) = z + C2 z2 + E S that map the disk I Z 1
onto convex domains. Let ((z) denote such a function and let B denote the image
of the disk. I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f W. From the definition given above
of a convex domain, for two points w 1 and w 2 belonging to B, all points t w 1 +
(1 - t)w2, for 0 < t < 1, that is, all points of the line segment connecting w 1 and
W2, also belong to B. Let us show that, in this case, the image Br of the disk
z I < r, for 0 < r < 1, is also a convex domain. If w 1 = f (z 1) and w2 = f (z2),
where IZ1I _< I z 2 I < r, we easily see that the points O (Z) = tf (z 1 z/z 2) +
(1 - t) [(z) for I z I < 1 and 0 < t < 1 all belong to B. Therefore, the function
O(z) = f -1 ((k (z)) is regular in I z I < 1, t&(0) = 0, and ItA (z)I < 1 in the disk
I z I < 1. From the Schwarz lemma, we have kt'(z)I < I z I. For z = z2, this yields
Il-1 (tw1 + (1 - t)w2)I < r. But twl + (1 - t)w2 = f(zo), where Izo I < 1. There-
fore, I z o I < r, so that tw 1 + (1 - t )W2 E Br . This proves that the domain Br is
convex.
A consequence of this is the fact that, if a function w = f (z) E S maps the
disk I z I < 1 onto a convex domain, then, as z moves in the positive direction
around an arbitrary circle I z I = r, where 0 < r < 1, the corresponding point w
describes a curve the tangent to which always turns in a counterclockwise direc-
tion, and, in accordance with §5, this is equivalent to satisfying the condition
(24)
(z)
in I z I < 1. By virtue of the maximum principle of harmonic functions, equality

cannot hold here. It is easy to see that the converse is also true, that is, if
a function f (z) = z + c2 z2 + - - is regular in I z I < 1 and satisfies condition
(24) in that disk, it maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto a convex domain.
Analogously, if a function f (z) = z + c 2 z2 + is regular in the disk I z I < 1
and satisfies condition (20) in that disk, it maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently
onto a domain that is starlike about wo. These conclusions are in accordance
with the definitions of convexity and starlikeness that we gave here and in §5.
If two functions f 1(z) = z + and f2 (z) = z + are regular in the disk
I z I < 1 and are connected by
f9 (z) = zfi (z), (25)
then it follows from the equation
(( zfi (z)l __ (zfi (z)l +
1A(z)1 f.(z)I 1
that the function w = f 1 (z) maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto a convex
domain if and only if the function w - f2 (z) maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently
onto a domain that is starlike about w = 0.
We immediately see from this that,. if a function w = f (z) = z + c 2 z 2 +
maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto a convex domain, then, for all n = 2,
3, , we have I c,, 1; this is a sharp inequality since equality is attained by
the function
Go
Y, zn' (26)
z
n-1.
which maps the disk I z I < 1 onto the halfplane $2 (w) > -4
CHAPTER V
UNIVALENT CONFORMAL MAPPING

OF MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
1. Univalent conformal mapping of a doubly connected domain

onto an annulus
In the present chapter, we shall consider the problem of univalent conformal
mapping of multiply connected domains onto various domains of special forms
known as canonical domains. We make one important general remark regarding such
domains. Specifically, it is easy to show that, if a function C= f (z) maps a
domain B univalently, then at each isolated boundary point of the domain B
either f (z) is regular or has a pole and is univalent in the domain obtained from
B by adjunction of all isolated boundary points of B. To see this, let z 0 denote
a finite isolated boundary point of the domain B. Then, z o can be only a single-
valued isolated singularity of the function f W. Let p denote a positive number
sufficiently small that the disk Iz - z0I < p includes no boundary points of B
other than z 0. We denote by B the portion of the domain B contained in the
disk Iz - z0I < p. B* is a doubly connected domain that the function J= f(z)
maps univalently onto a domain in the plane containing exterior points. Let a
denote one of the exterior points. Then the function F(z) = Of (z) - a) is
bounded in B that is, z o is a removable singularity of F (z). If we define the
value of the function F(z) at z = z0 as the limit of its values as z -- z0, we
render F (z) regular at z 0 also. If this limit is nonzero, then z 0 is a regular
point of the function f (z) analogously defined at z 0. On the other hand, if the
limit is 0, then f (z) has a pole at z = z 0. In this case, we take f (z 0) = oc. In
both cases, the function C = f (z) maps a neighborhood of the point z 0 onto a
domain including the point Co = f (z0). Now, if f (z) is not univalent in the domain
obtained from B by adjoining to it the point z 0, there exists a point z 1 C B
such that f (z 1) = Co. A neighborhood of the point z t is mapped by the function
205
206 V. UNIVALENT MAPPING OF MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
C= f (z) onto a domain including the point 0. Consequently, to every point of a

sufficiently small neighborhood of the point Co there correspond no fewer than
two points of the domain B. However, this contradicts the univalence of f (z) in
B. Thus, our remark is proved. It shows that, when we are investigating questions
of univalent conformal mapping, isolated boundary points can be adjoined to the
domain being mapped without causing any complication in the problem.
Let us now begin with the simplest case of the problem posed, namely, the
case of doubly connected domains. Let us show that every doubly connected
domain can be mapped univalently onto some circular annulus, whose boundary
circles may degenerate to points.
Let B denote a doubly connected domain in the z-plane. If it has an isolated
boundary point z0, then, by adjoining it to the domain B, we obtain a simply
connected domain that we can then map univalently either onto the disk 11 < I
or onto the cplane with the point C= oo excluded. We can do this in such a way
that the point z = z0 is mapped into C= 0. The domain B is thus univalently
mapped either onto the annulus 0 < IzI < 1 or onto the annulus 0 < IzI <..
Suppose now that the boundary of the domain B consists of two continua K1
and K2. One of these, let us say K1 is necessarily bounded. The complement
of K1 in the z-plane is an open set consisting of two disjoint domains. One of
these domains, let us say B 1 contains the domain B. The domain B 1 is simply
connected. Therefore, it can be mapped conformally onto the disk 1z 'I < 1. Under
this mapping, the continuum K2 is mapped into a continuum K2 contained in
1z 'I < 1, and the domain B is mapped into a domain B'. Let us now map which-
ever of the simply connected domains complementary to K2 contains B' onto
the domain Iz "I > 1 in such a way that z '= oQ is mapped into z "= oa. Under
this mapping, the circle 1z 'I = 1 is mapped into an analytic Jordan curve con-
tained in the domain Iz "I > 1 and the domain B' is mapped into a doubly con-
nected domain B" that does not include -o and that is bounded by this curve
and by the circle Iz "I = 1. The composite of these two mappings constitutes a
univalent mapping of the domain B onto the domain B ". Furthermore, on the
basis of §3 of Chapter II, we conclude that this mapping sets up a one-to-one
correspondence between the prime ends of the domain B and the boundary
points of the domain B ". Here, just as in § 3 of Chapter II, by the prime end of
the domain B that corresponds to the point z o on the boundary of the domain
B ", we mean the set of all cluster points of all sequences of points of the
§ 1. MAPPING A DOUBLY CONNECTED DOMAIN ONTO AN ANNULUS 2 07
domain B corresponding in the domain B " to sequences that converge to z o .

Let us now show that the domain B " can be mapped univalently onto a circular
annulus 1 1 by means of the function
t = log z onto the halfplane 3 ( t ) > 0. This mapping is not one-to-one because
corresponding to each point z " in the domain Iz "I > 1 there correspond infinitely
many points of the form t + 2kiri, for k = 0, + 1, + 2, . - . belonging to the half-
plane $2(t) > 0. The domain B " is thus mapped into a vertical curvilinear strip
in the t-plane bounded by the imaginary axis and an infinite analytic curve con-
tained in the halfplane R (t) > 0. This strip is a simply connected domain B 1 with
the property that, if a point t C B 1, then all points t + 2k ni, for k = 0, ± 1,
+ 2, - , also belong to B 1. Let us now map the domain B 1 univalently onto a
vertical strip B 2 of the form 0 < R (w) < h in such a way that the boundary points
t = - oo i, 0, and + oo i are mapped into the boundary points w = - oo i, 0, and
+ooi. 1) Under this mapping, the point t = 21ri is mapped into a point wo on the
positive half of the imaginary axis. By means of a similarity transformation in the
w-plane if necessary, we can arrange to have w0 = 2ni. Then, if we denote by
w = f (t) the mapping function and if we denote by t = q (w) its inverse, we con-
clude that these two functions satisfy the relations
f (t+2ar1) = f (t) -}- 2it1, p (w+21r1) = p (w) -}- 2n1. (1)
To see that this is the case, note that the functions f (t + 277i) and f (t) +
27ri both map the domain B 1 univalently onto the strip B 2 in such a way that
the boundary points - oo i, 0, and + oa i are mapped in both cases into the points
- oo i, 2iri, and + oa i respectively. Consequently, by virtue of the uniqueness,
these functions coincide, so that we have the first of equations (1). The second
of equations (1) is obtained in an analogous manner.
Finally, let us map the strip B2 by means of the function C= ew onto the
annulus 1 < et`. Again, the mapping is not one-to-one. If we now express :
in terms of z, we obtain the function = ef(1°g z"), which maps the domain B "
onto the annulus 1 < Ii < eh. This mapping is univalent because, by virtue of
properties (1), the functions [;'= of (log Z") and z "= a 000g 0 are single-valued
respectively in the domain B " and in the annulus 1 < I 1 < et`. Furthermore, it
follows from what we said above that the function (;'= of ('Og is analytic in
1) Every strip has two infinitely distant boundary points, which we denote by ±ai.
the closed region B" and that its inverse is analytic in the annulus 1 < Ii < eh.
Summarizing these results, we have
Theorem 1. Every doubly connected domain B can be mapped univalently
onto a circular annulus. This mapping defines a one-to-one correspondence
between the prime ends of the domain B and the points of the boundary of the
annulus. If the domain B is bounded by Jordan curves, the mapping is one-to-one
and continuous exclusive of the boundary. On the other hand, if the domain B is
bounded by analytic curves, then, in addition, the mapping function is analytic in
B and the inverse function is analytic in the closed annulus.
As a supplement to this existence theorem, let us prove a uniqueness theorem,
one which reveals a significant difference between univalent mappings of simply
and multiply connected domains.
Theorem 2. The circular annulus onto which a given doubly connected domain
B is mapped univalendy is unique up to a linear transformation: that is, if the
domain B is mapped univalently onto two distinct circular annuli, then each of
these annuli can be obtained from the other by means of a linear transformation.
Consequently, the ratio of the radius of the larger boundary circle to that of the
smaller is the same for the two annuli. Furthermore, the function f (z) that maps
the domain B onto an annulus in such a way that a given point on the boundary
of the annulus corresponds to a given point on the boundary of B is uniquely
determined.
Proof. If a domain B is mapped univalently onto two distinct circular annuli,
these annuli can be mapped univalently onto each other. Consequently, it will be
sufficient for us to show that, if two circular annuli are mapped univalently onto
each other, they can be obtained from each other by a linear transformation. And
to do this, it is obvious that we need only show that, if two annuli r < Iz I < R
and r < 14 < R' can be mapped univalently onto each other in such a way that
IzI = r is mapped into W = r, 1) this last mapping is of the form C= e"z, where
a is a real constant. This can be shown as follows: A function f (z) can be
extended, by the symmetry principle, beyond the circle IzI = R into the annulus
R < I z I < R 2/r and maps this annulus univalently into the annulus R '< I ci < R 121r.
Then f(z) can be extended further into the annulus R2/r < Izi < R4/r3, etc.
1) We can always arrange for this by an inversion under which the ratio of
the radii of the boundary circles does not change.
§ 1. MAPPING A DOUBLY CONNECTED DOMAIN ONTO AN ANNULUS 209
Analogously, we can extend f (z) past the circle IzI = r into the annulus r2/R <
IzI <r, and so forth. As a result, we see that the function J= f(z) is regular and
univalent on the entire plane with the points z = 0 and z = oo excluded and that
f (z) ---' 0 as z --' 0. Consequently, it is regular at z = 0 and it maps the entire
z-plane univalendy. Furthermore, since f (z) -- oo as z - oo, it follows that
f (z) = az, where a is a constant; and since Iz I = If (z)I = r everywhere on the
circle Izl = r, it follows that IzI = 1, that is, that a = ewhere a is a real
constant. This completes the proof of the theorem.
The ratio mentioned in Theorem 2, of the greater of the radii of the boundary
circles to the smaller is called the modulus of the domain B.
Theorem 3. When a doubly connected domain B is extended, that is, when we
replace B with a doubly connected domain B' such that B C B' and B B' and
B separates the boundary components of B', the modulus increases.
Proof. We shall first prove an inequality. Suppose that a doubly connected
domain B is contained in the annulus r < Izl < R and that it separates the circles
Izl = r and Izl = R. Suppose that this domain is mapped univalently onto the
annulus r < I < R'. The inverse function z = q u + iv has the expansion
CID
Z=p(`)_ E C4C"
n=-ao
in the annulus. If G and g are the areas of the finite domains bounded by the
preimages of the circles I1 = r i and 11 = R , where r ' < r l' < R i < R ', we have
G= SCI S
-Rl
uv'd9=a
n=-oo
'I Ic n1 I9R'2n,
g= S
ttv'de^,r co
I
ICI:= r, n--oo
(where C = re`B), so that
G nR'2 ari2Ri E n cn I' (Ri2n-2 ` r'1 n-2 )
n=-OD
g nr,2 co 0,
ar12 2] n I Cn 1' r12n
n--00
since n (R i 2"-2 - r 12n-2) > 0 for all integers n except 0 and 1. If we now let
ri approach r' and Ri approach R', we obtain
nRA
gxr9 (2)
with equality holding only when c0 + c 1S. But G < rrR2 and g > rrr2. Con-
sequently, from (2) we have
RJR'
r-- (3)
with equality holding, obviously, only for 0 (0 = c 1 C, where Ic 1 I = 1.

The assertion of the theorem follows because, if we map the extended domain
B ' onto the annulus r < Iz I < R, the domain B is mapped onto a subdomain of
that annulus, to which (3) is applicable with inequality holding. Then, the ratio
on the right is the modulus of the domain B. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
In conclusion, we note that, for the first part of the existence theorem given
above, we can give a proof based (like the proof of Riemann's theorem) on the
solution of an extremal problem: Let B denote a doubly connected domain that is
contained in the domain Iz I > 1 and that has as one of its boundary continua the
circle Izi = 1. Out of the family l of all functions J= f(z) that map the domain
B univalently onto domains of the same type in such a way that the circle Iz I = 1
is mapped onto itself, find the one for which the quantity
M (f) = sup If (z) I
zEB
has the greatest value. The function representing the solution of this extremal
problem maps the domain B univalently onto a circular annulus.
§2. Univalent mapping of a multiply connected domain onto a plane

with parallel rectilinear cuts
Let us now investigate univalent conformal mapping of arbitrary multiply
connected domains onto canonical domains of various kinds. The simplest such
domain is a plane with parallel rectilinear cuts. In this case, our investigation
will be based on the solution of certain extremal problems.
Lemma 1. Out of all functions F(z) = z + al/z + that are univalent in
R(e_2iea1),
IzI > R, the quantity where 0 is a given real number, is maximized
by a function mapping the domain IzI>R onto the plane with rectilinear cut that
makes an angle 0 with the real axis, and only by that function. For it,
§2. MAPPING ONTO A PLANE 211
R(e-2i6a1) = R2.
Proof. It follows from the area theorem of § 4 of Chapter II as applied to the
functions
RF(RC)=C+' +-...,
that lalI < R2 with equality holding only when F(z) = z + R2eiu/z. Therefore,
R(e 9iea,)cR$,
with equality holding, obviously, only for the function F (z) = z + R 2e 2 /z, which
maps the domain IzI > R onto the plane with cut at an angle 0 to the real axis.
Lemma 2. If the function C= F(z) = z + ao + al/z + is univalent in
IzI > R, then IF(z) - aol _< 21zl in the domain IzI > R and the entire boundary of
the image of the domain IzI > R under the mapping t = F(z) is contained in the
disk IC- aol < 2R.
Proof. If I z 0 > R, then the function
C=F,(z)= I F(zuz)- zo
is univalent in IzI > 1. Consequently, in accordance with §4 of Chapter II, the
entire boundary of the image of the domain IzI > 1 under this function is contained
in the disk 11 < 2. In particular, IF1(1)I < 2; that is, If(z) - a0l < 21zl, where
IzI > R. Then, if we shift from IzI > R to Izl = R, we obtain the second part of
the lemma.
Theorem 1.1) Every domain B in the z-plane can be mapped univalently onto
a domain B' in the extended cplane such that an arbitrary continuum in the
complement of the domain B' with respect to the plane is a straight line segment
of given inclination 0 to the real axis. Also, this mapping is such that a given
point a of the domain B is mapped into C = oa and the expansion of the mapping
function about z = a is of the form
z a
+'a,(z-a)+... or z+ Z ...,
according as a is finite or infinite.
Proof. It will be sufficient to prove the theorem for the case in which a
because, in case of finite a, we can map the domain B by means of the pre-
liminary transformation z" = 1/(z - a) onto the domain B' containing z * = oo,
1) Beginning with the extremal property of the mapping function, which was indicated
in the proof given below, this theorem was proved by de Possel [19311 and Gtotzsch [19321.
which reduces the problem to the original case.

In the case of a simply connected domain B, the theorem is easily proved.
Specifically, if the boundary of the domain B has more than a single boundary
point, then it follows from Riemann's theorem that it can be mapped univalently
onto an arbitrary domain constituting the entire c'-plane with cut at inclination B
to the real axis in such a way that z = o is mapped into z '= oo and the expan-
sion of the function C'= C'(z) about z = oc is of the form a_ 1z + a0 + a1/z + . ,
where a_I > 0. Then, the function C= (C'(z) - a0)/a_1 provides the required
mapping of the domain B.
Let us turn to the general case. Consider the family 11 of all functions f (z)
that map the domain B univalently and have the expansion f (z) = z + a1/z + -
in a neighborhood of z = oo. An example of such a function is f (z) = z. Let us
pose the extremal problem: Out of all the functions of the family R, find the one that
maximizes the quantity R(e-2`Ba1)
Let us first prove that this problem has a solution. Suppose that the entire
boundary of the domain B is contained in the disk Izj < R. Then all functions of
the family R are univalent in the domain jzj > R. Consequently, in accordance
with Lemma 1, for these functions we have R (e-2` Ba1) _< R 2; that is, the
numbers R(e-206a1) are uniformly bounded. Let A denote the least upper bound
of these numbers. If this upper bound is not attained, there exists a sequence of
functions fn(z) E Dl for which the sequence {R(e-2`Ba1)) converges to A. But,
from Lemma 2, for functions of the family Dl we have if (z)/z1 < 2 in jzl > R.
This shows that the condensation principle can be applied to the functions
ff(z)/z, that is, that the sequence { f,(z)/z} contains a subsequence (f,,k(z)/zI
that converges uniformly in the interior of the domain Izj > R to a regular func-
tion f0(z)/z = I + aJO)/z2 + such that R(e-2`Bai0)) = A. But in accordance
with Lemma 2, we have l fnk(z)l < 2R' for functions fnk(z) on Iz = R', where
R '> R. By virtue of the univalence of flk(z) in B, the same inequality holds
also at points of the domain B that belong to the disk 1zI < R'. Consequently,
the functions fnk(z) are uniformly bounded in the interior of the domain B0
obtained from B by removing the point z = oc. In accordance with Vitali's
theorem, the sequence of these functions converges inside B0 to a regular func-
tion f 0(z), which, in accordance with Theorem 2 of § 1 of Chapter 1, is univalent
in B0 and hence in B. Therefore, f0(z) E 2, which contradicts our assumption
that the least upper bound A is not attained by the numbers R(e-2cea1). Thus,
§2. MAPPING ONTO A PLANE 213
the existence of a solution of the extremal problem posed is proved.

Let us now show that the extremal function f0(z) provides the mapping referred
to in the theorem. Let us suppose that the complement of the domain B with
respect to its image B ' under the function C= fo(z) contains a continuum other
than a straight line segment of inclination 9 with the real axis. Let B 1 denote
whichever of the simply connected domains complementary to this continuum in
the plane contains the point C= cc. Suppose that the function w = w(C) maps B 1
univalently onto the w-plane with rectilinear cut of inclination 0 with the real
axis and that it has the expansion t;+ 01/C+ in a neighborhood of 4_ cc.
Let us show that $2(e-2`61) > p.
RiFemann's
In accordance with theorem, the domain B 1 can be mapped uni-
valently onto the domain It > R' in such a way that the function C_ C(t) inverse
to the mapping function has the form C(t) = t + yo + y1/t + . The function
w = w(C(t)) - yo = t + (131 + yl)/t + maps the domain It` > R ' univalently. onto
the w-plane with rectilinear cut of inclination 0 with the real axis, and the func-
tion r= C(t) - yo = t + yl/t + . maps ItI > R ' onto a different domain.
Therefore, on the basis of Lemma 1 we have
at (e-0
71) < (e 9`B (N1 + Ti))
that is, R (e-z` 681) > 0.
Now, let us look at the function w = w (f 0(z)). This function maps the domain
B univalently and has the expansion z + (ai0> + O1)/z + in a neighborhood
of z =cc.
Consequently, w(f 0(z )) E 9 and we have
at (e-20 (4) + r1)) = R (e-20 a()) + at (e9te 1'1) > A,
which, however, is impossible. This shows that the function f0(z) meets all of
the requirements of the theorem. At the same time, we have established an
important extremal property of the mapping function, namely, the fact that it
maximizes the quantity R(e-2`9a1).
In the case of finitely connected domains, this theorem can be formulated as
follows :
Theorem 1 '(Hilbert). Every n-connected domain B in the z-plane can be
mapped univalently onto the aplane with n parallel finite cuts of inclination a
with the real axis in such a way that a given point z = a is then mapped into
C_ oc, and the expansion of the mapping function about z = a has the form
z-a -}-at(z-a)4-... z4-i'-4-...,

1
or
according as a is finite or not. Some of the cuts referred to may consist of single
points.
Let us now look at the question of the correspondence of boundaries under
univalent conformal mapping of multiply connected domains. We shall confine our-
selves here to finitely connected domains that have only accessible boundary
points. We may assume that the point oc is in the interior of the domain. Let B
denote such a domain and let K 1, K2, - - , Kn denote its boundary continua. Let
us map the domain B univalently onto a domain bounded by closed analytic
Jordan curves. This can be done as follows: we map the simply connected domain
including z = ea and bounded by the continuum K 1 onto the interior of a circle.
Under such a mapping, the domain B is mapped into a domain B' bounded by a
circle Ki and the continua K21 , K,, . Then, we map the simply connected
domain containing the domain B' and bounded by the continuum K2 onto the
interior of a circle. Under this mapping, the domain B' is mapped into a domain
B ° bounded by a circle KZ , an analytic curve K1 and the continua K3, ,
Continuing in this way, after n steps we arrive at an n-connected domain B(n)
whose boundary consists of n closed analytic Jordan curves. The univalent map-
ping of the domain B onto the domain B(n) is a composite of successive mappings
of univalent domains. Since these mappings define a one-to-one correspondence
between the boundaries, the correspondence between the points of these bound-
aries defined by the mapping of B onto B( n) is also one-to-one. Furthermore,
as in § 3 of Chapter II, we can show that the function inverse to the mapping
function is continuous in B(") except at the point -a. If the domain B is bounded
only by closed Jordan curves, we can show in addition that the mapping of B
onto B is also bicontinuous. If we now map the domain B(n) onto the plane
with rectilinear cuts, then, just as in the proof of Theorem 5 of §3 of Chapter II,
we can show that the mapping function is regular on the entire boundary of the
domain B("). Combining all that we have said, we conclude that, in the present
case, the mapping mentioned in Theorem 1' is one-to-one except for boundary
points of the domain B.
An important supplement to the existence theorem proved above is the follow-
ing uniqueness theorem:
§ 2 MAPPING ONTO A PLANE 215
Theorem 2. There exists only one function performing the mapping mentioned
in Theorem I'.
Proof. Let us suppose first that B is a bounded domain with boundary con-
sisting, of closed analytic Jordan curves KI, , K,,. Let us suppose that there
are two functions C'= fl(z) and t;'"= f2(z) that map the domain B univalently
onto the plane with parallel rectilinear cuts of inclination 0 and normalized as
indicated in Theorem 1 '. Then both these functions are regular in B except at
the point z = a. On K, v = 1, , n, they assume values that lie respectively
on certain straight lines -J(e-` c and Ne-` 9C°) = c v, for v= 1, , n;
that is, on K we have c,, and -J(e-`Bf2(z)) = cv, where cv and
c v = 1, , n, are constants. It follows from this that the difference t; =
F (z) = f 1(z) - f 2(z) is regular in B and assumes on K (for v = 1, , n) values
lying respectively on certain straight lines d Consequently, if we take an
arbitrary point Co that does not lie on any of the straight lines dv, we conclude
that arg [F (z) - Col does not change as we move around any of the curves K.
Therefore, on the basis of Cauchy's familiar theorem on the zeros of analytic
functions, it follows that the function F (z) - Co has no zeros in B, that is, that
F(z) does not assume the value Co in B. Thus, all values that F(z) assumes in
B lie on the straight lines dv. However, this is possible only when F(z) = const
in B. Since F(a) = p, it follows that F(z) a p, that is, f 1(z) = f2(z), so that the
theorem is proved in this case.
Now, let B denote an arbitrary finitely connected domain. Here, we may
assume that it has no isolated boundary points. If there were two distinct func-
tions performing the mapping described in Theorem 1 ', we could, by mapping the
domain B univalently onto the bounded domain B0 with boundary consisting of
closed analytic Jordan curves, find two distinct functions mapping the domain B0
univalently as indicated in Theorem 1 ', which, on the basis of what was said
above, is impossible. This completes the proof of the theorem.
In conclusion, we present an important relationship for the functions mentioned
in Theorem 1' for various values of 0.
Let B denote an n-connected domain bounded by closed analytic Jordan
curves KI, , K and let C= jg(z, a) denote a function that maps the domain
B univalently as indicated in Theorem 1 '. Let us show that the following rela-
tionship holds for arbitrary 0:
2
jo (z, a) = ei0 (cos 6 jo (z, a) -1 sin 6 j (z, a)). (1)
The difference d(z) between the two sides of this asserted equation is a function
that is regular in the domain B and that vanishes at z = a. Furthermore, all the
values that d(z) assumes on any of the curves Ki, lie on a straight line
9 (e-' 64) = const.
Reasoning as in the proof of Theorem 2, let us show that d(z) = 0; that is,
let us prove (1). This relation, which has been proved for a domain bounded by
closed analytic Jordan curves is also valid for an arbitrary finitely connected
domain B. For this, it is sufficient to map the domain B onto a domain B*
bounded by closed analytic Jordan curves, apply(1) to B*, and then return to the
domain B. This yields the relation (1) for B.
Equation (1) yields jg(z, a) for arbitrary 0 as soon as we know j0(z, a) and
l n/ 2 (z, a).
§3. Univalent mapping of a multiply connected domain onto a helical domain

In an analogous manner, we shall find the answer to the question of univalent
mapping of multiply connected domains onto a plane with cuts along arcs of
logarithmic spirals and, as limiting cases, onto the plane with radial cuts and
with cuts along circular arcs of concentric circles.
For constant 9 and c, the equation -9 (e ° Blog ') = c defines a logarithmic
spiral in the plane with asymptotic point at the origin. This spiral has the
property that it is intersected by an arbitrary ray issuing from the origin at an
angle 0. This last follows, for example, from the fact that, if we shift to the plane
t = log C, this logarithmic spiral is mapped into the straight line 9 (e-` 6t) = c
with inclination 9 to the real axis, and the ray referred to is mapped into a
straight line parallel to the real axis. For 9 = 0, the logarithmic spiral degenerates
into a ray issuing from the origin. For 0= n/2, it degenerates to a circle with
center at the origin. If we hold 0 constant and vary c, we obtain various curves
constituting the family of logarithmic spirals of inclination 0. In all that follows,
when we speak of logarithmic spirals of inclination 9, these are what we mean.
Let us show that, for any simply connected domain B that has boundary
points, it is possible to map B onto the plane with cut along an arc of a loga-
rithmic spiral of inclination 0 in such a way that given points a and b of the
domain B are mapped into 0 and oo and the expansion of the mapping function
§3. MAPPING ONTO A HELICAL DOMAIN 217
about z = b has the form
z b
+aa+at(z-b)-} ... or x+ao+ z +- (1)
according as b is finite or infinite. In the case in which the domain B has a

single boundary point, this is obvious, and then the arc of the logarithmic spiral
referred to degenerates to a point. On the other hand, if the boundary of the
domain B is a continuum, let us first map B conformally onto the domain
1z 'I > 1 in such a way.that the point z = b is mapped into z '= 00. Then, the map-
ping function z '= q(z) has in a neighborhood of z = b, the expansion
za=tb +as+at(z-b)+...
y -{-...,
or a_tz+ao-}
according as b is finite or infinite. This is possible by virtue of Riemann's
theorem. Suppose that the point z = a is mapped into a point z'=a'. It now
remains to establish the possibility of mapping the domain 1z 'I > 1 onto the
plane with cut along a logarithmic spiral of inclination 0. But this possibility
follows from the solution of the problem on the minimum of the quantity
R (e-2i 'log F'(a')) in the class 1. This problem was studied in § 3 of Chapter
IV (the first application of Theorem 1 with a= 7r/2 - 0). It was shown there that
this problem has a solution and that the extremal function C= F(z') normalized
by the condition F (a') = 0 provides the required mapping.
As a result, we see that the function C= cF(O(z)) = f (z) with f (0) = 0 and
f'(') = oo with suitably chosen c provides a mapping of the domain B onto the
plane with cut along a logarithmic spiral and has an expansion of the form (1).
This result for simply connected domains can be generalized to multiply
connected domains. For this generalization, we need the analogue of the minimal
property proved in §3 of Chapter N, which we formulate as a
Lemma. Of all functions J= F(z) = z + ao + al/z + that map the domain
IzI > R univalently in such a way that a given finite point a and the point oo are
mapped into the points 0 and oo respectively, the quantity 82 (e-Z` 6 log F'(a))
is minimized by the function F0(z) that maps the disk IzI > R onto the cplane
with cut along an arc of a logarithmic spiral of inclination 0. Here log F'(z)
means the branch that approaches 0 as z --. oo.
We now have
Theorem 1.1) Every domain B in the z-plane can be mapped univalently onto
1) Grotzsch [1931].
a domain B' in the cplane that includes the points 0 and oo such that an arbi-
trary continuum of the complement of the domain B' with respect to the cplane is
an are of a logarithmic spiral of given inclination 0. This mapping maps given
points a and b of the domain B into 0 and oo and the expansion of the mapping
function about z = b has the form (z - b) 1 + ao + a1(z - b) + or z + ao +
a1z-1 + according as b is finite or infinite.
Proof. We may assume that b = 00 because, if this is not the case, we can use
the transformation z* = 1/(z - b) to switch from B to a new domain B. and we
can then prove the theorem for this last domain, replacing a and b with 1/(a, b)
and oo.
In the case of simply connected domains, the theorem was proved at the
beginning of this section. To prove it in the case of a multiply connected domain
B, let us consider the family 3R of all functions f (z) that map B univalently in
such a way that a and oo are mapped respectively into 0 and oo and that have an
expansion f (z) = z + ao + al/z + in a neighborhood of z = 00. An example of
such a function is f (z) = z - a. We pose the extremal problem: Out of all func-
tions of the family 9, find the one that minimizes the quantity R(e-2`Blog f'(a)),
where log f'(z) denotes the single-valued branch in the domain B that approaches
0 as z
Let us show that this problem has a solution. To do this let us choose a
simply connected domain B' contained in B that includes a and oo. In this
domain, all functions f (z) E 9 are univalent. Consequently, for these functions,
the quantity R (e- 2` S log f '(a)) is bounded below by the same number as was
calculated for a function that maps the domain B' univalently onto the plane
with cut along an arc of a logarithmic spiral of inclination 0 in such a way that
a and 00 are mapped into 0 and oc. Let us denote the greatest lower bound of the
R(e-2c0log
quantity f'(a)) for functions in 3R by A.
Let us show that this greatest lower bound is attained. We assume the
opposite. Then, there exists a sequence of functions f"(z) E 9, for n = 1, 2,
such that, as n -- 00,
R (e-9`B log fn (a)) - A.
Suppose that the entire boundary of the domain B lies in the disk Izl < R.
According to Lemma 2 of § 2, it follows that the entire boundary of the image of
the domain Iz I > R under the function w = f"(z) = z + ao") + al" )/z + (where
n = 1, 2, ) lies in the disk JC- ao")l < 2R and that 1f"(z) - ao")l < 2Izl in the
domain IzI > R. If Ial > R, this last inequality with z = a implies that
Iao")I _< 21al. On the other hand, if lal < R, then the point Co = &(a) = 0 does not
belong to the image of the domain IzI > R under the mapping C= f"(z} hence, it
belongs to the disk IC- a("'I < 2R. Therefore, lao"Il < 2R. Thus, in all
cases, lao"))l < 2max (lal, R) = M. But then, If" (x)/zl < 2 + ;11/R
in IzI > R. Consequently, the condensation principle can be applied
the sequence 1f"(z)/z{, so that it contains a subsequence {f"k(z)/z1 that converges
uniformly in IzI > R to a regular function. The corresponding sequence tf"k(z)}
converges uniformly in an arbitrary closed bounded subset of the domain IzI > R
to a function f0(z) that is univalent in IzI > R. But since the values of C= f"k(z)
corresponding to points of the domain B that lie in IzI < 2R belong to the disk
a((0"'I
IC- < 4R and hence to the disk l l < 4R + M, the set of functions f"k(z) is
uniformly bounded inside the domain B with the point z = oo excluded. Therefore
the uniform convergence, mentioned above, to f0(z) holds also in the interior of
the domain B, and f0(z) C M. The function f0(z) thus proves to be a solution of
the extremal problem posed, so that this problem does have a solution.
Let us show that the extremal function f0(z) provides the mapping indicated
in the theorem. Let us suppose that the complement of the image of the domain B
under the mapping C = f0(z) contains a continuum other than an arc of a loga-
rithmic spiral of inclination 0. Let B1 denote whichever of the simply connected
domains in the plane that are complementary to this continuum contains 0 and
o-. Suppose that the function w = q (0 maps B 1 univalently onto the w-plane
with cut along an arc of a logarithmic spiral of inclination 0 in such a way that
0 (0) = 0 and QS (oo) = 00 and suppose that 4 (0 has an expansion C + go +
f31/C + in a neighborhood of C = -o. Let us show that
T(e l" log y'(0)) < 0.
In accordance with Riemann's theorem, the domain B 1 can be mapped uni-
valently onto a domain Itl > R in such a way that the inverse function has an
expansion of the form J= C(t) = t + y0 + yl/t + . Suppose that the point
t = a' corresponds to the point C = f 0(a). The function w = .0 (C(t)) maps the
domain ItI > R univalently onto the w-plane with cut along an arc of a loga-
rithmic spiral of inclination 0 in such a way that the point t = a' is mapped into.
w = 0. From the preceding lemma, we have
sf (e-2:e (log gyp' (0) + log C (d))) < 51 (e-211 log C' (d)).
Therefore, R (e-2` Slog 0'(0)) < 0.

Let us now look at the function w = q5(fp(z)) = O(z). This function maps the
domain B univalently in such a way that a and oc are mapped into 0 and DC
respectively and it has the expansion z + c 0 + c I/z + in a neighborhood of
_ . Consequently, it belongs to the family 9k and
M (e2 ° log ' (a)) _ ,T (e-111 log ?'(0)) + R (e2d log fY (a)) < A,
which, however, contradicts the definition of A. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
At the same time, we have established the following extremal property of
the mapping function, which includes the distortion and rotation theorems for the
family.of univalent functions that we are considering. 1)
Of all univalent functions i F (z) defined on a domain B including w that
have an expansion of the form
F(z)=z+ao+ z +...,
in a neighborhood of z = o, the quantity R(e-208log F'(z)) with given z e B
and given real 0 is minimized by the function defined in Theorem 1.
In the case of multiply connected domains, the existence theorem that we
have proved can be formulated in a different way:
Theorem 1'.2) Every n-connected domain B in the z-plane can be mapped
univalently onto the t; plane with n cuts along arcs of logarithmic spirals of
inclination 0 in such a way that given points a and b of the domain B are
mapped into 0 and - respectively, and the expansion of the mapping function
about z = b has the form
z - b+ao+a,(z-b)+... or z+ ao-}-i' +...,
according as b is finite or infinite. Some of these arcs of logarithmic spirals
may degenerate into points.
From Theorem 1', we obtain as special cases with 0 = 0 and 0 = 77/2
theorems on the existence of a univalent mapping of an n-connected domain onto
the plane with radial cuts and onto the plane with cuts along arcs of concentric
circles.
1) Gr&zsch [1931a], Goluzin [1937, 19471.
2) (Koebe [1918].
The correspondence of the boundaries under the mappings referred to in Theorem

1' is studied in the same way.as in §2. In particular, let us show that, if the
domain B has only accessible boundary points, then the mapping is one-to-one
in this case also except for points on the boundary of the domain B. On the other
band, if the domain B is bounded by closed Jordan curves, the mapping function
is continuous in B except at the point z = b. Finally, if the domain B is
bounded by analytic Jordan curves, the mapping function is analytic on the bound-
ary of the domain B.
We also have a uniqueness theorem:
Theorem 2. There exists only one function carrying out the mapping mentioned
in Theorem 1'.
Proof. Let us assume first that the domain B is finite and bounded only by
closed analytic Jordan curves K 1, , K,,. Let us suppose that there exist two
functions C= f 1(z) and C= f 2(z) that carry out the mapping of the domain B
mentioned in Theorem 1 '. These functions are regular on Ki, for v = 1, ,n
and, on each of these curves, we have
3 (e i0 logf1 (z)) = c,
and
(ete log ff (z));= C"'

where c v and c are constants. Therefore, it we set = F (z) = log (f I(z)/f 2(z)),
then the function F(z) is regular in B and the values that it assumes on the
curves K. for v = 1, , n, lie on a straight line segment. We then see, just as
in the proof of Theorem 2 of §2, that F(z) = const, that is, fl(z)/f2(z)
const. But f1(z)/f2(z) - 1 as z b. Consequently, f 1(z) = f 2(z).
Now, if B is a finitely connected domain, we can prove the theorem by
reasoning analogous to that used in the proof of Theorem 2 of §2.
We mention one relationship regarding the mapping functions which is
analogous to (1) of § 2.
Suppose that B is an n-connected domain bounded by closed analytic Jordan
curves K1, ... , K,, and that C= jg(z, a, b) is a function that maps the domain
B univalently as indicated in Theorem 1 '. Let us show that the following rela-
tionship holds in B for arbitrary 0:
log j0 (z, a, b) = ei6 (cos 0 log j0 (z, a, b) - I sin 0 logj (z, a, b)) (2)
where suitable branches of the logarithms are chosen. The difference d(z) between
the two sides of (2) is a regular function in B and the values that it assumes on
the curves K,,, for v = 1, , n, all lie on some straight line -J(e-Dgt) = const.
Reasoning as in the proof of Theorem 2 of §2, let us show that d(z)
const = c, where c is equal to 0 for a suitably chosen branch of d(z). This
yields equation (2), which is now proved for a particular form of the domain B.
To see this, let us map the domain B onto a domain B. bounded by closed
analytic Jordan curves and isolated points. We apply formula (2) to B. and then
return to the domain B. As a result, we obtain (2) for the domain B.
Some theorems on the existence of univalent mappings of multiply connected
domains onto various other canonical domains will be given in §6.
§4. Some relationships involving the mapping functions

Equation (2) of §3 enables us to find, for a given n-connected domain B a
function je (z, a, b) with arbitrary 6 if we know the functions jo (z, a, b) and
jn/2(z, a, b). But we can also establish relationships between these last func-
tions and the functions jo(z, a) and jn/2(z, a) of §2 which correspond to the same
domain B. To put these relations in the most symmetric form, we set
f' (z, a) = 2 (J x (z, a) - j o (z, a)),

(1)
Q (z, a) = 2 (J x (z, a) + Jo (z, a))
and, analogously,
P (z, a, b) = 2 (log J,, (z, a, b) - log Jo (z, a, b)),

2 (2)
Q (z, a, b) = (log j x (z, a, b) + log Jo (z, a, b)).

2
These relations then take the forms
dz
P (z, a, b) = P (b, z) - P (a, z),
(3)
d
-dz-Q(z, a, b)=Q(b, z)-Q(a, z).
On the basis of the same principles as in the preceding sections, we can

§4. RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVING THE MAPPING FUNCTIONS 223
assume that the domain B is finite and bounded by analytic curves KI, K21 ,
K,,. Since
(lo (z, a)) = const, 2 (11 w (z, a)) = const,
T
on K. (v= 1, , n) for fixed a e B, that is, since
jo (z, a) = jo (z, a) + const
j(z, a)_- j, (z, a)+const,
2
we also have on the basis of (1)

P (z, a) Q (z, a) + k, (a), (4)
on Kv, where kv(a) is independent of z C K. Analogously, since

3 (log jo (z, a, b)) = const, -3 (11og J. (z, a, b)) = const,
-
5-on Kv for fixed a, b C B, it follows on the basis of (2) that
P (z, a, b) = - Q (z, a, b) + k,, (a, b), (5)
on K v, where k v (a, b) is independent of z C K v.

Now, let us look at the integral
1' - tat } P (C, z) PP (C, a, b) dC,
taken over the entire boundary K = U'= I K, of the domain B in the positive
direction.
In accordance with (1) and (2), the functions F(j, z) and P (C, a, b) are, for
arbitrary fixed z, a, b C B, regular in B. Therefore, in accordance with Cauchy's
theorem, 11 = 0. On the other hand, applying (4) and (5), we have
n
r
1' - r=1 tat J P (C, z) dP (C, a, b)
n
= (-Q(C z)+k, (z))d(-Q(C, a, b) + k, (a, b))
I
n
tat Q (C, z) d Q (C, a, b) Q (C, z) Qc (C, a, b) dC

v=1
(Here, we used the single-valuedness of the function Q (C, a, b) on each of the

curves K u.) Since Q (C, z) and Q'(C, a, b) have simple poles in B at the point
z and the points a and b respectively, by applying the residue theorem to the
last integral we obtain
Q: (z, a, b) - Q (a, z)+Q(b, z).

Remembering that I1 - 0, we then arrive at the second of formulas (3).
Let us examine the integral
19 = 2nt - C Q (C, Z) Pi (C, a, b) dC
in an analogous fashion. On the it is obviously equal to PZ (z, a, b).

On the other hand, we can show, just as above, that it is equal to P (b, z) -
P (a, z). Thus we obtain the first of formulas (3).
One consequence of formulas (3) is that the derivative Qz (z, a, b) is an
analytic function in B of the arguments a and b, whereas Pz (z) a, b) is an
analytic function of a and W. Conversely, we conclude from these formulas that
the difference Q (z, a) - Q (z', a), where z and z ' belong to B, is an analytic
function of a in B and that P (z, a) - P (z ', a) is an analytic function of a. If
we let z' approach z, we see that analogous conclusions hold for the derivatives
QZ (z, a) and PZ (z, a).
The last result can be derived in a different way, specifically, from the
relations
Pp (z, a) = Pa (a, z), Q- (z, a) = Q. (a, z),

which we can prove by examining the integrals
r
19 = tat 1 P (C, Z) Qc (C, a) d`, la =tai } P (C, Z) P (C, a) dC (6)
the same way as above.

That the functions P (z, a) and Q (z, a) themselves are not necessarily
analytic functions of a is shown by the example when B is the domain Jzl > 1.
In this case, we easily see that
_
P(z, a)-1-1
1 z-a Q(z, a)=1
1 -az
a111-az,
aJ'z-a
This method of deriving various relationships between functions that we do

not know explicitly is called the method of contour integration.') Relations (4)
and (5) on the boundary of the domain play the significant role in it.
We now point out a curious analytic relationship with the preceding values of
the function mapping the domain B onto a circular annulus with concentric
circular cuts. Specifically, let us denote by J= f (z) a function that maps a
domain B not containing - and bounded by analytic Jordan curves K,,, v =
v = 1, , n, onto the annulus q < ICI < 1 with cuts along arcs of concentric
circles (see Chapter V, §6, the case 0n/2 of Theorem 7). Suppose that the curves
K1 and K2 are mapped onto the circles q and Just as before, we
calculate each of the integrals
P (C, z, z') (logf (C))i a, (7)

I6
=tai
S P (C, z) (log f (C)) dC, (8)
Ifi = 2x1
h
where z, z 'E B, by two different methods. Keeping in mind this fact, together
with (6) and (7), and the fact that
log f (C) _ ]og f (C) +const on K,
and
tats (1ogf (C))i dC= 1, tat J (logf (Q) dC=- 1,

Kt
we can prove the following formulas:2)

f (z) =f (z) eks (z, z') - ki (z,
f (z) = ej kt (z) dz - k2 (z) dz
1) Garabedian and Schiffer [19491

2) In the process, we need to evaluate the integral
2x1 Q G, z, z)(logf (C))i dC,
and, to do this, we need, by virtue of the multiple-valuedness of the function Q(C, z, z

to make a cut in B connecting the points z and z ' and then replace the integral over K
with an integral over a closed curve y encircling this cut. We then constrict the curve y
around the cut. Integration by parts then leads to an integral that can be calculated in
accordance with the residue theorem.
We note that z ' appears in (9) as an apparent parameter since f (z) is, in
accordance with Theorem 7 of §6 of Chapter V, determined up to a constant
factor.
In conclusion, we derive an integral formula involving the function P(z, a, b).
For any two functions f (z) and g (z) that are regular in B, we define their scalar
product as -
(f, g)= S Sf'(z)g'(z)dxdy. (11)

B
In accordance with Green's formula

Sf(z)g'(z)dz=sf(z)g' (z)dx -lf(z)g (z)dy
K
SB S - t
K
d f (=a g' (z) - df(Za
(y
g Z)
) dx dy = - 21 S S f' (z) g' (z) dx dy,
J B
where z = x + iy. For (f, g) we also have the contour representation
g) = 2i
S f (x) (z) dz. (12)
If we apply (12) to the case in which g(z) = P(z, a, b) and remember that
f (z) P', (z, a, b) dz
= f (z) d 2 (log j, (z, a, b) -- log j0 (z, a, b))
f (z) d 2 (- log j x (z, a, b) - log jo (z, a, b))

V
_-Sf(z)dQ(z, a, b)=21cl(f(b)-f(a)),
K
we obtain the desired formula
(f (z), P (z, a, b)) = a (f (a) - f (b)) (13)
We point out two applications of this formula. The first of these is the
Theorem (minimization of area). 1) Out of all functions f (z) that are regular
in B and satisfy the conditions f (a) = q f (b) = 1, where a, b E B, the minimum
value of the integral
(f, f)=SSIf'(z)I9do,
B
which is equal to n/P(b, b, a), is attained only by the function

(z, b, a)
fo (z) = P
P (b, b, a)
Proof. If we represent an arbitrary function f (z) of the type described in the

theorem in the form f (z) = f0 (z) + (z), we conclude that the function 0(z) is
regular in B and that 0 (a) _ o (b) = 0. For this function, we have in accordance
with formula (13)
(gyp (z), P (z, b, a)) = 0.
Therefore,
(f, f) _ (fo, fo) + (p, fo) + (P, fo) + (y, F) _ (fo, fo) + (,P, P)
It follows that
(f, f) (fo, fo),
with equality holding only when 0, that is, only when f (z) - f o(z). This
As our second application of formula (13), consider a sequence of functions
k(C) such that kt,(b) = 0 for v = 1, 2, , that are regular in $ and satisfy
the orthogonality conditions
1 for v=v'
v v' = 1 2 .. .
l 0 for v v'
and have the property that an arbitrary function f (z) with f (b) = 0 that is regular
in B can be expanded in a convergent Fourier series in B:
1) (The problem of the minimum area of the image of a finitely connected domain has
also been solved for the class of all functions that are regular in the domain that have at
given points of it given initial segments of their Taylor expansions. See Alenicyn [19641).
Co
f (z) = 2] cyky (z), c, _ (f, k0)

V-j
(It can be shown that such sequences of functions exist.)
Let us apply this to the function f (z) = P(z, a, b), where a and b belong to
B. Since, in accordance with (13), we have
cy = (P (z, a, b), k0 (z)) _ ik., (a),
we obtain for P(z, a, b) the constructive formula
00
P (z, a, b) ='t }J k, (a) k, (z)
§5. Convergence theorems for univalent mapping of a sequence of domains

Let us now consider the question of the convergence of a sequence of func-
tions that are univalent in multiply connected domains in connection with suitable
convergence of these domains and their images.
As a preliminary, we introduce the following concepts. Let {BJ, for
n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of domains in the z-plane that include the
point z = on. We define the kernel of the sequence { Bn { as the largest domain B
including z = on every closed subset of which is contained in each Bn from some
n on. Obviously, for a kernel to exist, it is necessary and sufficient that all the
domains Bn contain a fixed neighborhood of the point z = -a. We shall say that a
sequence {Bn} of domains Bn converges to its kernel B (and we shall write
Bn --+ B) if an arbitrary subsequence of these domains has the same kernel B.
For example, if B1 C B2 C B3 C , then the sequence of the domains Bn has a
kernel and converges to it.
'Theorem 1. Let {An) denote a sequence of domains An, n = 1, 2, . . , in
the z-plane that include the point z = on. Suppose that this sequence converges
to a kernel A. Let { fn(z)} denote a sequence of functions C= fn(z) such that,
for each n = 1, 2, , the function fn(z) maps the domain An onto a domain Bn
including the point C_ on in such a way that fn(o) = on and fn W = 1. Then, for
the sequence .{fn(z)1 to converge uniformly in the interior of the domain1) A to a
1) The existence of a pole at z = co is not significant in the present case because

uniform convergence of the sequence of the functions fn(z) is equivalent here to uniform
convergence of the sequence of the functions fn(z) - z.
§5 CONVERGENCE THEOREMS 229
univalent function f(z), it is necessary and sufficient that the sequence IB"I
have a kernel and converge to it, in which case the function C= f(z) maps A uni-
valently onto B.
We note that although the functions are defined at certain points z E A only
from some n on, this does not destroy the sense of convergence at such points.
Proof of the necessity. Suppose that the sequence i fn(z)y converges uni-
formly inside the domain A to a univalent function f W. Then f (z) is regular in
A except at the point z = 00, where f (z) This maps the domain A onto a
domain B' containing 00.
Let us show that the sequence has a kernel and that B' is contained
in that kernel. It will be sufficient to show that an arbitrary closed bounded
domain B * contained in B' belongs to every Bn from some n on.
Let 8 > 0 denote the distance from R* to the boundary of B'. Let us con-
struct a grid of squares with sides of length 8/2. Consider the domain B. con-
stituted by the union of all squares containing points in B. Then B` C B. and
$. C B'. Let 81 > 0 denote the distance from $* to the boundary of B.. Corre-
sponding to the domains B' and B. under the function = f (z) in A are domains
A* and A.. Here, A* C A. and A. C A. But, for any point CO E we have
If U) - Col > 81 on the boundary of the domain A.. On the other hand, it follows
from the uniform convergence of the functions fn(z) in J. that there exists an
n > 0 such that Ifn (z) - f (z)I < 81 on the boundary of the domain A. for n > N.
Consequently, from the equation
fn (z) - CO = V. (z) - f (z)) + V (z) - co)
we conclude on the basis of Rouche's theorem that the function fn(z) - Co has
one zero in A., that is, that for n > N the image of the domain An under the
mapping C= fn(z) contains an arbitrary point Co E B. This in turn shows that
the sequence I Bn I has a kernel, which we denote by B, containing B'
Now, let us consider the functions z = (An(C) inverse to the functions
C- fn(z). For any closed subset of the domain B, these functions are defined on
it from some n on. For sufficiently large positive r, the functions On(0 are all
defined and univalent in the domain ICI > r and in that domain they have the
expansions
Vin)
/ J
Consequently, from Lemma 2 of §2, we have in ICI >
I'Pn(C)-Q( n)I{2ICI,
0
so that
C2-F Ia)I
Or.
But the convergence of the sequence (&(z)} to a function f (z) to a function f (z)
implies that the sequence {a0")} converges to a finite limit. Therefore, the func-
tions On(O/C are regular and bounded in the domain ICI > r and the condensa-
tion principle can be applied to them, so that the sequence has a sub-
sequence (0"k (0/0 that converges uniformly in the interior of the domain
ICI > r to a limit function O(C)IC. On the other hand, the sequence 10"k (:)}
converges uniformly to O(C) in an arbitrary bounded subset of the domain 11 > r.
On the other hand, for all C E B" belonging to the disk ICI < 2r, we have, in
accordance with .Lemma 2 of § 2,
1 yn (C) - m(on) I< 4r.
Consequently, the functions q"(t) are uniformly bounded in every closed subdomain
of the domain B that is contained in the disk ICI < 2r. Therefore, in accordance
with Vitali's theorem, the sequence { 011k (0} converges uniformly to O (C) in the
interior of the domain B exclusive of the point C = oo, and 0 (c) is univalent in
B. Reasoning word for word as on p. 57, we can show that the function z = c¢(C)
is the inverse of the function C= f W. It follows that 4(c) is independent of the
sequence chosen, that is, that the sequence h itself converges
in B. Thd function z = O(C) maps the domain B onto a domain A'. Reasoning
as at the beginning of the proof but reversing the roles of the domains A" and
we can show that A 'C A.
Now, it is easy to show that B '= B. If Co E B, then z o = O(to) C A and,
consequently, Co = f (z o) E B '. This shows that B C B '. But we showed earlier
that B 'C B. Consequently, B '= B. Thus, the function C= f (z) maps A uni-
valently onto B.
If we now take an arbitrary subsequence of the sequence 1Bn} and the corre-
sponding subsequence of the sequence I f4 (z)}, which also converges to f (z),
then by applying to these subsequences the conclusions derived above, we see
§ 5. CONVERGENCE THEOREMS 231
that the function C = f (z) maps A onto the kernel of this subsequence, which
again is the domain B. Thus, Bn - B. This proves the necessity of the con-
dition in the theorem.
Proof of the sufficiency. Now suppose that Bn B. Let p denote a positive
number such that the domain IzI > p is contained in each of the domains An and
suppose that the domain > r is contained in each Bn. If z + (n) +
ain)/z + in a neighborhood of z = 00 and if c does not belong to the domain
Bn, then Ic - a(On'I _< 2p by virtue of Lemma 2 of § 2. On the other hand, I c I < p.
Consequently, Iaon I _< 3p; that is, the coefficients a0(n) are uniformly bounded
with respect to n. Again in accordance with Lemma 2 of §2, we have
1fn(z) - ao")I < 2IzI in IzI > p, so that Ifn(z)I < 2IzI + 3p. In particular, Ifn(z)I <
5p on IzI = p. By virtue of the univalence of the fn(z), this last inequality remains
valid at all points of An belonging to the disk IzI < p. Comparing the bounds on
Ifn(z)I in the disk IzI p, we conclude that Ifn(z)I <
2IzI + 5p in every domain An. This shows that for every closed bounded sub-
set of A, all the functions fn(z) from some n on are defined and uniformly
bounded on it. Consequently, the condensation principle can be applied to an
arbitrary sequence of these functions.
Let us show now that the sequence { fn(z)} converges in A. Suppose that
there exists a point z0 E A such that 1fn(z0)} diverges. Then, there exist two
subsequences of functions that converge at z = z0 to distinct limits. Further-
more, these two subsequences themselves contain subsequences { fn,(z)} and
{ fnu(z)1 that converge uniformly in an arbitrary closed subset of A to functions
f.(z) and f..(z), that are regular and univalent in A except at z = 00, and that
have different values at z0. It follows from our proof of the necessity of the con-
dition of the theorem as applied to the sequences {Bn,} and {Bnu} thai the func-
tions f .(z) and f ..(z) map the domain A onto the kernels of these last sequences,
that is, onto the same domain B. The function
z' =f* ' (f, , (z)) = + (x)
maps the domain A into itself and ifi(z)i z. Suppose that >fi(z) has, in a
neighborhood of z = 00, the expansion
where a,,, for v > 0, is the first nonzero coefficient (which necessarily exists).
Consider the functions 02(z), 03(z), defined in a neighborhood of z = oo by

the expansions
W_3(z)_ (2(z))=z+3y+
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
These functions also map the domain A univalently into itself. Since the domain
IzI > p is contained in A, the functions t/i(z), for n = 2, 3, , are, in partic-
ular, univalent in IzI > p and the functions !(pz)/p = z + na,/p"+lzv are
valent in IzI > 1. It then follows as a consequence of the area theorem that
V+I
Ina ,,/p I < 1, n = 2, 3, , which can be the case only if a = 0. This con-
tradiction shows that ,(z) = z, that is, that f.(z) = f..(z). This last fact in turn
shows that the sequence 1 f(z)] converges in z0. Thus, the sequence 1f (n)1
converges everywhere in the domain A. The uniform convergence of this sequence
inside the domain A now follows from Vitali's theorem. This completes the proof
of the sufficiency of the conditions of the theorem and hence the theorem itself.
One can also prove other theorems on the convergence of sequences of uni-
valent functions on the basis of the manner in which they are normalized. We shall
give one of these theorems.
Just as above, we shall first introduce the following concepts: Let 1B,I ,
where n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of domains contained in the z-plane:
Suppose that a given point z0 belongs to each of the domains B. We define the
kernel of this sequence with respect to zo as the largest domain B containing
the point z = z0 and having the property that an arbitrary closed domain contained
in it belongs to every B from some n on. Convergence to a kernel is defined
just as before. Obviously, the kernel of the sequence of images of the domains
B under a fractional-linear mapping of the z-plane is the image of the kernel B
(of course, with respect to the image of the point z0). This does not violate con-
vergence to the kernel. Furthermore, if we perform similarity transformations
z '= pnZ on the domains B for n = 1, 2, and then let p approach 1, the
kernel of the sequence 1B} remains unchanged and convergence to it is not
violated.
We shall now prove a convergence theorem.
Theorem 2. Suppose that a point z = z0 belongs to each of a sequence of
domains An, for n = 1, 2, , in the z-plane. Suppose that the sequence }An}
converges, with respect to z0, to the kernel A. Suppose that the functions
C= fn(z) map the domains An univalently onto domains Bn in such a way that
fn(zo) = Co and fR (zo) > 0 for n = 1, 2, . For the sequence {fn(z)} to converge
uniformly inside the domain A to a univalent function, it is necessary and suf-

ficient that the sequence (Bn} have a kernel with respect to 4 and converge to
it. Then the limiting function f (z) maps A univalently onto B.
We may assume that z 0 = Co = 0 because we can always arrange for this by
making translations of the z- and planes. The proof of the first part of the
theorem is now based on Theorem 1.
Proof of the necessity. If fn(z) -' f (z) uniformly in the interior of A and
f (z) is univalent in A, then f (0) f'(0) 0. Consequently, the sequence of
the functions
Fn(z) = In (0)
1
In (z)l
which are univalent in the domains An obtained from An by means of the mapping
z '= 1/z, converges uniformly inside the corresponding kernel A'. Therefore, on
the basis of Theorem 1, the sequence of the images Bn of the domains An under
the mappings C= F,(z) converges to the kernel B'. Consequently, the sequence
}BnI converges to a nondegenerate kernel B connected with B' by the relation-
ship J'= The conclusion on the nature of the mapping C= f (z) follows.
Proof of the sufficiency. Suppose that Bn --. B. Then, in the same notation,
the sequence {Bn} has the kernel B' and it converges to that kernel. Consequently
the sequence {Fn(z)} defined by
F.
(z) = fn (0)
fn(Z)
converges uniformly in the interior of the domain A ' to a univalent function F (z)
such that F(oQ) _ o and F'(00) = 1. But then the sequence { fn(z)} defined by
fn (0)
fn z) =
Fn(z)
converges uniformly in the interior of the domain A to the univalent function
f(z)= Ci , C/Q,
F(Z)
which maps A onto the kernel B of the sequence of the domains B. This com-
pletes the proof of the Theorem.
§6. Univalent mapping of multiply connected domains onto circular domains.

The continuity method
In §§2 and 3, when we were solving certain extremal problems, we proved
theorems on the existence of a univalent mapping of multiply connected domains
onto canonical domains. In the case of finitely connected domains, an incompar-
ably stronger method of proof is the continuity method. The proofs that use this
method are extremely similar to each other. They are based on the uniqueness of
a univalent mapping of finitely connected domains onto the canonical domains in
question and on a single topological theorem of Brouwer. We shall illustrate this
method by proving an important theorem on univalent mapping onto circular
domains, that is, domains bounded by a finite number of complete circles with no
points in common (some of the circles may degenerate to points). We first prove
a uniqueness theorem for circular domains.
Theorem 1. There exists no more than one function that maps a given finitely
connected domain B in the z-plane including - univalently onto a circular
domain in the -plane, also including -, and that has the expansion C= z +
aiz-1
+ in a neighborhood of the point z = --.
One can easily see that this theorem is equivalent to
't'heorem 1 '. Every function that maps a circular domain B (finitely con-
nected) univalently onto another circular domain B' is a fractional-linear func-
tion.
,.
Since the two theorems are equivalent, we need only prove Theorem 1
Proof. Suppose that the domain B is contained in the z-plane and is
bounded by the circles K1, K21 , K,,, that the domain B' is contained in the
t; plane and is bounded by circles K I', K2' , , K, and that the mapping in
question maps Kv onto K v (v = 1, 2, - , n). Without loss of generality, we may

assume that the domains B and B' contain the point w and that this point is
mapped into itself.
§6. MAPPING ONTO CIRCULAR DOMAINS 235
Denoting the mapping function by 4 _ f (z), we then have f (oo) = -. The func-
tion f (z) can be extended across the circle K,, (v = 1, 2, , n) into the domain
B,, obtained from B by inversion about K,,. It maps B univalently onto the
domain B, obtained from B' by inversion about K. Consequently, the function
f (z) maps the circular domain consisting of the domains B, B1, , B uni-
valently onto the circular domain consisting of the domains B', B j , , B,. We
reason analogously with these extended domains and continue the process indefi-
nitely. As a result of such extensions in the z-plane, we obtain a limit domain G,
which the function C= 1(z) maps univalently onto a limit G' in the 4 -plane. Let
z '= S (z) denote a fractional linear function composed of an even number of inver-
sions about the circles K1, K29 , K,, taken in any order. Then, the function
f (S(z)) also maps the domain G onto the domain G' univalently since the function
S(z) maps the domain G into itself. Consequently, [(z) is invariant under the
group of fractional-linear transformations z '= Sk(z), for k = 1, 2, . . , composed
of a finite number of inversions about the circles K1, K21 , K,,. The functions
z '= Sk(z), for k - 1, 2, .. , exclusive of the function z ' - z map the domain B
onto disjoint circular domains B(k), for k = 1, 2, , that have no common
boundary points and lie each inside one of the circles K1, K21 , K,,.
Consider a disk Iz - al < r contained in B. Then, in accordance with Koebe's
covering theorem, the domain B(k) (for k = 1, 2, - ) contains a disk of radius
(r/4)ISk (a)I Consequently, the area of the domain B(k) is not less that
n (rI Sk Since the sum of the areas of all the domains B(k ), for k =
(a)1/4)2.
1, 2, , is finite, we see that the series
I Isk(a)I9
k=1
(1)
converges. If we now denote by Kk, for k = n + 1, n + 2, , all the circles

that serve as boundaries for the domains B(k), for k = 1, 2, , and if we denote
their radii by Rk for k = n + 1, n + 2, , we can show that the series
I Rk
k-n+ t
(2)
converges. To see this, let us delete from the domain G the images of the point
z = 00 under the mappings z '= Sk(z), k = 1, 2, . Then all the functions Sk(z)
are regular and univalent in the remaining portion G* of the domain G. There-
fore, from the general distortion theorem (see §4 of Chapter II), we have on K
(v= 1, 2,---,n) for all k= 1,

ISk(z)IM,ISk(a)
where .tl depends on v but not on k or z. Therefore, we get the following
expression for the circumference 2rrRk v of the circle Kk v onto which the func-
tion z '= Sk(z) maps Kv:
21rRk., =S
Ky K,
from which it follows that
Rky-MA IS,(a)I.
If we square both sides of this inequality and then sum over all k and all v,
recalling that each circle Kk is the image of a boundary circle of the domain B
under exactly one of the functions z '= Sk(z), we obtain
co n m
E R42 E M.Rv- Y Sk(a)I®
k=n+1 v=1 k=I
This proves the convergence of the series (2). Analogous conclusions hold for
G'. Consequently, if we denote by Rk the radii of the circles into which the
circles Kk, for k = n + 1, n + 2, , are mapped by the function C= f(z) defined
on G, we conclude that the series
00
k=n+I
Y Rk
converges. It then follows, in particular, that the series

co
E Al (3)
k=n+l
converges, where Ak is the oscillation of the function f(z) on Kk, that is,
Ak max If(z')-f(z,)I.
Let us now denote by G. a circular domain contained in G that contains B and
that is bounded only by the circles
Kk,, Kk,,, ... , Kk(,,,)
with indices k', k ", .. , k(-) sufficiently large that

v=I
where a is a given positive number. This is always possible by virtue of the con-
vergence of the series (2) and (3). Now, for a sufficiently large circle K: lzl = R,
we have, in accordance with Cauchy's formula,
1 f (z') 1 f (z')
f(z)=2ni z'-dz
z - v=1 tai Kk(r)
z'-z dz' (4)
for any point z belonging both to G. and the disk lzl < R. But
1
f (z) dz' = 1 C f (z') -f (z) dz'
2ni J z' - z 2tci J z' - z
k(,) k(v)
Now let d denote the distance from z to the boundary of the domain G.. It
follows from what was just shown that
m m
I "Al" R,,(v)
I.d 2ni
1 f (z
z' -z dz' C d
v=1 Kk(v) v=1
M m
okh) Rk(r) ` d'

v-1 v=1
But the left-hand member and the first term of the right-hand member of (4) are
independent of the domain G. chosen and hence of e. Therefore,
f (z) dz'.
f (z) =tai1 ` z'-z
This shows that the function f(z) is regular in the disk lzl < R for arbitrarily
large R, that is, that f(z) is an entire function. Since this function has a simple
pole at z = -, we conclude that f(z) is a linear function. This completes the
proof of Theorem I'.
This existence theorem which we now wish to prove consists in the
following:
Theorem 2.1) Every n-connected domain B in the z-plane can be mapped
1) This theorem was proved by Koebe. The continuity method was developed in his
article [1918a] It has been simplified by the present author (see Goluzin [1938a]}
Another proof has been given by Keldys [1939].
univalently onto a circular domain in the cplane. Among these mappings there is
only one normalized mapping that maps a given point z = z E B into C= - and
has an expansion in a neighborhood of the point z = a of the form
z a+al(z-a)+... or z+ z +...,
Before proceeding with the proof of this theorem, let us recall a few concepts
from n-dimensional geometry.
Consider n-dimensional Euclidean space, in which a point is an n-tuple of
finite real numbers (x1, x2, , xn). We denote this space by Rn and we denote
a point in it by a single letter, for example, x or by an expression of the form

x(xl, ... , xn) indicating in parentheses the specific real numbers defining it,
these numbers being called the coordinates of the point x. Two points are thought
of as coinciding if and only if their corresponding coordinate are equal. The
distance between two points x(1)(x(1), , x(')) and x(Z)(x(Z), , x(2)) in the
1 n 1 n
space Rn is defined as the number p(x(l)x«))
' k1 (xCI)
k
-x(z))z]1/z
k
An
open ball of radius p with center at a is defined as the set of all points x E Rn
whose distance from a is less than p. A neighborhood of a point a E Rn is
defined as any open ball with center at a. A neighborhood is sufficiently small if
the radius of the ball is sufficiently small. A set E C Rn is said to be bounded if
it is contained in some ball. A point a E R is said to be a cluster point of a
subset E of Rn if every neighborhood of the point a includes at least one point
of E other than a. A sequence of points 5(m) E Rn, for m = 1, 2, , is said
to converge to a point x(0) c R if p( (m), x(0)) --p 0 as in --. oc. A point a

belonging to a set E C Rn is called an interior point of E if some sufficiently
small neighborhood of a is contained in E. A set E C Rn is said to be closed if
it contains all its cluster points. A set E C R is said to be open if it consists
only of interior points. It is said to be connected if any two points in it can be
connected by a continuous curve contained in E. By a continuous curve in Rn,
we mean a set of points in the space R the coordinates of which can be repre-
sented in the form xk = q,k (t) for a < t < b and k = 1, , n, where each 01, (t)
is a continuous function of t in the interval a < t < 6. All the properties analo-
gous to the properties of point sets in a plane that were expounded in the geo-
metrical introduction can be established for point sets in the space Rn.
Now, consider a mapping of a subset E of Rn onto a subset E' of another
n-dimensional Euclidean space R,,. This means that to every point in the set E
is assigned a point in the set E'. The mapping is said to be one-to-one or
bijective if to every point of E there corresponds exactly one point of E' and
vice versa. The mapping is said to be continuous if, for every sequence lx(')[ of
points in E that converges to a point x(') in E, the sequence of images of these
points converges in E' to the image x '(0) of the limit of the original sequence.
It is easy to show that the inverse of a bijective continuous mapping of a closed
set E C Rn onto a set E 'C Rn is also continuous. A one-to-one continuous map-
ping is also called a topological mapping. Obviously, the image of a closed set
under a topological mapping is a closed set. The following theorem of Brouwer
on topological mappings of arbitrary sets is known as the theorem on preservation
of a domain.
Theorem 3 (Brouwer). The image of an interior point of a set E C Rn under a
topological mapping is always an interior point of the image set E'; equivalently,
the image E' of an open set E C Rn under a topological mapping is an open set.
We postpone the proof of this important theorem to the following section. The
proof of Theorem 2 by the continuity method is based on it.
Proof of Theorem 2. By virtue of the results of § 2, any finitely connected
domain can be mapped univalently onto the plane with parallel straight-line cuts
at an arbitrary given inclination 0 and with suitable normalization. Therefore, it
will be sufficient to prove Theorem 2 for domains constituted by the z-plane with
rectilinear cuts parallel to the real axis and for a = ..
Let us denote by 9 the family of all n-connected domains B consisting of
the z-plane with n finite rectilinear cuts parallel to the real axis (numbered from
1 to n) and let us denote by 9R' the set of all n-connected circular domains B'
in the cplane with boundary circles numbered from 1 to n. Two identical domains
B and B' wi th boundaries numbered in a different manner are considered as
distinct.
Let us consider normalized (as indicated in the theorem) univalent mappings
of domains B E 9R onto domains B 'C 91' such that identically indexed boundary
curves of the domains B and B' are mapped onto each other. We consider
domains in the families 911 and 9' as corresponding to each other if they can be
mapped one onto the other as indicated. Then, from Theorem 1 of the present
section and Theorem 2 of § 2, we conclude that
(a) to every domain B E 9 there corresponds no more than one domain

B' E 9R',
(0) to every domain B' E 91' there corresponds a unique domain B E 9.
Our problem is to show that to every domain B E 9R there corresponds exactly
one domain WE W.
The families 9 and 21 consist of domains defined by 3n parameters. For
the parameters of the domain B we may take, for example, the coordinates of the
origins of the cuts and their lengths. For the parameters of B' we may take the
coordinates of the centers and the radii of the boundary circles. If we represent
the domains B and B' by points in 3n-dimensional Euclidean spaces Ran and
R3n and denote these points also by B and B', we conclude immediately from
geometrical considerations that the point sets B and B' corresponding both to
the domains B E 9 and to the domains B'E 9R' (and we shall denote these also
by .9 and 9R') are connected open sets in Ran and Ran respectively. If we set
up between the points of the sets 11 and 9' the same correspondence as exists
between the domains of the families 3 and 9R', we conclude on the basis of (a)
and 09) that to every point B 'E R' there corresponds exactly one point B E 2
and that to every point B E 2 there corresponds no more than a single point
B' E W.
Let us show that this correspondence is continuous, specifically that
B1 --. B as Bi B' (that is, as the boundary circles of the domain B1' ap-
,proach coincidence with the boundary circles of the domain B '). Here, B1 corre-
sponds to B11 and B corresponds to B'. If a sequence of the domains B' did
not converge to a limit domain, we could choose from it. two subsequences }Bn 1}
and IBn2} that converge to the domains B and B0, where B I B0. On the basis
of the convergence theorem, we conclude that the domain B' is mapped normwisc
onto B and also onto B0, which, in accordance with (3) implies that B = B0.
Here, we assumed that the boundaries of all the domains B1 are bounded, but
this follows from Lemma 2 of §2.
We mention also the following property of the limit domains: if B. E 9 and
if there exists a sequence of domains Bn E 91 such that Bn B. and the B,,
can be mapped normwise onto Bn E 9', then the domain B. can be mapped
normwise onto B: E 99'. This is true because the sequence of the domains B
converges to a domain B.' E 9R' since otherwise would there would be two sub-
sequences }B,,'1} and }B'2} that converge respectively to domains B . and Bo,
where B: Bo. It then follows on the basis of the same convergence theorem that
B; = Bo. But if B --> B. and B,,' B:, then we conclude, again on the basis
of the convergence theorem, that the domain B. can be mapped normwise onto the
domain B., which proves the assertion made.
From this point, the proof of the existence theorem is fairly simple. We are
now dealing with a one-to-one continuous mapping of the open set Dl' of points in
3n-dimensional space R3- onto a subset (proper or otherwise) of the set Dl in
another 3n-dimensional space R 3n- Consequently, Brouwer's theorem can be
applied. According to this theorem, the image Do of the set 9R' is an open set
in 3n-dimensional space. Let us show that Dto coincides with 9.
Let B 1 denote a domain in the family Di that can be mapped onto the domain
B' in the family V'. Such a domain can be obtained by a mapping of an arbitrary
domain in 9' onto the domain in Dl corresponding to it. On the other hand, let
B 2 denote an arbitrary domain in V for which we have not yet determined whether
it can be mapped. Let us connect the point in the space Ran representing the
domain B2 with the point representing the domain B1 by a continuous curve L
contained in Dl . Let us proceed along this curve from the point B 1 to the point
B2. If the domain B2 could not be mapped onto a domain in Dt', then, as we
proceed along L from B1 to B21 we would encounter a point B. such that all the
domains in DI corresponding to points of the curve L between B1 and B. could
be mapped onto domains in D2' and the domain B. either could not be mapped
onto domains in DI' or would be a cluster point of the set of points of L corre-
sponding to domains that cannot be mapped onto domains in Df'. But this is
impossible because, by virtue of the property of the limit domains mentioned
above, the domain B. can be mapped onto a domain DI' and hence the point B.
belongs to Dio, but then it cannot be a cluster point of domains that cannot be
mapped onto domains in Dl' because go is an open set. Thus, all points of the
curve L from B1 to B2 belong to the set D10. But then, again on the basis of the
property of limit domains, B2 E DI0.
Thus, we have shown that the set go coincides with 9R and, consequently,
for every domain in R there exists a domain in Dl' onto which the first can be
mapped univalently and normwise. This completes the proof of Theorem 2.
Since the proof that we have given used only the uniqueness theorem and a
few trivial properties of circular domains, the same procedure can be used with
equal success in proving theorems on the existence of a univalent mapping of

finitely connected domains onto various other canonical domains as soon as we
have proved the corresponding uniqueness theorem for them.
For example, we can prove in this way the following theorems of Koebe, 1)
which generalize Theorems 1 and 1 ' of § 2 and Theorems 1 and 1 ' of §3:
Theorem 4. For a given point a E B, there exists a unique function mapping
an arbitrary given n-connected domain B in the z-plane with boundary continua
K1, , K univalently onto the cplane cut by n rectilinear cuts with given
inclinations B1, , On to the real axis in such a way that the continua K,,, for
v = 1, , n, are mapped respectively into the cuts with inclinations 8,,, the
point is mapped into C= oo, and the expansion of the mapping function about
z = a has the form
z 1 a+a1(z-a)+... or z+ z +
Theorem 5. Every n-connected domain B in the z-plane with boundary con-
tinua K1, , K can be mapped univalently onto the -plane with n cuts along
arcs of logarithmic spirals of inclinations 01, , On respectively to the radial
directions in such a way that the continua K,,, for v = 1, , n, are mapped
respectively into arcs of inclination B,, given points a and b in B are mapped
into 0 and - respectively, and the expansion of the mapping function about z = b
has the form
Z-b ao+at(z-b)+... or z+aro+ Z -...,

according as b is finite or infinite.
The uniqueness of the mapping functions referred to in these theorems is
proved in just the same way as Theorem 2 of §2 and Theorem 2 of §3 were
proved.
By the continuity method, Koebe [1918a] proved, in particular, the following
theorems:
Theorem 6. Every n-connected domain B contained in the disk JzJ < 1 that
1) See Koebe [1918a] and Goluzin [1938a] Krylov [1938] has given a different proof
of these theorems.
includes the point z = 0 and has the circle IzI = 1 as one of its boundary continua
can be mapped univalently onto the disk I < 1 with cuts along arcs of loga-
rithmic spirals of given inclination B in such a way that zl = 1 is mapped into
I = 1 and the mapping function C= f (z) is normalized by the conditions f (0) =0
and Oo) > 0. This mapping is unique.
Theorem 7. Every n-connected domain B contained in the annulus q < IzI <1
that has as two of its boundary continua the circles Izl = 1 and zl = q can be
mapped univalently onto an annulus q '< ICI < 1 with cuts along arcs of loga-
rithmic spirals of given inclination B in such a way that zI = 1 and IzI = q are
mapped into ICI = 1 and ICI = q '. This mapping function is unique up to a con-
stant factor.
We note that Grotzsch succeeded in proving analogous uniqueness theorems
for extremely broad classes of canonical domains and at the same time established
by the continuity method theorems on the existence of a univalent mapping of
arbitrary finitely connected domains onto such domains (cf. Grotzsch [19350.
We conclude our investigation of questions concerning univalent mappings of
multiply connected domains with a consideration of the possibility of univalent
mapping of any two given n-connected domains onto each other. In the case of
simply connected domains, Riemann's theorem tells us that, with very few excep-
tions, this is always possible. The situation is different in the case of n-con-
nected domains, where n > 1. For it to be possible to map two such domains uni-
valently onto each other, it is obviously necessary and sufficient that there exist
two circular domains onto which they can each be mapped univalently and which
can be univalently mapped one onto the other. We can take these circular domains
of a "special" form, specifically, annuli of the form q < z( < Q with n - 2
circular cuts in the interior since an arbitrary circular n-connected domain can
always be mapped onto a domain of such a form by means of a suitably chosen
fractional-linear function. But if two circular domains of the special form can be
mapped univalently onto each other, then by Theorem 1 ', the mapping function is
fractional-linear and, according to the symmetry principle, it maps the points 0
and = into each other. Consequently, this function is of the form z '= az or
z '= a/z. In the first case, the following quantities must coincide for the two
circular domains that we are considering: the ratios of the radii of all correspond-
ing boundary circles, the angles between the rays extending from the origin to
the centers of the circular cuts, and the ratios of the distances of these centers
from the origin; that is, the values of one quantity in the case n = 2 and of all
3n - 6 independent quantities determining these domains in the case n > 2 must
be the same for the two domains. In the second case, an analogous situation holds
for one of the circular domains in question and for the domain obtained from the
other by the transformation z '= l/z. Conversely, if these requirements are satis-
fied, the two domains can obviously be mapped univalently onto each other. Thus,
for it to be possible to map two n-connected circular domains of a special form
onto each other, it is necessary and sufficient that, in the case n = 2, one, and
in the case n > 2, 3n - 6 suitable real quantities determining one of these domains
coincide with real quantities determining the other. These quantities are called
the moduli of the circular domains in question and of all the domains that are
mapped univalently onto them.
If we partition all n-connected domains into classes, putting into a single
class all domains that can be mapped univalently onto each other, then each such
class will contain circular domains of a special form and, in accordance with what
was said above, all classes of n-connected domains constitute a set depending in
the case n = 2 on one and in the case n > 2 on 3n - 6 real parameters.
§7. Proof of Brouwer's theorem I)

To prove Brouwer's theorem as stated in the preceding section, we need some
additional information regarding the space Rn.
A set of points x E R. with coordinates x 1, , x satisfying a given linear
equation
a,x, + a,x, +... + anxn = b,
where al, a2, .. , an are not all zero, is called an (n - 1)-dimensional plane or
simply the plane Rn_1. The set of all points common to two (n - 1)-dimensional
planes the left-hand members of the equations of which are linearly independent
constitutes an (n - 2)-dimensional plane in Rn. In general, the set of all points
common to k planes under the same condition constitutes an (n - k)-dimensional
plane in Rn. An (n - k)-dimensional plane in Rn can be regarded as an (n - k)-
dimensional Euclidean space.
Let x(k) (x ik ), , xnk )), k = p, 1, , n, denote n + 1 points in Rn that
1) (Sperner [1928].)
§7. PROOF OF BROUWER'S THEOREM 245
do not lie in a single plane. The set of points X (X 1, . , x,) whose coordinates
are determined from the formulas
n n
t =1,2,...,n,x1 o, 1j=1, (1)
is called an n-dimensional simplex and the points x(k), 4=0, 1, , n, are

called its vertices. 1) Let us denote this simplex by 2. The numbers Ai in (1)
are single-valued continuous functions of x1, , xn.
To see this, remember that, since the points x(k), k = 0, 1, , n, do not
lie in a single plane, the determinant
cannot be equal to 0. This means that the system of n + 1 equations in (1) is a

system of n + 1 linear equations in the Al that has a unique solution. Con-
sequently, the Al are obtained as linear functions of the coordinates xi, for
i = 1, , n; hence, they are continuous functions of the xi. The set of points
of the simplex E that are obtained from (1) when one of the Aj is equal to 0 is
called an (n - 1)-dimensional face or simply a face of the simplex E. In general,
the set of points of the simplex E that are obtained from (1) if k of the numbers
Ai are equal to 0 is called an (n - k)-dimensional face.
An (n - k)-dimensional face of a simplex E is itself a simplex in (n - k)-
dimensional Euclidean space, specifically the (n - k)-dimensional plane passing
through those vertices of the simplex E that lie on that face. The point x E
obtained from (1) for Ao = Al = -' . = An = 1/(n + 1) is called the center of the
simplex E. By virtue of the continuity of the Ai as functions of x 1, , xn
(which we showed above), it follows that an arbitrary point x E E. obtained from
(1) for all nonzero A is an interior point of the simplex E.
Let us show that a simplex I can be partitioned into a finite number of
simplexes the diameters of which (the diameter of a figure being the greatest
distance between any two points of it) is less than an arbitrary number e > 0 in
1) In the case n = 1, the simplex is a line segment; for n = 2, it is a triangle; for
n = 3, it is a tetrahedron.
such a way that, if two subsimplexes have points in common, then the set of all
common points is a common face of some dimension or else a vertex of these
simplexes. Such a partition can be made as follows, for example: let us look at
all possible permutations jo, j 1, , jn of the numbers 0, 1, , n. Let us
denote by the set of points x E I that have the representation (1)
with ai0 < ai 1 < . < ain. _Let us show that Yio,i 1,...,in is a simplex. Let
6(k) (6 ik ), , Cnk )) (k = 0, 1, , n) denote the center of an (n - k)-dimensional
face of the simplex E with vertices En at x0k), xUk+1), , x(in). Then,
Elk] _ vE= kXV') 1= 1, ... n. (2)

n-k+1 ,
From (2), we have
XiUv1=(n (n-v)E(v+11, n-1'

Xi'n1
Consequently,
Xi
X =(n-{-1)X10,
X, = (n -o -{- 1) (A/v - A1, 1), ' = 1, ... , n,
n n
21 XV = X,
v-0 v=0 v-0
It follows that a point x belongs to i o.i I i.. tin if and only if it belongs to the
simplex with vertices 6(0), 6(1), . . . , 6(n). Therefore, the set 2io-i 1,...,i n
coincides with this simplex. The simplex I is therefore partitioned into (n + 1)!
simplexes lio.il,...'in. Two simplexes and lio.i{,...,in have in
common only those points x for which there are equal numbers among the numbers
A0, A1, ' ' ' , An, that is, for which certain of the All are equal to 0. These points
constitute the common faces of different dimensions of the simplexes
Jn and Tn particular, all these simplexes contain the
point 60). Let us now look at the question of the dimensions of the simplex
keeping the notation given above for it. Let d denote the greatest
of the numbers jxi') - ')I for i = 1, , n and 0, , n. We then have
n
(xi1 -xi1'))I_n+l' n,
1=0
(since one of the numbers x(j) - zip ' ), for j = 0, 1, , n, must be equal to 0).
Therefore, if x (x 1, , xn) E I and xi = In=oaixi' ), i = 1, , n, then
n n
EjO) - xiI= a/(Et)-xt/))
I
n+1 n+
/=0 J=0
In particular, for points 6(k), k = 1, 2, , n, we have

I Eio) - Elk) I c n+ l.
Reasoning analogously with the (n - 1)-dimensional face of the simplex

with vertices at 6"), , 6("), we can show that
IEII)-E,k)Icn- n nd
do n+1
n -}-1
for the points 6(k), k = 2, 3, , n.

We proceed in this way with faces of fewer dimensions. As a result, we see
that all the numbers for j, j'=0, do
not exceed nd/(n + 1). Consequently, the quantities corresponding to the quantity
d for the simplexes Yio,i 1,...,i do not exceed nd/(n + D. If we now repeat
this partitioning process for the subsimplexes with each of the simplexes
Y'io,i 1'"''in , then with the simplexes obtained from these, etc., the simplex
is partitioned after p stages into subsimplexes having in common only faces of
various dimensions and having the property that the difference between corre-
sponding coordinates of the vertices of each of them does not exceed
(n/(n + i))"d. in absolute value. Let V denote any of these subsimplexes with
vertices y(k)(y(k), , ynk)) for k= 0, 1, , n. Then, if
n
y, y' E E', yi = ajyii), y; _ 'LV i
/=o i=o
24 8 V. UNIVALENT MAPPING OF MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
we have
n n
vc-y;l=J=0Oi-a;))'ill= J=0 Xi)(YV'-yi°
n
(n+1)PdI (xj (n+1)Pd

/ i=0 /
and
n eP
P (.Y, y')= (yi-y;)9_ n28(,i+1) d'
i=I
2y n
(n+1)P
d. (3)
It follows that the diameters of all the subsimplexes after a sufficient number p
of stages in this partitioning process will not exceed an arbitrary given number
e > 0. This is the desired partition of the simplex 1.
To prove Brouwer's theorem, we need first to prove two lemmas.
Lemma 1. Let I denote an n-dimensional simplex with vertices x(j) for
j = 0, 1, , n. Suppose that the points of I are distributed among n + 1 closed
sets Ei, for .j = 0, 1, , n, in such a way that the following three conditions
are satisfied: (1) each point x E I belongs to at least one of the Ei; (2) x(') E
Ei; (3) Ei does not contain a single point on the face si with vertices in x(k)
for k # j. Then, the sets Ei, for j = 0, 1, , n, have at least one common point.
Proof. Let us partition the simplex I into a finite number of subsimplexes
Ql, a2P ' + UP in such a way that any two of these simplexes have in common
only faces of some dimension or other. Let us show that among the ak there
exists a simplex containing points of each set Ei for j = 0, 1, , n. Each
vertex of the simplex ak belongs to one or more of the sets E1. If it belongs to
the sets where v1 < vZ < < vy , let us assign to it the
number vl as coordinate. To the simplex ak let us assign as coordinates the
n + 1 numbers which are the coordinates of its vertices and to each face let us
assign the n numbers that are the coordinates of the vertices of ak in it. Let us
show that the number of simplexes ak of which all the coordinates are distinct
is an odd number. This assertion is true in the case n = 1 because then I is a
line segment which is divided into subsegments ak by a finite number of points.
The coordinates of the vertices of these subsegments are the numbers 0 and 1. If
we proceed from the vertex of E with coordinate 0, the first of the ak that we
encounter with different coordinates has coordinates (0, 1), the next has coordi-
nates (1, 0), then (0, 1), etc. (Here, we are indicating the coordinates of points
met successively as we move along I.) The last of these ak must necessarily
have coordinates (0, 1) because the second end of I must have coordinate 1. This
proves that the number of segments ak with distinct coordinates is odd. Let us
now suppose that the assertion has been proved for an (n - 1)-dimensional
simplex and let us prove it for an n-dimensional simplex. Let tk denote the
number of faces of the simplex ak with coordinates (0, 1, , n - 1). If tk > 0,
then the simplex ak has coordinates (0, 1, , n - 1, a), where 0 < a < n. Here,
if a = n, we obviously have tk = 1. On the other hand, if a < n, then tk = 2
because the coordinates of all n + 1 faces of the simplex ak are obtained from
(0, 1, , n - 1, a) by discarding a single number and we obtain the numbers
(0, 1, , n - 1) only by deleting the number a when encountered twice. Let e
denote the number of all simplexes ak with coordinates (0, 1, , n) and let f
denote the number of all ak for which tk = 2. Then, from what was said above,
P
E tk=e+2f. (4)
k=1
On the other hand, if a face of a subsimplex ak lying inside I has coordinates
(0, 1, . . , n - 1), it appears twice in the sum Y.k=1tk because each such face
belongs to two of the simplexes ak Let g denote the number of such faces
belonging to distinct ak. A face of a simplex ak lying on one of the faces of the
simplex 1, on the other hand, will have coordinates (0, 1, , n - 1) only if
this face lies on sn. But sn is an (n - 1)-dimensional simplex the points of
which belong to the n intersections sn n E;, j = 0, 1, , n - 1, that satisfy
conditions (1), (2), and (3) of the lemma.
Our assertion is considered proved for the case of (n - 1)-dimensional
simplexes. Consequently, Sn will have an odd number h of faces sk with
coordinates (0, 1, , n - 1). Thus, we have
P
2] tk = 2g+ h. (5)
k=1
Comparing (4) and (5), we obtain e = 2 (g - f) + h; that is, e, the number of

simplexes ak with coordinates (0, 1, , n), is an odd number. Consequently,
there exist simplexes with coordinates (0, 1, - , n). Each such simplex contains
points belonging to all the sets E1, for j = 0, 1, , n, because its vertices
belong to distinct E1.
Now, suppose that we are given a sequence of positive numbers Ek, for k =
1, 2, , that approaches 0 as k --+ oo. Let us partition Y. into a finite number
of simplexes having in common only faces of different dimensions with diameters
less than E1. Suppose that among the subsimplexes al is a simplex containing
points of all the sets E;, for j = 0, 1, , n. From what we have shown, such a
simplex exists. Let us now partition into a finite number of simplexes of the
same kind but with diameters less than E2- And suppose that aZ is a simplex
containing points of all the sets E. We continue the process. As a result, we
obtain a sequence of simplexes all a'Z, . each of which is contained in I and
the sequence of diameters approaches 0. In accordance with Weierstrass's theoren
generalized to the space Rn, there exists in Y. a point a an arbitrary neighbor-
hood of which contains infinitely many of the simplexes ak. Since the sets E;
are closed, the point a belongs to all the sets E1, for j = 0, 1, , n. This com-
pletes the proof of the lemma.
Let us point out one way of partitioning the simplex I into sets E; as indi-
cated in Lemma 1 such that the sets E; have a unique common point a, which is
an interior point of 1. Suppose that Y. has the representation (1) and that corre-
sponding to the point a are the values of the parameters A; equal to A;0), where
A1°) 0, for j = 0, 1, , n. Let us form closed sets E1, for j = 0, 1, , n, by
assigning to E; all points of the set E for which A; > in the representation
(1). Each point of the set lies in at least one of the sets E1 because, other-
wise, we would have Ai < 0) for all j = 0, 1, - , n, which would contradict the
equations
For the same reason, the sets E;, for j = 0, 1, , n have the point a as their
unique point in common. Furthermore E; obviously contains the point x(j) and
does not contain points of the face We shall use this fact in what follows.
Lemma 2. Let E denote a closed bounded subset of R. Suppose that E is
covered by a finite number of closed sets Ek such that each point of the set E
belongs to at least one of them. If E includes a unique point a belonging to no
fewer than n + 1 sets Ek and this point is a boundary point of E (that is, not an
interior point of E), then, by changing the sets Ek in an arbitrarily small
neighborhood of the point a, we can arrange to have every point of the set E
belong to no more than n of the sets Ek.
Proof. Suppose that E is a simplex of arbitrarily small diameter and that a
is an interior point of L. We can get the simplex E by taking an arbitrary simplex,
displacing it in R in such a way that some interior point of it occupies the posi-
tion of a, and then performing a similarity transformation on it about a. Let S
denote the boundary of I (that is, the set of points on all of the faces of 1).
Define D = S n E. The set D does not include any points common to more than n
of the sets Ek. Consequently, every point x E D has a neighborhood whose inter-
section with E can be covered by no more than n of the Ek. In accordance with
the Heine-Borel theorem, generalized to Rn, it then follows that there exists an
c > 0 such that every ball of radius c with center at an arbitrary point x C D con-
sists of points belonging to no more than n of the sets Ek. Let us now cover S
with a finite number of closed sets Fi, for j = 1, 2, - , with diameter less than
c such that each point of S will belong tp no more than n of the sets F. Let us
show that such a covering exists. Let us partition S into (n - 1)-dimensional
simplexes with diameters less than i2n and then let us represent each such
simplex as the union of n closed sets with a unique point in common, each of
which contains one of the vertices of the simplex. Let us take one of the vertices
of the subsimplexes, for example b. Suppose that it belongs to the simplexes li,
for j = 1, 2, - , h. The point b belongs to only one of the closed sets into which
-
each of the simplexes Ej is divided. Consequently, b is contained in h such

sets, let us say, Fill for j = 1, 2, , h, that lie respectively in Yi. Let us set
h
Fk=U F,.
We reason in the same way for all the vertices of the subsimplexes. Then, the set
S is completely covered by the sets Fk, and each point x E S belongs to no
more than n sets Fk because an interior point of a subsimplex belongs to no
more than n of the sets Fk into which it is partitioned and, consequently, to no
more than n of the sets Fk. On the other hand, a point on a face of a subsimplex
can belong to only those Fk that contain the vertices of that face and hence to
no more than n - 1 of the sets Fk. Furthermore, one can easily show that the
diameters of all the sets Fk is less than e. Thus, the sets Fk provide the
required covering for S. Let us now combine the sets Fk with the sets Ek as
follows: 1) If Fk does not contain points of D, we combine it with any one of
the sets Ek. 2) On the other hand, if Fk does contain points of D, we combine
Fk with one of the sets Ek to which such points belong. Let us show that each
point x E S still belongs to no more than n of the sets Ek. This is true because
a point x E S that does not belong to D belongs to no more than a of the sets FA,
and hence now belongs to no more than n of the sets El, On the other hand, if
x E D, it belongs to no more than n of the original sets, that is, to E1,
EZ, , E f, where f < n. On the other hand, x belongs to certain of the sets Fk,
let us say to F1, F2, , Fg, where g < h. The sets F1, . . . , Fg are contained
in the ball of radius E with center at x. But, from our construction, this ball con-
tains points belonging to no more than n of the original sets Ek, let us say to
the sets E1, E2, , Eh, where 1 < h < n. From 2), the sets F1, . . , Fg are
combined with certain of the sets E1, , Eh, Consequently, a point x E S can
belong to no more than n of the modified sets Ek, namely to certain of these sets
that contain the original sets E1, , Eh. Thus, after we adjoin the sets FA, to
the sets Ek, every point x E S belongs to no more than n of the sets Ek.
Since a is a boundary point of the set E, the simplex I contains an interior
point c that does not belong to E. Let us distribute the points of the simplex E
and hence let us redistribute the points of the set K = E U I among the sets Ek
as follows: If a point x E S belongs to the sets EvI, E 2 , - . . , Evp, where
p < n, then the entire segment cx (one-dimensional simplex) belongs to all these
sets and only to them. With this new covering of the set E U E, the point c is
the only point that can belong to more than n of the sets Ek. But c does not
belong to E. Consequently, E does not contain points belonging to more than n
of the sets Ek. This completes the proof of the lemma.
Brouwer's theorem. A topological mapping of a set E C R onto a set VC
R maps interior points of E into interior points of E .
Proof. Let a denote an interior point of the set E and let I denote an arbi-
trarily small simplex contained in E and including a as an interior point. Corre-
sponding to the point a is a point a' in E ', and corresponding to the simplex
is a set ' C V. Let us show that a ' is an interior point of the set V. Let us
subdivide I into n + 1 closed subsets E;, j = 0, 1, - , n, in such a way that
each E; contains only one vertex and no point of the opposite face and in such
a way that a is the only point belonging to all the sets E;. The mapping of E
onto E' assigns to the sets E; closed sets E;' in V that have the unique com-
common point a'. If a' were a boundary point of E' and hence of 2', then, in
accordance with Lemma 2, by modifying the sets Ej in a neighborhood of a', we
could arrange for the sets E;, j = 0, 1, , n, to have no point in common. With
such a covering, the corresponding modified closed sets E; have no common
points and at the same time satisfy the conditions of the lemma, which, however,
is impossible. The contradiction proves Brouwer's theorem.
CHAPTER VI
MAPPING OF MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS ONTO A DISK
§1. Conformal mapping of a multiply connected domain onto

a disk
In §1 of Chapter II, we showed that no regular function can map a multiply
connected domain bijectively onto the disk JCI < 1. Let us now consider, in
addition to regular functions defined on a multiply connected domain B, functions
that can be extended into B along an arbitrary path. Here, by such a function we
mean an initial element of a function and all possible analytic continuations of
that element into B. As we shall now show, among these functions there is one
with the property that all values that it assumes in B lie in the disk I C1 < 1 and
that each value in the disk I C1 < 1 is assumed at exactly one point of the domain
B. We shall call the correspondence that this function sets up between points of
the domain B and points of the disk I C1 < 1 a conformal mapping of the domain
B onto the disk ICI < 1. The conformality follows from the fact that all elements
of the mapping function are univalent in the corresponding domains and, conse-
quently, their first derivatives do not vanish anywhere (that is, at any finite
point). The mapping function, although it is regular at every point of the domain
B, is not univalent in B because, if it were, it would set up a one-to-one corre-
spondence between the domain B and the disk I i1 < 1, and we have seen that
this cannot be. In the case of a finite domain B, the inverse function can be ex-
tended into the disk I I < 1 along an arbitrary path and hence is a regular func-
tion in that disk.
Before proceeding to a proof of the possibility of such a mapping of a multiply
connected domain onto a disk, let us first mention the exceptional case when such
a mapping does not exist. This is the case when the domain B B. constitutes the
entire z-plane with two exceptional points a and b. To see this, let us assume
254
§1. MAPPING OF A MULTI PLYCONNECTED DOMAIN 255
without loss of generality that a and b are finite and let us observe that, in this
case, the function t = log ((z - a)/(z - b)) can be extended into B along an arbi-
trary path and it maps the domain B onto the t-plane with the point -0 excluded.
The inverse function z = 0(t) is regular in that plane. Therefore, if there existed
a function C= f(z) that maps the domain B conformally onto the disk ICI < 1, the
function C = f (0 (t)) would be regular in t I < Do and it would not exceed unity in
I
absolute value, and this cannot be the case.

Let us turn now to the proof of the basic theorem.
Theorem.1) Every domain B in the z-plane with more than two boundary
points can be mapped con formally onto the disk I I < 1 in such a way that corre-
sponding to a given point z0 E B and a given direction at that point there are
(for a basic element of the mapping function) a point C= 0 and the positive di-
rection of the real axis. This mapping is unique.
Proof. We note first of all that the domain B can be mapped onto a domain
B* contained in I CI < 1 in such a way that to each point of B* corresponds only
One point of B. To see this, let a, b, and c denote three boundary points of the
domain B. By means of a fractional-linear mapping, let us map the z-plane onto
the t-plane in such a way that these three points are mapped respectively into 0,
1, and o-. The domain B is then mapped into a domain B* that does not include
the three points 0, 1, oo. Therefore the function C= A(t), inverse to the modular
function t = g(z) (see §6 of Chapter II) can be extended into B* along an arbi-
trary path and the values that it assumes all lie in the disk I CI < 1 and occupy
a domain B*. Under this mapping, to every point of the domain B* there corre-
sponds as preimage only one point of the domain B* and hence only one point of
B. By means of a fractional-linear transformation of the disk I CI < 1 into itself,
we can always arrange for the point C= 0 and the positive direction of the real
axis to correspond to the point z0 and a given direction at z0. ( Other points in
the disk 1CI < 1 may also correspond to z0.)
Proof of the theorem is now reduced to proving it for the case of a domain B
contained in the disk z I < 1. The given point z o E B is the point z = 0 and the
I
given direction at that point is the direction of the positive half of the real axis.
1) This theorem was discovered by Poincare. Rado noted [1922-1923a] that the idea
of the proof of Riemann's theorem that was given in §2 of Chapter II can be used to prove
this theorem also.
256 VI. MAPPING ONTO A DISK
In this case, let us consider the set 9 = (f(z)} of all functions f(z) with the fol-
lowing properties: 1) they are defined by basic elements about z = 0 for which
f (0) = 0 and f ' (0) > 0; 2) they can be extended into B along an arbitrary path;
3) the values that these functions assume in B as a result of analytic continuation
all belong to the disk I CI < 1; 4) every value of 4 in the disk < 1 is assumed
I
I
by every function ar no more than one point of the domain B.

An example of such -a function is the function f (z) = az, where 0 < a < 1.
We pose the following extremal problem: Out of all functions f (z) E R, find
the one maximizing f'(0), calculated for the basic element of the function. Since
there exists a disk I z I < p, where p > 0, that lies entirely in B, the basic ele-
ment of each of the functions f (z) C 9 is regular and less than unity in absolute
value in this disk. Therefore, by the Schwarz lemma, we have f' (0) < 11p. This
shows that the set of numbers f'(0) is bounded above. We denote the least upper
bound by a. Obviously, a> 1. There exists a sequence of functions fn (z) E R,
n = 1 , 2, , such that if, (0)} converges to a. According to the condensation
principle, the sequence of basic elements of the functions fn (z) has a subsequence
that converges uniformly in the interior of the disk z I 0. If we now extend these ele-
ments into B along different paths, we see step by step in accordance with
Vitali's theorem that the sequences of analytic continuations obtained converge to
the corresponding analytic continuations of the function fo (z). Consequently, the
function fo (z) can be extended into B along an arbitrary path and IA (z)I < 1
everywhere. Let us show that C= fo (z) assumes in B every value in the disk
I CI < 1 at no more than one point. Let us suppose, to the contrary, that there
exist in B two distinct points z I and z2 such that fo (z 1) = fo (z2) = c. Here,
fo (z 1) and f0 (z2) are the values at the points z I and z2 of certain elements of
the function f0 (z) that are obtained from the basic element by analytic continua-
tion along certain paths 11 and 12 contained in B. Suppose that the disks
I z - z I I < e and I z - z 21 < E have no common points, that they are contained in B,
and that these elements assume the value c neither in the interiors of these
disks, except at the center, nor on their boundaries. Suppose that Ifo(z) - c I >
m > 0 on the circles I z - z I I = r and I z - z 21 = e. Let k denote an integer such
that I fnk (z) - fo (z)I < m on these two circles. Then from
fnk(Z)-C^ (Jnk (Z) - A (z))+VO(z)-c)

§ 1. MAPPING OF A MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAIN 257
it follows, on the basis of Rouche's theorem, that the function 1 k (z) assumes
the value c at two points of the domain B, which is impossible. This proves our
assertion.
Let us show now that the function f0 (z) provides the mapping mentioned in
the theorem; specifically, that it assumes in B every value C in I CI < 1. Suppose,
to the contrary, that there exists a number c such that I c I < 1 and f (z) c
everywhere in B. Let us denote by t = q(C) the function used in §2 of Chapter
II. We note that this function can be extended into I CI < 1 along an arbitrary path
that does not pass through c and that 0 (0) = 0 and q ' (0) > 1. We see that the
0
function F (z) _ 0 (fo (z)) C 3 and F' (0) = f6' (0) 0 (0) > a., which is impossible.
It remains to prove the uniqueness of the mapping mentioned in the theorem.
Suppose that C = fI (z) and C= f2 (z) are two functions providing this mapping.
Then the function C' = f 1 (fZ I (C)) = OW and its inverse C= f2 (I1 (C )) are
regular in the disks ICI < 1 and IC' I < 1, respectively. Therefore, the function
4' = q(c) maps the disk ICI < 1 bijectively onto itself in such a way that 9(0) = 0
and 0' (0) > 0. But then, 0(C) _ C; f 1 (z) = f2 (z). This completes the proof of
the theorem.
Now let C= f(z) denote the function providing the mapping indicated in the
preceding theorem. Let C= F W denote any other function mapping the domain B
onto a disk but not satisfying the same normalization conditions as C = f (z). Then,
the function C' = F(f-1(C)) maps the disk 141 < 1 bijectively onto itself. Conse-
quently, it must be a fractional-linear function. Thus, F(z) = (af(z) + 13)/(y f(z) + 8);
that is, any other mapping function can be expressed as a fractional-linear func-
tion of f (z). In particular, if we take two distinct elements of the same multiple-
valued mapping function f (z) at the point z0 and extend them along all possible
paths contained in B, we obtain two functions, that is, two branches of f (Z),
both of which map the domain B conformally onto the disk I C.I < 1. It follows
from what has been said that these branches can be expressed each as a fractional-
linear function of the other. Thus, all branches of a multiple-valued mapping func-
1tion can be represented as a fractional-linear function of just one of them and the
corresponding fractional-linear functions map the disk ICI < 1 into itself.
This conclusion enables us to study more deeply the nature of the multiple-
valuedness of the mapping function f(z). Let f0(z) denote one of the branches of
the function f (z). We denote by C' = S (C) = (a.C + 0)/(yC + 8) or more briefly,
by S the fractional-linear function mapping the branch f0 (z) into the branch
f. (z); that is, f. (z) = S fo (z). Let us show that the set G of all "transformations"
S corresponding to all possible branches of the function f (z) constitutes a group.
Let us extend the branch S 1 f0 (z), S 1 E G, along a closed path such that
extending the branch fo (z) along this path yields the branch S2 fo (z), S2 E C. We
thus obtain a new branch S 1S2 f0 (z) of the function f (z). Therefore S 1S2 E C.
Analogously, if we extend the branch fo (z) along a closed path the, extension of
fo (z) along which yields a branch S f0, S E G, though in the opposite direction,
we obtain a branch f. (z) = S f0 (z), where S. E G and we again obtain from Sf0(z)
the branch fo (z) and at the same time the branch SS, f0 (z); that is, we have
f0 (z) = SS, fo (z), so that S. = S -1. Consequently, S -1 E G. Thus, G is a group.
We note that the neutral element of this group is the identity transformation
With regard to the function z = 0(0 inverse to C= f (z), when B does not
contain -, it can be extended into < 1 along an arbitrary path and hence is
regular in I I < 1. From this we conclude that, in the general case, its only singu-
larities in the disk CI < 1 are poles; that is, that it is a meromorphic function in I CI < 1.
It follows from the relation z = 0(f(z)) that 0(Sfo(z)) = 0(f0(z)) or 0(SC) _
95 (c), where S E G. This shows that the function 0(e) remains invariant under
transformations belonging to the group G. Therefore, it is an automorphic function
with group C.
We noted above that all the transformations belonging to the group G leave
the circle ICI = 1 unchanged. Let us show now that the fixed points of all these
transformations lie on the circle ICI = 1. By fixed points of the transformation S,
we mean points C satisfying the equation SC= C. A fractional-linear transforma-
tion other than the identity transformation has no more than two fixed points. Let
us suppose that a given transformation S E G has a fixed point a such that
IaI < 1. Then, 1/a will also be a fixed point of S. But the equation Sa= a
implies that SC a in a sufficiently small domain 0 < ICI al < S. Suppose that
I SC - al > m > 0 on the circle I C - al = S. Let 0 denote an arbitrary number in
the domain 0 < IC - °'I < m. Since S(C) - f3 = (S (C) - a) + (a- 0), it follows from
Rouche's theorem that the function S (C) - j3 has a zero y in the disk C - al <.5.
Here, y is distinct from a and 13. It follows from S (y) = 0 that 95 (y) _ 95 (9 ).
But, for sufficiently small S and m, this last cannot be since 95 '(a) 0. Conse-
quently, the function z = '(C) maps a sufficiently small neighborhood of the
point J= a univalently. This contradiction leads to the conclusion that there can be no
fixed points of the transformations S E G in the open disk ICI < 1 and hence that there
can be none in the domain I CI > 1. Therefore, all the fixed points lie on the circle I I = 1.
§1. MAPPING OF A MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAIN 259
If a transformation S E G other than the identity transformation has two fixed

points on the circle ICI = 1, it is called a hyperbolic transformation. If it has
only one, it is called a parabolic transformation. Let us show that, if S is either
a parabolic or a hyperbolic transformation, the sequence of transformations S, S2,
S3, . . does not include the identity transformation.
Let us suppose first that S is a hyperbolic transformation with fixed points
SI and 6. If we define the transformation t = T(C) = (C- CI)/(C- Cz), we see
that J' = TST-1(C) is a fractional-linear transformation with fixed points 0 and
oo. Therefore, C' - aC and, consequently, TS(e) = aT (C). This last shows that
the transformation J' = S(C) is obtained from the equation
-s-a Cs, a=const. (1)
Now, if the point in (1) lies on the circle ICI = 1, then the point J must
also lie on the circle ICS I = 1. Therefore, the arguments arg((t; ' - 0/'- 0)
and arg ((C- CI) (C- Cz)) indicating the angles subtended by the segment blb2
at the points e' and C are equal. From this we conclude that a > 0. Furthermore,
a 1 because we would then have C' = 4 which cannot be. Thus, the transforma-
c f.
tion S can be obtained from equation (1) by solving that equation for Here, a
is positive and different from unity. The transformation J' = S"t; (where n = ± 1,
± 2, . ) can obviously be obtained from the equation
_
C'-C, C'-Cf-a
. C-C2 (2)
Therefore, it is always different from the identity transformation. Furthermore, it

follows from (2) that the sequence of the functions PC and S-"J converge as
n - + = to the constants SI and C2. This convergence is uniform on an arbi-
trary closed set not including the points z1 and z2. This last conclusion will
be necessary for §2.
We proceed analogously in the case in which S is a parabolic transformation
with fixed point S1. By making the transformation t = T (C) = 1/(C- SI) we see
that t' = TST-1(t) is a transformation with unique fixed point oo. Therefore,
7 , = C + a and, consequently, TS (C) = T (C) + a, where a = const. This shows
that the transformation C' = SC is obtained from the equation
C'-C, +
C-C1a' (3)
where a X 0 because, in the opposite case, we would have ' = C, which is

impossible. On the other hand, the transformation C' = S' C (for n = ±1, ±2, )
is defined by the equation
_
C' --C1
1
+na
Cr
CI (4)
Therefore, once again, it eannot be the identity transformation for any n. We note
that the sequences of the functions S"C and S-' converge uniformly to 6 on
an arbitrary closed set including the point CI as n +o.
This property shows, in particular, that G is an infinite group, that is, that
it contains an infinite number of distinct transformations and that f (z) is an infi-
nitely-many-valued function in B. On the other hand, the function 0(0 assumes
in ICI < 1 every value in B at an infinite number of points. All points in the disk
ICI < 1 at which the function O(C) assumes the same value are called equivalent
points. For every point a in the disk I a I < 1 there is an infinite set of points
equivalent to a. These are all obtained from each other by transformations of the
group G. Since these points are zeros of the function O(C) - 0(a), they do not
have points of accumulation in I I < 1. It follows, in particular, that the group G
is countable.
Since the function f(z) is not single-valued in B, the question arises as to
what conditions must be satisfied by the path 1 contained in B and issuing from
and returning to a point z0 in such a way that as we proceed along it with some
element of the function f (z) we return to the point z0 with the same element.
Consider the case in which B does not include oo. If, as we proceed along 1 from
zo with some element of f(z), we return to z0 with the same element, the corre-
sponding point C= f(z) issuing from some point CO returns to Co after describing
a closed path l' in the disk ICI < 1. The path l' can, by a continuous (for example.
similarity) deformation be reduced to a. point that does not leave the disk ICI < 1.
Obviously, under this deformation, the preimage 1 as it is continuously deformed
also reduces to a point without getting outside B. Let us show that, conversely,
if the path l can, by a continuous deformation, be reduced to a point without ever
getting outside B, then, by proceeding along it with an arbitrary element of f(z),
we always return to the original point with the same element of f (z). This is true
because, otherwise, under such a deformation, the corresponding path 1', while
being continuously deformed in I CI < 1, will go from the point Co to some other
§1. MAPPING OF A MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAIN 261
point equivalent to it and cannot be reduced to a point. Thus, for us to proceed

in B along a closed path with some element of the function f (z) and return to the
original point with the same element of f (z), it is necessary and sufficient that it
be possible to reduce this path by a continuous deformation to a point without
getting outside B.1)
In conclusion, let us pause to construct a Riemann surface connected with
the mapping that we have been considering. We confine ourselves to the case of
a finitely connected domain B.
If the domain B is n-connected, we can render it simply connected by means
of n - 1 suitable transverse cuts (broken lines). We then take an infinite set of
copies of the domain B so cut and consider them as lying one above another. We
choose any one of them as the basic domain and denote it by Bo. We adjoin to
Bo along each edge of each cut one of the remaining copies. We make this con-
nection-this gluing-along opposite edges of the cuts. As a result, we obtain
a (2n - 1)-sheeted surface B I lying over the domain B and having (2n - 3) (2n - 2)
free edges of cuts, that is, edges along which no gluing has been made. Then, we
again adjoin along each of these edges one of the as yet unused copies of the cut
domain B in such a way that we again perform the gluing along opposite edges of
the cuts. We then obtain a new surface B2 with a finite number of sheets and
some number of free edges of cuts. If we continue this way indefinitely, we finally
obtain an infinitely-sheeted Riemann surface B..
If we consider the initial element fo (z) of the mapping function f(z) defined
in the domain B0, the analytic continuation of this element into B is identical
to its analytic continuation onto the surface B00 . As the result of all possible
analytic continuations of f (z) onto the surface B., we obviously obtain a single-
valued function on that surface. Consequently, the function C = f (z) that we
studied above also provides a one-to-one mapping of the surface B. onto the
disk ICI < 1. The surface B. is called the universal covering surface of the
domain B. The modular surface constructed earlier (see §6 of Chapter II) is, in
this terminology, the universal covering surface of the domain consisting of the
plane with the points 0, 1 and os excluded.
1) If B includes os, an analogous condition must be satisfied on the Riemann sphere.

§2. Correspondence of boundaries under a mapping of a multiply

connected domain onto a disk
In § 1, we examined a function f (z) that maps a given multiply connected
domain B conformally onto the disk CI < 1 only inside B. If we now let the
point z approach the boundary of the domain B, we can easily show that the
sequence of the corresponding points C approaches the circle ICI ="1 uniformly.
In other words, for arbitrary e > 0, there exists a S > 0 such that, if the distance
from the point z E B to the boundary of B is less than S, the distance of the
corresponding point C from the circle ICI = 1 is less than c. To see this, let E
denote the set of all points z E B corresponding to points of the disk I Cl < 1 -
Then we need merely take for S the distance from the set E to the boundary of
the domain B. When we make a more thorough study of the behavior of the function
f (z) as z approaches the boundary of the domain B, we shall confine ourselves
to the case of a finitely connected domain B. Such a domain can easily be mapped
univalently onto a domain bounded by closed analytic Jordan curves and isolated
points. The correspondence of the boundaries under such a mapping has already
been studied. Therefore, for our purposes, it will be sufficient in the future to
consider a domain B with a boundary consisting of closed analytic Jordan curves
and isolated points.
Let a denote an isolated boundary point of the domain B, which we may
assume to be finite. Suppose that the closed disk I z - a I < r contains no boundary
points of the domain B other than a. As we go around the circle 1: I z - a I = r
one time in the positive direction, the branch fo (z) of the function f (z) becomes
the branch So fo (z), where So / 1 is one of the transformations belonging to the
group G considered in §1. Furthermore, if we go n times around l not neces-
sarily in the same direction each time), we end up at the original point with the
element So" fo(z). Let us show that the transformation So is a parabolic trans-
formation. Let us suppose, to the contrary, that So is a hyperbolic transforma-
tion with two distinct fixed points C1 and S2 on ICI = 1. If we choose a point
on l and move around l an infinite number of times with branch fo (z), the corre-
sponding point C describes a curve A in the disk ICI < 1 that approaches the
circle I CI = 1 and, more specifically, approaches the points S1 and S2 If we
continue fo (z) in the domain 0 < I z - al < r along an arbitrary path, we see that
all values that the function assumes in the process lie in one of the domains, let
us say B 1, into which the curve A partitions the disk CI < 1. If we let r
approach 0 continuously, the corresponding curves A, all passing through S1

and CZ, cover the domain B This shows that the inverse function 0(C), which
is regular and bounded in B approaches a constant uniformly, on a sequence of
arcs connecting the points 6 and S2 If we map the domain B 1 onto the disk
It I < 1 and use Lemma 1 of §3 of Chapter II, we see that the O(C) = const,
which, however, is impossible. This shows that S must be a parabolic permuta-
tion. If Co is its fixed point on ICI = 1, the curve A that we considered above
must be a closed curve in Cl I< 1 whose only point in common with the circle
ICI = 1 is Co. For values of z inside 1, the corresponding points C lie inside
the curve X. But as r 0, the curve A is constricted to the point Co. Conse-
quently, as we let z approach a, the branch fo (z) approaches Co uniformly. If
we approach a with another branch S fo (z) of the function f (z), the corresponding
point C = S fo (z) approaches the point SCo. Thus, as we let z approach a, the
only limiting values of the function f(z) can be the points SCo, where ICo = 1
I
and S E G.
When the entire boundary of the domain B consists of isolated points, it fol-
lows from what was said above that, as we let z approach the boundary of the
domain B, the function f(z) can have as its limiting values only values belong-
ing to a countable set of numbers, which are points on ICI = 1. It follows that, as
C describes a path in the disk ICI < 1 that terminates on the circle ICI = 1 at
some point different from these points, the corresponding point z = O(C) describes
a path that cannot terminate at a definite point. Thus, in the present case, the
function (k(C) does not have definite limits on ICI = 1 as r approaches any but
a countable set of points on that circle from ICI < 1.
Now, let K1 denote a closed curve constituting part of the boundary of B1.
Let us encircle K1 with a Jordan curve l contained in B and defining, together
with K1, a doubly connected domain B ' consisting only of points belonging to
B. If we go around the curve l with branch fo (z) once in the positive direction,
we arrive at the original point with a branch Silo (z). On the other hand, if we go
around l several times (possibly some times in one direction and some times in
the other), we arrive at the original point with branch S i ° fo (z). Here, S is a
1
transformation of the group C other than the identity transformation. If we proceed

around the curve infinitely many times with the branch fo (z), the corresponding
point C describes in the disk ICI < 1 a Jordan curve A that terminates at the
fixed points S1 and C2 of the transformation S (which, for all we know as yet,
1
may coincide). If we extend f 0 (z) inside the domain B ', we obtain a multiple-
valued function in that domain. If, by means of a cut, we map the domain B ' into
a simply connected domain, all the branches of the multiple-valued function will
be single-valued in that domain and will map it bijectively onto domains adjacent
to each other and filling up completely one of the domains, let us say B 1, into
which the curve A partitions the disk ICI < 1. There is a continuous one-to-one
correspondence of the boundaries under these mappings. Therefore, the arcs corre-
sponding to the curve K 1 lie on the circle I CI = 1 and together they cover the arc
s1C2 In addition to the arc S1S2 there are other arcs on ICI = 1 and these arise
in the same way from other branches of the function f (z) than S i f o (z) and from
other curves constituting parts of the boundary of the domain B (with one excep-
tion to be mentioned below). These arcs cannot overlap because, if they did,
domains analogous to the domain B 1 would have common points whereas either
domains analogous to the domain B' have no common points or the branches of
the function f(z) considered in them do not coincide at a single point in them. It
follows that the arc which does not reduce to a point, cannot cover com-
pletely the circle I CI = 1; that is, S1 Cz. The only exception is the case when
B is a doubly connected domain one boundary of which is an isolated point. In
this case, the group G consists of the powers of one of its transformations which
is a parabolic transformation. Thus, when we exclude this last one, we may assert
that the transformation S 1 considered above is hyperbolic. If the point z C B
approaches a point on K1 while describing a continuous curve, the corresponding
point ' defined by an arbitrary branch of f(z) describes in ICI < 1 a curve that
terminates at an interior point of one of the arcs obtained according to the type
of the arc C1C2. On the other hand, as the point z approaches K along a curve
that encircles K infinitely many times, the corresponding point C describes in
< 1 a curve that terminates at one of the endpoints of these arcs.
It follows from what has been said that, if the boundary of a multiply con-
nected domain B does not consist entirely of isolated boundary points, then
points on the circle I C1 = 1 fall into four classes:
1) interior points of all arcs defined according to the type of the arcs b1 C2
Corresponding to each such point is a unique nonisolated boundary point of the
domain B, and at each of these 0(4) is regular.
2) points of the type S1 and S2 are fixed points of hyperbolic transformations
of the group G . There are countably many of these points.
3) points of the type of Cp, that is, fixed points of parabolic transformations
of the group G. There are also countably many of these.
4) all remaining points on the circle I4I = I.

This classification was made from the point of view of the behavior of the
function (k (C) in a neighborhood of the circle ICI = 1. If the function 0(C)
approaches a definite limit as the point C on the circle IC1 = 1 approaches a
point a on that circle, the point a belongs to class 1) or 3) because then the
point z = O(C) approaches some point on the boundary of the domain B as Ca
and, consequently, the point C corresponding to it approaches either an interior
point of one of the arcs of the type 66 or one of the points of the type Co. Let
us show that almost all points on the circle IC1 = 1 are points of class 1), that
is, that the sum of the lengths of all arcs of the type Cl 2 is equal to 2rr. . Let
us arrange these arcs in a sequence {.(lk) y(k){, for k= 1, 2, . Let uk (c), for
k = 1, 2, , denote a harmonic function that is bounded in I CI < 1, that is equal
to 1 on the arc S lk) and that is equal to 0 at all other points on I = 1.
This function can be constructed in accordance with Poisson's formula'
ttk(C)-2a 1 1- r' C==re'. (1)
((k%(ak)
i
Consider the series 00
Z Uk (C). (2)
k=l y
For C= 0, this series obviously converges. Furthermore, if we denote by sn(S)
the sum of its first n terms, we see that sn W < s n+1(J) in I C1 < I. It follows,
in accordance with Harnack's theorem, that the series (2) converges uniformly
inside the disk I tI < 1 and that its sum s (C) is a harmonic function in < 1.
Furthermore, it follows from (1) and (2) that
2a
r 1-r'
1
ed0=1
S(C)C2n of 1-2rcos(0-T)+r
in < 1. If we now let C approach an interior point of the arc S 1k1S 2k 1, the
sequence sk(C) 1 and, since sk(C) < s (C) < 1, it follows that s 1 as
C approaches an interior point of that arc. Furthermore, if we map the disk I Cl < 1
into itself by means of transformations of the group G, the arcs ybvalues
(k) y ( sk)
are
then mapped into each other (because O(C) has definite limiting only on
1) This formula will also be proved in Chapter IX.

these arcs). Consequently, the function s (C) is invariant under transformations

of the group G. This last shows that, if we use the function z = O (C) to map the
disk C1 < 1 onto the domain B, we obtain in B a single-valued bounded harmonic
function s (f (z)) that is equal to unity at all nonisolated boundary points. Such a
function is identically equal to unity in B because, otherwise, it either would
attain a maximum or a minimum inside B or would approach an extreme value as
z approaches isolated boundary points, which, in accordance with the maximum
principle and the beginning of the present section, is impossible.
Consequently, 1 in the disk 1. But
S (0)= LEI 2a S de = 2n length (Clk)C9kl),

k=1 t(k)t(k) k=1
so that I' (length 27r. This completes the proof.
§3. Dirichlet's problem and Green's function

A finite real function that, together with its first two derivatives,') is single-
valued and continuous in a domain B of the z-plane and satisfies Laplace's
equation in B is said to be harmonic in B. Such a function can be regarded as
the real part of some analytic function that can be extended in B along an arbi-
trary path. A function is said to be harmonic at a point if it is harmonic in some
domain including that point. We note that, if u (z) is a harmonic function in a suf-
ficiently small neighborhood of a point z = a with the point a itself deleted and
if it is bounded below in that neighborhood, that is, if u (z) > m (or bounded above,
that is, if u (z) < M), it will also be harmonic at z = a if its domain of definition
is extended to include the point z = a in a suitable manner. To see this, let v(z)
denote the harmonic conjugate of U(z) and let t,) denote the increment in the func-
tion v (z) as z moves once around a sufficiently small circle I z - al = t (or a
sufficiently large circle I z R in case a = ce). The function
2w
(U + iv)
F(z)=e
1) The derivatives here refer only to derivatives at finite points. In what follows, the
harmonic functions mentioned may at times be multiple-valued, but in such cases an arbi-
trary branch of such a multiple-valued function will be single-valued in an arbitrary suf-
ficiently small neighborhood of each point in the domain B.
§3. DIRICHLET'S PROBLEM AND GREEN'S FUNCTION 267
with either sign chosen is then regular and bounded in the neighborhood in ques-
tion of the point z = a, and, with suitable choice of the value for F (a), regular
at the point a itself. Obviously, F (a) is nonzero. Therefore, the function u + iv
is also regular at z = a and the function u (z) is harmonic at z = a. It follows
that a function u(z) that is harmonic and bounded in a domain B is harmonic at
all isolated boundary points when it is extended in a suitable manner to these
points.
The maximum principle of harmonic functions has an important generalization:
-Jf a function u(z) is harmonic and bounded above in a domain B (that is, its
values in B do not exceed some finite constant) and if all its limiting values, as
its argument approaches any except finitely many boundary points of B through
values in B, are no greater than M, u (z) < M everywhere in B. An analogous
generalization holds for functions bounded below.
Proof. We may assume that the domain B includes the point o. Let al,
an denote the exceptional points referred to and let H denote the diameter
of the boundary of the domain B. For arbitrary c > 0, consider the function
a
v(z)=M-u(z)+e Iloglz Haktl'
which is harmonic in B. As z approaches boundary points other than a 1, , an,
this function approaches nonnegative limits since each term in the sum above has
a nonnegative value. As z approaches one of the points ak, this sum approaches
+ oo, but u(z) is bounded above. Consequently, the limit of v(z) as z approaches
any of these points is +Do. Since v(z) is obviously not a constant, it cannot
have minima inside the domain B. Therefore, v (z) > 0 in B; that is,
n
it(z)M+e log
tl
IZ -ak
k=l
This holds for arbitrary c > 0. By letting c approach 0, we obtain u (z) < M,
which completes the proof.
Let us now pass on to Dirichlet's problem. Suppose that the domain B has a
boundary K consisting of a finite number of closed Jordan curves without com-
mon points. The Dirichlet problem for such a domain consists in finding a func-
tion u(z) that is harmonic and bounded in B, that is continuous in B except
possibly at countably many points on the boundary K; and that assumes prestated
values at points of continuity on the boundary K. The boundary values are subject
only to the condition that they constitute a function on K that has a finite or
countable set of points of discontinuity. Let us show that this problem always
has a unique solution.
Let us map the domain B onto the disk < 1, just as in §1. Consider the
set of points V on the circle I(' I = 1 belonging to the class (1) of §2. Let
U W) denote a function whose values coincide with the values u (z ') at points
z ' of the boundary K that correspond under this mapping to the points V on
I C'I = 1. This real function U is defined, bounded, and continuous almost
everywhere I) on the circle I C' 1 and satisfies almost everywhere on that
circle the condition U (S (C )) = U('), where S is an arbitrary transformation be-
longing to the group G of §2.
Thus, we arrive at the problem of finding a function U ((') that is harmonic
and bounded in the disk ICI < 1 and that coincides with U(C') at all points of
continuity of the function on ICI = 1.
Consider the function
2x
UP= 1 ie 1- r'
U ( e ) 1- 2r cos (0 - , f ) -}- r'
tP
dO C = re,
2a
where the integral is in the sense of Riemann. By virtue of the known properties
of a Poisson integral, this function is harmonic and bounded in I I < 1 and, under
the shift to C' I = 1, it coincides with U (a') at all points of continuity of the
I
function U(CH). On the other hand, any function U(C) possessing these proper-
ties is unique. To see this, suppose that there exists another such function U1(O.
Then, for arbitrary C in 41 < 1, we have, in accordance with Poisson's formula
2x
H
e RH-2RrR9
ret',
U1 (C)=2 U1(Ret) cos(er 'p) -}-r' de' C=
where r < R < 1. If we now take the limit as R -' 1, remembering that we can
take the limit under the integral sign (Lebesgue's theorem), we see that U1(C)
U(C) in ICI < 1.
It follows from the uniqueness property that U (C) remains invariant under
transformations of the group G. In fact, the functions U(S(C)) and U(C) are
both solutions of the problem that we have just examined and hence they are
1) In the present case, with the possible exception of a countable set of points on
ICI= 1.
identical in CI < 1. If we now return to the z-plane, the function U(5) becomes
the function u(z), which is single-valued and bounded in B and which satisfies
the Dirichlet problem posed above. It also follows from what was said above that
this problem has a unique solution. We note that if certain of the curves constitut-
ing the boundary K degenerated into points, the Dirichlet problem for the domain
obtained would not always have a solution. To see this, note that the function
u(z) which provides a solution to the Dirichlet problem for such a domain is, by
virtue of what was said above, a harmonic function at all isolated boundary points.
*Therefore, it is uniquely determined by its values on the remaining boundary
curves. This shows that the values of the function u(z) at isolated boundary
points cannot be chosen arbitrarily.
Thus, we have proved the existence and uniqueness of the solution to the
Dirichlet problem for an arbitrary finitely connected domain B bounded by Jordan
curves and for arbitrary given values on the boundary K that constitute either a
continuous function or a function with a finite or countable set of points of dis-
Continuity. To find the solution of an arbitrary Dirichlet problem for a given
domain B, it is sufficient to know the solution of any one particular Dirichlet
problem. Here, it is a question of finding the Green's function. The Green's func-
tion for a domain B is defined as a real function g (z, C) satisfying the following
three conditions: 1) for every C E B, it is a harmonic function of z in the domain
B except at the point z = J; 2) g(z, C) approaches +oo as z - C in such a way
that the difference g (z, C) - log 111z - remains bounded if is finite and in
such a way that the difference g (z, 00) - log I z is bounded if C = o.; 3) as
I
(z, C) approaches the boundary K, the function g(z, C) approaches 0. In accord-

ance with the maximum principle, g(z, C) must be positive everywhere in B. If
a Green' s function g(z, C) exists, then, for finite S the difference g(z, C) -
log (14 z -el) when assigned the appropriate value at z = J, at the point z =
is harmonic in B and continuous in B and assumes on the boundary K the
values -log(1/jz - CI); that is, this difference is a solution of a particular Dirich-
let problem for the domain B. Conversely, if u(z) is a solution of this Dirichlet
problem, then the function log (1/I z - CI),+ u(z) is obviously a Green's function
for the domain B. An analogous situation holds for C= 00. Under a single-
sheeted mapping of the domain B by means of a function z* = f(z) onto another
,domain B* bounded by Jordan curves, a Green's function g(z, C) is transformed
into the function g(f-1(z*), fwhich, obviously, is a Green's function
for the domain B*. This shows that, if we know a Green's function for one domain,
we can, by means of univalent mappings, obtain Green's functions for various

other domains of the same order of connectedness. In the case of a simply con-
nected domain B, there is no Green's function, as the function -log I f(z)I indi-
cates, where t = f (z) is a function that maps a domain B univalently onto
the disk It I < 1 in such a way that the point z = C is mapped into t = 0. For
multiply connected domains, there is no such simple relationship with conformal
mapping.
In the case of a simply connected domain B bounded by a closed Jordan
curve, an analytic function P (z, C) the real part of which is a Green's function
g(z, C) for a domain B is obviously continuous on B except at the point z = .
If, in addition, the boundary of the domain B is an analytic curve, then p (z,
is regular on that curve. It turns out that these properties also hold in the case of
finitely connected domains. Let us consider first a finitely connected domain B
bounded by arbitrary closed Jordan curves. Let g(z, C) denote a Green's function
of B and let h(z, C) denote its harmonic conjugate. As we shall see, the last
function is non-single-valued in B. Consider the function F(z) = g - ih. Let us
take an arbitrary points z0 on one of the boundary curves of the domain B and let
us describe a circle y about it sufficiently small that it intersects` the curve and
there are no other boundary curves either inside the circle y or on it. The part of
the domain B lying inside y consists of simply connected domains. We denote
by B0 whichever one of these domains has the point z0 on its boundary. Let us
map B0 onto the halfplane `fi(t) > 0 in such a way that z = z0 is mapped into
t = 0. If we denote the mapping function by z = 0(t), the function F(OW) is
regular in the domain (t) > 0 and its real part u (t) is also continuous in
(t) > 0 and is nonnegative. Noting that u (t) = 0 at points on the real axis suf-
ficiently close to t = 0, we describe a circle t I = p sufficiently small that
u(t) = 0 on the diameter lying on the real axis. Let us now define a function NO
on t = p as follows: U (t) coincides with the function u (t) on the upper semi-
I
circle and it assumes at points in the lower semicircle the same values as the
function u (t) assumes at the conjugate points in the upper halfplane with with
opposite sign. The function U(t) is obviously continuous on the circle I = P.
Consider the integral
2+c
U(t)2i U(Peie)p'-2prps-rs
cos(B-cp)+r'dA,
It defines a function U (t) that is harmonic in I t I < p and continuous on I t I < p .

It is obviously equal to 0 at points on the real axis and it coincides with u (t) on
the upper boundary semicircle. Consequently, U (t) coincides with it (t) on the
'entire boundary of the upper half-disk and therefore throughout this entire half-
disk. If t(t) is an analytic function in It 1 : p and its real part is the function
U(t), then the difference $(t) - F(O(t)) has real part equal to zero in the upper
half-disk. Therefore, this difference must be a constant in t I < p. This last fact
I
shows that the function F(0(t)) can be extended in a neighborhood of t = 0

beyond the real axis and, in particular, it is a continuous function at the point
,it = 0. Returning to the z-plane, we conclude that the function F(z), considered
in 9, is continuous at the point z0. Since z0 is an arbitrary point on the bound-
ary of the domain B, this means that F(z) is continuous on B except, of course,
at the point C. Furthermore, since t ' (0) is obviously nonzero, it follows that
f' (z) = $ (t)/ (t) 0 in a part of a sufficiently small neighborhood of the point
z0 contained in B. This means that the zeros of the function F' (z) cannot
cluster on the boundary of the domain B. Consequently, F' (z) and hence pa (z,
have only finitely many zeros. Finally, since the function w = fi(t) maps the part
of the neighborhood of the point t = 0 lying above the real axis into the part of
the neighborhood of the point w = CO) that lies to the right of a vertical line
passing through the point w = (N0), it follows that, as we move along the bound-
ary of B in a neighborhood of z0, the function h(z, C) always changes in the
same direction. More precisely, as z describes the boundary of the domain B in
,the positive direction, h(z, C) increases. Now, if z0 is an interior point of an
analytic arc on the boundary of B, then the function 0 (t) is regular at the point
t = 0. But then, the function F (z) and hence the function p (z, C) is regular at
the point z 0.
By analogous reasoning, we can obtain a generalized theorem on harmonic
functions:
Let u(z) denote a function that is harmonic in a domain B bounded by closed
analytic Jordan curves. Suppose that u(z) is continuous in B and that its values
.on the boundary of B constitute an analytic function of a parameter determining
points on the boundary (that is, a function that can be represented in a neighbor-
hood of each boundary point in the form of a series of powers of the parameter in
question). Then an analytic function F(z) the real part of which is u(z) is
regular in B.
Proof. Just as above, we shift to the t-plane. Then, the values of u (z) on
272 V1. MAPPING ONTO A DISK
the boundary of the domain B in a neighborhood of a point z0 can be represented

by a Maclaurin series of powers of the real. parameter t. In the complex t-plane,
this series defines a function that is regular at t = 0 and real on the'real axis
(in a neighborhood of t = 0). When we return to the z-plane, this fast function be-
comes a function T W that is regular at the point z o and equal to u (z) on the
boundary of the domain B. in a neighborhood of the point z o . The difference
F(z) - 'Y (z) is regular in the portion of the neighborhood of the point z0 lying in
B, and its real part is continuous, including boundary points of the domain B, at
which points its value is 0. Resting on this last remark, we can again show that
this difference is regular at the point z0. But then, the function F(z) itself is
regular at the point z o.
Let us now show how, once we know a Green's function for the domain B, we
can find the solution of an arbitrary Dirichlet problem for that domain.
Let us first consider the case of a domain B with boundary K consisting of
closed analytic curves. Let u(z) denote a solution of a Dirichlet problem for the
domain B with given boundary values which define on K an analytic function of
a real parameter determining points on K. Green's formula 1)
S S (utul-u1Ltu)dxdy=- S lud- uldn)dsBi
is applicable to the functions u(z) and u1(z) = g(z, 0 and to the domain B.
obtained from B by subtracting the disk I Z - CI < E.2) Here, the integral on the
left is over the domain B. i that on the right is over the boundary KE of the domain
Be in the positive direction; ds denotes an element of'arc on KE; and d/dn de-
notes the derivative with respect to the inner normal. Since Au = Au 1 = 0 in BE
and since u 1 = 0 on K, the preceding formula reduces to
u dgds-+ - u dgds- gdRds=O. (1)

tf I z-
Here, the first integral is independent of c. Remembering that the function
g (z, C) is of the order of magnitude of log c on the circle I z - CI = E, we easily
1) This formula is also valid for a domain B including z = o., as we can see if we
apply it first to the domain Be obtained from B by subtracting the domain IzI > 1/E, let
C approach 0, and then proceed as described in the text.
2) For finite C. In the case t = a., we take the domain Izt > 1/E.
conclude that the last integral approaches 0 as a --b 0 . With regard to the middle
integral, we have
d log 1
lim u dg ds = lim It z
do
ds
.-.o
u ds`
lim 27cu (C).
Iz i
C
Thus, if we take the limit in ( 1) as a -+ 0, we obtain

u (C) (2)
2a u (z) do ds.
This formula is known as "Green's formula". It expresses the values of the func-
tion u(z) inside the domain B in terms of its values on the boundary of B. Since
the function p (z, C) = g - ih is regular on K and hence dg/dn = dh/ds (one of
the Cauchy-Riemann conditions), we can put the preceding formula in a different
form:
u (C) = 21- it (z) dh (z, Q. (3)
Let us show that formula (3) holds for a finitely connected domain B bounded
by arbitrary closed Jordan curves and for an arbitrary given function u (z) on the
boundary K, where the integral on the right should be understood as a Stieltjes
integral. Let g(z,. C) denote a Green's function for the domain B and let 8 > 0
denote a number less than the distance from any of the zeros of the function
p'(z, t;) (where p = g - ih) or the point C to the boundary K and also less than
'half the distance between different boundary curves constituting K. On the set
consisting of all points of the domain B whose distance from the boundary K is
8 or greater, the function g (z, C) has a positive minimum A0. Consider the set
KA of points of the domain B defined by the equation g(z, C) = A, where 0 <
A < Ao . This set consists of analytic curves. To see this, let zo denote a member
of KA. The points of KA in a neighborhood of zo have a parametric representa-
tion z = z (t) that can be obtained by solving the equation p (z, t;) = A + it. Since
pi (z, 0 for z = z0, this parametric representation defines an analytic arc in
a neighborhood of zo. Furthermore, the subset K,, of the set KA consisting of
points at a distance no greater than 8 from a given boundary curve L of the do-
main B consists of a single closed analytic Jordan curve surrounding L because,
otherwise, B would contain a domain in which g (z, t;) would be a harmonic func-
tion and on the boundary of which g (z, would be equal to A, which is impos-
sible since we would then have g(z, ) = A in B. It follows that the inequality
g(z, t;) > A defines in B a domain Bk including the point z = J with boundary
KA consisting of closed analytic Jordan curves approximating the boundary of the
domain B. Now, suppose that u (z) is a function that is harmonic in B and con-
tinuous on B. Let us apply formula (3) to the domain BA. Since g(z, t;) - A is
obviously a Green's function for the domain BA and since the function a = h(z, t;")
increases as z moves around KA in the positive direction, so that we may take
a as parameter determining points on KA, it follows that
it (C) = 2 5 it (z) dh (z, () = 2 it (za (a)) da. (4)

ltx
But u(z) is continuous on B. Therefore, if we also express the points on K in
terms of a = h (z, t;), we conclude that, for every e > 0, the values of the func-
tion u(z) at points on K and KA corresponding to the same value of a will, for
sufficiently small positive A, differ from each other by an amount less than e.
Consequently, the integral in the right-hand member of (4) approaches the integral
over K as A -. 0. By taking the limit, we obtain
it (C) = (z,, (a)) da,

2a 1c u
that is,
u ) - 2>< 5 it (z) dh (z, t) (5)
Finally, formula (5) remains valid when the function u (z) has a finite number
of points of discontinuity on the boundary K but remains bounded (Iu(z)I < M) in
B. To see this, let us include the points of discontinuity on K in the interiors
of small arcs (z (ak ), z (ak )), such that I I ak - ak I < t/2M and let us denote by
K. the remainder of the boundary K when these arcs are removed. Then,
l (u (za (a)) - it (zo (a))) do I 2

+ I it (z). (a)) - u (zo (a)) I do.
But off these arcs, u (zA(a)) -- u (zo (a)) uniformly. Consequently, for sufficiently
small A, the last integral is also less than a/2. This proves formula (5) in the
present case.
§4. APPLICATION TO A UNIVALENT MAPPING 275
We note that univalent mappings of the domain B transform formulas (3) and
(5) into the corresponding formulas for the image.
In conclusion, let us prove the symmetry of a Green' s function; that is, let
us prove that g (z, C) = g (C, A. Let us apply formula (5) to the function u (z) _
g(z, C) + log 1z - Cj, which is harmonic in B and continuous on B. Since
g (z, C) = 0 on K, we obtain
g(z,C)+ logI z-CI=Z 1ogI z'-CIdh(z, z).

It Follows from this formula that g (z, C) is a harmonic function of C in B except
at the point C= z, in a neighborhood of which it also has a singularity of the
same type as the function g (C, z). Therefore, the difference d(z, C) = g (z, C) -
g(J, z) is a harmonic function of each argument throughout the entire domain B.
But, as we let z approach K, we have lim d(z, C) g(C, z) < 0; that is,
d(z, C) < 0 for every in B. On the other hand, as we let C approach K, we
have lim d (z, J) = lim g (z, ) > 0; that is d (z, C) > 0 in B. Consequently,
d (z, C) = 0, that is g (z, C) = g (t z) for every z and C in B.
§4. Application to a univalent mapping of multiply connected domains

We can use the solution of the Dirichlet problem to give new proofs of theo-
rems on the existence of a univalent mapping of finitely connected domains onto
'Certain canonical domains, for example, onto the plane with rectilinear parallel
cuts or onto the plane with cuts along arcs of logarithmic spirals of equal incli-
nation.
Let us stop here to prove Theorem 1 ' of §2 of Chapter V on the mapping of
an n-connected domain B in the z-plane onto the c-plane with finite parallel
straight-line cuts of inclination 0 to the real axis. As we know, it will be suf-
ficient to consider the case when the domain B does not include z = oo and is
bounded by closed analytic Jordan curves K 1, K2, , K,,, where K is assumed
to be the external boundary.

Consider n - 1 functions Uk (z), for k = 1, , n - 1, that are harmonic in B.
Suppose that each uk (z) is equal to 1 on Kk and equal to zero on all Kk, for
k' k. For each it, let vk (z) denote the harmonic conjugate of uk (z). The func-
tions vk(z) are in general multiple-valued in B but, in accordance with §3, they
are continuous on B. Let us denote by r'k( the increment in the function vk(z)
as z moves around KI in the positive direction (with respect to the domain B).
One can easily show that the determinant jck,1I of the numbers a k.t is nonzero.
Let us suppose, to the contrary, that this determinant is zero. Then there exist
real constants kk , for k = 1, . , n - 1, not all equal to zero, such that
Ik=1Akcok,1 = 0, 1= 1, ... , n- 1. The function
n-1
f(z)= YjXk(uk+1vk),
k_l
which can be extended into B along an arbitrary path, returns to its original
value as z moves around each of the curves K, encircling K. But then, this
function is single-valued in B and hence is regular in B. The real part of the
function f (z) is constant on each of the curves Kk, for k = 1, , n. Then,
reasoning as in the proof of Theorem 2 of §2 of Chapter V, we can show that
f (z) = const in B. But this is impossible since the real part of the function f (z)
vanishes on the curve K and is nonzero on at least one of the curves Kk for
k = 1, , n - 1. This contradiction proves that Icuk.,I 0.
Now, suppose that u0 is a harmonic function in B that is equal to
-3`(e'`B/(z - a)) on the boundary K = Uk=1Kk and that v0 is its harmonic con-
jugate. Let us choose real constants Ak, k = 1', , n - 1, such that the function
n-1
ve + Xkvk
will be single-valued in B. This is possible since 1cok.,i / 0. Let us show that

the function
n-I
-L
f(z)=z 1
a +el01 (110+1VO+ Z `k(uk+lvk))
k=1
is univalent in B. This function is regular in B except at the point z = a and
assumes values on Kt (for l = 1, - , n) that lie on some straight line d, at an
inclination 0 with the real axis. This shows that, if Co does not lie on the
straight lines dl, l = 1, - - , n, the increase in the function arg (f(z) - CO) as z
moves around the boundary of the domain B in the positive direction is equal to
zero. On the other hand, this increase must be equal to 2n times the difference
between the number of zeros and the number of poles of the function f(z) - Co in
the domain B. Since f (z) - Co has a single simple pole in B, namely, at z = a,
it follows that f (z) assumes the value 4 at exactly one point in B. If the func-
tion f (z) assumed any value C1 at more than one point in B, this would also be
true of points sufficiently close to S1, which, by virtue of what was shown above,
§5. MAPPING OF AN n-CONNECTED DOMAIN 277
cannot be the case. Thus, the univalence of f (z) in B is proved and so is the
fact that the image of the domain B under the function C = f (z) is a plane with
parallel rectilinear cuts of inclination 0 with the real axis. The function f (z) + c
yields the same mapping, and for some c we have, in a neighborhood of z = a,
the expansion
I
z-a -{--al (z----a)+...,
if a is finite and the expansion z + a1z-t +- - ' if a = oe.
By analogous reasoning, we can prove Theorem of §3 of Chapter V re-
garding the mapping of a finitely connected domain B onto a plane with cuts
along arcs of logarithmic spirals of equal inclination.
§5. Mapping of an n-connected domain onto an n-sheeted disk

In conclusion, let us look at the possibility of mapping an n-connected one-
sheeted domain B onto an n-sheeted disk C1 < 1. By an n-sheeted disk, we
mean here a Riemann surface lying entirely over the disk CI < 1 and having over
each point of that disk exactly n points (a branch point of order p is considered
as p points). This mapping is assumed to be effected by a bijective regular func-
tion. If we do not wish to resort to the concept of a Riemann surface, the mapping
should be understood in the sense that, if 4 = f (z) is the function performing the
mapping, then the function f (z) - Co has exactly n zeros in B for arbitrary Co
such that I C0I < 1 (with a zero of order m counted m times) and has no zero at
all in B for any Co such that I Co I > 1.
Theorem. Every n-connected domain B in the z-plane that has no isolated
boundary points can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the n-sheeted disk
ICI < 1 by means of a regular function. If B is bounded by closed Jordan curves
K1, , K,,, then the function defining this correspondence is continuous in B
and it can be normalized in such a way that, at n given points al, , any where
ak a Kk, for k = 1, , n, it assumes a single given value a such that I a.I = 1
and, at two given points b and c of the curve K that are distinct from the an
and that are distributed along with the an in a definite order on K., assumes
given values f3 and y distinct from a and distributed, along with a, in the same
order on the circle I CI 1. Under this normalization the mapping is unique. (Here,
"order" refers to the direction of motion around the boundary of the domain B and
the boundary of the n-sheeted disk.)
Proof. As always, it will be sufficient to consider a domain B that does not

include - and that is bounded by closed analytic Jordan curves Kk, k = 1, - , n,
where K,, is the outer boundary. Suppose that the curve Kk (where k = 1, -- , n)
is defined by the equation z = zk (t), for 0 < t < 1. Suppose also that zk (0) = ak
and that the point zk (t) moves along Kk in the positive direction as t increases.
Instead of the disk I < 1 and the n-sheeted disk mentioned in the theorem, we
can obviously choose an arbitrary simply connected domain G that can be mapped
onto the disk and the n-sheeted surface over it respectively. For such a domain
lying over the (w = a + iv)-plane, we take the strip G : 0 < R W < 1 and seek a
function w = f(z) = u + iv that is regular in the domain B and that maps B onto
the n-sheeted strip lying over G and having the property that w --, + - i as z
approaches points ak through points in B.
To construct the function w = f(z), let us choose on each of the curves Kk,
for k = 1, - , n, a point bk = zk (tk), where 0 < tk < I. These points, together
with the points ak partition the curves Kk into arcs Kk : z = zk (t) for 0 < t < tk
and Kk : z = zk (t) for tk < t < 1. Suppose that u (z) is a bounded harmonic func-
tion in B that is equal to zero on the arcs Kk and equal to 1 on the arcs Kk .
Let v(z) denote the harmonic conjugate of u(z) (defined up to a constant term).
In general, the function v(z) is not single-valued in B. Let wk, for k = 1, -, n,
denote the increase in v(z) as z moves around Kk in the positive direction.
Here, in a neighborhood of the points ak and bk, the motion is along small arcs
contained in B. The numbers wk depend on the choice of the points bk. If we
succeed in choosing the points bk in such a way that all the numbers wk are
equal to zero, then the function f (z) = u + iv will be single-valued and hence
regular in B. Let us show that, in such a case, the function f W serves as the
required mapping. To do this, let us investigate first the behavior of f (z) in a
neighborhood of the points ak and bk. Let us map the simply connected domain
bounded only by the curve Kk and containing the domain B onto the halfplane
J) > 0 in such a way that the points ak and bk are mapped respectively into
0 and The mapping function z = qS(t;) is regular at ; = 0 and has an expan-
sion z = 0 (C) = ak + c 1t; + , where cl 0, in a neighborhood of that point.
This transformation maps a(z) into a function that is harmonic and bounded in a
domain of the c-plane that contains the real axis on its boundary and that has the
values 0 and 1 on the positive and negative halves of the real axis respectively.
But the function (1/rr) arg C has this same property. Therefore, the difference
f(0(C)) - (1/77i) log C can, in accordance with the symmetry principle, be continued
past the real axis and it is a function that is regular on that axis except at the
point 1= 0. It follows that the function f(z) = (1/7ri) log (z -ak) is regular in a
neighborhood of the point z = ak. In the same way we can prove that the function
. f(z) + (1/7ri) log (z - bk) is regular in a neighborhood of the point z = bk. It fol-
lows from what was said above that the function v(z) approaches +00 uniformly,
at the same speed as the function -n-1log I z - akl, as z approaches ak through
values in B, and that v(z) approaches -- uniformly at the same speed as the
function -n-'log (111z - bkl), as z approaches bk through values in B. This
.property enables us to show that the function w = f (z) maps the domain B onto
the' n-sheeted strip 0 < $2 (w) < 1. Let w0 denote any point in the strip 0 <
Y (w) < 1. Since the function f(z) does not assume the value w0 in sufficiently
small neighborhoods of the points ak and bk for k = 1, , n, the number of
.zeros of the function f(z) - w0 in B is equal to (21r)-1 times the increment in
arg [f(z) - w0] as z moves around the boundary K = Uk=IKk of the domain B in
the positive direction, where, in neighborhoods of the points ak and bk, the path
is along small arcs contained in B. But as z moves around the curve Kk (for k =
1, , n) in the positive direction, beginning at some point zo a Kk, the corre-
sponding point w = f(z) first moves downward along the imaginary axis and then
moves along a sufficiently distant curve to the line S% (w) = 1 and then moves up-
ward along that line. It then moves along a sufficiently distant curve back to the
imaginary axis and returns along it to the initial point z0. This shows that the
increment in arg [f(z) - w0] as z moves around the curve Kk in the positive
direction is equal to 2n. Then, the increment in arg [f(z) - w0] as z moves
around the entire boundary of K in the positive direction is equal to 27rn. Conse-
quently, the number of zeros of the function f (z) - w0 in B is equal to n no mat-
ter what the value of w0; that is, the function w = f (z) does indeed map the
domain B bijectively onto the n-sheeted strip 0 < R(w) < 1. We assume that the
function f (z) is single-valued in B.
Let us show that values t 1, , t,, for which all the numbers rv 1. , G) n
are equal to zero do exist. Choosing tR arbitrarily in the interval 0 < t < 1, let
us consider the different tk such that 0 < tk < 1 for k = 1, 2, , n - 1.
Then u (z), v (z), and &)k, k = 1, , n, are functions of t 1, , t,-I- We
set
tt(z)=tt(z, t1, ..., t,-t), v(z)=v(z, ti, ..., to-),

Dk=(lk/4, .. ., to - r), k = 1, ..., n.
Let us show that there exist numbers t1, , t,,-, such that
Wk(t1, .. ., k=1, 2, ..., n. (1)
To do this, we mention first a few properties of the functions W k (t 1, ' to-1):

1) The functions CJk(t1, , are continuous functions of each of the
variables tv for 0 < tY < 1, where v = 1, , n - 1. This is true because, in
accordance with §3,
a A
tt (z, t1, ... , to -1) = 2a S dh (C, z) = 2a (h (bk, z) - h (ak, z)),

k=1Kk k=1
and hence u(z, t1i , au/ax, and au/dy are continuous functions of z,
ti, , as z varies in B and each tv varies in the interval 0 < tv < 1 for
v=1, ,n-1.
But wk (t 1, , 1) is determined from the formula
wk dv- -aydx+azdy
k
where the integral is over an arbitrary closed analytic curve Ck contained in B
and encircling only the curve Kk. Consequently, each wk (t1, , t,,_1) is a con-
tinuous function of tv in.the interval 0 < tv < 1, for v = n - 1.

2) Each wk (t 1, , is an increasing function of the parameter tv for
v k. To see this, note that, for tv > lv, the difference
A", k = wk 01, ... , t", ... , to-1) - wk 01, ... , t", ..., to-1)
is the increment in the function vv(z) as z moves around the contour :Kk. This
function is the conjugate of the function uv(z), which is harmonic in B and van-
ishes on K except on the arc of the curve K,, between the points zv(ty) and
zv(tv), on which it is equal to 1. Since uv > 0 in B, we have auv/an > 0 on
Kk. This is a strict inequality because vanishing of the above derivative, together
with vanishing of the derivative auv/as, would mean that the derivative of the
function fv(z) = uv + iv,,, vanishes at some point on Kk and hence the image of
the domain B under the function w = fv(z) would get outside the strip 0< 92(w)<l.
Now, it follows from the formula
".k= dv"=a ds=- a ds

k k k
that ev,k <0, and this means that wk (tl, ,

t for v k.
3) We have
n
wk (t1, ..., to 1) = 0. (2)
k -- 1
To see this, note that if the domain B can be converted into a simply
connected domain by means of suitable cuts, the function v(z) will be single-
valued in it and consequently its increment as z moves around the entire bound-
pry of the domain is equal to 0. On the other hand, this increment is equal to
them left-hand member of equation (2).
4) It follows f r o m properties 2) and 3) that &)k (t 1, , t,_1) (for k = 1, -
- , n - 1) is a decreasing function of the parameter tk.

5) The function wk (t 1, , - is positive for tk = 0 and negative for
.tk = 1 (under the assumption that all the other numbers t 1, , In- 1 are different
from both 0 and 1). To see this, note that for tk = 0, the function u is equal to
unity on Kk and less than unity in B. Consequently, au/an < 0 on Kk. Also, we
can show just as in 2) that this has to be a strict inequality. Therefore it follows
on the basis of the formula
wk= dv=- 1 ands (3)
5. k
that wk > 0. Analogously, for tk = 1, the function uk is equal to 0 on Kk and
,positive in B. Consequently, au/an > 0 on Kk and, on the basis of equations (3),
we have a) k < 0.
Now, by using properties 1)-5), let us show that the system (1) has exactly
one solution. It follows from properties 1) and 5) that, for every system of values
92; , 1, there exists a unique value t 1 = r1(t2, , t_), 0 < t l < 1, such
-
that w 1 (rl, t2, ,- 0 with rl (t2i , is continuous with respect to

-
t2i . , In- 1 Since, in accordance with property 2), w 1 (rl, t2, , In-,) increases
with increase in t2, , In- 1 and, in accordance with property 4), decreases
with increasing rl, it follows from the identity
w1 [T1 (t9, ... , to-1), {y, ..., tn_r] = 0
that rl (t2i -, tn_0 increases with increasing ti, for v / 1.
Let us define the functions
wk(t9, ..., to-1)=wk(r1(t9, ..., tn_1), t9, ..., tn_1), k=2, ..., lt.
These functions are continuous with respect to t2, , tn_ 1. For each k, the
function wk (t2, - , obviously increases with increasing tv for v k.
Furthermore, it follows from (2) that, for all t2, , tr_1,
wk (t2, ..., to-1)=0,

k-2
It then follows that wk (t2, , or k = 2, n - 1) increases with

increasing tk. Finally, it follows from property 5) that (Jk (t2, , 1) is posi-
tive for tk = 0 and negative for tk = 1. Consequently, the functions wk(t2, ,
satisfy conditions analogous to conditions 1)-5), with the number of functions
and the number of variables decreased by one. We reason in the same way with
these functions: there exists a unique value t2 = r2 2 (t3, , 1) n the interval
0 < t2 < 1 that satisfies the equation w2'(t2, , 1) = 0. Here, r2 (t;, , tn_1)
is continuous and increases with increasing t for v>2.
Now let us consider the functions
Wk (t3, ... , to-1) - ok ('t8 (t3, ... , trt_1), t3i ... , tn_1), k = 3, ... , h,
and continue in the same way. After n - 1 steps, we arrive at the uniquely de-
fined system of values
tn_1 = 'tn_I = const, tn-9 = 'cn-2 (tn_1),
such that wk (r1, , rn_ 1) = 0 for k = 1,, n - 1. But then, in accordance with
equation (2), we also have wn(r1, ..., rii_1) = 0. This proves that there exists a
system of values t1i , satisfying equations (1) and hence that there exists
a function w = f(z) mapping the domain B bijectively onto the n-sheeted strip
0 < Pw < 1 in such a way that the given points ak E Kk, k = 1, 2, . , n, are
mapped into w = + i-.
Let us now prove the uniqueness of the mapping. In the treatment above, the
only arbitrariness was in the choice of the value of t in the interval 0 < t < 1
and the constant term up to which the single-valued function f (z) was defined.
Suppose now that, in addition to the point an, two arbitrary points b and c are
defined on the contour Kn and suppose, for definiteness, that the points an , b,
and c occur in that order as one moves in the positive direction around Kn. If
c = z (tn), for 0 < to < 1, we fix that value t = to as indicated above and from it
we can find the system of values t1, , tn_1 which determines up to a constant
term the single-valued function v (z). We choose this term in such a way that the
point b C Kn is mapped into a given point 8 on Rw = 0. Then, the points an, b,
§6. SOME IDENTITIES 283
and c on K are mapped respectively into + ioo, S, and - ioo and the function
w = f (z) is uniquely determined. This completes the proof of the theorem.
The proof that we have given is due to Grunsky.1) The question arises
whether the idea of the proofs of numerous existence theorems can be used in the
present case to establish the existence of functions mapping an n-connected
domain B onto an n-sheeted disk by using some extremal property of these func-
tions. It turns out that this is possible and that in this connection the problem
centers around the maximum value of If' (a) 1, where a is a finite member of B,
out of all the functions f (z) that satisfy the condition f (a) = 0, that are regular
*in B, and that do not exceed unity in absolute value. The proof is given in §3 of
Chapter XI. It uses a number of boundary properties of analytic functions which
will be explained in Chapters IX and X.
§6. Some identities connecting a univalent conformal mapping and the

Dirichlet problem
In §4 of Chapter V, by using the method of contour integration, we estab-
lished certain relationships connecting various functions that map a given finitely
connected domain univalently onto canonical domains. In the present section,
we shall continue the application of this method2) by introducing into our study
appropriate harmonic functions defined as the solutions of certain Dirichlet pro-
blems. Specifically, suppose that B is an n-connected domain that does not in-
clude oo and that is bounded by n closed analytic Jordan curves K. for v = 1,---
. , n. Suppose that a)v(z) (for v = 1, . , n) is a function that is harmonic in
B, equal to 1 on Kv, and equal to zero on all Kµ, for µ v. We note that the
functions ojv(z), for v = 1, - , n, satisfy the relation
n
a (z) =1, (1)
Ya
because the sum on the left is a harmonic function in B and it is equal to 1
everywhere on the boundary K = U v=I K. The harmonic function iv(z) conjugate
to wv(z) (v = 1, , n) is not in general single-valued in B. Let (Z). (z))K, as
usual denote the increment in the function tvv(z) as z moves around the curve
Kµ in the positive direction (that is, positive with respect to the domain). Sup-
1) Grunsky [19371.
2) See Garabedian and Schiffer [19491.
pose that
( (z))K = 2aPl, µ, v=1, ..., n.
If we now set wv(z) = cov(z) + iwv(z) (for v = 1, . , n), then the analytic func-
tion satisfies the conditions
1) W.(z)_-W.(z)+c,,,, on Kµ, cµ const, (2)
2) (W, (z))K = 2it1Pt,. (3)
3) WY(Z) is regular in B.
Turning to the contour-integration method, we shall use the functions P(z, u),
Q (z, u), P (z, u, v), and Q (z, uy v) introduced in §4 of Chapter V. With respect
to these functions, we recall that they satisfy on K. (v = 1, . , n) the conditions
P (z, u) = - Q (z, it) + k. (u), (4)
P(z, u, v)_- Q(z, u, v)+k,(u, v), (5)
where kv(u) and kt,(u, v) are independent of z in K. We note that the functions
kt,(u) and kv(u, v) will appear explicitly in the relationships that we derive
below.
Now consider the integrals
t = tai 5 P (C, u) WY (C) dC, Is =tat P (` u, v) w, (C) dC. (6)
5
In accordance with Cauchy's theorem, each of these integrals is equal to 0. If we use
formulas (2) and (4) to transform the first of these integrals, we obtain
n
J P (C, u) dw, (Q (C, u) -+ kµ (u)) dw., (C)

c c
II =
KK IL KKµ
l (- Q (C, u) + k, (u)) dW, (C)

W= I,
a
_- l
271
Q (G u) Wy (C) dC + YI kl, (u) Pµ.
µ=1
n
W (u) + Y, kµ (u) PI,.

µ-1
As a result, we arrive at the formulas (for u E B)
W;(u)_ I k,,(u)PIL.
M
(7)
µe1
Transforming the second of the integrals (6) in the same way, we obtain
+ n
1' = - tat Q (C. U, v) %'(Q A - kµ (u, v) P1,

KKK W=1
To evaluate the remaining integral, we make a cut y in B from u to v.
Since the integrand in the domain so obtained is single-valued, the integration
over K can be replaced with integration over an arbitrary closed analytic Jordan
curve C contained in B and containing the cut y but no point of the boundary of
B. Integration by parts then leads to the following:
n
19 (C, u, v) w. (C) dC + k (a, v) Pµ,
µ=1
n
w (u) - w, (v) + kN, (u v) Pµ. V.

µ=1
As a result, we obtain the formulas
n
w (v) - w, (u) _ E kµ (u, v) Pµ, v = 1, ... , n. (6)
µ=1
Formulas (7) and (B) are interesting in that they provide expressions for the
functions wv(u) and wv(v) - wv(u) (defined as solutions of Dirichlet problems)
in terms of the functions kAL (u) and kIL (u, v) (defined in terms of univalent map-
pings). With an eye to finding inverses of these formulas, let us show that the
rank of the matrix I1PIL,vII is equal to n - 1 and let us at the same time clarify
the nature of the indeterminateness of the inverse problem. To do this, let us
consider the system of linear equations
n
E Pµ .kµ=0, (9)
µ-l
If this system has nonzero solutions AL, for R = 1, , n, then the function
n
I) wµ (z)j
µ=1
is single-valued and consequently regular in B. Also, it assumes on each curve
K. (for v = 1, , n) values lying on some rectilinear segment. By the same
reasoning as was used in the proof of Theorem 2 of §2 of Chapter V, we can
show that this function must be constant in B. But then the function µ=1" A (D (z)
µk
will also be a constant. Since this constant assumes the value av on K. (for
v= 1, , n), it follows that Al= A2 = .. = An. This shows that the only pos-
sible system of solutions of equations (9) is the system Al = A2 = ... = An .
Now, on the basis of (1), we have
n
wµ (z) = const in B, (10)
µ=1
so that the increment in the sum on the left as z moves around any of the curves
in question is equal to 0; that is
n
Ei Pµ,0, µ=1, ..., n. (100)
µ=I
From this we conclude that the numbers Al = A2 = .. = An do indeed satisfy the
system (9). This shows that the rank of the matrix lI Pµ, vll is equal torn - 1.
Furthermore, it follows from what we have shown that the functions kµ(u), for
µ = 1, . , n, can be determined from formulas (7) and that the functions kµ(u, v),
for p = 1, , n can be determined from formulas (8), in both cases up to a com-
mon term. On the otter hand, the differences kµ(u) - kµ, (u) and kµ(u, v) -
kµ, (u, v), for p, p' = 1, , n, are uniquely determined by these formulas. This
last fact is significant, for example, for formulas (9) and (10) of §4 of Chapter V.
Let us now turn to the Green's function g(z, C) for the domain B. We de-
note the corresponding analytic function of z by p(z, t), so that g(z, 0 =
2 (p (z, Obviously, the function p (z, C) has a logarithmic singularity at the
point z = t and is not single-valued in B. The multiple-valuedness is easily
shown:
a' (P (z, Q)
(p (z, C))K _ ` dp (z, C) _ t as
ds
12`
V V
- t
AS
ag (z, C) ds = - 21tlw (C).
Thus, the function p (z, t) possesses the properties

1) p (z, C) = - p (z, C) + const on KY; C10)
(10,11)
2) (p (z, C))KV = - 21tw (C);
3) pE (z, C) is regular in B except at the simple pole z = t with residue -1.
Consider the integrals
18
=tat P (C, u) pz (C, z0) dC and 1 = tat S P (C, u, 'U) pz (C, z(,) 4
with u, v E B. If we evaluate these integrals first by using the residue theorem

directly and then by using (4), (5), and (10 as above, we arrive at the following
formulas:
A
pz (u, zo) = Q (zo, u) + P (z0, u) - kµ (u) wµ (zo),

µ=1
P (v, zo) - P (u, zo) = Q (zo, u, v) (11)
+ P (zo, u, v) - kµ (u, v) wµ (zo).

IL-1
we separate the real parts in (11), we obtain the curious formula

n
g (v, zo) - g (rt, zo) =1 og j , (zo, u, v) og pµ (u, v) . wµ (zo) (12)
Here pµ(u, v), for p = 1, . , n, are the radii of circles on which lie respectively
the images of the curves K., for p = 1, , n, under the mapping w = jn/Z(z, u, v).
By using the symmetry of the Green's function and replacing zo with z E B,
we can also rewrite (12) in the form
g (z, v) - g (z, u) _ R (log j n (z, u, v)) - log Pµ (u, v) . wµ (z)),.

a µ=1
Then, together with (11) we have the formula
p(z, v)-p(z, n)=logj (z, it, v)- Elog pµ(u, v) w,(Z)-
j- µ=1
The purely imaginary constant term on the right is not written because we have
not normalized the imaginary parts of the functions p (z, C) and w. (C) in any way.
The actual result is obtained as a relationship of the analytic representation
of functions that are meromorphic in the domain B and real on the boundary K.
These functions are known as Schottky functions. Let f(z) denote such a func-
tion that has in B only simple poles ak, for k = 1, , N, with residues rk.
Furthermore, suppose that f(z) is regular on K. Consider the integral
Ia
=2 P (C, u, v)f (C) A.
From the residue theorem we have
N
15 = }J rkPZ (ak, u, v).
k=1
On the other hand, by using (5) and the relationship
we obtain
16 = I
n
r=1
2aI
t
r
f(z)=f(z)
- on K, (v=1, ..., n),
(- Q (C, it, v) + kr (u, v)) df (C)
Q (C, u, v) f' (C) dC' =

N
rk Q: (ak, tt, v) +f (u) -f (v)
= tat k=1
(The last integral is calculated by use of the cut y connecting u and v, just as
before.) As a result, we obtain the relationship
N
f (it) -f (u) = E (rkQ; (ak, it, v) - rkPZ (ak, u, v)). (13)
A-1
By using formulas (3) of §4 of Chapter V, we transform (13) to the form
N
f (u) - Z (rk Q (u, ak) - rkP (it, ak)
k=1
N
=f (v) - E (rkQ (v, ak) - rkP (v, ak))
k=1
Since the left-hand member depends only on u and the right-hand member only on
v, we conclude that the function f (u) has a representation in the domain B of
the form
f (u) _ (rkQ (u, ak) - rkP (u, ak)) + A, (14)

k=1
where A is a constant.
It turns out that the numbers ak and rk, for k = 1, , N, cannot be arbi-
trary. It is easy to establish certain relationships between them. For z E Kv, we

obtain from (14) on the basis of (4)
N
f (u) _ }J (rkQ (u, ak) + rkQ (u, ak) - rkkr (ak)) + A
k=l
N N
=2Z'T(rkQ(it,ak))- Z rkkr(ak)+A (15)
k=1 k-1
Since f (z) is real on K., we have
N
Erkkr (ak) -A)=O, v=1, ..., n. (16)
k=1
If we multiply (16) by Psum with respect to µ = 1, , n, and use relation-

ships (7) and (10), we obtain the conditions
rkw"(ak))=0, =1, ..., n. (17)

k=1
It is a remarkable fact that conditions (17) on the numbers ak and rk are not
only necessary but also sufficient for the function (14) constructed from them to
be, for suitable A, a Schottky function. To prove that conditions (17) are suf-
ficient, suppose that they are satisfied. Then, by using (7), we can transform
them to the form
0 nn y
E PP. .3 rkkµ (ak)) = 0, y ^ 1, ... , n. (18)
P=1 k=1
If we consider (18) as a system of equations of the type (9), we conclude on the
basis of what was proved above that this system has only equal solutions, and
this leads to n relations (16) with suitable A. But then, it follows from the iden-
tity (15) as applied to z C K. that the function f(u) defined in accordance with
formula (14) is real on K,, for all v = 1, - - , n, so that f (z) is a Schottky function.
Let us stop for an application of this result. Let ak, for k = 1, , n,
denote arbitrary points in a domain B. From the identity
n
w,(z)0, zEB,
v=1
we conclude that the system of n linear homogeneous equations
n
(etewY (ak)) = 0, k = 1, . . .
has, for arbitrary 0, the nonzero system of solutions A 1 = .. = An = 1.

Consequently, the rank of the matrix IIg (e`Bwv(ak))II is less than n. But
then the system of equations
n
rk (e;eW
(ak)) = 0, Y = 1, ... , n,
also has nonzero real solutions in the rk, for k = 1 , - , n. Consequently, condi-
tions (17) are satisfied for the numbers rke `9 and ak , for k = 1 , , n. There-
fore, there exists a constant A such that the corresponding function f(u) defined
in accordance with formula (14), which, in the present case, is the function
n n
t (e l1 Q e-'OP
! (z) = E rk (z, ak) - (z, ak)) + A = rke1B1-e (z, ak) + A
k=1 k=1
[this last on the basis of formula (1) of §2 of Chapter V], is a Schottky function.
The only poles that this function can have in B are included among the ak.
If the number of these poles is m, where m < n, then, by evaluating the increment
(arg [f(z) - c]) K, we easily conclude that f(z) assumes every value not lying on
suitable intervals of the real axis at exactly m points of the domain B. Conse-
quently, the Riemann surface consisting of m sheets of the w-plane with suitable
cuts lying over the real-axis is the single-valued image of the domain B under the
bijective function w = f(z).
In conclusion, let us look at functions that are regular in the region B with
modulus equal to unity everywhere on the boundary K. It follows easily
from Cauchy's theorem on the number of zeros that if such a function F(z) has
exactly N zeros in B, it maps the domain B onto the N-sheeted disk I C1 < 1.
Suppose now that the function F(z) has in B only simple zeros ak, for k =
N, and that
F(z) = , k=l,..., N.
lim
s-.alt z - ak rk
1
(19)
Then, the functions

F (z) + F (z) and I (F (z) -F (z))
are obviously Schottky functions in the domain B. If we apply formula (14) to

them, keeping (19) in mind, we obtain the following formulas:
N
F(z)+F(z) = Y, (rkQ(z, ak)-rkP(z, ak))+A, I
k=1
(20)
N
F (Z) - (z)Z) "? (rkQ (z, ak) + rkP (z, ak)) + B,
where A and B are constants. Furthermore, from (20) we obtain
N
F(z)=- Zrkp(z, ak)+C,
k=I
(21)
N
F (z) _ L rkQ (z, ak) _r 'j-
h-1
In the present case, conditions (17) take the forms
N N
2(Erkw,(ak))=O, 9(Zrkwy(ak))=0, v=1, ..., n,
k-I k-1
and are equivalent to the complex conditions

N
I rkw (ak)=0, v=1, ..., n. (22)
k=1
The question regarding the sufficiency of conditions (22) for the possibility
of construction of the corresponding function F(z) by means of formulas (21) is
not answered here.
Remark. The functions that we nave been considering include, for example,
the functions of §5 that map the domain B onto an n-sheeted disk. However it
is possible to exhibit examples of simpler functions of this kind. Specifically,
&ch of the two functions
{
Pi (z, u) Ps (z, u, o)
J 1 (z) = Qs (z, u) , A (z) = Qz (Z' 1, v) , (23)
where u, v E B, is such a function and each of them maps the domain B onto the
2n-sheeted disk CI < 1.
We confine ourselves to proving this assertion only for the first of the func-
tions (23), assuming, as above, that the domain B is bounded by closed analytic
Jordan curves K,,, v = 1, , n.
In the first place, it follows from formula (1) of §2 of Chapter V that, for z,
u C B.
je (z,_ u) = ei0 (cos 6j; (z, u) - I sin 9j' (z, u)) # 0.
T
Therefore,
Jo (z, u)
J'. (z, u) # I tan'9, (24)
0
for all real 0. This means that, for all z, u C B, the ratio on the left side of
(24) cannot assume purely imaginary values. And since this ratio approaches 1
as z --* u, we conclude that it assumes only values in the right halfplane. But
then, we have in B
Qz (z, u) = 2 (jo (z, u) +j'a, (z, u)) # 0-
2
Thus, the function Qz (z, u) has in B a unique double pole z = u and has no
zeros at all.
In the second place, if z = zv(s) is the equation of the curve K. and s is
the length of arc on K. measured in the positive direction with respect to the
domain B, then, when we differentiate (4) with respect to s , we obtain
P (Zr (S), U) zv (z) _ - Qz (z,, (S), U) z (S). (25)
It follows that on Kv,

Pi (z, u)
If, (z) Qi (z, U)
(26)
On this basis, we conclude that the functions PZ (z, u) and QZ (z, U) have
no zeros on K. To see this, suppose, for example, that QZ (a, u) = 0, where
a E K. Then, in accordance with (26), we have Pz (a, u) = 0 and hence jo (a, u) _
.0 (a, u) = 0. Therefore, in accordance with formula (1) of §2 of Chapter V, we
have 1B (a, u) = 0 for all 0. This means that, for all 0, the mapping £= 1e(z, u)
maps the point a into the endpoint of the boundary cut of the image of the domain
B. On the other hand, if in a neighborhood of z = a we set
J (z, u)=cl(z-a)+..., f,a(z, u)=dl(z-a)+...
we conclude from the geometrical interpretation of the argument of the derivative
of an analytic function that the ratio c 1/d1 is purely imaginary. Therefore, since
je (z, u) = e18 (c1 cos 9 - Id1 sin 9) (z - a) + ... ,
it follows that the derivative 1e (z, u) has at the point z = a a zero of no less
than second order for some real 0, and this contradicts the univalence of the
function je (z, u) in the domain B. This proves the assertion.
Thirdly, from (25) we have((
arg )/K-(argz'(s))K-2(argz'(S))K=4a (n-2).

Q'(z,
Since (arg Q. ,(z, u))K = - 4n, it follows from what we have proved that
(arg Pz (z, u))K = 4rr (n - 1).
This last equation shows that the function PZ (z, u), which is regular in the
region B, has exactly 2n - 2 zeros in B. But then the function f1 (z) has
exactly 2n zeros in B. This information, Cauchy's theorem on the number of
zeros, and property (25) enable us to conclude that the function 4 = f 1(z) assumes
in the domain B every value in the disk I CI < 1 at exactly 2n points and it does
not assume any other values at all; that is, it maps the domain B onto a 2n-
sheeted disk. This completes the proof of the assertion.?)
1) In a similar way, Garabedian and Schiffer [19501 have constructed functions that
map the domain B onto an n-sheeted disk.
CHAPTER VII
THE MEASURE PROPERTIES OF CLOSED SETS IN THE PLANE
§1. The transfinite diameter and tebygev's constant
In contemporary questions in the theory of functions of a complex variable, a

significant role is played by certain specific ways of measuring closed sets in
the complex plane. We begin with one of these ways, which was proposed by
Fekete. 1)
Let E denote a closed bounded infinite set of points in the z-plane. For
n points z 1, z 2, .. , z. C E, we define
n
V (z1' zy, ... , za) = rl (zk - zl), n ,:- 2- (1)
k, 141
k<l
As we know, the product V(z 1, . , z) is equal to the Vandermonde determinant
of the numbers z 1, , zn Let V. = Vn(E) denote the maximum value of
,V(z1, . , zn)I as z1, , zn range over all systems of n distinct points be-
longing to the set E. Such a maximum exists by virtue of the fact that
V(z 1 , .. , zn) is a continuous function of its arguments and the fact that the set
E is closed. Finally, let us define
2
d5= Vn("-). (2)
Let us show that do does not increase with increasing n. Let el' e2'
, n+1 denote a system of points belonging to the set E such that
C
IV(S1, S2' ,' Sn+I)I = V, +1* Then, since
V 01, ... , to+1) = (1 W (F1 - à) ... (1 - -, t'i+1) V (Eg, ... , to+1) (3)
we obtain
1) Fekete [ 19231.
293
294 VII. MEASURE PROPERTIES OF CLOSED SETS
IEt-Es1 ... IEt-En+tl Vn. (4)
Analogously,
Vn+1ÌEl-ElI'IE2-EaI ... IEl - En+tl Vn,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Vn+t<_IEn+t-Eil IEn+t-E91 ... E.4 -En V.
Multiplying (4) and (5), we obtain
Vnn f11
< n.+1
r
so that
2 2
Vn+ VR+1 for Vn+llln C Vnln-1) (6)
which was what we wished to show.

Furthermore, since do obviously does not exceed the diameter of the set E
for any n, it follows that do approaches a finite limit as n no. This limit is
called, in accordance with Fekete, the trans finite diameter of the set E and is
denoted by d = d(E), d = limn, dn. In the case of a set E consisting of a finite
number of points, it is natural to set d(E) = 0.
There is a connection between the transfinite diameter d of a set E and
another constant, known as Zèbysev's constant. For fixed n, consider all nth-
degree polynomials pn (z) = zn + cIzn-1 + + cn and consider the maximum of
the modulus of each of them on E. Let us show that there exists a polynomial
whose maximum modulus is minimum. Let mn = mn(E) denote the greatest lower
bound of these maxima. Then, there exists a sequence of polynomials pn.k(z),
k = 1, 2, , -, of the type described such that the sequence of their moduli on E
converges to mn. Let us represent these polynomials in accordance with Lagrange's
formula:
n+1
(z 1) (z - Z2) ... (Z - (Z- Z1+1) ... (z ZA+0
Pn, k (x) = 1z,
- ()z (4, ZY-J ( Y
9) ... (Z, - Y-1) Y+1) ... (zY n+l)
Pn. k (zY),
v
where z 1, , zn t1 are points in E (the same points for all the polynomials).
It follows from this representation that the polynomials pn. k (z) are uniformly
bounded in absolute value on an arbitrary bounded subset of the z-plane. Conse-
quently, in accordance with the condensation principle, the sequence of them
contains a subsequence of polynomials that converges uniformly on every bounded
§1. TRANSFINITE DIAMETER AND CEBYSEV'S CONSTANT 295
subset of the z-plane. Since the sequences of their coefficients converge when
the sequence of these polynomials themselves converges, it follows that the limit
function is a polynomial t. (Z) = zn + + cn, whose maximum modulus on E is
obviously mn. This is the polynomial with least maximum modulus on E. It is
called ?ebyrev's polynomial for E.
Together with to (z), let us also consider the polynomial tn (z) = Zn +
+ cn, which has the smallest maximum modulus on E out of all the polynomials
p(z) = zn + + cn, which have zeros only on E. In this case, we denote the
smallest maximum modulus by mn. We shall also call the polynomial 1 n (z)
? ebysev's polynomial for E.
Let us define r n = n
and let us show that the sequence of the numbers
rn, for n = 1, 2, converges. We note that this sequence is bounded since, for
z 0 E E,
T,-<VrnaxI(z-za)n
sEE
maxIz-zoD,
zEE
where D is the diameter, in the usual sense, of the set E.

Define
llrr 2n-a, urn Tn=P.
n-co n-o0
We have a < P. We shall show that the opposite inequality, namely 8 < a, also
holds. Let a denote any positive number and choose n such that rn < a + c. Then,
on E, we have I tn(z)I < (a } e)n. If k and l are positive integers and z0 is a
fixed point belonging to E, then, for all z in E
DI (a + _ E)nk
(z - zo)l [tn (z)1k
It follows that mnk+t _< Dl (a + e)nk and T
I nk
e)nk+l. (7)
Tnk+l C Dnk+t (a +
Now, if rnv - /3 as n,---+., by setting n v =nkv + l), where 0 <1 v < n, we
conclude from (7) that /3 < a + e. Since a is an arbitrary positive number it fol-
lows that 0 < a. Thus, S = a; that is, the sequence Jr. I converges. The num-
ber r to which it converges is called the '2eby3eev constant of the set E.
Let us show that r = d. Here, we may assume that the set E is infinite. As
a preliminary, let us prove the inequalities
M. < VV
n
l' < (n + 1) (8)
In the first place, we have

V(X, E ..., En)
(x-Ei)(x=E9) ... (X-En)_
V (El, ..: En)
Therefore, if the points x , 61, .. , e n belong to E and if 61, , 6. are such that
I V(61, , Sn)I = Vn, we conclude that the modulus of the right-hand member does not ex-
ceed V +1/ V . For x E E, the modulus of the left-hand member is no less than
mn. Consequently, M. < Vn+1 IV . Furthermore,
1 1 1
x1 X2 ... Xn+1
,V (X1, ... , xn+1) =

xln--1 x2
VI ... Xn+l
n-l
' tn (X3) to (X2) ... to (Xn+1)
If we expand the determinant in terms of elements of the last row, we obtain
V (X1, ..., Xn+1) I < I to (XI) I I. I V (X9, ...., Xn+1) I
+1 to (X9) I I V (X 1, x3, ... , Xn+1) I + ... + I to (X.+]) I I V (XI, ... , xn) I
Now, if x1, .. , xn+1 are points on E such that I V (x1, , xn+1)I = V +1'
we obtain
Vn+i<(n+1)m.Vn, i.e. V nl<(n-}-1)mn.

Thus, inequalities (8) are proved. They can be written in the form
Now for n let us set the successive numbers 2, 3, , n and multiply the re-
sulting inequalities. We obtain
2 2
(T2... zn)n(n+1).(Vy)n (n+l)<(tn}1

2 2
1 I n(n+l) T2 Tn n( +l)
But (V2) 2/n(n+1) -, 1 and [(n + 1)!]2/n(n+1) _. 1 as n---,, co. Cons ently, to
show that d = r it remains only to show that
2
(C1r ... C:)n(n+l)_.. (9)
4
§1. TRANSFINITE DIAMETER AND CEBYSEV'S CONSTANT 297
as n -' oo. Since rn -+ r as n -+ w, the sequence r1, r2, r2, r3, r3, r3, , in
which rn is repeated n times, also converges to r and the sequence of their

logarithms converges 1) to log r. The arithmetic mean of the first n(n + 1)/2 of
these logarithms is the logarithm of the left-hand member of (9). That it converges
to log r follows from
Lemma I. If a sequence of real numbers al, a2, converges to a finite
limit a, then the sequence of their arithmetic means (al + a2 + ' , + an)/n also
converges to a as n - m.
Proof. Let c denote a positive number. Choose m > 0 such that Ian - al <
42 for n > m. Then, for n > m,
n
L̀' (a, -a) (a, - a)
ai+a2+ ... +an
n
_a n
r-1
n
The second term in the expression on the right is less.than a/2.

But, for sufficiently large n, the first term is also less than a/2. This proves
the convergence asserted in the lemma.
The above reasoning remains valid when we are considering polynomials with
zeros only on E. This means that if we set r = m, we also obtain the result
that rn -b r = d as n - - - + oo.
Summarizing what has been said, we have
Theorem 1. For an arbitrary closed bounded set E of points in the complex
plane, the trans finite diameter d and the &bysev constants r and r coincide :
ti
d=r=r.
From this theorem follows the simple fact that, if the entire boundary of some
bounded domain belongs to the set E, then the transfinite diameter does not
change if we adjoin to E the interior points of that domain.
Resting on the identity of the transfinite diameter and Cebysev's constant,
We shall give two simple examples of the calculation of the transfinite diameter.
1. Suppose that E is the disk l zl < R. Since
2x
2n
1) KFor r 0. It is easy to show that (9) is also valid when r = 0.)

where z = Re`B, for an arbitrary polynomial pn (z) = z' + - + cn, it follows that
mn > Rn. But for pn(z) = zn, we have maxZEE Ipn(z)I = Rn. Consequently, mn =
Rn and d = r = R. Since the transfinite diameter does not vary under parallel
translation of the set E, it follows that the trans finite diameter of an arbitrary
disk is equal to its radius.
2. Suppose that E is the interval -a< x < a. For an arbitrary polynomial
pn(z) = zn + . + cn, we have
mExIPn(z)I=0:x_-It
max IPn(acosx)I
max
0_-X_-?C
Pn 2 (etx -}- a tx) l I - max I qn (x) I,
O'* x:* t
where qn(x) is the trigonometric polynomial
an
q4(x)=a0 +al cos x---...+an cos nx, aK=n=i
Since
2t n
1 I9aan
Ign(x)I9dx=2Ia0I9+I Iak 21(A-1)
k=d
it follows that
a9n
2 max q4(x)I>. 29
O- 2a (n-i)
so that
max IP4(z)Ian
Izl=l n-2I
2
This shows that m n > an/2n- and r> a/2. On the other hand, since
maxzEE Ipn(z)I = an/2n-I for the polynomial
n
Pn (z) = 2n-i cos n arc COs a)=:z-+...+c,,
it follows that d = r = a/2.

From this we conclude that the trans finite diameter of an arbitrary interval
is equal to one-fourth its length.
§ I. TRANSFINITE DIAMETER AND CEBYSEV'S CONSTANT 299
Theorem 2. 1) Let E denote a closed bounded set and let p(z) denote a
polynomial zn + + cn. Let E* denote the set of all points z such that w =
p(z)6E. Then
d(E*)=" "-d(-E). (10)
Proof. Let t. (z) and tn(z) denote the &bysev polynomials for E and E
Define in n = Itn(z)I, * = maxzEEs Itn(z)I. Then, we have the obvious
inequalities
mnr = max t,*,r (z) max I
zEP* tr (p(z)) I < max
zEE'I t, (z) mr
zEE*
nr n
and consequently, mnr < jlmr, . If v we have the inequality
d(E*) < . On the other hand, if, for arbitrary fixed w0 E E, we denote by
z 1, , zn the roots of the equation p (z) - w0 = 0 and if we denote by zi, .
, zv the roots of the equation tv(z) = 0, then it follows from the equation
n r r n
H H (z!-z%)I=k=11=1
1=1k=1
H jj(zt-z!)I 11
that
(P(Zk)-Wo)I.
tv (Z,)I=I JJ
1=1 k-1
Since
4r (w) _ fl (w - P (ZZ))
k=1
is of with degree in w, we have from (11)

my-,< max (z)
WEE zEE*
and consequently,
Vm
n V nor
1) Fekete [1930].
As v -, 00, we have l d(E) < d(E"). Therefore, equation (10) must hold. This
If we apply Theorem 2 to the case in which E is a disk, we obtain the
Corollary. The set of points z defined by the inequality Ip(z)I < R, where
p (z) = zn + + cn has transfinite diameter d = V R
§2. -Bounds for the transfinite diameter
The question arises as to the relationship between the transfinite diameter
and the usual measures that are employed in analysis. Pdlya proved two theorems
of this nature, dealing with outer Jordan'content. Let us review the definition of
this content. Let E denote a bounded set in the z-plane. Let us cover the plane
with a grid of squares of side 1/n and let us denote by sn the sum of the areas
of those closed squares that contain at least one point belonging to E. The limit
of sn as s -p 00 is called the outer Jordan content (two-dimensional) of the set
E. Analogously, if E is a bounded subset of a straight line, we partition this
line into intervals of length 1/n and we denote by In the sum of the lengths of
the closed intervals that contain at least one point in E. The limit of In as
n ---f no is called the one-dimensional outer Jordan content of the set E. Let us
turn now to the theorems mentioned above.
Theorem 1. 1) The two-dimensional outer Jordan content of a closed bounded
set E does not exceed 7rd2, where d is the transfinite diameter of E.
Proof. Let us first prove the theorem for the special case when the set E is
defined by the inequality Ip(z)I < R, where p(z) = zn + + c In this case, in
accordance with §l, d(E) = 7-R-. Therefore, if we denote by SR the sum of .,We
areas of the domains covered by the set E, we need to prove the inequality
2
SR=ICBM (1)
For this, along with C = p (z), let us consider the inverse algebraic function
z = f([;). This function has no more than n - 1 branch points (that is, points
C= p(z) such that p'(z) = 0). Let us suppose that the circle ICI = p does not
pass through any of these points. Then, the set of points z defined by the equa-
tion Ip(z)` = p consists of disjoint closed analytic Jordan curves K1, ... , K.
These must lie outside each other because inside each of them we have I p (z)I < p
by virtue of the maximum principle. There are no more than n of these curves
1)Polya [1928].
§2. BOUNDS FOR THE TRANSFINITE DIAMETER 301
(that is, m < n) because inside each of them there is at least one root of the poly-
nomial p W. This last fact follows from the fact that otherwise we could conclude,
on the basis of the maximum principle as applied to I1/p(z)I and to the interiors
of the Kk, that p(z) = const. Then, as the point z moves once around the curve
Kk, the point t; = p (z) moves around the circle ICI = p exactly mk times and the
point t; = ) moves once around the circle p 1 im k. Consequently, one
of the branches of the function z = f (Cm k) is regular on t; = pl/mk and has on
that circle,the Laurent expansion
ao
f (Cmk) = Fj a k)rv.
r=-ao
Therefore, on IC I = p, we have for one of the branches of the function f (C)

co v
Z =f (C) _ E a(k)C"'k. (2)
Equation (2), with C = pe`46, is a parametric equation of the curve Kk. Here, c
varies from 0 to 2rrmk. Therefore, the area of the interior of the curve K. is
equal to
2zmk
xdy-ydx= 2 5(zdz)= 2 dC dyl
1k kk
2smk ao v ivy ao V !rq
I / ( l avklpmke Wk l ayk)pmkemkdp\
-z l a\7 L
V=-00 L M-A
V-00
J
00 2v
- it
I vIa(rk)I9pmk.
Therefore, if we denote by SP the sum of the areas of the interiors of the curves
K 1, ) Km, we obtain
m 2r 2
_LP
02/6' k-l v-_ao v I ask) I9 pmk n
(3)
Here, the right-hand member is a nondecreasing function of p since each term in

the summation is a nondecreasing function of p. This last is obvious for v > 0.
The term with v = 0 is equal to 0. A term with v < 0 is negative and the exponent
2v/mk - 2/n in such a term is also negative. Therefore, SP/rrp2/" does not de-
crease with increasing p and is obviously a continuous function of p, including
values of p equal to the moduli of the branch points of the function f (c).
But for p sufficiently large, we have m = 1 and m 1 = n because the function
f(C) on ICI = p is then defined by the expansion
f
which is the inverse of the polynomial p (z) about This means that,
for large p,
= 1 - I as 19F- 2/n - ... ` 1. (4)

ap%n
Consequently we have SP/rrp 2 "" < 1, that is, SP < np 2"" for all p. In particular,
SR < rrR 2/n, which is what we had to prove. (We note that equality holds here
only when al = a2 = - - = 0, that is, only for the polynomial p(z) = (z - a)".)
Let us turn now to the general case of the theorem. For this, we use the co-
incidence of the transfinite diameter with &byslev's constant. Let tn (z) denote
the &bysev polynomial and let r denote &bysev's constant for E. Then, for
any e > 0, if n is sufficiently great we have I t" (z)I < (r + e)" on E. Consequently,
the set E lies entirely in the interior of finite domains bounded by the curves de-
fined by the equation I t" (Z) l = (r + e) " Therefore, the two-dimensional outer Jor-
dan content of the set E does not exceed the sum of the areas of these domains
and by virtue of what was shown above, this sum in turn does not exceed n(r + E) .
Letting c -p 0, we obtain the assertion of the theorem. This completes the proof
of the theorem.
Theorem 2. The one-dimensional outer Jordan content of the orthogonal pro-
jection of a closed bounded set E onto an arbitrary straight line does not exceed
4d, where d is the transfinite diameter of E.
Proof. Obviously, it will be sufficient to prove the theorem for the projection
onto the real axis. Again, we shall consider first the case in which E is the set
defined by the inequality 1p (z)1 < R, where p (z) = z" + + c".
Suppose that
P(z)_ k-1
[J (z-Tk), z=x+ly, Tk=ak+lbk.
If P(z) = IIk1(z - ak), we obviously have I P(x)I < Ip(x)I. Consequently, if

z E E, then IP (x)I < R. Let us denote by P the set of all real numbers x at
which I P (x)I < R. Then, the projection of the set E onto the real axis is con-
tained in P. This set P consists of a finite number of segments at the ends of
which P (x) = ± R. Let us show that each of these intervals contains at least one
root of the polynomial P (x). Consider the set of points z in the complex plane
that satisfy the inequality IP(z)I < R. This set consists of a finite number of do-
mains on the boundaries of which IP(z)I = R. Each of these domains contains no
more than one of the segments in question. To see this, suppose that one of the.
domains contains at least two segments. Then, by virtue of its symmftry about
the real axis, it must be a multiply connected domain. Since IP(z)I = R on the
exterior boundary curve of this domain, it follows on the basis of the maximum
principle that I P (z)I is less than rather equal to R on the interior boundary
curves. Furthermore, each of these domains contains one of the segments because
the interior of any one of them that did not would not contain roots of the polyno-
mial P(z) (since all the roots of P(z) are real), so that, again by virtue of the
maximum principle, we conclude that P (z) = const. Now, if there were no roots of
P(z) on one of these segments, there would also be none anywhere in the entire
domain containing- it and, consequently, we would again conclude that P (z)
coast. This proves the assertion made.
Let 1 denote the farthest right of all the segments containing P and suppose
that 1 contains m roots of the polynomial P(z) (without consideration of their
multiplicity).
We have 1 < m < n with m = n only in the case in which P consists of a
single segment. In addition to P (x), let us construct polynomials P 1 (x),
P 2(x), of degree n with real coefficients and in particular with the coefficient
of x' equal to 1 in all cases. By Pk, IV and mk, we mean the same thing for
Pk(x) as we mean by P, 1, and m for P (x). Let us show that, if m < n, there ex-
ists a polynomial P (x) such that m 1 > m and the sum of the lengths of the seg-
1
ments constituting P 1 is greater than the corresponding sum for P. To see this,
suppose that P(x) = Q(x)R(x), where Q(x) is a polynomial with zeros on 1 and
R W is a polynomial with zeros outside 1. Furthermore, let d denote the dis-
tance from I to P - 1. Let us define P 1(x) = Q(x + d)R (x). If x E P-1 then
I Q(x + d)I < I Q(x)I because each linear factor in the expression for Q(x + d) is
less in absolute value than the corresponding factor in Q(x) by an amount d.
Consequently, if x E P - 1, then I P 1(x) I < I P (x)I < R. This shows that
P_ I E P1. On the other hand, if x E 1, we have analogously I P 1(x - 41 =

IQ (x)R (x - d)I <I Q(x)R(x) I= I P(x)I < R and, consequently, the interval I' ob-
tained from I by a displacement to the left by an amount d belongs to P 1. Thus,
P 1 contains P - I and 1`. Consequently, the sum of the lengths of the segments
composing it is not less than the corresponding sum in the case of P. Since P1(x)
has all its zeros on P - Land on I`, the number of segments constituting P 1 is
less by at least unity than the number of segments constituting P. Reasoning
analogously with PI(x), we arrive after some number k < n - 1 of steps at a polyno-
mial Pk (x) such that Pk consists of a single segment and has length no less
than the sum of the lengths of the segments constituting P. But if the segment
Pk has length L, then, by §1, its transfinite diameter is equal to L/ 4. On the
n
other hand, P is contained in the set of points defined by the inequality IPk(z)I
R and the transfinite diameter of that set is, in accordance with §1, equal
n
to v R . Consequently, L/4 < T that it, L < 4 q R = 4d, which proves the
theorem as regards the special case in question.
Now, let us turn to the general case of the theorem. Suppose that to (z) is
the ebysev polynomial and r the &bysev constant for the set E. Then, for given
e > 0 and sufficiently great n, we have I tn(z) I < (r + C) n on E. But, by virtue of
what was said above, the projection of the set of points defined by this inequality
onto an arbitrary straight line does not exceed 4 (r + e). Consequently, the projec-
tion of the set E onto the same straight line has one-dimensional outer Jordan
content not exceeding 4 (r + E), that is, by virtue of the arbitrariness of c > 0, not
exceeding 4r. This completes the proof of the theorem.
If the set E is a continuum, we easily obtain from Theorem 2 the result that
the ordinary diameter of the set E does not exceed 4d. As we shall see in §3,
this result is equivalent to a bound on the diameter of the boundary of the image
of the domain ICI > R under a univalent mapping by the function z = t; + ap +
a 1/t,' + . and it follows directly from §4 of Chapter II. Thus, Theorem 2 is a
generalization of this property of simply connected domains to multiply connected
domains if by the sets E we mean the boundaries of domains. The question arises,
is it possible in the case of an arbitrary closed bounded set to conclude on the
basis of its transfinite diameter whether there exists an upper bound for its ordi-
nary diameter, as is the case for a continuum? The following example shows that
the answer to this question is negative.
Let E denote the closed bounded set of points defined by the inequality
(z-(X)(z- Q)I_l, a>1.

Obviously, the transfinite diameter of this set is equal to 1. The boundary of the
domain B complementary to E and containing oo is defined by the equation
j(z - a) (z - 1/a)l = 1, that is, by the equation
z- 2a 22 -1
and, for a2 - 1 > 2a, consists of two ovals without points in common. On the
boundary of the domain B lie the roots of the equation (z - a) (z - 1/a) = 1, that
is, the points 0 and a + 1/a. The difference between these two roots, which is
equal to a +'1/a, can be made arbitrarily great by a suitable choice of a. In
this case, the ordinary diameter of the set E can also be made arbitrarily great.
We mention some consequences of Theorems 1 and 2 for a set E with zero
transfinite diameter. In this case, the two-dimensional Jordan content for E is,
by virtue of Theorem 1, equal to zero. It remains equal to 0 in the case in which
all complementary domains not containing oo are adjoined to E because this does
not change the transfinite diameter. It follows that E has no complementary do-
mains not containing oo. Thus, if d(E) = 0, the complement to the set E is the
unique domain containing oo and every point of the plane is either an interior or
a boundary point of that domain. Theorem 2 proves more than this, namely, that
E does not contain any continuum because if it did there would be a straight line
such that the projection of the set E onto it would have a positive one-dimensional
outer Jordan content. These are necessary conditions for d(E) to be equal to 0.
They are not, however, sufficient. As Nevanlinna 1) has shown, there exist sets
that do not contain a continuum but that have a positive transfinite diameter. We
shall not stop here to construct such sets.
In' conclusion, we present another interesting theorem.
Theorem 3. 1) Let E denote a closed bounded set in the z-plane and let B
denote the domain complementary to E that contains oo. If f(z) is regular in B
and if it has the expansion f(z) = aIZ-1 + a2z-2 + in a neighborhood of
then, by setting
1) KNevanlinna [1936].
2)Polya [1929].
al as ... a,
a9 a3 ... an+t
An= (5)
an an+1 ... a1,-1

we have
ns
litn d, (6)
x-00
where d is the transfinite diameter of E.
Proof. It follows from §1 that, for arbitrary c > 0, there exists a closed
bounded set Et containing E and having in its complement the unique domain
with boundary consisting of a finite number of closed analytic Jordan curves. We
denote this boundary by K. Suppose that E* has transfinite diameter d' < d +
Furthermore, it follows from §1 that, for the same c > 0, there exists an N > 0
such that, for n > N and for arbitrary points zk, where k = 1, . , n, in the set
E, we have
n n(n-I)
(zk - zt) <r(d* + E) 2
(7)
k,t=1
k<1
If we now keep in mind the fact that
-
an = tai S
1
J
f (z') z' n-1 dz ,
K
n=1, 2, ... ,
and substitute this expression into (5), we obtain
A,,
= (2,c1)n J
... f (z,).f (z9) ... f (z,,) ziz9ze ... zn-'
R I 1 I.... 1
z1 z9 ... zn
x dzldz9 ... dzn, (8)
zj -I z ' -1 . . . zn
n-1
where zk denotes the variable of integration in the integrals in the kth column.
If in the integral in (8) we make all the possible n! permutations of the z 1, z 2'.
, z,,, which does not change the value of the integral, and if we then sum over
all these integrals, we obtain

0
1 ... 1 2
nlAn -- 1
(tai) n KSK
... f(zi) ... f(Z.) Zi ... Zn
dzi ... dzn. (9)
n-l n-i
zi ... zn
But we have inequality (7) giving a bound for the Vandermonde determinant in (9).
Consequently, if we set M = maxZEK we have 1f(z)1,
-n(d
A. I < (2a)n
-' nl
-2E) n (n-1) n (n-1)
where L is the length of K. Therefore,

lim nV An l C d + 2P.
n-oo
Since c is an arbitrary positive number, this yields (6). This completes the proof
of the theorem.
Theorem 3, like Theorems 1 and 2, gives a lower bound for the transfinite
diameter of a given set E. As an example of its application, let us look at a
bounded continuum E containing the points 0 and 1. Since the projection of this
continuum E onto the real axis is an interval of length no less than 1, Theorem
2 leads to the inequality d> 1/4. Let us show that this inequality can also be
obtained from Theorem 3. The function
f (z) log
z -1 1 I 1 1
... - n Zn - .. .
1 1
z Z T 2 ze
is regular in the domain B complementary to E that contains oc. Consequently,
Theorem 3 can be applied to E and f(z). The determinant (5) in this case is
1
1
2 ... 1
n
1 1 1
An= 2 3 "' n --- 1
I I I
I n n+1 ' 2n-1 I

To evaluate this determinant, we subtract the last column from the first, second, ,
(n - 1)st columns. Then, after we remove common factors from the individual
rows and columns, we subtract the last row in the resulting determinant from the
first, second, , (n - 1)st rows. When we again remove common factors from the
rows and columns, we finally obtain the recursion formula

A n=[ 1-2...(n-1)
n (n+ 1) ... (2n -1) ]'A '_1
From this formula we get
An 1 2 ... (n- 1) 2/n
lim = lim Ln(n+1) ... (2n-1)1 16
(10)
n-+oo a1 n-.oo
This last limit can be calculated with the aid of Stirling's formula. We conclude
from (10) that, for arbitrary positive c, there exists a positive number N such
that, for n > N,
(
`16+F
If we now give to n the values N + 1, N + 2, . , N + p and multiply the inequal-
ities obtained, we get
1 P(2N+P+1) AN+p p(2N+P+1)
r
(T6 -t) 2
< AN 16 +E) 2
or
1 P(2N+p+1)
1 4
1 1 P(2N+P +11 1 a
? IN+P) AN +Pl
1 16 -
s) 2(N+P)' ANN+P) <A N+PP)
9
16 + E)
By virtue of the arbitrariness of e > 0, when we let p approach oo, we get

n'
limVAn=4 1
Consequently, in accordance with Theorem 3, we have d > 1/4. This is .a sharp

bound for d because, if E is the segment connecting the points 0 and 1, we
have d = 1/4 in accordance with §1. As will be pointed out in §5 of Chapter XI,
inequality (6) remains a sharp inequality for an arbitrary set E consisting of a
finite number of disjoint closed analytic Jordan curves. 1) This means that, if we
replace d in (6) with an arbitrary number d' < d, this inequality will fail to hold
for some function f(z) that is regular in the domain B. In that section, we shall
present a theorem on the distribution of values of polynomials in the complex
plane expressed in terms of the transfinite diameter. Furthermore, we mention
briefly an actual application of Theorem 3 to power series. Specifically, we have
1)Goluzin [1946b].
§3. CAPACITY OF A CLOSED BOUNDED SEA' 309
the theorem of P61ya: If two coefficients in the expansion f(z) = alz-1

+
a2Z_ 2
+ are integers and if the function f(z) is regular in the complement of
a closed bounded set E such that d(E) < 1, then it is a rational function. To
see this, note that since, in the present case, all the determinants (5) are inte-
gers, it follows that (6) with d < 1 can hold only under the condition that these
determinants, beginning with some number n, are all equal to zero. This last is
a necessary and sufficient condition for f(z) to be rational (Kronecker's theorem).
We shall not stop to prove this assertion.
§3. The capacity of a closed bounded set
The importance of the constants d and r defined in the preceding section
follow from their association with the Green's function.
Let us again look at a closed bounded set E of points in the z-plane. The
complement to this set in the z-plane consists of a finite or countable set of dis-
joint domains. We denote by B that one of these domains that includes oo. Let
us show that one can exhaust this domain by means of domains B("), where n=1,
2, ; each of which is bounded by a finite number of closed Jordan curves. Here,
exhaustion is understood in the sense that B(")CBI"+>, B(") C B, and every
point z e B beginning with some n lies in B("). Let us cover the domain B with
a grid of squares of side e/2 and let us consider the set consisting of points of
the closed squares in the grid that contain at least one point belonging to E. The
complement of this set consists of domains one of which is the domain Be con-
taining oo. This domain, together with its boundary, lies in B. The distance from
its boundary points to the set E does not exceed e. By extending the domain Be,
we can arrange for its boundary to consist of disjoint closed Jordan curves. To
do this, we need only adjoin to Be sufficiently small neighborhoods of the mul-
tiple points of the boundary of B. By giving c suitable values e" such that
E" - 0 as n -- oo, we obtain a sequence of domains B(n). where n = 1, 2, , ,
that exhaust B. One can easily show that if the domains B(") exhaust B, then,
for an arbitrary given e > 0, when n is sufficiently great the distance between all
points of the boundary of the domain B(n) to the set E is less than C.
Suppose now that the domain B defined above is exhausted by domains B(")
with boundaries K("). The Green's function g"(z, oo) for the domain B(") is, as
we know, a harmonic function in Bw except at the point z = oo, it is continuous
in B("), it assumes the value 0 on K("), and it behaves in a neighborhood of
z = - in such a way that the limit
lim g, (Z, 00) - log I Z l) = T.
exists and is finite. The quantity y" is called Robin's constant for the domain
Bl"I. Consequently, in a neighborhood of z = -, we have
ga (Z, 00) log I Z + T. + U. (z),
where u" (z) is a harmonic function in Bi"' including the point z = 00, and ap-
proaches 0 as z -, 00. Since B(n) C B("+l), it follows that the function
g" +l (z, -) - g" (z, 00) is harmonic in B (n ), including the point oc, and it is non-
negative on the boundary K'"). In accordance with the maximum principle, this
last statement also holds everywhere in the domain B("); that is, for all z e B("),
gn+1 (z, co):,:- gn (z, oo), Tn+1 :-:,.Tn
It follows in accordance with Harnack's theorem that the sequence of the functions
y" + u"(z) either converges everywhere to + - in B or converges to a harmonic
function y + u(z) such that u(oo) = 0. In the latter case, the quantity y is called
Robin's constant for the domain B, the quantity C = e-7 is called the capacity
of the set E, and the function g(z, -) = log Iz I + y + u(z) is called the Green's
function of the domain B. Obviously, C and G(z, o) are independent of the
choice of exhausting domains B("). Green's function g(z, -) does not assume
negative values anywhere in B. Consequently, as we let z approach the boundary
B, all its limiting values are nonnegative. However, we cannot assert that these
limiting values are always equal to zero. For example, at isolated boundary
points of the domain B, the value of g(z, -) will indeed be positive because, in
a neighborhood of any point, the function g(z, -) is a harmonic function that is'
bounded below, so that it is also harmonic at that point itself. We note that, in
the case in which Y. + u"(z) -i 'a for z in B, it is also true that y" -+ oc be-
cause u" (oo) = 0. In this case, the capacity of the set E is taken equal to zero.
It should be noted that the concept of the Green's. function g(z, -) that we
have given here coincides, when the boundary of the domain B consists of a
finite number of closed Jordan curves, with the Green's function defined in Chap-
ter VI. Specifically, if g(z, oc) is a Green's function in the previous sense, for
the domains B(n) that exhaust the domain B let us take domains defined respec-
tively by the inequalities g(z, oc) > e", where e" -, 0 as n - oc. The Green's
functions for the domains B(n) are respectively the functions g(z, 00) - en , and
they converge in B to g(z, -).
The result that we obtained above can be formulated somewhat differently as
§3. CAPACITY OF A CLOSED BOUNDED SET 311
Theorem I. For a domain B containing oo to have a Green's function g(z,

it is necessary and sufficient that the capacity of its boundary be positive:
With regard to capacity, we shall now prove
Theorem 2. 1) The capacity of an arbitrary closed bounded set E of points in
the plane is equal to its transfinite diameter; that is C(E) = d(E).
Proof. Consider first a domain B containing oc with boundary K consisting
of a finite number of disjoint closed Jordan curves. Suppose that g(z, C) is its
Green's function and that h (z, -) is the conjugate function to g (z, 0. For arbi-
trary finite z C B, the function
it(C, z)=g(C, z)-g(C, 0o)-filogIC-z1,
as a function of ', is harmonic in B. If we apply formula (5) of §3 of Chapter VI

to it, keeping in mind the fact that u (C, z) = log z I on K, we obtain, for
t;, z C B,
U
(C, z) = 2 log 1 C' - z 1dh (C', Q.
K
If we now set _ oc and note that u(oo, z) = g(z, ) - y, where y is Robin's

constant for the domain B, we have
g (z, 00) - 7 = 2a
log I C' - z 1 dh (C', oo). (1)
Making use of this formula, let us show that r = e-7, where r is tebysev's con-
stant for K.
Let h denote a positive number sufficiently small that the inequality
g(z, 00) > X defines in B a domain Bh with boundary Kh consisting of closed
Jordan curves that approximate the corresponding curves constituting parts of K.
Since
1a dh(C',co)=1,
let us partition the boundary K by points ck, for k = 1, . , n (numbered in

order of occurrence as one moves around K, into subsets lk such that
1) Szego [1924].
2a S
A (C', oo) = n , k = 1, ..., n.
!k
Let us compare the integral (1) with the sum
n )logZ
n
k=1
For z E KA, the oscillation of log IC- zI on each of the subsets lk consisting
of only one arc will, for sufficiently large n, be less than prenamed e > 0 inde-
pently of z. On the other hand, the number of subsets lk consisting of several
arcs does not exceed the connectedness of the domain B. Therefore, the difference
$n(z)= 2a C logl C'-zldh(C', oo) - n },loglCk- zI

n
k=1
n
S(loglC'-zl-loglCk-zI)dh(C', oo)
k=1 1k
approaches zero uniformly with respect to z E KA as n - oo. Consequently, in

accordance with (1), if z E Kx and n is sufficiently great, we have
n
a-T- n loglCk-z+a.(z)
k=1
where IS.(z)I <A; that is,
n
I attains its maximum in the complement to BA

I
with respect to the z-plane somewhere on KA, it follows that (2) also holds at
all points of this complement and, in particular, on K. This means that <
e2A-7 for n sufficiently great, where mn (see §1) is the quantity corresponding
to the set K, and consequently, r < e2A_7. By virtue of the arbitrariness of
A >'O, it follows that
r < e-7. (3)
On the other hand, if ' (z) is the Cebysev polynomial for K (with zeros on K)
and Mn = max=EK Itn W1 then the function
I tm(Z)
vn (z) = 9(z, oo) - n log n
(4)
§3. CAPACITY OF A CLOSED BOUNDED SET O 313
is harmonic in B and assumes nonnegative limiting values as we let z approach K Con-

sequently, vn (z) > 0 everywhere in B. In particular vn (o) =y + (1/n) log mn > 0; that is.
>
V m n- e- '. (5)
Now as n -+ oo, we obtain r> e and this, together with (3) yields the re-
sult r = e - Y.
Proceeding now to proof of the theorem for the set E, consider the domain B
complementary to E and containing Do. Suppose that B is exhausted by domains
B(" bounded by closed Jordan curves. Let yn denote the Robin's constant for
the domain B(n). We denote by En the complement of B(n) with respect to the
z-plane. We note that the Cebysev polynomials tv,N (z) of degree v for the set
Enn are also Cebysev
y
polynomials for the boundary of the domain B(">. Let us de-
fine rn = limvyM mv.n . In accordance with what we proved above, t = e-7".
But since E C En, it follows that r < rn, where r is Cebysev's constant for E.
Consequently, r < e-yn. By letting n approach oc, we see that r < a-y. On the other
v
hand, it. follows from (5) that V > e y". This shows that
e-7n - max (z) I, v = 1, 2, .. .

zEEn
where E v(z) is the Cebysev polynomial for E. This means that, for every n,
there exists a point zn on the boundary of the domain B(n> such that an <
v,
Itv (z,,)I. All the cluster points of the sequence (zn , for n = 1, 2, -, lie on
E. Let z0 denote one of these points. Then, this last inequality implies a-y <
v v -
Itv (z0)I and consequently, a-y <V mv. By letting v approach w, we ob-
tain e < r. This, together with what we showed above, gives the result r = e
or, what amounts to the same thing, d(E) = C(E). This completes the proof of the
theorem.
An interesting result is obtained when E is a continuum. Then, the domain
B is simply connected and the Green's function g(z, oc) for B coincides with
the logarithm of the modulus of the function C = `(z) which maps the domain
B univalendy onto the domain ICI > 1 in such a way that the point z = on is
mapped into C = no. Therefore, Robin's constant for the domain B is equal to
log If'(-)I, and the capacity C(E) = 1/If'(oo)I = R. Here, R is the conformal
radius of the domain B (with respect to no), that is, that number R such that the
domain B is mapped univalently onto the domain ICI > R by means of a normalized
function J= F(z) that satisfies the conditions F(oo) = oo and F'(-) = 1.

Thus, we have
Theorem 3. 1) The capacity, and hence the trans finite diameter, of a bounded
continuum E are equal to the conformal radius of the domain complementary to E
and containing oo.
In conclusion, we present one more theorem connecting Green's function with
iebyit'ev polynomials.
Theorem 4. Suppose that a domain B with boundary K contains oo and has
Green's function g(z, oo). Let tn(z) denote the l,ebysev polynomials for K with
zeros on K. Then
n
y
m i in I tnmz) I _ eg (z mE I t n (x) I ,
00
K
this limit being uniform in the interior of B.

Proof. Consider again the functions v,, (z), for n = 1, 2, . , defined by formula
(4). Since these functions are harmonic and nonnegative in B, the condensation
principle can be applied to them. According to this principle, the sequence
{vn(z)I itself and any subsequence of it contain subsequences that converge uni-
formly in the interior of B to harmonic functions. Here, the limit functions are
always nonnegative in B and, in accordance with Theorem 1 they vanish at so.
Consequently, these functions vanish identically in B. This means that the se-
quence Ivn(z)j itself converges uniformly in the interior of B to 0. This is
equivalent to the assertion of the theorem.
§4. Harmonic measure of closed bounded sets
Together with the methods considered above for measuring closed bounded
subsets of a plane, R. Nevalinna 2) introduced another measure, which has proved
very important in the theory of functions.
Let a denote a closed bounded set of points in the z-plane and let B denote
any of the domains complementary to a. Let f3 denote a closed Jordan curve in
the domain B that has no points in common with a. Let us remove 0 and its
interior from B and denote the remaining portion of B by B18. Let B(n), for
1) Fekete [19231.
2)R. Nevanlinna [1936a]. All the material of the present section is taken from that
article.
§4. HARMONIC MEASURE OF CLOSED BOUNDED SETS 315
n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence of domains contained in B and containing (3.

Suppose that their boundaries an consist of a finite number of closed Jordan
curves and that the sequence exhausts the domain B. Finally, let B('), for n =
1, 2, , denote the domain obtained from B (n) by removing the curve S and the
domain bounded by it. We denote by to (z, an, B( )) a function that is harmonic in
B I , equal to unity on a., and equal to zero on P. Obviously, this function is
nonnegative and less than unity in B(n). Furthermore, the difference to(z, a,n B()`,
18
to (z, an+1' Bn+1) since it is nonnegative on the boundary of the domain BP(n)
18
is positive in the interior of BQ I . This means that for fixed z E B'6, the quan-
tity to(z, a BQ I) is defined, beginning with some n and decreases with in-
creasing n. We can now apply Harnack's theorem, concluding from it that
limn oo o. (z, an, BP(n)) = !o (z, a, BQ) exists everywhere in B18 and is a harmonic
function in BR. Obviously, 0 < to (z, a, BR) < 1 in B'8.
We note that to (z, a, BR) does not depend on the choice of sequence B1°I
because, if there are two sequences B(n' ) and B(n" of this kind, then, for arbi-
trary n', there exists an n" such that B(R ) C B I and conversely. Conse-
quently, in the first case we have the inequality to(z, a ,, B') < (o (z, a ,,,
and, in the second case, we have the opposite inequality.
The quantity &j (z, a, BP) is called the harmonic measure of the set a with
respect to the domain B, the curve (3, and the point z E BR.
We note that, as we let z approach points of the set a through values in BR,
the harmonic measure to (z, a, BR) does not always approach unity. For example,
it will not approach unity as z approaches isolated points of the set a because
at each of these points to(z, a, BR) is a harmonic function. However, we can
show that, if to (z, a, BR) j 0, then, as we let z approach points of the set a
through values in BQ, the limiting values of the harmonic measure oo (z, a, BQ)
are bounded below by a positive number. To see this, let go denote a closed Jor-
dan curve in B that surrounds the curve A and does not contain any point of the
set a. On P0, the function &)(z, a, BR) has a positive minimum 9 such that
0 < B.< 1. Let zQ denote an arbitrary point of the domain BR that lies outside
go and let n be sufficiently great that 00 and zo lie in B(nI. Since
(0 (Z, a, BQ I) > a) (z, a, Bin B 1, it follows that a) (z, a., BQ I) > 9 on 00
Furthermore, to(z, an, B I) = I on an. Consequently, in accordance with the
maximum principle, we obtain ao (z0, an, B18 (n)) > B for all n sufficiently great.
As we let n approach oc, we see that &o(z0) a, BQ) > B > 0. It follows that all
the limiting values of &j (z, a, BR) as z approaches a exceed 0.
The question arises as to ways of telling when the harmonic measure of a

given set a is zero or positive. The vanishing or not of a harmonic measure
co(z, a, BA) holds simultaneously for all points of a domain BR because, if it
vanishes at a single point in Bp, it must vanish everywhere in BA by virtue of
the maximum principle. However, the same phenomenon holds with regard to the
curves S chosen in B. To see this, suppose that for some curve S, we have
co (z, a, BR) = 0 and let denote another curve of the same kind. Let y and y'
denote closed Jordan curves lying in B and enclosing S and such that y'
lies inside y and there are no points of the set a between y and The curves
y and S' together form the boundary of a domain B0 contained in B. Set
0 = max Z E y, w (z, y, B o), 0 < 0 < 1. Now, let a denote any positive number. For
n sufficiently large and for z E y, we have w(z, an, BA (4) < e because the con-
vergence of the sequence (w(z, an, B ))E to zero in BR implies its uniform con-
A
vergence to 0 inside BA.
Let us denote by A and A' the maxima of the function Co (z, an , Bp;) on y
and y'. Since the difference w (z, a n, B $ ) ) - W (z, an, B 4 >) is a harmonic func-
tion in the portion Bin> of the domain B(n) that is bounded by the curves an and
y' and since it is equal to 0 on an and does not exceed A' on y', it follows that
A < A' + e. Furthermore, since the difference w (z, an, B(n) - Aw (z, y, B 0) is a.
harmonic function in Bo that vanishes on S` and is less.than 0 on y, it is less
than zero in Bo and, in particular, on y', where the maximum of the function
w(z, an, B 4' ) is equal to V. Consequently, on y' we have A' <Aw(z,y, Bp) <A9.
From this inequality and the inequality A < A' + e, we obtain A' < (1
Therefore, on y' we have w(z, an, BQ,) <(1 Since a is an arbitrary posi-
tive number, it follows that w(z, a, Be.) = 0 on y' and hence everywhere in BR..
Thus, for a given domain B complementary to a, vanishing of the harmonic measure
w (z, a, B,8) is independent of the choice of curve S in that domain.
Let us show now that if a contains a continuum, then w (z, a, BA) > 0 for
any domain B complementary to a and for any curve S C B. Just as in the proof
of Riemann's theorem in §2 of Chapter II, we can, by a suitable transformation,
arrange for the domain B to have exterior points. Let B0 denote the domain
bounded by the curve S and some other closed Jordan curve lying outside B.
Then, B( n) C B0. Consequently, just as above, we can show that, for z E BA(n)
w (z, a, B 0) > 0.
By letting n approach oo, we see that

§4. HARMONIC MEASURE OF CLOSED BOUIpED SETS 317
co(z, a, BQ)>a)(z, a0, B0)>0.

It follows from this last assertion that, if the harmonic measure of the set a
with respect to some domain complementary to a is equal to zero, then a does
not contain a continuum and the complement to a is the unique domain including oo.
We now point out the following simple properties of sets of zero harmonic
measure.
Every closed subset of a closed bounded set of harmonic measure zero is also
a set of harmonic measure zero. This follows immediately from examination of the
differences between corresponding functions of the type W (z, an, B( )). 18
The sum of two closed bounded sets of zero harmonic measure is a set of
harmonic measure zero.
To show this, denote the two sets by a1 and a2 and let S denote a curve in
the complement to a = a1 + a2. Let {B(1)} and {BZ"I} denote two sequences that
exhaust the complements to a1 and a2 respectively and that contain S. Then,
for a given point z in the domain B complementary to a and containing S, we
have
B(2n))
(0 (z, at n, Bln)) < 7t, w (z, as, ., \2'
for sufficiently large n. Here a 1,n and a 2, n are the boundaries of the domains
B(1 and B(z) . Let B(n) denote that one of the domains in the intersection of
B in and B (z) that contains S . For suitable choice of the domains B (n) and
Ben) (they can, for example, be constructed from squares as at the beginning of
§2), the boundary of the domain B(n) consists, for every n = 1, 2, , , of a finite
number of closed Jordan curves. Therefore, the domains B(n), for n = 1, 2, ,
exhaust the domain B. The function
0 - co( z a
y B(n))
w (z,r an, r 1-
1, n B`'n)
' w a9B(n')
(z, as, n 9 r
which is harmonic in B(n) is equal to zero on S and does not exceed zero on an .
18
Consequently, in Bp we have
w (z, a, Bp) < w (z, at, B1) + w (z, as, B9),
that is, w (z, a, BR) = 0.
We shall now prove the theorem of R. Nevanlinna, which is fundamental in the
theory of harmonic measure.
Theorem I. A closed bounded set has zero harmonic measure if and only if
its capacity is equal to zero.
Proof. As a preliminary, we shall make a necessary observation concerning
Green's function.
Let B denote a domain containing oo and bounded by a finite number of
closed Jordan curves. Let_g(z, 00) denote its Green's function and let h(z, 00)
denote the conjugate function. Let y denote Robin's constant. Formula (1) of §3
is then applicable and from it we obtain the inequalities
logd,(z)cg(z, oo)-7clog dg (z), (1)
where d1(z) and d2(z) are the minimum and maximum distances from the point z
to the set of boundary points of the domain B. We shall very shortly have occa-
sion to use these inequalities.
Turning to the proof of the theorem, we may assume that the closed bounded
set referred to in the statement of the theorem is contained in the disk I z I < 1
because, otherwise, we could arrange for this by means of a similarity transforma-
tion without affecting the property to be proved. Let us denote this set by a and
let us denote by B the domain complementary to a that includes *a. Let B' de-
note a domain including 00 that is bounded by a finite number of closed Jordan
curves contained in I z I < I and satisfying the condition B' C B. Let us denote
by g(z, 00) and g'(z, 00) the Green's functions for B and B'. Let us denote by
co P (z, a', B'P) the harmonic measure of the boundary a' of the domain B' with
respect to the subset BP of the domain B contained in I z I < p, where p > 1.
(1) If a has positive capacity, then the constant y = limz.,00(g(z, -)-log Iz1)
is finite. Let p denote a fixed number > 2 and let MP and mP denote the maxi-
mum and minimum values of the function g' (z, oo) on I z I = p. The difference
g, - (1 - w p)mP is a harmonic function in BP and it is nonnegative on the bound-
B'P.
ary of Consequently, this difference is also nonnegative in B that is,
g, > (1 - a) P)mP (2)
in B P . If z 1 is a point on the circle I z I at which g' (z, oo) has a minimum,
which we denote by m1, then inequality (2) yields
mt (1 - (OP (z1, a', BP)) m (3)
But m1=min jz1=1(g'-logI z1)<limz,.(g'-logI z1)=y' and, by (1),

N. HARMONIC MEASURE OF CLOSED BOUNDED, SETS 319
MP > log (p - 1) + y'. Consequently, we obtain from (3)
T > (1 - WP (z1, a', B'P)) (log (P - 1) + 7'),

so that
7 log (P -1) > 0,
wP (z, a', BP):1 - T +log(9-1) 7+1og(9-1)
since y' < y. This shows that if the capacity of the set a is positive, the har-
monic measure of a is also positive.
(2) Now suppose that the capacity of the set a is equal to zero. Since the
difference (1 - a)P)MP- g' is a harmonic function in BP and since it is non-
negative on the boundary of B P, it follows that this difference is also nonnega-
tive in B o and this yields
g' < (1 - 0P)MP. (4)
For a point z 2 on I zj = 1 at which g' attains a maximum, which we denote by
M 1, inequality (4) yields
Mi C (1 - WP (z9, a', BP)) MP.

But
MI -max(g'-log IzI):7,
Izl=1
and, in accordance with inequality (1),
MP` log (P+1)+T.

Consequently,
T c(I wP(z9i a, BP))(log (P+1)+T'),

so that
min w c w (Zs, a', B') c 1- T"
IzI=I1, P P
7'+1og(P+1)
If we fix p > 1 and let B' (a sequence of domains exhausting B) approach B,
then y' approaches oc and consequently min,,,=161 (z, a', BP) approaches
10
zero. Since the function o (z, a', BP) on I zj = I then converges uniformly to
(a (Z' a, BP) where BP is the portion of the domain B lying in the disk I zj < p,
it follows that t) (z, a, B ") - 0 because the function o U (z, a', B'P) would
otherwise have a positive bound on I z = 1. Therefore, the harmonic measure of
a is zero. This completes the proof of the theorem.

As simple applications of the theory of harmonic measure, we shall now prove
two theorems, one of which deals with removable singularities of harmonic func-
tions and the other with the maximum principle for harmonic functions.
Theorem 2. Let a denote a closed bounded set of points in the z-plane that
is contained in a domain B. If the harmonic measure of a is zero, then every
function u(z) that is harmonic and bounded in B except at points of the set a is
harmonic in the entire domain B if we define it in a suitable way on a. On the
other hand, if the harmonic measure of a is positive, this property does not
always hold.
Proof. Suppose that the harmonic measure of a is zero. Then we can assume
without loss of generality that B is a bounded domain with boundary consisting
of a single closed Jordan curve 0 and that u(z) is a harmonic function on 8 be-
cause otherwise we could consider not B but a suitable domain of the type de-
scribed contained in B and containing a. Let u0(z) denote a function that is
bounded and harmonic in the domain B and coinciding with u(z) on the boundary
of B. Let us show that u0(z) a u(z) in B. For a point z0 C B and given c> 0,
there exists'a domain Bp I, contained in B including z0 but not containing a,
the boundary f3 + an of which consists of a finite number of Jordan curves and
which has the property that w(z0, an, B (n)) <E. If (u(z)I M in B - a, then
Iu0(z) I < M in B. Consequently, for the difference v(z) = u(z) - u0(z) in B - a,
,
we have Iv(z) I < 2M. Now, let us consider the function v(z) + 2M6)(z, an, B18(n) )..
This function is harmonic in B( ), equal to zero on S, and nonnegative on a n .
Consequently, v(z) + Ma (z, an, B( )) > 0 in B( ) Therefore, v(z0) >
- 2Mc, > - 2Me. Since c is an arbitrary positive number, v(z0) > 0. Treating the
function v(z) - 2Mco (z, an, BP (n)) , we can show that v(z0) < 0. Consequently,
v(z0) = 0; that is, u0(z) = u (z) in B - a. It follows that if we define u (z) on a
equal to u0(z), then u (z) . becomes harmonic in B. On the other hand, if a has
positive harmonic measure, then, for example, the domain of definition of
w(z, a, B), which is harmonic and bounded in B - a cannot be extended to a
in such a way as to make w (z, a, B) a harmonic function in B because this func-
tion, since it is equal to zero on S, would be identically equal to zero in B - a
and then the set a would be of zero harmonic measure.
Theorem 3. Let u(z) denote a function that is harmonic and bounded above
in a domain B. If lim:. Z u(z) < m for all points Z* on the boundary except for
a set of harmonic measure zero, then u(z) < m everywhere in B.
§5. APPLICATION TO MEROMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 321
Proof. Suppose that u (z) < M in B. Let us suppose that there exists a point
z0 in B at which u(z) > in. It follows from the hypotheses of the theorem that
there exists a point zl E B such that u(z1) < u(zo). Let us describe a small disk S
around z 1 in which u (z) < m 1, where m < m 1 < u (z 0). From the hypothesis of
the theorem, the set a can be contained in the interior of a finite number of Jordan
curves lying in the complementary domain containing B. Let us denote the union of these
Jordan curves by an, so that, for the domain B( n) with boundary an U 8, we have
w(z 0 , a n , B (1)) <c. Let us now look at the function
P
v(z)=u(z)-m-(M-m)a)(z, an, BAS),
which is harmonic in the intersection of the domains B and B.T. As we let z
approach boundary points of the domain B that are distinct from points of the set
a, its limiting values do not exceed m - in - (M - m) < 0 and as we let z approach
points of an, they do not exceed M - in - (M - m) = 0. Finally, on 8 we have
v(z) < rn - m. It follows that v(z) < m1 - m in B() n B. In particular, for
z = z0, this yields
it (zo)Cm1+(M-m)w(zo, an, Bpn))cml+(M-
Since a is an arbitrary positive number, we obtain u(z0) < m1, which contradicts
the assumption that u (z 0) > m 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§5. An application to meromorphic functions of bounded form
A function f(z) is called a meromorphic function of bounded form in Izl < 1
if it can be represented in that disk as the ratio of two bounded regular functions
f (z) _ T(z)
(z)
. (1)
We may assume that I,(z)I < 1 and IVi(z)I < 1 in Iz I < 1.

A test of whether f(z) is a meromorphic function of bounded form is given by
Theorem 1. 1) Let f(z) denote a function that is meromorphic in the disk
Iz I < 1 such that f(0) no. For f(z) to be a function of bounded form, it is neces-
sary and sufficient that the quantity
T (r) = 2n \ log If (re") I dO + 1 log kkr bk

if I
e
1)R. Nevanlinna [1922].

be bounded above for 0 < r < 1. Here, the bk are the poles of the function f(z)
other than the point z = 0. These zeros are indexed in such a way that a pole of
multiplicity n is counted n times. The summation is over all poles bk in the
disk I z I < r. The symbol log a is defined by
+ (logs if a>1
log a=j
L0 if0<a<1.
Proof. If the zeros of the function f(z) are denoted by ak and the poles by
bk, then, by setting
rr r (z - ak) :
Jr (z) fl r' - akz
Iakl<r Ibkl<r
r (z - bk)
r' , bkz
O<r<I,
we conclude that the function f,(z) has the same zeros and poles in I z I < r as
does the function f(z). Furthermore, fr(z) I = 1 on the circle IzI = r because,
for arbitrary a such that I aI < r, we have I r(z - a)/(r2 - az)I = 1 on I z I = r.
Therefore, if r is such that there are no zeros or poles of f (z) on I z I = r, then
the function F(z) = f (z)/fr(z) is regular and has no zeros on I z I < r and
log F(z) is a regular function on Iz I < r. If we apply the Schwarz formula to the
function log F (z) and to the disk IzI < r, we have
a:
z =- 12n 1ctog I F re'° ) I reie+z
tog F() rest-Z d6 IC
in I z I < r, where C is a real constant. Keeping in mind the value of F(z) and
the fact that IF(z)I =If(z)I on the circle IzI = r, we obtain from the above equa-
tion the formula
to g.fz )- log r (z ak)

r' - akz
- to r (z - bk)
g r'-bkz
lakI<r Ibkl <r
2s
reteie-+
-}- 2a log If (re`) I z d9 + W. (2)
r
This formula remains valid when there are zeros and poles of the function
f (z) on the circle I z I = r. That this is true can be proved by a passage to the
limit with respect to r. In the particular case in which f(0) / 0, if we set z = 0
in (2) and equate the real parts of the two sides of the equation, we obtain the
familiar formula of Jensen
§5 APPLICATION TO MEROMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 323
logIf(0)1=
I
IakI<r
logl k
IbkI<r
log lbkl
2s
1
-} log j f (re') I A
2n (3)
Formula (2), which is a generalization of Jensen's formula, is called the

Jensen-Schwarz formula.
Keeping in mind the fact that
l
log I f (re1B) I = o g If (re") I- log i
f (e11) ,
we obtain from formula (2) the following representation of the function f(z) in the
disk I zI < r:
f(z)Ìr(z)
+r (z)'
(4)
where
2+c
I Sto 1
red±y A+IC
2s
H r (Z - aA' 0 } (reie) rep z
'Pr (z) e
r9 - 8kz
I a, < r
2+c
iB
r (z - bk) e- 2z log 11(reie) 11e dB

0 re -z
4,. (z)
Ibkl<r
rs_ bk z
Here the functions Or(z) and Or(z) are regular in the disk I z I < r, also,
Itr(z)I < 1 and I fr(z)I < 1 in that disk and 10r(O)l = e-T(r).
Suppose now that T (r) is less than some constant M for 0 < r < 1. Let
(rn), where rn < 1, for n = 1, 2, , denote a sequence that converges to 1 as
n approaches oo. Then, the sequences I/rn(z)) and {1n(z)( contain subse-
quences (i/in (z)} and ion (z)} that converge uniformly in the disk I z I < 1 to
regular functions VI (z) andk 0 (z) such that Ir (z)I < 1 and 10 (z)I < 1 in I zI < 1.
As a result, we obtain the representation (1).
Conversely, suppose that the representation (1) holds also for i/i(0) / 0 (to
which we can easily reduce the representation (1)). Then since
log l f (z) 1- log - log l 4' (z) I,

l + (z) Il clog l 4' (z)1
in the disk I zI < 1, we have
I O<r<l,
and, consequently,
2%
T (r) ` - 2n log I (re') I d0 + ) log r l

(5)
IbkI<r
where the b'k, for k = 1, 2, , constitute all the zeros of the function tA(z) in
I z I < 1. On the other hand, in accordance with Jensen's formula (3) as applied to
,i (z), we have
2a
log I (0) I = 71, log I bk I + 221 S log (re.") I d9. (6)

0
bk l <r
On the basis of (6), the right-hand member of (5) is equal to -log (0)I.
Consequently, for 0 < r < 1, we have T (r) < - log I tfi (0)I; that is, T (r) is bounded.
If we replace the requirement that T (r) be bounded for 0 < r < I with the re-
quirement that its limiting values be bounded as r - 1, Theorem 1 will remain
valid without the assumption that f (0) oc. One can show this by modifying the
proof given above.
Now, by using the material of §3, we shall prove a sufficient condition for
a meromorphic function f(z) to be bounded form.
Theorem 2. 1) Suppose that a function f(z) is meromorphic in the disk IzI < 1
and that it does not assume in that disk a set of values w that is a closed
bounded set E of positive capacity. Then, f(z) is of bounded form.
Proof. It will be sufficient to prove the theorem for a function f(z) that is
not bounded in I z I < 1. We may assume that f (0) oo because in the opposite
case, we could consider not f (z) but the function f(z + a) /1 + az) for suitable a
such that I al < 1. For arbitrary c # f (0) and 0 < r < 1, if we apply Jensen's
formula (3) to the function f(z) - c, we have
2a
logIf(0)-c logl akl- loglbkl+ 1

log I f (rei) - c I de.,
2n
I akI<r IbkI<r (7)
1) With regard to Theorems 2 and 3, see R. Nevanlinna [ 1936a].

§5. APPLICATION TO MEROMORPHIC FUNMONS 325
Here the ak and bk are the zeros and poles respectively of the function f(z) - c
in the region 0 < <r. Since the bk are also the poles of f (z), they are inde-
pendent of c. For every r in the interval 0 < r < 1, let dr denote the distance
between the set of values assumed by the function f(z) in IzI < r and the set E.
Let Kr denote the set of Jordan curves lying one outside the other that enclose
the set E and have the property that the distance between Kr and E is less than
dr. For c C Kr, the first summation of the right side of (7) does not contain a
single term because f (z) c in I z I < r. If we denote by gr (w, w) the Green's
function for a domain Br containing oc and bounded by the curves Kr and if we
denote by -hr(w, 00) and Yr respectively the harmonic conjugate function and
Robin's constant for Br, we obtain from (7)
S log f (0) - c I dh,. (c, co)

K
r
2n
c r
\ r log f (re`B) - c I dhr (c, oo) dt+ log
= 2a S L 2a
I bkl<r
bt ,
since fg dhr(c,
r
) = 2n. If we now apply formula (1) of §3, we obtain
2n
gr (f (0), 00) = 2n gr (f (re'), co) d8 + I log I bk (8)

Ibkl<r
Now let R > 1 denote a number such that, for all r in the interval 0 < r < 1, the
set Kr is contained in the disk Iw I < R. Then, for i C Kr and w such that
I w I > 2R, we have
log W-C ,::- log(1-
Consequently, from the formula (again see (1) of §3)
gr (w, °o) - Tr = 2a 5 log C - w I dhr (C, oo)

r
= log l w + 2 5 Iog f w W C dhr (C, oo),
r
as applied to w such that I w I > 2R, we obtain
gr(w, 109 1 WIÌ-Tr-log 2R.

Furthermore, since Kr lies entirely in the disk I w I < R, we have d(Kr) = e-yr <R
and consequently, yr > - log R. Therefore, the above inequality yields
A. (w, 00) > log I W log 3R. (9)
Inequality (9) also holds for all points of the domain Br lying in the disk I W I <
2R because the left-hand member is positive at these points whereas the right-
hand member is negative. -
Using inequality (9), which is valid in the entire domain Br, we obtain from
formula (8)
gr(f(0), 00):-2n 21 gIf(rete)Id9-log3R+ I log

Ibkl
IbkI<r
Or
7'(r)- zR loglf(re°B)Id6
2
+ I log bk c g,
(f(0), o0) -1-- log 3R. (10)
I bk l<r
Furthermore, since the domain Br is contained in the domain B complementary

to E that includes a, we have gr(f(0), -) < g(f(0), 00), where g(w, 00) is the
Green's function for B. Therefore, we obtain from (10)
T(r) <g(f(0), -) +log 3R.
This shows that T (r) is bounded for 0 < r < 1; that is, the function f (z) must be
of bounded form. This completes the proof of the theorem.
In conclusion, we present the following theorem of Nevanlinna with regard
to mappings of multiply connected domains onto a disk.
Theorem 3. Let w = f(z) denote a function that maps the disk Izl < 1 con-
formally onto a multiply connected domain B containing 00 (see §1 of Chapter
VI). For this function to be a meromorphic function of bounded form, it. is neces-
sary and sufficient that the capacity of the boundary of the domain B be positive.
Proof. The function w = f (z) does not assume in I z I < 1 values constituting
the boundary K of the domain B. Therefore, if this boundary has positive capac-
ity, then f(z) is, in accordance with Theorem 2, a function of bounded form.
Now, suppose, conversely, that f(z) is a function of bounded form. Let c
be a member of 8 other than 0 or oc. The function f(z) - c has an infinite
§5 APPLICATION TO MEROMORPHIC FUNCTIONS 327
number of zeros in I z j < 1. Let us denote these zeros by ak for k = 1, 2, ,
indexing them in order of increasing absolute value. These zeros are the poles of
the function 1/(f(z) - c), which is also a function of bounded form. If we apply
Theorem 1 to this last function, we conclude that the quantity
2 +
r
d9+ log
2n , log I f (z)- c
a.I<r
lakl.
and, in particular, the second term in it is bounded above. Suppose that

log (r/I akI) < A for 0 < r < 1, where A is independent of r. Since the
1I akl < r
terms in this summation are positive, it follows that, for arbitrary n and for r
sufficiently close to 1,
n
k=1
If we now take the limit first as r 1 and then as n we arrive at the in-
equality
00
k=1
loglakl'A'
which means that the series on the left converges. Therefore, keeping in mind
the fact that
log 1
x-n1 1-x
we conclude that the series akI) also converges. Now, for I zI < 1,
we have
1 -a,pz
log I z - ak 11og (1 ---- akz) - log (1 - ak/) - log I ak I I
00 v v X00 00
CI v 1
dvz
v=l V
I-loglakl= zy lalaklv 1
loglak
00
2(1-Iakl) lY-,loglakl- 2(1-Iakl) - loglakl

v al 1-IQk
Therefore it follows from what was said above that the series
00
42
S (z) = I log Z-dk
I
1
k-1
converges absolutely in the disk I z I < 1 and defines in that disk a function that
is harmonic except at the points ak, where it has a logarithmic singular term
- log I z - akl. The function s (z) is invariant under fractional-linear transforma-
tions in the group G (see §1 of Chapter VI) corresponding to the domain B be-
cause these transformations map the set of zeros ak into itself. Therefore, if we
shift to the by means of the function z = f(-"(w), then s(z) is trans-
formed into the function s I (w) = s (f -1 (w)), which is single-valued, nonnegative,
and harmonic in B except at the point w = c, where it has a singular term of the
form -log1w- cI.
Suppose now that the disk Iw - cI < e is contained in B. Define
me= min s1(w).
w-e I='
If the capacity of the boundary of the domain B were equal to zero, then Theorem
3 of §4 would be applicable to the portion B I of the domain B in which I w - cl > e
and to the function -s I W. According to that theorem, - s I (w) < - mE in B I;
that is, s 1(w) > mE in B I. But mE + oc as e - 0. Consequently, s 1(w) _ +
in B, which contradicts the finiteness, proved above, of the function s W. ibis
contradiction proves the theorem.
In connection with other results dealing with the application of the theorem
on harmonic measure to the study of analytic functions, we refer the reader to the
monographs of R. Nevanlinna [1936a] and Privalov [1950].
CHAPTER VIII
MAJORIZATION PRINCIPLES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
§1. An invariant form of the Schwarz lemma

In §2 of Chapter II, we established a simple but extremely important property
of bounded functions, known as the Schwarz lemma. A very simple and widely
used form of this lemma is as follows:
Theorem ('the Schwarz lemma). Let f W denote a function that is regular in
the disk I z I < 1. Suppose that f (0) = 0 and that if (z)I < 1 in I z I < 1. Then
z) < I z I throughout the disk I z < 1 and f' (0)j < 1. Also, in the inequality
I f (z)j -}z 1, the equality holds, for points z 0, only if f (z) = rz with I e
If we now discard the requirement that f (0) = 0, that is, if we consider an
arbitrary function f(z) that is regular in the disk z < 1 and satisfies the ine-
quality IfWj < 1 in that disk, then, if we set
C+
f I+zC+Z)
)
(C1+2C) =c1C+
z
...,
I -f(z)f
C1T I-If(Z)I, I-IZ18f(z),
for fixed z in the disk z < 1, we see that the function g(C) satisfies the condi-
I
tions of the Schwarz lemma. Therefore, the inequalities mentioned in the conclu-
sion of that lemma hold. From this we obtain a further generalization of the
Schwarz lemma.
Theorem 2. If a function f (z) is regular in the disk I z I < 1 and if l1 (z) I < 1
in that disk, then, for arbitrary C and z in the disk I z I < 1,
f (C) -f (Z) Ic C- Z f
(1)
1 -f (Z)1(C) 1 - zC
329
330 VIII. MAJORIZATION PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
and, for arbitrary z in the disk I z I < 1,
If,(x)1=11If(Z)I (2)
with equality only for f(z) = E (z + a)/(1 + a z), where I E (= 1 and a I < 1.
We note that, if we set z = 0 in 1, we obtain the result that, in ICI < 1,
f(C)-f(0) (3)
I -f (0)f (C)
After some simple manipulations, as in §4 of Chapter IV, we can reduce this
inequality to the form
f(C)-f(o)1-Ifo)CIIaICI' 'IÌI-If(o)II'ItI'' (4)
From this in turn we get the inequality
If(t)I I+C, IfOIICI

I + if
1
) I
(5)
Here, for C 0, equality holds only when f() = E (C+ a)/(1 + a t;')., where I E I = 1,
Ial <1, and arg C=arga if
a geometrical interpretation. To do this, we define a
special metric in the disk I z I < 1. Let z I and z2 denote two points of the disk
I z I < 1 and let z3 and z4 denote the points of intersection of the circle I z 1
with the circle orthogonal to it passing through the points z1 and z2. Let us
assume that we have numbered the points in such a way that the point z3 is
closer to z I than to z2. Let us form the anharmonic ratio of these four points:
zl - za . za - za
(z3, z1, z2, z4) = z1-Z4 Z2-24' (6)
As one can easily verify, this ratio is invariant under an arbitrary fractional-linear
mapping of the z-plane; that is, if such a mapping maps the points z 1, z 2, z 3
and Z4 into points C1, S2, C3 Land '4 i have
(C3. C1, CA)

CA) = (z3, zi, z9, z4). (7)
Furthermore, the anharmonic ratio (6) is positive and less than unity for arbi-
trary zI and z2 in the disk I z I < 1. To see this, note that the function C =
(z - z I)/(1 - a Iz) maps the disk I z I < 1 into itself in such a way that the points
z I and z2 are mapped into the points SI = 0 and S'2 = (z - zI)/(1 - a Iz2) = re`s,
where 0 < r < 1, and it maps the circle orthogonal to the circle Iz = 1 and passing
1. INVARIANT FORM OF THE SCHWARZ LEMMA 331
through z1 and z2 into a straight line passing through C= 0. It follows that the
points z3 and z4 are mapped into the points t3 = -e`6 and tq = eò. Then, by
using (7), we obtain
eiP reiv+eiPll +,-rr'
(z8, zi, z9, zt) = e-VIP '
1-
(z8, z1, za, z4) = - (8)
1+
Formula (8) gives a convenient expression for the anharmonic ratio in question.
In particular, the assertion made above follows from it.
We now define the hyperbolic distance between two points z 1 and z2 of the
disk I z I < 1 as the quantity
1 i Zl - Zy
I 1 -Z1Zy
D (z1, z2) = - 2
log (za, z1, z2, zi) = 2 log zl -z' (9)
O"uusly, D(z1, z2)=D(z2, z1) and D(z1, z2)>0. Also, D(z1, z2)=0 only
if z 1 =`sZ Furthermore, for arbitrary points z 1, z 2, and z 3 in the disk I z I < 1,
D (z1, z9) + D (z2, za) > D (zt, z3) (9)

(the triangle inequality),. with equality holding only when the points z 1, z2i and
Z3 lie on a single circle orthogonal to the circle I z I = 1. This property follows
from (9) if we note that, by virtue of the invariance of the hyperbolic distance
under fractional-linear transformations, we can always have z2 = 0 and that, by
virtue of inequality (5) as applied to the function (C- z)/(1 - TIC) at
the point J= z3, we have
Za Zl za+ zll
zlza +IzliIzal
with equality holding only if arg z 1 = arg z 2.
We shall not stop to construct a plane geometry based on this metric, a geo-
metry that gives a Euclidean interpretation to the non-Euclidean geometry of
Lobacevski% but point out that the hyperbolic distance is invariant under frac-
tional-linear mappings of the disk I z I < 1 into itself and that the role of straight
lines in this geometry is played by circles orthogonal to I z I = 1. Furthermore,
for any fixed z 1, the distance D of z 1 and z2 approaches + oo as the point Z2
approaches the circle I z I = 1. This follows from (9). The set of points z in the
disk I z I < 1 whose distance from a given point z0 in that disk does not exceed
a given quantity p, where p > 1, that is, points for which D (z, z0) < p, will be
referred to as the hyperbolic disk with hyperbolic center z0 and hyperbolic radius
p. It follows from (9) that this hyperbolic disk is defined by the inequality
Z-Z0 C 1 -e'P
4
1 - zoz + eiP = tan g

and, consequently is a Euclidean disk but with center distinct from z0. It also
follows from (9) that
A
D (z, z -}- Az) -{- e),
i z I,
where c --, 0 as Az --a 0. This shows that the linear differential element doe in
the hyperbolic metric is given by the formula
das= 1 I diz la , (10)
where is the Euclidean differential element.
I dz I
The hyperbolic length L of the curve z = z (t) for a < t < b in the disk
z I < 1 is defined as the least upper bound of the sums Ik_a D(zk, zk+1) for all
possible systems of points zk = z (tk), where a = t0 < t 1 < . . . < t, = b. In the
case of a piecewise-smooth curve, one can easily show that this length is finite
and given by the formula
6
L= 3 1-IIz'(t)I
z(t)12 dt.
a
In view of these definitions, we can reword Theorem 2 in the following form:
Theorem 3(the invariant form of the Schwarz lemma). 1) if a function f(z) is
regular in the disk I z I < 1 and if If(z)I _< 1 in that disk, then, for arbitrary points
z 1 and z 2 in it,
D (f (x1), .f (zs)) <- D (z1, zs)
Furthermore, in that disk,
do f dal (12)
(the differential form of the Schwarz lemma). Equality holds in (11) and (12) only
if f(z) is a fractional-linear function mapping the disk I z I < 1 into itself.
1) Pick [19161.
§1. INVARIANT FORM OF THE SCHWARZ LEMMA 333
Inequality (11) shows that, when the disk I z I < 1 is mapped by a function
w = f(z) that is regular in the disk and satisfies there the inequality If (z)I < 1,
the hyperbolic distance between the images of two points zI and z2 in the disk
does not exceed the hyperbolic distance between the points zI and z2 themselves
and is equal to that distance only in the case of a mapping of the disk I Z I < 1
into itself. From inequality (12) it follows that such a mapping maps an arbitrary
piecewise-smooth curve l into a curve of no greater hyperbolic length.
We now present some extensions of the Schwarz lemma.
Theorem 4. Let f(z) denote a function that is regular and satisfies the ine-
quality if W I < 1 in the disk I z I < 1. Suppose that this function has the repre-
sentation
f (Z) Ckzk, where n > I.
k=n
Then, if (z)I < I Z In in I z I < 1 with equality holding only when f (z) = ez°, where
I(I=I.
The proof of this theorem is the same as the proof of the Schwarz lemma if
we consider the function 0(z) = f(z)/z n, q(0) = en.
Theorem 5.1) Suppose that, in the disk I z I < 1, a function f (z) is regular
and satisfies there the inequality if (z) < 1 and has the representation f (z) _
CO + Fkan CkZk, where n > 1. Then, in the disk I z I < 1, we have
11Z I',
If- (z)IC l ZIsn (1-If(z)I9) (13)
or
do, C daan, (14)
with equality holding only when
Proof. By virtue of the invariance of. do= under a fractional-linear trans-

formation of the disk I z I < 1 into itself, we have
If (Z) I
1-If(Z)1'
= I fi (Z) I (15)
I,
where
1) Goluzin [19451.
00
fl (Z) - 1f(zc, Y TkZk

)of ( k-n
Since the function 0 (z) = [1(z)/z" does not exceed unity in absolute value in the
disk I z I < 1, inequality (2) can be applied to it. This yields
f, (z) I r'n - I ft (Z) 1'

& (Z)
r zn - n zn+i ` r2n (I - r°) (16)
Therefore,
9n- 9
If1(Z)I,n r rn(1-ra) ' P=jf1(z) ,
and, consequently,
P
r'5-P3
I fl (z) " r + rn (1- ra)
1-IA(Z)1'
I
(17)
1-P'
Here p= I(I (z)I <r n . Let us show that the function on the right, treated as a
function of p, increases in the interval 0 < p < r". Its derivative with respect to
p has the same sign as the expression
n
rp -ran rt
-2r4(1-r2)P-}-r.
9
(18)
Since the product of the roots of the polynomial (18) (in p) is equal to 1, this
polynomial has no more than one root in the interval 0 < p < r". But (18) is posi-
tive at p = 0. Let us show that it is positive also at p = r'. We have
n r9n-2 -ran n
r 1-ra + r
= rn-1 [n (rn + Vin) -2(r'-'+ T
I
) - 2 (r_3 + r 1 - ...J.l
Since x + x'I decreases in the interval 0 < x < 1, we have in the interval 0 <
r<1
rn+rn frk-}- r k=0, 1, ..., n- i.
Consequently (18) is positive. This shows that the right-hand member of (17) is
an increasing function of p in the interval 0 < p < r". If we replace p in (17)
with the quantity r", which is at least as great, we obtain (13). Furthermore, it
follows from what was said above that equality holds in (13).only when ((z) =
cz ", where I c I = 1, that is, only when [(Z) = f (z" + a)/(1 + i z "), with I c I = 1
and Ia I < 1. By direct verification, we can show that equality does indeed hold
in (13) for this last function. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§ 1. INVARIANT FORM OF THE SCHWARZ LEMMA 335
Theorem 5 can be strengthened further if we take into account the values of

the initial coefficients of the function f (z). Thus, in the proof that we have given,
p=I.fa(z)I<r 1+rlnI `,.n

where Iy"I = Ic"I/(1 - IcoI2). Consequently, we can replace p in (17) with the
iquantity r" (r + Iy, I)/(1 + which is at least as great. If we do this, we
obtain
Theorem 6.1) Under the conditions of Theorem 5, we have in the disk
IzI <1
days 1 -I (()I' Idzl dop(,), (19)
where r= IzI and 0(r)=r n (r +Iy"I)/(1 + rjyi), where in turn y" = c,,41 - Ico12).
Equality holds only when
co+zn
z+Tn
1 + Tnz
.f (z) = = co + cnz" +....
1 + cozn z + Tn
1 + Tnz
We Tote in conclusion that, by virtue of what was said above, we immediately

get a bo nd for the derivative of a bounded function f(z). Specifically, from Theo-
rems 2 an.,5, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 7. If f(z) is regular in the disk z I < 1 and if I f(z)I < 1 there then
Iz Iwith equality holding at a point z = z0,I z0I < 1, only if f(z) _

e(z
IzI -- zo)/(1 - To z). If, in addition f(z) = co + Ik="ekzk, where n > 1, then, in
< 1,
(21)
with equality holding at a point z = zo, I zo I < 1, only if f(z) = e(z" - z"p)/(1- z 0"z"),
where lel = 1.
1) Goluzin [ 1945].
§2. The hyperbolic metric principle

Let us turn now to the generalization of the invariant form of the Schwarz
lemma to the case of multiply connected domains.
Let B denote a multiply connected domain with more than two boundary
points in the z-plane. This domain can be mapped conformally (as indicated in
§ 1 of Chapter VI) onto the disk I CI < 1. Here, the mapping function is not unique
and it is not single-valued in B. However, we note that every branch of a single
mapping function is connected with any branch of the same function or any other
mapping function by means of a fractional-linear transformation. This circumstance
will be extremely important in the present case.
The hyperbolic metric in the domain B is now defined as the hyperbolic
metric of the disk I C1 < 1 carried over into B by this mapping. In other words,
its differential element is given by the formula
do, -
-dat - 1-ICI'.-
IdCI - I
1
C'(z)IIdzI
-IC(z)I9 (1)
Since the last fraction is invariant under fractional-linear transformations of the
function C(z ),. the hyperbolic metric does not depend either on the choice of
mapping function or on the choice of branch of it, and it is completely defined by
the domain B and the position of the points in B.
For any piecewise-smooth curve 1: z = z (t), where a < t < b, contained in
B, we define the length L of 1 by the formula
-s
L-C do -
s
C'(z)IIdzl
1-IC(z)I9 - S
a
b
IC'(z(t))IIz'(t)Idt
1-IC (z(t))I' (2)
Under these conditions, we now have the

Hyperbolic metric principle. Let B denote a domain in the z-plane and let
G denote a domain in the w-plane. Suppose that each of these two domains has
at least three boundary points. Let w = f(z) denote an analytic function defined
by any of its elements and continued into B along an arbitrary path. Suppose that
this function has the property that all the values that it assumes in B lie in the
domain G. Then, an arbitrary piecewise-smooth curve l in the domain B is
mapped by w = f(z) into a curve X the hyperbolic length of which relative to the
domain G does not exceed the hyperbolic length of the curve l relative to the
domain B. These two lengths will be equal only when f (z) = w(C(z)). Here, the
function C= C(z) maps the domain B conformally onto the disk ICI < 1 and the
§2. THE HYPERBOLIC METRIC PRINCIPLL' 337
function w = w(0 maps the disk ICI < 1 conformally onto the domain G (both
mappings in the sense of § 1 of Chapter VI). Furthermore, if do,. is the differen-
tial element at the point z E B and dow is the corresponding differential element
at the image w E G, then daw < da= with the same condition for equality.
Proof. Suppose that functions C = jz) and t = t (w) map the domains B and
'G respectively onto the disks I CI < 1 and I t I < 1 in the sense of § 1 of Chapter
VI. Let us denote by z = z (C) the function inverse to C = C(z) and let us define
'xhe composite function t = t (f(z (c))) = X(C). Obviously, this function is regular
tin
I C I < 1; also, I X (C) < 1 in I C I < 1. From Theorem 3 of § 1, .we have
IX'(C)IIdCI
1-ILL()Is < I -IdtI
IC Is
or
1 -(Z()))Iz'(C)I
ItV(z(C))I1f t2 _141< 1
JAI
-It is
If we now shift from the disk I I < 1 to the domain B, we obtain in B the ine-
quality
It'(f(z))IIf(z)IIdzI IC'(z)IIdzI
< l - IC(Z)Is (3)
l-It(f(z))Is
that is, tj daw < das , where w = f (z). Furthermore, if we integrate (3) with respect
to 1, we' see that the length of the curve A does not exceed the length of the
curve 1. Equality holds in (3) only when X(C) maps the disk ICI < 1 univalently
into itself, so that the function f(z) = t-I(X(C(z))) has the form indicated in the
wording of the principle. This proves the hyperbolic metric principle.
Corollary. Let G denote a domain in the z-plane and let B denote a proper
sub domain of G. Then, throughout the entire domain B, we have dGai < dBai;
that is, broadening of the domain decreases the hyperbolic distance between two
points.
This result is obtained from the hyperbolic metric principle by applying the
latter to the function f (z) = z. We can use it to obtain a bound for dBaz by
replacing the domain B with simpler domains that we know how to map onto a disk.
As an example of the application of the hyperbolic metric principle, let us
now prove a theorem.
Theorem.') Suppose that a function w = f(z) = co + clz + is regular in
1) For the case q = 2, see Landau [19041 and Schottky [19041.

I z I < R and that it fails to assume in that disk q given finite values a1, , aq,
where q > 2. Then, if c 1 0, the number R is bounded by a finite quantity that
depends only on aI, - , aq, co, and cI (Landau's theorem). Furthermore, the
-
quantity I f WI is bounded in the disk I z I < OR, where 0 < 0 < 1, by a finite
quantity depending only on a1, , aq, CO (Schottky's theorem).
We shall prove this theorem and at the same time find an exact bound for R.
Proof. The hyperbolic metric in the disk I z I < R is given by the differential
element do, = R I dz I/(R2 - I Z 12). In particular, at the point z = 0, we have
duz = I dz I /R. On the other hand, let us denote by t = 0 (w, a 1 , , aq) a function
that maps the domain G constituting the entire w-plane exclusive of the points
a1, , aq onto the disk t I <1 in such a way that the point w = c o is
I
mapped into t = 0. Then, for w = co , we have
doas, = I p' (co, at, ..., aq) I I dam, I.
From the hyperbolic metric principle, do,,, < due, which, for z = 0, yields
I
cp' (co, a1, ..., aq) I If (0) I C R< I Ci I I V (Co, at, ... , aq) I
Here, equality holds only in the case in which f (z) = 0 -1(z/R, a I , , aq).
Furthermore, for any z0 in the disk I z I < 0 R, where 0 < 0 < 1. the hyperbolic
distance between the points f (0) and f (z0) does not exceed the hyperbolic dis-
tance between the points 0 and z0 in the disk Iz I < R; that is, it does not
exceed the quantity
OR
Rdr
L= R,-r, = 2 log 1-}-0
1-e
5
0
If E is the set of all points of the domain G such that the hyperbolic distance
between them and the point co does not exceed L, then this set is closed and
bounded and is completely determined by the values of c0 , a 1, , aq. Conse-
quently, if M denotes the maximum of the ordinary distance from the set E to the
point w = 0, then I f (z0) < M = M (co , aI , - - , aq). Here, equality holds for the
-
same function as before. This completes the proof of the theorem.

Also, the first part of the theorem can be obtained directly from the Schwarz
lemma if we apply that lemma to the function 0 (f (z), a 1, , aq).
§3. LINDELOF'S PRINCIPLE 339
§3. Lindelof's principle
With the aid of Green's function, we can give another generalization of the
Schwarz lemma.
Lindelof's principle.') Suppose that B and G are two finitely-connected
domains bounded by Jordan curves lying respectively in the z- and w-planes.
Suppose that w = f(z) is a function that is regular in the domain B and that the
values that it assumes in that domain lie in the domain G. Then, for any two points
z and zo in B, we have
g0(f(z), f(zo)):gB(z, zo), (1)
where gB (z, zo) and 9G (w, wo) are Green's functions for the domains B and G.
If equality holds in (1) for one pair z, zo E B, it holds for all such pairs.
Proof. We may assume that zo - because, in the opposite case, we can
arrange for this by means of a fractional-linear transformation of the z-plane.
Consider the two functions
g0 (f (z), f (zo)) + log If (z) - f (zo) I and gB (z, zo) + log I z - zo
Both these functions are harmonic in the domain B punctured by the point z = zo.
Theref re, their difference, that is, the function
f (z) --f (zo)
g0 (,f (z), f (zo)) - gB (z, zo) + log I z-zo
is also harmonic in B. This means that the difference gG (((z), f(zo)) - gB (z, z0)
is a harmonic function in the domain B after the zeros of the function ((z) - f(zo)
are deleted. (This difference may approach m as z approaches any of these
zeros.) On the other hand, as z approaches the boundary of the domain B, all
the limiting values of this difference are nonnegative. Therefore, in accordance
with a property of harmonic functions, we have everywhere in B
g0 (f (z), f (zo)) gB (z, zo) 0,
with equality holding only when
90(f(z), f(zo))-gB(z, zo)=0.

This proves Lindelof's principle.
We recall that a Green's function g(z, z0) of a simply connected domain is

equal to the negative of the logarithm of the modulus of a function that
1) Lindelof [1908].
maps this domain univalently onto the disk I CI < 1 in such a way that z = z0 is
mapped into C= 0. Therefore, in the case of simply connected domains B and G,
we can give Lindelof's principle a different formulation. Specifically, if B, and
G, are the images of the disk I C I < r under mappings of the disk I C I < 1 onto the
domains B and G respectively such that C= 0 is mapped respectively into z0
and w0 = f(z0), then Lindelof's principle asserts that the values assumed in the
domain B, by the function w = f(z) all lie in the domain Cr. Furthermore, if one
of these values lies on the boundary of GT, then the function w = f (z) maps B
univalently onto G.
Let us give some examples of the application of Lindelof's principle.
1. In the case in which B and G are the disks I z I < 1 and I w I < 1, ine-
quality (1) coincides with inequality (1) of §1.
2. Suppose that B is the disk I z I < 1 and that G is the halfplane l(w)> G.
Suppose also that z0 = 0 and w0 > 0. In this case, a function mapping the disk
CI < 1 univalently onto the domain B so that the origin is preserved is z = C,
and a function mapping the disk ICI < 1 univalently onto the domain G so that
C= 0 is mapped into w0 = f(0) has the form w = w0 (1 + C)/(1 - C). Consequently,
all the values assumed in the disk I z I < r, where r < 1, by a function f (z) that
is regular in B, has positive real part in I z I < 1, and is equal to a positive
number w0 at the origin lie in the disk I (w - w0)/(w + w0)I < r. This disk is
symmetric about the real axis and its boundary circle intersects the real axis at
the points w0 (1 + r)/(1 - r) and w0 (1 - r)/(1 + r). This means that the radius of
the disk I(w - w0)/(w + wo)l < r is equal to 2wor/(l - r2). In particular, in the
disk I z I < r, r < 1, we obtain the inequalities
f(0)11 -r +rC8j (f(z))<f(0) 1+r'
I (f (z)) I <f (0) l 2r r"
f(0)1+ cIf(z)ICf(0)I+r.
3. Suppose that B is the disk I z I < 1 and that G is the strip - 1 < l (w) < 1.
Suppose that z0 = 0 and w0 = 0. A function that maps the disk Cl < 1 into G
univalently in such a way that C = 0 is mapped into w = 0 is of the form
+C
w= 2 log 1
Therefore, for functions f(z) regular in I z I < 1 and having the property that
§4. HARMONIC MEASURE. SIMPLEST APPLICATIONS 341
-1 < R (f (z)) < 1 in I z I < 1 and f (0) = 0, we have the following inequalities in
IzI <r:
I fft (f (z)) I C 79
arc tan r,
(f(z))I C log 1 -r,

If (z)I<2log i+r
We can also apply the idea of the proof of Lindelbf's principle to generalize
it in a particular case. Suppose that the function f(z) is regular in a finitely-
connected domain B bounded by Jordan curves except for poles p 1, , p., each
of which is numbered as many times as its multiplicity. Suppose also that the.
function f (z) has zeros n 1, , nI-L in B (these may or may not be all the zeros
of f(z) in B). Finally, suppose that all the limiting values of the quantity I f(z)I
as z approaches the boundary of the domain B are bounded by a number M. Then,
the function
µ
log I M+ gB (z, nk) - gB (z, Pk)
k=1 k-I
is harmonic in the domain B except possibly at the zeros of the function f(z).
As z approaches any of these zeros, this function may approach -m. Furthermore,
this function has nonpositive limiting values as z approaches the boundary of the
domain B. Consequently, in accordance with the maximum principle,
µ
g(z,%)+k18(Z,PA,)
If(z)I <Me k-1 (2)

everywhere in B. In the particular case in which B is the disk IzI < 1, this
inequality takes the form
µ V
If(z)I < 111

z - nk
k_I 1-nkz
:1
H z - pk
k_I 1-PkZ (3)
§4. Harmonic measure. The simplest applications

Let B denote a domain in the z-plane bounded by Jordan curves.1) Again
1) The definitions given below and the results remain valid for domains with non-
Jordan boundaries, specifically, for domains obtained from domains of the type indicated
by means of univalent mappings that are continuous up to the boundaries of these domains.
let us assume for simplicity that B is finitely connected. Consider a finite num-
ber of arcs (closed or open) of the boundary K of the domain B. Let us denote
by a the set of all points belonging to these arcs and let us consider a function
that is harmonic and bounded in B, that assumes the value 1 on a, and that
assumes the value 0 at all other points of the boundary K. Here, we exclude the
endpoints of the arcs constituting a since the function is not continuous at such
points. By §3 of Chapter VI, this function exists and is unique. Let us denote it
by rv (z, a, B) and let us call it the harmonic measure of the part a of the bound-
ary K of the domain B about the point z. Obviously, 0 < c (z, a, B) < 1 every-
where in B. If we partition the boundary K into parts a 1, ... , an of the type
indicated, we have
E w (z, (1)
k=1
everywhere in B because the function on the left is a harmonic bounded function
in B that assumes the value 1 on the boundary K except at a finite number of
points. Under a univalent mapping of the domain B onto a domain B 1, the har-
monic measure of an arbitrary part of the boundary K is mapped into the harmonic
measure of its image in B1.
An important property of harmonic measure is included in the following exten-
sion principle:
The extension principle.l) If the boundary K of the domain B is partitioned
into two parts a and S of the type indicated above, then, when the domain B is
extended by changing only the part fi, the harmonic measure w (z, a, B )increases
and when B is extended by notifying only a, the measure ta(z, a, B) decreases.
Here when we speak of extending the domain B by modifying f3, for example,
we mean replacing the domain B with a domain B' containing B and with bound-
ary containing the entire set a .
Proof. Suppose that B' was obtained from B by extending the latter set in
such a way that only 0 is modified. Then, the function
u (z) = U) (z, a, B') - w (z, a, B),
which is harmonic and bounded in B, is equal to 0 on a and is nonnegative on
0. Consequently, this function is nonnegative everywhere in B, which proves
1)Carleman [1921]
§4. HARMONIC MEASURE. SIMPLEST APPLICA'IRONS 343
the first part of the assertion. The second part of the assertion now follows from
the formula o (z, a, B) = 1 - ca (z, S, B).
The significance of the extension principle consists in the fact that it enables
us to strengthen various inequalities by replacing complicated parts of the bound-
ary K with simple ones for which the harmonic measure is easily calculated.
Another important property of harmonic measure is given by the following
theorem.
Theorem 1.1) Suppose that a function f (z) is regular and bounded in a domain
B with boundary K and suppose that K is partitioned into two parts a1 and a2.
Suppose that all the limiting values of f (z)I as z approaches interior points of
arcs constituting the ak (for k = 1, 2) through values in B do not exceed Mk.
Then, in A
log I f (z) I < w (z, at, B) log M1 + w (z, %, B) log M9. (2)
Furthermore, if equality holds in (2) at a point z E B, it holds for all points in B.
Proof. The function
u(z)=1oglf(z)I-w(z, %, B)1ogM1-w(z, as, B)logM2 (3)
is a harm nic function at all points of the domain B except at the zeros of f (z).
As z ap roaches all points of the boundary K except the endpoints of the arcs
constituting the ak from inside B, all the limiting values of the function u (z)
are nonpositive. On the other hand, u(z) approaches -oe as z approaches the
zeros of f (z). Consequently u (z) < 0 everywhere in B; that is, inequality (2)
holds and the remark made in the theorem about equality is obvious. This completes
From the theorem just proved, we get
Theorem 2. Suppose that a function f(z) is regular and bounded in a domain
B and the boundary K of B is partitioned into two parts a1 and a2. Suppose
that the limiting values of I f(z)I do not exceed Mk as z approaches interior
points of the arcs constituting the ak (for k = 1, 2) from inside B. Then, for
every closed set E C B, there exist positive constants Al and A2 independent
of the function f(z) such that )LI + A2 = 1 and
I f (z) I Mi1M9' (4)
on E.
1) F. and R. Nevanlinna [1922].
Proof. Suppose that M 1 and M2 are numbered in such a way that M I < M2.
For the function ((z) in the domain B, we have inequality (2) which, by virtue of
(1), we can write in the form
If(x)I<(MM,)m(Z.at,B)
, M. (5)
If we set Al = min 2EE(O(z, a1, B) and )L2 = 1 - A1, then AI and A2 are obvi-
ously positive and we obtain from (5)
(
If(Z)I_I") 1\x
on E, which completes the proof of the theorem.

Inequality (2) will find more than one application in what follows.
Let us give an example. Suppose that the domain B is the annulus rI <
z I < r2. Suppose that a1 is the circle I z rl and a2 is the circle I z = r2.
Then, as is easily seen,
_ log r/r,
w (z, at, B) - log rjr, ' w (z, al, B) - log r,/r, '
_ log r/r, r _-IzI' (6)
By setting M (r) = maxi z is r I f (z) r I < r < r2, we obtain from (2)
log r/r, log r/rl
M (r) C MIlogrl/rr . M2logr2/ri (7)
This inequality is known as Hadamard's "three-circle theorem". It can also

be obtained directly. Specifically, consider the function z °ff(z), where a is an
arbitrary real constant. The maximum value of Iz°f(z)I in the annulus rl <IzI <r2
is attained on the boundary. But the limiting values of I z of (z)I as z approaches
the circles IzI = rl and IzI = r2 does not exceed .r7M1 and T2M2 respectively.
If we choose a so that riM1 = r2M2i then If W1 <(rl/r)"M1 on the circle
I z I = r, where r I < r < r 2 . When we eliminate a, this leads to (7). Obviously,
equality will hold only when f(z) = ez- a. It follows that, if rl and r2 are such
that a is not an integer, then inequality (7) is not sharp. With regard to a sharp
bound for M (r), see §4 of Chapter XI. With an eye to subsequent applications
of the preceding theorems, we give two examples of the calculation of harmonic
measure:
1. Suppose that B is the halfplane Z (z) > 0 and that a is a segment of the
real axis. Then, as one can easily verify, we have (in the case of a halfplane,
the harmonic measure on the boundary is defined as above)
§4. HARMONIC MEASURE. SIMPLEST APPLICAWONS 345
w(z,a,B)=1,
it
(8)
where (k is the angle subtended by the segment a at the point z.

2. Suppose that B is the half-disk I z I < 1, a (z) > 0 and that a is the
boundary semicircle. Then, one can again verify easily that
w (z, B) (9)
where <A is the angle subtended by the diameter from the point z.
Let us now look at some applications of the theory of harmonic measure to
the study of bounded functions.
Theorem 3. Suppose that a function f (z) is regular and bounded in the half-
plane (z) > 0, and continuous except on the positive half without the point z = 0
of the real axis. Suppose that f (z) , a as z approaches the origin along this
half axis. Then, f (z) --> a uniformly for arbitrary 8 > 0 as z 0 in the angle
0<argz<rr-$.
Proof. We may assume that a = 0 and that If(z)I < 1 in (z) > 0. Let us
choose arbitrary c in (0, 1) and let us choose r > 0 such that If (z) < e on the
interval a, of the real axis from 0 to r. If we apply inequality (2) to the half-
disk B,.: z I < r, 3 (z) > 0, we obtain
log I f(z)I ---- w(z,a,.,B,)loge (10)
in B,. Let\us find a lower bound for w (r, a,, B,). To do this, let us find an
explicit expression for this quantity. The function C= rz/(r - z)2 maps the half-
disk B, into the halfplane (C) > 0 in such a way that the point z = 0 is mapped
into the point C= 0 and the interval a, is mapped into the positive half of the
real axis. We denote this last by a. If z and C are corresponding points, then
w (z, a B,) = w (C, a, B)-

Also, by virtue of (8),
_71-11R , 0<argC<n.
Thus,
w(z,a,.,B,)=1- I
79
arg(rrzz)'-1- a argr lZ)I
LL 1- rl J
It follows that all limiting values of the quantity co (rz, a,, B,) are at least
equal to 1 - (tr - 8 )/tr = 8/tr as z - 0 in the angle 0 < arg z < tr - 8. This
means that there exists an r' in the interval (0, r) such that co(z, a., B) > 8/2tr= 8
in the domain I z I < r' , 0 _< arg z < n - 8. Consequently [cf. (10)], I f (z) _< E S.
Since S does not depend here on r or c, this means that f(z) --' 0 uniformly as
z -+ 0 in the angle 0 < arg z < n - 6. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 4. Suppose that a function f(z) is regular and bounded in the half
plane (z) > 0 and 1 is a Jordan curve lying in that halfplane that terminates at
z = 0. Suppose also that f(z) --, a as z --+ 0 along 1. Then, f(z) --, a uniformly
as z --, 0 in the angle 0< arg z < n - 6 for arbitrary 8> 0.
Proof. We can again assume that a = 0 and I f (z)I < 1 in (z) > 0. Let c
denote a number in the interval 0 < e < 1. Let us choose r sufficiently small that
If (01 .5 e on the part of the curve 1 lying in the half-disk B,: I z I < r, (z) > 0.
Let us denote by a, the part of 1 extending from z = 0 to the first point at which
1 intersects the circle I z I = r. The arc a, partitions the half-disk B, into'two
domains B, and BT. Suppose that B, is adjacent to the negative half of the
real axis. By applying inequality (2) to B,. , we obtain
log E.
Here again, it remains only to find a lower bound for -(z, ar, Br ).
Let us denote by 0, the portion of the boundary of the domain Br comple-
mentary to a,, and let us denote by ar the portion of the boundary of the domain
B r complementary to f3, . Finally, let us denote by a" the interval (0, r) of the
real axis. Then, from the extension principle, we have
w (z, ar, B,.) . w (z, a Br) : w (z, ar, Br)
But, as follows from the proof of Theorem 3, the quantity a) (z, 0-,", Br) has a
positive lower bound S1 in the sector I z I < r', 0 < arg z < n -6 with sufficiently
small r' in (0, r).
, e
Thus I f (z) I < Esl in the part of B , lying in this sector. Treating B,s in
the same way, we can show that there exists a S2 > 0 such that I f (z)I < E 2 in
that part of B,. lying in the sector I z I < r" , 0< arg z < n with sufficiently small
r"
in (0, r). Suppose now that 0 < $ < n/2. If a is the greater of the numbers
S1, 82 and if r1 is the smaller of the two numbers r' , r" , then If(z)I <eS for
I z I < r1 and h < arg z < n -$ . This proves the uniform convergence of f (z) to
0 as z - 0 in the angled < arg z < n - $. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Theorem 5. Suppose that a function f (z) is regular and bounded in the half
plane (z) > 0 and is continuous except at finite points of the real axis. Suppose
§4. HARMONIC MEASURE. SIMPLEST APPLICATIONS 347
that f(z) approaches limiting values a and b as z approaches - and +-

along the real axis. Then a = b and f(z) -+ a uniformly as z cc in the half
plane Z(z) > 0.
Proof. If we apply Theorem 3 to the function f (-1/z) - b, we conclude that

this function approaches zero uniformly as z -+ 0 in the angle 0 < arg z < n - $,
where $ > 0. Furthermore, we can show, in a manner analogous to the proof of
Theorem 3, that the function f (- I/z) - a approaches zero as z --+ 0 in the angle
$< arg z < n. For $< n/2, we see from this that the function f (z) approaches
both a and b as z. -+ cc in the angle $ < arg z < n - $. Consequently, a = b and
f(z) , a uniformly as z -+ oo through values in the halfplane (z) > 0. This
By means of a conformal mapping, we obtain from Theorem 3 the following
two analogues of this theorem.
Theorem . Suppose that a function f(z) is regular and bounded in the angle
$1 < arg z < $Z and that it is continuous except at finite boundary points of that
angle. Suppose that it has definite limits a and b as z approaches o along both
rays of that angle. Then, a = b and f(z) -+ a uniformly as z -+ oc in that angle..
Theorem 5". Suppose that a function f(z) is regular and bounded in a simply
connec ed domain B bounded by a Jordan curve, that it is continuous on B
except at a point z = on the boundary K of the domain B, and that it has finite
limits b as' z approaches c along K from the two sides. Then, a = b and
f(z) is continuous on B if we define f(c) = a.
Theorems 3-5 are due to Lindelof1) and they apply to bounded functions.
We shall now give another theorem on bounded functions, this one due to
Milloux.2) It is of a somewhat different nature from the preceding ones.
Theorem 6. Suppose that a function f(z) is regular in a simply connected
domain B that is contained in the disk I z I < 1 and has boundary K consisting
of an arc a of the circle I z I = 1 and of a continuum f3 belonging to the disk
z I < 1 and containing z = 0. Suppose that I f(z) I _< 1 in B and that none of the
limiting values of If(z)I exceed e, where 0 < e < 1, as z approaches points on
JS through values in B. Then, in B,
areslnl+1t1/EIC (1-IZII.
If(z)I<e11 (11)
1) Lindelof [19151.
2) Milloux [19241.
For any zo in the disk Iz I < 1, there exists a domain B containing zo and in it
the function f(z) is such that equality holds in the first of inequalities (11) at
z=zo.
Proof." When we apply inequality (2) to the function f(z) for z E B, we
obtain
log If (x) I < w (x, P, B) log e. (12)
Here, the question consists in finding a bound for the harmonic measure cw(z, 8, B).
We shall first need to prove an inequality for univalent functions. Suppose
that a function g(C) is regular and univalent in the disk ICI < 1 and that it does
not assume the value zero in that disk. Then, the function
g` C)-g(C.)
0
h(Q) -c+...
g'(CO)(1-ICoj)
will, for arbitrary Co such that ICo I < 1, be regular and univalent in IKI < 1 and
will not assume in that disk the value -g(to)/g'(t;') (1 - I Co12). By Koebe's
theorem it then follows that I g(Co)/g '(co) (1 - K0!2)! > 4; that is,
4
g(Ca) 1-ICoI (13)
Equality holds in (13) in the case of the function g(') = [(1 + 77.0/(1 - 770] 2
where 1771 = 1. If we set Co = rei9 in (13) and integrate with respect to r from 0
to r, we obtain, for arbitrary C in the disk I CI < 1 the inequality
llog
with equality holding under the same condition. Finally, if g(C) is such that
g(0) = 1, then for z = g(t;) we have in I z I < 1
-ylzl
1±ylzl' (14)
This is the desired inequality.

Let us now see about finding a bound for w (z, 0, B). We map the domain B
onto the half-disk B `: I CI < 1, (C) > 0 in such a way that the arc a is mapped
into the boundary diameter of the half-disk. Suppose that the point zo E B is
1) The proof given here with the sharp inequality was given by E. Schmidt [1932].
*4. HARMONIC MEASURE. SIMPLEST APPLICATIONS 349
mapped into a point Co, Idol < 1. By means of a supplementary mapping of the
half-disk B ' into itself, we can arrange to have the point Co lie on the imaginary
axis. Specifically, let us draw through Co a circle orthogonal to the circle ICI = I
and to the real axis. Denote by a the point of intersection of this circle with the
real axis. When we map the upper half of the C-plane into itself in such a way
that the points - 1, a, and + 1 are mapped into the points -1, 0, and + 1 respec-
tively, the half-disk B' is mapped into itself and the orthogonal circle mentioned
above is mapped into the imaginary axis. In particular, the point Co is mapped
into a point on the imaginary axis. Thus we may assume that Co = ito for to > 0.
We denote by z = g(C) the inverse function providing the mapping mentioned. We
have zo = g(ito). The function g(C) can, according to the symmetry principle, be
extended beyond the real axis, and it maps the complete disk ICI < 1 univalently
onto a domain that does not contain the points 0 and oo. Inequality (14) is there-
fore applicable to it. If we denote by j9 ' the boundary semicircle in B , we now
have by using (9)
4 4
.w (zo, B) = to (Co, P', B') = arc tan to = arc tan Co
R
which, by (14), yields
4 arc tan
I -- zo I
(zo, P, B} (15)
TT zo I
arc tan ,+,-,l z° l

Zo-,
tan = i1- IzoI Sin

2tan 4 _i-IzoI
=f -{-lane
+ IzoI' i --1-1 zo I
and, consequently,
-2I arc sin r-1+1zol*

I zo I
Therefore (15) can be written in the form

(o (z > a arc sin i zoI
(16)
where zo is an arbitrary point of the domain B. Inequalities (12) and (16) also
lead to the first of inequalities (11). Equality holds in it only when B is a disk
with cut along a suitable radius and the function f(z) is such that, as z assumes
values on the half-disk B', the function log I f (z) I is a harmonic function that is
equal to 2 (1 - 96/n) loge on the boundary, where 96 is the same as in formula (9).
From the inequality
arc sin
1-Izl' 1-IzI> 1-IzI
I+IzI 1+Iz1 2
we get the second of inequalities (11). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Now, we shall finally give an application of the theory of harmonic measure
to a single question associated with the principle of the maximum modulus. We
recall that, if a function f (z) is regular in a domain B and if none of the limiting
values of its modulus exceed M as z approaches any of the boundary points of
the domain B, then if (z) I < M throughout the domain B. The situation is quite
different when the requirement of boundedness of the limiting values of I f(z)I is
violated even at a single point of the boundary. Then, the modulus principle no
longer holds. For example, the function f (z) = e-" is regular in the upper half-
plane and its modulus is equal to 1 at finite points of the real axis. Furthermore,
I f(z)I > 1 in the halfplane (z) > 0. The reason for this is the fact that the limit-
ing values of the function are not all finite as z approaches the point z = o. in
(z) > 0. Now, we have
Theorem 7.1) Suppose that a function f(z) is regular in the halfplane
(z) > 0 and that all the limiting values of its modulus are bounded above by 1
as z approaches any finite point on the real axis. Then, either (1) If(z)I < 1 in
(z) > 0 or (2) there exist positive numbers A and R such that
M(r)>eAr (17)
where M(r) denotes the maximum value of I f(z)I on the semicircle Izi = r,
(z)>0 for r > R.
Proof. Let us denote by B the half-disk I z I < r, (z) > 0 and let us denote
1
by a. its boundary semicircle. From inequality (2), we have

log I f (z) I C w (z, a, B) log M (r). (18)
But by (9), if z = x + iy,

w(z,a,B)= 2- -azc tan r y Xt.
ac tan r+X 11- 2 (arc tan x
arc tan
2
1)Phragmen and Lindelof [19081.

§5. ON THE NUMBER OF ASYMPTOTIC VALC"ES 351
Consequently, for fixed z and sufficiently large r,
cu
(z,a,
B ti 2 (l r-yx + ry--}- x ) = 2r. re2yr
7c - x°
4y
nr '
.
(19)
Suppose now that the inequality I f(z)I < 1 does not hold everywhere in B. Let
zo = x0 + iyo denote a point in B such that I f(zo)I > 1. Then, from (18) and (19),
we have
log If (zo) I < 11M
log M (r)
4yo r
r _, co
which shows,that, for suitable A > 0 and sufficiently large r, inequality (17)
holds. This completes the proof of the theorem.
By performing a conformal mapping, we obtain from Theorem 7 a generalizing
theorem that will be used in the following section.
Theorem 7'. Suppose that a function f (z) is regular in an angle of magnitude
no with vertex at z = 0. Suppose that the limiting values of I f(z)I do not exceed
1 at finite boundary points. Then either (1) If WI < 1 in the entire angle or (2)
there exist positive numbers A and R such that
M (r) > e''110 (20)
where M (r) is the maximum value of I f(z)I on an arc of the circle I z I = r lying
in th angle in question, where r > R.
§5. On the number of asymptotic values of entire functions of

finite order
Let us give an application of the theory of harmonic measure to a more com-
plex question, one dealing with entire functions.
Suppose that f (z) is an entire function and that l is a continuous curve in
the z-plane that extends from some finite point to oo . If, as we let z move along
1 towards 00, the function f(z) approaches a definite limit a, then a is called
the asymptotic value of the entire function f(z) defined by the curve 1. Suppose
that two curves ll and 12 of the type described define finite asymptotic values
a1 and a2. If a1 a2, these values are considered distinct; if a1 = a2, then let
us agree to consider the curves ll and 12 as defining distinct asymptotic values
only in the case when there is some R > 0 such that the curves 11 and 12 can-
not be connected by a continuous curve lying in the domain I z I > R and having
the property that the oscillation of the function f (z) on it is arbitrarily small. In
the theory of entire functions, this convention identifies the asymptotic values of
the entire function f(z) with nonalgebraic (transcendental) singularities of the
inverse function.
If an entire function f (z) is such that, for some finite k > 0 and sufficiently
large r, we have M (r) < e rk , where M (r) = maxe Zl =r I f (z)j then f (z) is called an
entire function of finite order. The greatest lower bound p of the numbers k that
possess this property is called the order of the entire function f (z). It was
assumed that the number of asymptotic values of an entire function of finite order
is finite and is bounded by a quantity depending only on the order p. The com-
plete answer to the question was given by Ahlfors.1) We shall give his solution,
using the method of strips, which we have already used in §6 of Chapter IV.2)
Lemma. Suppose that there are a finite number n of nonoverlapping radial
strips Sk, for k = 1, 2, , n, in the annulus ro < I z I < r that extend from the
circle I z I = ro to the circle I z I = r. Let ak (rk) denote the arc of the circle
z = ro (I z I = r) that serves as part of the boundary of the strip Sk. Suppose
that none of these arcs degenerate to a point. If we map these strips
conformally onto nonoverlapping domains F,k: ro < < rF, 'k <arg S < 'k+1
that completely fill the annulus ro r.
Proof. The assertion follows from Lemma 1 of §6 of Chapter IV. Specifically
the function t = log C maps the domains Ek onto the rectangles Tk: log ro <
R(t) _< log r', 'k < (t) < 95k+l, k = 1, , n, with sides of lengths ak =
Ok+1 -'k' bk = log(r'/ro). But the strips Sk are also mapped onto these rectangles
and in the way required by the lemma of Chapter IV referred to. Therefore, in
accordance with that lemma,
n
k-1
r, < log r
Pk+i - Pk
log !o
2+c .
,
ro
that is, r' > r. This completes the proof of the lemma.
Theorem. An entire function f(z) J const of order p has no more than 2p
1) Ahlfors [19301
2) Goluzin [1946d1
§5. ON THE NUMBER OF ASYMPTOTIC VALUES 353
finite asymptotic values.

Proof. We note that if two curves 11 and 12 that extend to infinity define
two distinct asymptotic values of the function f (z), then, outside some disk
I z I < R they have no points in common. Therefore, we can in general assume
them to have no points in common. Without changing the asymptotic values, we can
replace these curves with broken lines that extend to infinity and that consist of
a finite or countable number of segments whose endpoints cluster only at infinity.
To see this, let us partition, for example, the curve l1: z = z 1(t) for t0 < t < t1,
where lim4,1 z 1(t) = -, with the points t" tot, . . , (n), and let us inscribe
in the part of I lying between the points z(t(n)) and z(t("+I)) a broken line An
such that the values of the function f (z) on each segment of this broken line will
differ from the values on the arc beside it by an amount less than En, where each
e. > 0 and c. --+ 0 as n --' a-. Then, on the broken line 11, consisting of A1,
A2, . , the function f (z) has the same asymptotic value as on 11. We can even
assume that the broken line 11 has no multiple points because, as we move along
it, we can bypass any closed polygons constituting part of it.
Suppose that we have n curves 11, , In defining a distinct finite asym-
ptotic values of the function f(z). On the basis of what has been said, we can
assui a that these issue from z = 0, that they have no other points in common and
that ach is a broken line without multiple points. These curves partition the z-
plan into domains Bk, for k = 1, , n, indexed in such a way that each Bk is
boun ed by 1k and 1k+1 (here, 1n+1 = 11). In each of the domains Bk, the func-
"
tion f z) must be unbounded; otherwise, in accordance with Theorem 5 of §4
(applied to the function f(z_1 + c)) its value would converge uniformly to a limit
as z --* - in one of the domains Bk and then the curves bounding this domain
would not define distinct asymptotic values. Therefore, the set of points in each
of the domains Bk, where
If(z)I>N= IVsup In If(z)I
is nonempty. This sets consists of domains that extend to infinity. This is true
because, if one of them were bounded, inside it we would have If (z)I > N, which
the maximum principle asserts is impossible. For every k, we shall consider not
Bk but one of the domains lying in Bk just mentioned and we shall now denote
it by Bk. Let r0 denote a positive number such that the circle I z I = r0 contains
points belonging to all the domains B k, for k = 1, , n. The maximum value of
I f(z)I in the part of Bk contained in I z I < ro is attained at some point zk on

the circle I z I = ro which does not lie on the boundary of Bk. Let us now look at
the part of the domain Bk lying in the domain I z I > ro. It consists of domains.
We denote by Bk that domain containing the point zk on its boundary. This Bk
must extend to - because otherwise the maximum principle would again lead us
to a contradiction. If o k- is the longest arc of the circle I z = ro that contains a
point z k and constitutes part of the boundary of the domain B k , then, by replac-
ing the domain Bk with the domain Bk consisting of Bk, vk, and that domain
that is included in the intersection of the domain Bk with the inversion of Bk
about the circle z I = ro which is adjacent to ak. Since zk is an interior point
I
of the arc ak, then, if we denote by Nk the maximum value of I f(z)I on the bound-
ary of the domain Bk, we have Nk ro. We denote
by Sk the connected subset of the domain Bk that is contained in that annulus
and that is adjacent to the arc vk. We denote one of its boundary arcs on the
circle I z I = r by rk . We treat the domains Sk, for k = 1, 2, , n, as strips of
the type mentioned in the lemma. As in the lemma, we map these strips onto strips
Ek filling the annulus ro r. But, in accordance with the symmetry principle, the function C = Ck (z) is,
for each k = 1, - , n, extendable to the entire domain Bk and maps that domain
univalently onto some domain Gk contained in the sector ICI < r', Ok < arg C <
Ok+1. Let ak denote the image of the arc rk under this mapping and let 13k
denote the complement to ak on the boundary of Gk. On ak ,
If(zk(c))I -M(r)=maxIf(z)I,
zI=r
and on PA,,
If(zk(C))IGNk.
If we apply inequality (2) of §4 to the domain Gk, to the function f (zk (c)), and
to the point C k = Ck (zk), we obtain
loglf(Zk)I=loglf(zk(Ck))I
W(Ck, ak, Gk)log M(r)+w(Ck, Pk, Gk)logNk
U) Gk, ak, Gk)log
M N(k) +logNk. (1)
Let us now assume that r is sufficiently great that M(r)/Nk > 1 for all k.
§5. ON THE NUMBER OF ASYMPTOTIC VAIIUES 355
Let us find an upper bound for the harmonic measure co(Ck, ak, Gk). By the
extension principle, it is no greater than the harmonic measure of the arc ak with
respect to the sector obtained from lk by adjoining suitable points of the disk
C1 < ro. It follows from the mapping of the sector by the function cr _ C 1/8k ,
where '&k = (Ok+1 - ck)/rr, that this last measure is equal in the half-disk (C' i
r* = r' rlok,3 (C') > 0 to the harmonic measure of the boundary semicircle C' J =
r*, 0 < arg C' < n relative to some point CA, = ek + irlk on r1/8k; that is,
in accordance with (9) of §4, it is equal to
-n
(arc tan
r*-Ek
77k
+ arc tan
Thus we obtain
W
/
lCk, ak, GO - (arc
2
n \
tan '1k k
r*-Ek + arc tan r*+ek 1
2 'k 'Ik 4
7 \r*-Ek +r*+Ek) 'R r'2/8k-Ek
4 r'1/8krc/8k 4 r1/$rol$k
and (1) yields x r'2/ek - r2/4k

o
a r2/ek
- r2/ek
o
log I f (k) I
k
c a r2 8 1/8k l/8k
ro
k- r2/eo k
log M (r)
Ark
4
a
r;/kkr- i/ek log M (r)
Nk
Iret us denote by A the smallest of the numbers Nk for k = 1, , n and let

us de ote by eB the smallest of the ratios I f (zk)I/Nk for k = 1, , n. Then,
for sufficiently large r,
M (r) Aecr, kBr118k, lim Cr, k
r co 4r0
i/ek, A> 0, B> 0.
But Y.%=1 $k = 2n, $k > 0. Consequently, there exists at least one k such that
$k < 2/n, that is, such that 1/ak > n/2. If we choose such a k in the last ine-
quality, we obtain, for sufficiently large r,
M (r) > Aecr Brn/2, lim cr> 0,
and this means that f (z) is of order no less than
'-con/2. Consequently, n/2 < p;
that is, n < 2p. This proves that f(z) cannot have more than 2p finite asymp-
totic values. This completes the proof of the theorem.
The bound for the number of finite asymptotic values of entire functions given
in the theorem is a sharp bound when p is an integer. This is shown by the ex-
amples of the entire functions
z
sin zP
and s'n zP dz
zP zP
of order p. The first of these has 2p distinct asymptotic values 0 defined by

the rays arg z = krr/p, for k = 1, 2, , 2p; the second has 2p asymptotic values
e 217ki/ P, for k = 1, 2, , 2p , which are defined by the same rays.
§6. The hyperconvergence of power series

The theory of harmonic measure also finds significant applications in the
theory of power series. Let us now look at the question of what is known as
hyperconvergence of a power series.
Suppose that we have a power series
W
f(z)== E cnzn (1)
n=0
with radius of convergence R > 0. If, for a suitable grouping of its terms without
changing their order, this series converges on some set of points z outside the
closed disk I z < R, this property is called the hyperconvergence of the power
series. For example, consider the series
W
f (z) = > [z (I + z)]An, (2)

n=0
where the X. are integers such that io < Al < h2 < ... and hn+1 > 2,1,, for n = 1,
2, . .. If, in each term of this series, we expand the parentheses and write the
term in the form of a polynomial arranged in order of increasing powers, we obtain
a power series of the form (1) with radius of convergence given by the equation
R (1 + R) = 1, so that R = (''S- 1)/2. For this power series, the series (2) is a
grouped series and it converges on the set E of points satisfying the inequality
I z (1 + z) I < 1. Since E contains points in the domain I z > R, this means that
the power series in the present case possesses the property of hyperconvergence.
We have a number of theorems due to Ostrowski 1) on hyperconvergence.
A,
Theorem 1. Suppose that a power series f(z) = En=pcz ", where 0 < Ao <
h1 <,12, . , has radius of convergence 1 and that it is a lacunary series, that
is, there exists a sequence of positive integers nk, for k = 1, 2, - , such that
ik+1>gJ`np,
1) Ostrowski [1927].
§6. THE HYPERCONVERGENCE OF POWER SERIES 357
for k = 1, 2, , where q > 1 and is independent of k, then the grouped series

W
f (z)=panr (z)+ E pan+l, Xn (z), (3)

k=1 k b+I
Panr (z) = Coza° + ... + CnrzXnr,
Zn + 1
an
pank+I,knk+1(z)=Ck 1 z k --... +Cnk+Iz k+1, k=1, 2, .. ,,
converges in a sufficiently small neighborhood of an arbitrary point on the circle

z = 1 at which f (z) is regular. 1)
Proof. Suppose that the function f (z) is regular at the point z = 1 (if it is
regular at a point z = e` °', we could consider the function f (e-taz)). Let us set
z = a(t;) = Q' (1 + C)/2, where p is a positive integer. Since u(1) = 1 and
la (C) I < 1 for I C1 < 1 but C 1, the function F ([;) = f (a (O) is regular on
CI < 1. From (3) we now obtain the transformed series
OD
F(C)=f(a(C))=panr (a(C))+ (4)

k_1 k
Here, the two quantities constituting the subscript to Q are the lowest and high-
est of C that appear in the corresponding polynomial. If we take p >
1/(q -J 1), so that (p + 1)/p < q, we have (p + 1)Ank < plink+I In this case, the
series (4) is a grouped series with respect to the power series representation of
F(C) about 0. Since this last series converges in some disk < p, where
p > 1, 't also converges on the set of points C into which a sufficiently small
neighborhood of the point z = 1 is mapped. But then, if we shift back to the vari-
able z in (4), we conclude that the series (3) converges throughout a sufficiently
small neighborhood of the point z = 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
In a sense, the following theorem is a converse to Theorem 1.
Theorem 2. Suppose that a power series f (z) = F+n=ocnzn
has radius of con-
1) In particular, if the inequality hn+1 > qhn, where q > 1, is satisfied for all n = 1,
2, , then the power series itself can be regarded as grouped. In this case, pi,n, Xn+1(z) =
enzxn+ 1. In accordance with Theorem 1, it will therefore converge in a sufficiently small
neighborhood of every regular point on I z I = 1. But this last is impossible because a
power series cannot converge outside its circle of convergence. This means that, in the
present case, the function f(z) cannot be continued beyond the circle of convergence.
This is a familiar theorem of Hadamard.
vergence 1 and that corresponding to it is a grouped series that converges uni-

formly in a sufficiently small neighborhood of some point z0 such that I z0I > 1.
Then, f(z) can be represented as the sum of a lacunary series and a series with
radius of convergence exceeding 1.
Proof, It follows from the conditions of the theorem that there exists a neigh-
borhood y contained in I z I > 1 on which the grouped series converges uniformly.
This means that there exists a sequence of partial sums snk (z) = L.nk0 CnZn, k=
1, 2, , of the original power series that converges uniformly on A. We may
assume that nk+1 > 2nk for k = 1, 2, . Consider the function
-
uk(z)= klogls"k(z)I-log Izl (k = 1, 2, ...),.

which is harmonic in the z-plane except at the zeros of the polynomial snk (z).
Obviously, there exists a positive number Ka such that, for k > K1, the function
uk (z) < - q on y, where q is a positive number independent of z and It.
Now, let r denote a positive number. Define S = e'"Z , so that S < 1. Since
the maximum value of Isnk (z)/z"kI in z I > S is attained for Iz I = S, if we set
mS.k = max I-S ISnk (z)I, then, in j z > S and, in particular, in I Z I > 1, we
have
Uk(Z)criklogma,k-logs=riklogma,k+ 2
Since
lim ma k = 0
k -.co
it follows that there exists a positive number K2 such that uk (z) < E in I zI >
for k > K2. Inequality (2) of §4 can be applied to the domain bounded by the
circles I z I = 1 and y and to the closed set E representing the circle Iz I = R,
where R > 1, lying inside this domain. (By means of a conformal mapping, ine-
quality (2) of §4 can obviously be carried over to the present case.) As a result,
we see that, for k > K = max (K1, K2), we have uk (z) < - A1q + A2E on z I = R, I
where Al and A2 are positive numbers depending only on R (note that K depends
on e). If we choose a sufficiently small that -A1q + A2E = -rl <0, we conclude
that, for k > K, we have on the circle z R the inequality uk (z) < -77, or,
what amounts to the same thing,
I Snk (z) I (Re --'1)4k.
By using this inequality, we obtain from the formulas
§6. THE HYPERCONVERGENCE OF POWER SERIES 359
1 (' Snk (z)

cm
ai zm dz, m ` nk,
IzI - R
bounds for the coefficients:
(Re-1)"k
IC.I< Rm m < nk.
In particular, for q ' nk < m < nk, where 1/2 < q' < 1, this yields
nk
CmIC Rq, )l
((Re'1
(5)
If we choose q' sufficiently close to 1 that Re '1/R'' = p < 1, we obtain from

(5)
IcmI Cpnk<p'n for qnk<m`nk. (6)
Inequality (6) shows that the series 1k=1 Pq, nk+l, nk(z), treated as a power
series converges in the disk I z I < 1/p, where 1/p > 1. The remaining part of the
power series is obviously a lacunary series. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Theorem 3. Suppose that a power series
f (z) = EE
CnzZn
n-0
has a radius of convergence equal to unity and that there exist positive numbers
nk, for k = 1, 2, such that Ank+l/Ank m as k --, o. Then the grouped series
co
f (z)=P (z)+ EPxn+1,

1 xn (z) (7)
k=1 k k+1
converges at all finite points of the z-plane at which f(z) is regular. The func-
tion f(z), treated in the sense of Weierstrass, is single-valued in the z-plane.
Proof. Suppose that the function f (z) can be continued along some curve C
to the point z0, beginning with an initial element defined by the given powers
series. Then, there exists a simply connected though not necessarily one-sheetedl)
domain B lying over the z-plane and containing the points 0 and z0 such that
f (z) is regular on the closure of that domain.
1) With regard to Riemann surfaces and mappings of them onto a disk, see §2 of
Chapter XI of the present book.
The domain B can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the disk ICI < 1
by means of an analytic function. The inverse of this function z = (k(C ) is regular
in ICI < 1. Suppose that z o = q (Co ), where I Co I = p < 1. The function 0 (0 can
be uniformly approximated on an arbitrary closed subset of the disk ICI < 1 by
means of polynomials. Therefore, there exists a polynomial a(C) with a(0) = 0 of
some degree p such that the values assumed by it in the closed disk I CI < \IP
will be continuously distributed on the domain B. The transformed series (7)
co
F f (a )) = Qpa, (C) + I Qxn+ 1, pan (C) (8)

k-1 k k+1
is obviously, after we discard a finite number of initial terms, a grouped series
for some power series. Since F (z) is regular on I CI < 1, the series (8) converges
uniformly on the disk I C I < J and in particular it converges at the point Co .
Returning now to the variable z, we shift from the series (8) back to the series
(7), which consequently converges at the point zo. Since the value of the function
f(c) is defined at the point zo as the sum of the same power series independently
of the method of analytic continuation, it follows that f(z) has a one-sheeted
domain of definition. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§7. A nonanalytic generalization of the Schwarz lemma.

A theorem on covering of disks
We pause now for a nonanalytic generalization of the Schwarz lemma with its
application to covering questions.1)
Suppose that a generalized metric is defined in a domain B in the z-plane,
where z = x + iy. Suppose that the differential element of this metric is defined
by ds = A(z) I dz 1, where A(z) is a nonnegative function. Here, the function A(z)
can vanish only at isolated points of the domain B. The metric is said to be
continuous in the domain B (or at a point zo E B, respectively) if the function
A(z) is continuous in B (or at zo). It is said to be regular in B (at the point
zo E B) if A(z) is continuous and has continuous first and second partial deriva-
tives with respect to x and y in the domain B (in some neighborhood of zo). In
what follows, of especial importance are those regular metrics for which the func-
tion A(z) satisfies at all points of B at which it is nonzero the inequality
Alog X 4l' (1)
1) Ahlfor [1938].
§7. NONANALYTIC GENERALIZATION OF SCHW1tZ LEMMA 361
(where A denotes the Laplacian operator) or, if we set u(z) = log A(z), the ine-
quality
Au ,- 4e'u. (2)
We note that in the case of the disk zI < I and the hyperbolic metric dQ =
Idzl/(1-Iz12), if A(z)=1/(1-1z12), we have in IzI<1
A log l = U2. (3)
Sometimes, a metric will be defined not in the entire domain B but only in some
neighborhood. of a given point zo E B. Then, we shall speak of a metric defined
in that neighborhood. It is a remarkable fact that an analytic mapping maps a
metric satisfying condition (1) (or (3), respectively) into a metric satisfying con-
dition (1) (or (3)). To see this, note that if a function z = z(C) is regular in a
neighborhood of a point C_ CO and a metric ds = A(z) ldzl satisfying condition (1)
(or (3)) is defined in a neighborhood of the point z0 = z (Co) E B, then the trans-
formed metric ds = A(z (C))I z' (C)I IdCI dtI also satisfies condition (1)
(or (3)) because, as one can easily verify,
A log ki = I z' (C) i9 A, log X.
If two metrics ds = k(z)ldzl and ds* A* (z)I dzI are defined in some neighbor-
hood'of the point zo, if A5(zo) = A(zo), and if a' (z) < A(z) everywhere in that
neighborhood, then we shall call the second metric the support metric with respect
to tl a first and we shall say that the metric ds = A(z)I dzI admits at the point
zo t e support metric ds* = A (z)I dz 1.
\ With these definitions at our disposal, we have the following generalization
of the Schwarz lemma, given by Ahlfors:
Theorem 1. Suppose that a continuous metric ds = A(z)1 dzI is defined in
the disk I z I < 1 and that it admits a regular support metric satisfying condition
(1) at every point at which A(z) 0. Then ds < dg, where dcr = Idz I/(1 - I z I
is the hyperbolic metric, throughout the disk I z I < 1.
Proof. We set
u(z)=logl(z), v(z)=log R, 11 , O(R<1.

Let us show that u(z) < v(z) in the disk I z I < R. Let us suppose the oppo-
site. Then, the difference u(z) - v(z) assumes positive values in the disk
I z I < R. Since v (z) +a and hence u (z) - v (z) -. -to as z approaches the
circle I z I = R, the difference u(z) - v(z) attains a positive maximum at some
point z0 in the disk I z I < R. The metric ds = A(z)I dz I has at the point z0 a
regular support metric ds* = A* (z)I ds I that satisfies condition (1) or, if we set
u*(z) = log A*(z), condition (3). Since u*(zo) - v(zo) = u(zo) - v(z0) > 0, it fol-
lows that, in a sufficiently small neighborhood of the point z0i we have u*(z) -
v(z) > 0. But u*(zo) - v(z0) = u(z0) - v(z0) and, in a sufficiently small neigh-
borhood of z0, we have u*(z) - v(z) < u(z) - v(z). This means that the difference
U(z) = u*(z) - v(z) has at the point z0 a positive maximum with respect to some
neighborhood Iz - z0I < r0 of the point z0 and in that neighborhood it is positive.
Let us show that this last is impossible.
The relations Au* > 4e2a* , Av = 4e2°, and u* > v imply that, in the disk
Iz - z0l < r0,
A(u*-v)r4(e2U*è2,,)>0,
that is, AU > 0. On the other hand, in accordance with Green's formula we have
for r < r0 ,
Tr-
rde- AUdxdy>O,
I z-zo I=r Iz-zo <r
where we set z = z0 + ret; that is,
dr
U(zo+reiB)d6>0.
If we now integrate with respect to r from 0 to r, where 0 < r < r0, we obtain
2+c
U (zo) U (zo + re'°) d9.

2
Since the function U(z) attains its maximum at the point z0, this last ine-
quality is possible only when U(z) - U(z0) on Iz - zol = r for all r in the inter-
val 0 < r < r0; this would mean U(z) = U(z0) = const in z - z0l < ro. This is
incompatible with the inequality AU > 0.
Thus, we have shown that u (z) < v (z) = log [R/(R 2- I z l 2)] in I z I < R. As
R , 1, we see that A(z) < 1/(1 - I Z I2), that is, that ds < da. This completes
Now, following Ahlfors, let us give an application of this theorem to covering
questions.
In §7 of Chapter II, it was pointed out that there does not exist a disk IzI <p,
where p > 0, that is completely covered by the image of the disk I z I < 1 under
§7. NONANALYTIC GENERALIZATION OF SCHWARA, LEMMA 363
an arbitrary function w = f (z) = z + c 2z 2 + that is regular in I z i < 1. How-

ever, it follows from Theorem 7 of §7 of Chapter II that there exists a positive
number p such that the image of the disk I z I < 1 under an arbitrary function of
the type indicated completely covers some disk of radius p because it completely
covers, for example, some half-disk with center at the origin and radius independ-
ent of the form of f (z). Bloch has proved more than this: there exists a positive
number p such that, for an arbitrary function w = f(z) = z + that is regular in
z I < 1, the w-plane contains a disk of radius p that is a one -sheeted image of
some portion of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f W.
Let us now introduce some new notation. We denote by L f the radius of the
largest disk in the w-plane that is completely covered by the image of the disk
z I < 1 under a function w = f(z) = z + that is regular in I z I < 1. We denote
by B r the radius of the largest disk in the w-plane that is the one-sheeted image
of a subdomain of the disk I z I < 1 under the same mapping. (In other words, Bf
is the radius of the largest one-sheeted disk lying on the Riemann surface onto
which the function w = f (z) maps the disk I z I < 1 bijectively.) Furthermore, we
define
B lnf Bf, L = inf Lf,
1(z) f (z)
Here, hese infima are over all functions f(z) = z + that are regular in the disk
z I < ; here B is called the Bloch constantly and L is the Landau constant.
The n merical values of these two constants are as yet unknown: we have only
upper and lower bounds for them. 2)
The theorem proved above enables us to obtain the best results as regards
lower bounds for the constants B and L. We begin with a lower bound for B.
Suppose that the function w = f (z) = z + is regular in I z I < 1 and has
finite Bf. Let z0 denote an arbitrary point in the disk I z I < 1. If f' (z0) 0,
then the inverse function z = f-1(w) is regular in a neighborhood of wo = f(z0).
We denote by p(w0) the radius of the largest circle with center at w0 in which
the function z = f -I(w) is regular and the image of which under the mapping z =
f - I(w) is contained in I z I < 1. Obviously, B f is an upper bound for the numbers
p(w0) for all possible z0 such that IzOI < 1.
1) Bloch [1925] showed that B > 0.

2) On the basis of elementary considerations, Landau [1929] gave some numerical
bounds for B and L.
If we denote by G 0 the domain in I z I < 1 that is mapped by w = f (z) onto

the disk 1w - wol < p(wo), then Gao must contain on its boundary either points
of the circle I z i = 1 or points at which f '(z) = 0. Furthermore, we can easily
see that p (w), where w = f (z), is a continuous function of z in I z I < 1 and we
have, close to the point zo, where Izol < 1 and f'(zo) = 0, p(w) = I w - wol,
where wo = f(zo).
Let us now define a metric ds = A(z)I dz I in I z I < 1, taking
a (z) (4)
2((A-p(w))
where A is a constant exceeding B1 The function A(z) is obviously continuous
at all points of the disk I z I < 1 at which f '(z) 0. On the other hand, if a point
zo such that Izol < 1 has the property that
f (z) =f (r0) + LJ
00 Ck (z - z0)k, C,n 0, n> 1,
k=n
in a neighborhood of it, then, in a neighborhood of zp, we have p(w) _
I f(z) - f(zo)I and, consequently,
(z)
Y -A I ncn (Z - zo)n-'
+ ... I
^ 2 I cn (Z - zor ... I'12 (A - I cn (z - zo)n+ ... I)

n-1 )'"A-
=Iz-zpIa 2lcn+... I'll (A--Icn(z-z(,)"-I-... U
I
This shows that, for n = 2, the metric in question is continuous and, in fact,
regular at zo and that, for n > 2, we have A(zo) = 0. (Here, A(zo) is defined as
limn-=oA(z).)
Now, let us consider the point z0 such that Izol < 1 and f '(z0) 0. On the
boundary of Gao is a point a which either lies on the circle I z I = 1 or has the
properties that f '(a) = 0 and I a I < 1. In Gao, we define the metric ds* = A*(z)ldzl,
where
z) -- >r If (z) I
( 2 p`(w)(A-p (w))
P*(w)=lw-f(a)I, w=f(z) (5)
This metric is regular in Gao and condition (3) holds for it in Gao because it is
obtained from the hyperbolic metric in the disk I 'l < 1 by means of the analyti-
cal mappings C = w - f a A, w = f W. Furthermore, throughout the entire
§7. NONANALYTIC GENERALIZATION OF SCHWARZ LEMMA 365
domain Gzo, we obviously have p*(w) > p(w) and p' (wo) = p(wp). Therefore, in
Gro we have A' (w) <X(w) and A* (wo) = A(wo) though only on condition that the
function It (A - t) increases in the interval 0 < t < B f. Consequently, when this
last condition is satisfied, the metric (5) is a support metric for the metric (4) and
it satisfies condition (1). With regard to points at which f '(z) = 0, as was shown
above, at such points A(z) = 0 or else the metric ds = A(z)I dz I is regular and
hence can, itself, serve as support metric.
What has been said leads to the conclusion that if A is such that the function
f (A - t) increases in the -interval 0 < t 3Bf, we have in I z I < 1 the inequality
ds < da, that is,
V If'(z)I 1
(6)
2 Iz
Since O (A - t) increases in 0 < t < Bf, if we replace p (w) with Bf in (6), we

obtain
V_A If'(z)I<2}(zl,B,.)
Therefore, as A --. 3Bf, we have
I f' (z) I < 4 B1
Thi last inequality holds everywhere in I z I < 1. In particular, with z = 0, it
yrellt s Bf > f /4. Since the function f (z) is any function that is regular in
,I z I < 1, we have the bound
B>4=0.43....
In an analogous manner, we can find a lower bound for L. For every z o such
that Izo I < 1, let us denote by p(wp) the radius of the largest circle with center
at wo = f(zo) that is completely covered by the image B of the disk I z <1
under the mapping w = f(z) and let us define on I z I < 1 the metric ds = A(z)I dzl,
where
(z) - if (2) I
=f (z), (7)
2p (w) log p w
C being a constant greater than Lf.1) This metric is continuous in I z I < 1.
1) Again, it will be sufficient to consider functions f (z) with finite Lf.
Now, let us denote by Gao the largest domain contained in z I < 1 that
I
includes z0, where Iz0 I < 1, and that has the property that its image is contained
in the disk Iw - w0I < p(w0), where w0 = f(zo). Finally, let a denote a point
that is both on the circle Iw - w0 I = p(w0) and on the boundary of B.
Let us define on Gao a metric ds* = A' (z)I dz I, where
If'(z)I
k"(z)= -
2p' (w) logp*(W)
pÒ-I I, w=f(z). (8)
This metric is regular in GZo and satisfies condition (3) in Go because it is

obtained from the hyperbolic metric in the disk ICI < 1 by the successive ana-
lytic mappings: C_ (1 - t;')/(1 + c'), ' = log (C/(w a)), w = f W. Since obvi-
ously p` (w) > p(w) everywhere in GZo and since p* (w0) = p(w0), it follows that
A* (w) < A(w) everywhere in GZ0 provided the function t log (C/t) increases in
the interval 0 < t < p(w0). Under this condition, the metric (8) will be a support
metric for the metric (7) at the point z 0 . If t log (C/t) increases in the interval
0 < t < Lf, then the conditions of the theorem that we have proved are not satis-
fied for the metric ( 7). But t log (C/t) increases in the interval 0 < t < C/e.
Therefore, if C > eLf, then in the disk I z I < 1 we have ds < da, that is,
If'(z)Ic
2p (W) l og
l- IZi
P (w)
If we now replace p(w) with Lf and take the limit as C -+ eLf, we obtain
in I z I < 1 the inequality
2L,
If, (z) I 1-Izl'
For z = 0, this yields L f > 1/2. Thus
L2.
Let us now find some upper bounds for B (Ahlfors and Grunsky [1937]) and
L.
In § 1 of Chapter III we constructed a function that maps the disk I ]I < 1

onto a regular circular triangle Aa inscribed in the disk I w I < 1 with interior
angles of size rra. If this function maps the points C = 0 and C = 1 into the
points w = 0 and w = 1 respectively, then this function w = fn(0 = aIC+ is
obtained in accordance with formula (19) of § 1 of Chapter III (with c = 1). It
follows that al can be expressed in terms of the beta function and hence in terms
of the gamma function as follows:
§7. NONANALYTIC GENERALIZATION OF SCHWARZ LEMMA 367
B(1-a 1+a + 1 r2
ai =f. (0) = B/1-a
2
l+a
2 + 2 +3\r`3}
11 2 ' 2 -3) 2 3/l
Keeping this in mind, let us construct the function w = F(z) = f113(11/6(z)),
which maps the triangle Al/6 univalently onto the triangle Al/3 in such a way
that the point z = 0 is mapped into w = 0 and the vertex z = 1 is mapped into
the vertex w = 1. By the symmetry principle, the function F(z) can be extended
from Al/6 to the entire disk I z I < R, which is orthogonal to the circles of which
the sides of the triangle Al/6 are arcs, and is single-valued and regular in that
disk. It is easy to find the radius R of that disk. Specifically, the chords con-
necting the endpoints of the sides of the triangle A1/6 are of length VT and they
make angles of n/12 with the corresponding arcs of the triangle Al/6 On the
other hand, a circle y containing one of the boundary arcs of the triangle Al/6
that terminates at the point z = 1 intersects the real axis at an angle of 702.
Consequently, the segment of the real axis lying inside y, also is of length VF3_.
Therefore points of intersection of the circle y with the real axis are 1 and f + 1
and their product must be equal to R2. Therefore R = j + 1. It follows from
the prcess of the analytic continuation of the function F(z) that the Riemann
surfacF F, which is the single-valued image of the disk z I < R under the func-
I
tion = F(z), is composed of an infinite set of triangles congruent to O1/3

i
and each vertex of each triangle is a second-order branch point of that surface.
This last fact shows that a one-sheeted disk of radius greater than 1 cannot
enlist on the surface F.
Now, consider the function
W
(z) = F (Rz) = z -}-
... .
This function is regular in the disk I z I < 1 and it maps that disk onto a Riemann
surface that does not contain a one-sheeted disk of radius greater than 1/RF ' (0).
Therefore, we have B < 1/RF ' (0), and, consequently,
Bfs(o)
fg(0)
1- r13)r(12J
V3 +lr(4)
Thus, we finally have for B the inequalities
368 VIII. MAJORIZATION PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS.
r(1)r fti
4 =0.43 ... <B< 3
+1r(4)
12 1 ) =0A7 ... (9)
By considering the function w = F (z) = fI 13 (fI (z)), we can show that the
function
-- F. F (Z)
(0)
=Z+...
is regular in the disk I z I < 1 and maps that disk onto a Riemann surface F con-
sisting of a finite set of triangles obtained from A1/3 by means of a similarity
transformation with similarity coefficient 1/F' (0) but with the vertex of none of
these triangles belonging to the surface F. Consequently, this surface F cannot
covet any disk of radius greater than 11F'(0).
It follows that
L 1 - ' - r(
-f. (0)
5
{2
3) _ 3
`1'I (0) e, r( )r( g

(0)
3 ) 217(`
Thus, we have the inequalities for L:

1 <L 3 =0.56 .. (10)
2r (3)
§8. Majorization of subordinate analytic functions

Suppose that a function f (z) is meromorphic in the disk I z I < 1 and that a
f unction F (z) is meromorphic and univalent in I z I < 1. Suppose that f (0) =
F (0). If the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f (z) is contained
in the image of that disk under the mapping w = F(z), we say that the function
f(z) is subordinate to F(z) in the disk I z I < 1 and that the function F(z) is a
univalent majorant of f (z). We denote this by writing f (z) -< F (z). This obvi-
ously is equivalent to regularity of the function F-1(f (z)) _ 95(z) in the disk
I z I < 1, where ,(0) = 0 and I,(z)I < 1 in I z I < 1. It follows that the set of
all functions f (z) that are subordinate in the disk I z I < R to a given univalent
majorant F(z) is defined by the formula
f (z) = F ((p (z)), (1)
where 96(z) is an arbitrary function satisfying the conditions of the Schwarz
§8. MAJORIZATION OF SUBORDINATE ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 369
lemma; that is, it is regular in z.1 < 1, 0 (0) = 0, and 195 (z) I < 1 in I z I < 1.
I
In such a form, the concept of subordination is generalized to the case of

nonunivalent majorants: a function f (z) is said to be subordinate in I z I < 1 to a
majorant F(z) if it can be represented in the form (1) in I z I < 1.
We shall prove a number of theorems 1) regarding subordinate functions.
Theorem 1. If two functions f(z) and F(z) such that f(0) = F(0) = 0 are
regular in I z I < 1 and if f(z)-<F(z) in that disk, then, for p > 0 and 0 < r < 1,
2a 2a
S If(rei) IpdOS IF(re1B)IpdA. (2)

0 0
Proof. Let r0 denote an arbitrary number in the interval 0 < r0 < 1 such that
there are no zeros of F(z) on the circle I z I = r0. Let us write F(z) in the form
F (Z) =
where cm 0. Then, let us define
m
b (z) = ro/
Z if F W has no zeros in 0 < I z I < r0,
fror
I/
km1
9
r(Z
Zki) if F(z) has zeros in 0 < I z I <r0.

Here, z 1, - , z denote the zeros (all of them) of F (z) with each zero counted
in acc dance with its multiplicity. Then, the function F(z)/b(z) has no zeros
in Z17 r0. Consequently, the function (F WA (z))p is regular in I z I < r0 for
I
arbitrary p > 0. By Poisson's formula, we have

2,c
rrF(z) p_ 1 F(z) 1p(z'+z de, z rpete (3)
`b (z)) 2% b (z') J \z' - z
in the interval I z < r0 . Therefore, if we represent f (z) in accordance with for-
mula (1), we obtain in z I < r0
tic
f (z) IPC 1 ('I F (z') Ip, (z' + T (z) d9 . (4)
l b ( (z)) 0 b (z)
Furthermore, since Ib(z')I = 1 on Iz'I = r0 and Ib(z)I < 1 in IzI <r0, we have
1) Rogosinski [1943].
2x
if (z)Ipc2- c IF(z'I°t (z'+f1z)

Z'
)dA.
(5)
0
If we integrate (5) over the circle I z I = r, 0 < r < ro, and keep in mind the fact
that, by virtue of the theorem of the mean,
2x
('t (z,z + (z)

(z)
) dt = (z, + T (0)) = 27;
z (0) (6)
where z = re we obtain
2x 2%
` I f (rest) I P dt I F (roete) )P dO, (7)

1
0
and, as r -, r0, this yields (2). The case in which r0 is such that the function
F(z) has zeros on I z I = r0, is obtained from this one by means of a passage to
the limit. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 2. If the functions f(z) = Lk_lakzk and F(z) = Ek=1/lkzk are
regular in I z I < 1 and if f (z) -<F (z) in I z I < 1 , then, for n = 1, 2, . ,
n n
Z Iakl'` Ek=1
IAkI9. (8)
k=1
Proof. We set
n n 00
3n (z) 2] akzk, S. (z) = LJ Akzk, R. (z):--- E Akzk'

k-1 k-1 k-a+1
If f (z) = F (96 (z)), then, obviously (since 96 (0) = 0),
C0
f(z) = Sn ((P (z)) + Rn ((P (z)) = Sn (p (z)) + E akzk

k-n+1
and, consequently,
cc
S. (p (z)) = 3a (z) + akzk. (9)

k=s+I
But in I z I < 1. Therefore, by Theorem 1, we may write
2% 2x
S IS.(p(re`B))I'dO IS.(ree) I9d9,

that is, by (9),
I9r9k+ I Ak
k=1
ak E [a l I9r9k 1'rik
k=n-}-1 k=1
From this we obtain
M a
1 l ak 12r218 - E
I AA, I9r'k
As r 1, this yields (B), and completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 3. Under the conditions of Theorem 2, we have lat 1 < I Al I and
1a2 l < max (I A 1 I, I A2 I)
Proof. Suppose that f(z) = F(/(z)) and 96(z) = Ek_lakzk. Then,
al = a1A1, a9 = a1A9 + a9A1.
But I a 1 1 _< 1 and, from inequality (2) of § 1 as applied to the function 96(z)/z at
z = 0, we find I a2 l < 1 - I a 1 12. Therefore, from what was said above, we obtain
I«.1i<IA1I, Ia9I<la'1I4-IA9I-}-(1-jai 1s)IA1I<max(IA1I, IA9I)
Theorem 4.1) If two functions f(z) and F(z) such that f(O) = F(0) = 0 and
F ' (0) = 1 are defined and regular in the disk I z I < 1, if F(z) is one-sheeted,
and if f(z)..< F(z), then,
If'(z)I<(1+1z1 If(z)I<(1 IZI IZD.. (10)
These inequalities are sharp with equality holding only for a function of the form
gzeZ),
f (z) = (1 , 1711=161=1.
(11)
Proof. From the representation of f(z) in the form (1), we have if '(z)I =
IF '(96 (z))I - 10' (z)I. But inequality (8) of §4 of Chapter II holds for If' (z)1,
and inequality (2) of §1 of the present chapter holds for 10' (z)l, so that
1-IT(z)I'
IF'(,p(z))I< 1+Iy(z)I
(z)I)
, IT (z)I< 1-IzI (12)
Consequently,
'1+I,(z)I' I
If'' (z) I < 1-IR(z)J)
1-Iz=I
1) Schiffer [1936), Lohin [19491.

Since JO(z)1 < I z I, we have the first of inequalities (10). We obtain the second
of inequalities (10) by integration of the first. Since equality holds in the relation-
ship 1 0W1 < I z I only for 0 (z) = 71z, where 177I = 1 and since equality holds in
the first of inequalities (12) only for the function F(O) = O/(1 - 7110)2, where
17711 = 1, equality holds in the relations (10) only for a function of the form (11).

Theorem 5. Let f(z) = Y-' k= 1akzk denote a function that is defined and regu-
lar in I z I < 1. Let F(z) denote a function that is regular and univalent in the
same disk. Suppose that F(0) = 0 and F `(0) = 1 and suppose that f(z) is sub-
ordinate to F(z). Suppose that the image of the disk I z I < 1 under F(z) is a
starlike domain. Then, we have the sharp inequalities I an I < n, for n = 1, 2,
If the starlike domain referred to is convex, we have the sharp inequalities <1,
for n = 1, 2, .
Proof. Let us consider first the second case, in which the image B of the
disk z I < 1 under the mapping w = F(z) is a convex domain. Since wk = f(11kz)
belongs to B for z < 1, where 71 = e2n`/" for n = 1, 2 it follows that
(w I + . + w,n)/n. E B. But this means that the function
"
(71kz1/") = a"z -}- .. .
n Y
k-1
is subordinate in I z I < 1 to the majorant F (z). But then, it follows on the basis
of Theorem 2 (with n = 1) that Ia" I < 1 for all n= 1, 2, .
If the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = F(z) is a starlike
domain, then the function F1(z) defined by F(z) = zF'(z), FI(0) = 0, F1, (0) = 1
maps the disk I z I < 1 onto a convex domain (see §9 of Chapter IV). Let us
represent f(z) in accordance with formula (1). In the disk I z I < 1, we have
10 (z) < I z 1. Therefore, for arbitrary C in ICI < 1 we have F I (CO (z)) -< F I (Jz)
in I z < 1. Therefore, if we set
m
FI (CAP (z)) _ E A. (C) zh, At (C) =1, (13)
k='1
we have on the-basis of what we have already shown IA,,(C)I < 1 for I I < 1 and
n = 1, 2, .. But A,, (C) is an nth-degree polynomial in C such that A,, (0) = 0.
Therefore, in accordance with Cauchy's formula, we have for I I < 1
An (C) - 2.I
1 S
IC'I=1
TA n (CC))'
dC =
§s. MAJORIZATION OF SUBORDINATE ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 373
co
1' dCr
2al n (C')L l
IC'1=1 =0
n-1
_ A. (C')
k
le
2ni [1 , dC
r
1C'I=I k=0
and, consequently,
-I
I A. (C) I c 2a A.(Cll I I I $IC
IC'I=1 k=0
n-I n-I
C 2,
IC'1=1 k=0
Ik I
14' I=
k=0
I C 10.
Hence as 1, we see that IA,'(1)I < n. Now from
A. (C) = gal Fi 9+,z)) dz, O T 1,

S
Izlar
we obtain
An (1) -gal 1 C (z) Fi ('P (z)) 1 ( F (p (z))
dz = an.
,J (4 zn+t dx - gal J zn+t
I z I=r IzI-r
Consequently, Ian = IAn(1)I <n.11 Equality holds only for a function of the
form ( 1). This completes the proof of the theorem.
To\prove the next theorem, we shall need a lemma, due to Rogosinski, which
is a sharpening of the Schwarz lemma.
Lemma. Let q(z) denote a function that is defined, regular, and bounded
above in modulus by 1 in the disk I z I < 1 such that 0(0) - 0 and 0'(0) > 0.
Let zo denote a point in IzI < 1. Let Azo denote the domain contained in the
disk I z I < I zo I, containing the disk I Z I < I zo 12, and bounded by an arc of the
circle I Z I = IzoI2 and the arcs of two curves passing through zo and tangent to
the circle I Z I = I z012. Then wo = /(zo) belongs to Azo.
Proof. In accordance with inequality (3) of §1 as applied to the function
f(z) = z-IO(z), the point wo = ,(zo) lies in the disk with boundary defined by
1) This inequality can also be proved if we replace the assumption that the image of
the disk j Z I < 1 under the mapping w = F(z) is starlike with the assumption that it is
symmetric about the real axis. For more information on this, see Littlewood [19441 .
the equation I(w - a1zo)/(zo - alw)I = I zo1, where a1 = 0'(0) and 0 < a1 < 1.
If we now take a= al in the interval 0 < a< 1, let us find the envelope of all
the disks obtained. These disks are obviously contained in the disk Iw I < I zo I
and their centers lie on the segment (0, zp). The equation of the envelope is
determined from the equations
F (w, a)=., (log z - aw )= log I zo 1,
0
Fa(w, C
z°
w - azo - w
zo - atm ' =0. (14)
If we replace the first fraction in the second of these equations with its complex
conjugate, the equation takes the form
r 1 tm - azp
\ (i-V-ago) (za-aw)) =0 or
OR zo-arw0.
This equation together with the first of equations (14) leads to the conclusion
that (w - azo)/(zo - aw) = ± i Izo 1, i.e. w = [(a ±ilzo 1)/(1 ±ialzo I)]zo on the
envelope. As a varies in the interval 0 < a < 1, this determines the arcs of the
circles passing in one case through the points zo, i Izo Izo, and -zo (corre-
sponding to the values a= 1, 0, and -1) and the other passing through the points
zo, -iIzo Izo, and - zo. It follows that the circles I(w - alzo)/(zo - alw)I =
Izo 1,0 < a 1 < 1, cover the domain ; tzo mentioned in the lemma. This completes
Theorem 6.1) Let f (z) and F (z) denote two functions defined and regular
in the disk I z I < 1 and suppose that F(z) is univalent. Suppose that f(0) =
F(0) = 0, that arg f'(0) = arg F '(0) [this condition is dropped if f'(0) = 0], and
that f(z) -< F(z). Finally, suppose that f(z) / F(z). Then,
If(z)I<IF(z) (15)
in the disk I z 1 < %. (The number % is not the best constant.2'

Proof. To prove the validity of inequality (15) at a given point zo such that
Izo I = %, it will be sufficient to show that
IF(z)I<IF(zo)F
1) Biernacki [1936] .
2) Xia Dao-xing (Hsia Tao-hsing) has shown that the best constant in this case is
the number (3 -\/-5)/2 (see §3, subsection 30 of the supplement).)
§8. MAJORIZATION OF SUBORDINATE ANALYTIC PUNCTIONS 375
at all points z zo in the domain Azo mentioned in the lemma. This is true
because the function F '(f(z)) = a1z + satisfies the conditions of the lemma
and hence, by applying (16) to the point z = F-'(f(zo)) Azo, we obtain (15).
To prove inequality (16) with Izol = %, we define the number p C (0, 1) as
a root of the equation
(1
P
(I±IzoI)a;
P)'
z,
P=0.123 ... >Izol'= 16 1
(17)
Since the function F(z) is univalent in I
I < 1, we have
for z E Azo.
I z
I
IF(zo)I>IF(o)I
(I-41Z.1
-lZ )l
-
(18)
If I z I < p, inequality (16) follows immediately from (18) and (17). Let us
now suppose that inequality (16) is not satisfied everywhere in the domain Azo .
Theta, on the boundary of the domain Azo there exists a . 11Z
point z at which I F (z) I "attains the value m = max=E esa I F(z)I .
1
Obviously, the point z I lies on one of the circular boundary

arcs passing through zo (see Figure 16). Let us denote this
arc by 1. The tangent to the image of the arc l under the map-
ping w = F (z) at the point w 1 - F (z 1) makes an angle co = .. ` \\
n/2 w th the radial direction at that point. Let us calculate ` At
this le in a different way. We first find the angle y formed Figure 16
by the ngent to l at the point z I (directed toward the origin)
and the ra ial direction at the point z 1. Let us denote by R the radius of the
circle containing the arc 1. Then, from the right triangle with vertices at the
points 0, zo, and the center c of that circle, we obtain RZ = Izol z + (R-Izol Y.
Therefore, R = (1 + Izo I Z)/2. Furthermore, from the triangle with vertices at the
points 0, z 1, and c, we have
(R-IzoI9)'=R"+Izi1'-2RIz11 sin i.
Therefore,
sin I- I z, I' + I z0 I' 16 I z, I' -}- I

1712,1
Izil(I-f-Izo1')
I= arc sin 161z,12+117112,1
Now, the angle of inclination of the tangent to the arc l at the point z 1 (with
respect to the real axis) is equal to -y + arg z 1. Furthermore, the angle of incli-
nation of the tangent to the image of the arc l at the point w 1 = F (z 1) is equal
to -y + arg z 1 + arg F' (z 1). Finally, the angle between this last tangent and the
radial direction at the point w 1 = F (z 1) is equal to y - arg z 1 - arg F'(z 1) +
arg F (z 1). As a consequence of all this, we have
W
7 - arg z'F F((z'z) 1) = arc sin 16 1
z,
17 z, I 1
1
But inequality (12) of §1 of Chapter IV holds for this last argument. Therefore,
-F 1 - arg z, F F(' z1)
(zi)
we obtain
IwI<aresin 161_'12+1
17Iz,1
+log'+I21I
1-Iz,1 16p=+1
x
< arc sin 17p
+ log 1+Izol
1-Iz 2'
o 1
However, this contradicts our previous conclusion that co = n/2. This contradic-
tion proves the validity of inequality (16) and, consequently, inequality (15) on
the circle i z I = %. But since the maximum value of If(z)1 F(z)I in the disk
z < % is attained on the circle I z I = %, it follows that (15) holds also in
I z < %. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Remarks. We note that, using more complicated inequalities, we can show

that the radius p of the largest disk in which inequality (15) holds, under the
conditions of Theorem 6, lies in the interval 0.35 < p < (3 - f 5)/2 = 0.382 and
that under the additional assumption that F(z) is starlike in I z I < 1, we have 1)
p = (3 - J)/2. If we also assume that f (z) is univalent the number p is defined
as a root of the transcendental equation2)
log 1 + p +2 arc tan p==%,,
P
that is, p = 0.39 .

In conclusion, we shall prove one more theorem:
Theorem 7.3) Suppose that f(z) and F(z) are defined and regular in I z I < 1
and that F(z) is univalent in that disk. Suppose that f(0) = F(0) = 0, that
arg f'(0) = arg F'(0), and that f (z) -< F (z). Then, in the disk I z < 0.12. . . ,
we have I f ' (z)I < IF '(z)I with equality holding only for f(z) = F(z).4)
1) Goluzin [1951b]. <See editor's footnote on p. 374).)

2) Biernacki [193t and Goluzin [1939c]
3) Goluzin [1951b].
4) (Xia Dao-xing has shownthat the best constant here is the number 3 -y (see §3,
subsection 30 of the supplement))
Proof. Since the function F(z) = clz + is regular and univalent in I z I< 1,
the same is true of the function
C+Z
G(C)=F
F
it1-z) F( =C+...,
F' _(z) (1- I Z J')
(19)
for arbitrary z such that z I < 1. Therefore, in I Cl < 1, we have

(1I +It
1JCI'
If we substitute equation (19) into this inequality and set c_ (x - z)/(1 - F x),
where I x I < 1, we obtain
1x-z
F'(x)
F (z) G-I 1+I1-zxl 1-lzls
xx=z 1JxJ9' (20)
Now, let f(z) and F(z) denote the pair of functions mentioned in the theorem
and suppose that f(z) = F(O(z)). If we represent the function cb(z) in the form
p(z) Z' 1+a ((z)), a= (0)-0,

we easily conclude that co(z) satisfies the conditions of the Schwarz lemma.
Lei's\us set x = O(z) in (20). Keeping in mind the fact that
(!I-,Z r(1-a)I1-wI
1 -z z)I-I 1-ar°-ico (a-r')I
r( 1-a) 1 IwI'-2
(1-ar')'--1_I w I' (a-r')°+2 (1-art) (a - ra) X
where z = r and R(w(z)) = A, and also the fact that the numerator of the deriv-
ative of the radicand with respect to A can be reduced to the form
(1-r')(1+a) (l__IcuI9 a-r9\
1-ar ` 1-ar
and hence is negative for a < 1 and r < 1, we obtain
(p(z)-z r(1-a) (1+I)I)
1-up(z) C1-ar'-Ito (a-r')
r(1-a)(1--fir) _
C 1-ar'-ar+r° r(1-a)
- 1+r,-r(l+a)
for x I< I co I< r. Consequently, (20) yields
r(1-a) '
F' (z)) 1+ 1 1-r'
F'(z) C 1
r(1-a)
- 1+r'-r(1+a) /
that is
F' (gyp (z)) 1-r'
I
F (z) (1--r'-2r) 1-Ip19'
On the other hand, we have the familiar inequalities
IzI < 1, where 01(z) = z-10(z) = a.... On the basis of these inequalities,
we have, in i z I < 1,
+1-r
r 9
1-r a
rI,,U
a + r
1-ICI r+1+ar 1-ITI'
1+r1'P,I 1+r a+r 1-r'
1 +ar
that is,
(z) < a 1+ r' + 2arr 1 1 I r' (22)
If we multiply (21) and (22) and set a = (1 + r2)/2r, a > 1, we obtain

f' (z) I (a-¢ ' aa+1
F'(z) Cà-1) a+a (23)
Here, the sign- of the derivative with respect to a of the right-hand member coin-
cides with the sign of the polynomial
p(a)=a8-3a-(3a8+1)a-2aas.
For 0 <a<1,
p(a):p(1)a8-3a8-5a-1=(a+ 1)(a8-4a-1),
so that, if a Z - 4a - 1 > 0, that is, if a > 2 + V5, we have p (a) > 0 in 0 < a < 1
and, consequently, the right-hand member of (23) is an increasing function of a.
But it is equal to unity for a= 1. This shows that I j' (z)j 2 + J5,
that is, if r < 0.12. Equality holds only when a= 1, that is, only when O(z) = z,
so that f(z) = F(z). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Remark. Consider the two functions
F(z)=(lz) f(z)=F(zi+ z), 0<a<1,

which satisfy the conditions of Theorem 7. We have
r _1-r2 as+1 l+r2

4r8
(a + a)e, a = 2r
The function f' (r) as a function of a has a derivative equal to (a - 3)/(a + 1)4
at a= 1. If a < 3, that is, if r > 3 - V1*81 this derivative is negative for a= 1.
Consequently, for a less than but sufficiently close to unity, we have I f (r) I >
I F '(z) I . From this we conclude that the inequality If' (z) I < IF '(z) I is not
always satisfied under the conditions of Theorem 7 if z is such that I z I > 3 -
V8 = 0.17 . If we make the additional requirement that the function f (z) in
Theorem 7 be univalent in I z I < 1, then the inequality I j'(z) I < I F '(z) I holds
in the disk I-z I < 3 - fe though not always in a larger disk. l)
1) Goluzin [19511].
CHAPTER IX
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

FOR ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS DEFINED ON A DISK 1)
§1. Limiting values of Poisson's integral

As we know, an integral of the form
2z
u(r, 9)=2_ f(t)P(r, t - e)dt, (1)
where
co
P (r, B)=1-2rcos9+r'=I+2 I r"cosn6 (2)
is called Poisson's integral.

In the case in which a real function f(t) is continuous for all real values of
t and has period 2n, the integral (1) yields the solution of the classical Dirichlet
problem for the disk ICI < 1, where c = re' This solution is a harmonic function
in the open disk ICI < 1, it is continuous in the closed disk ICI < 1, and it as-
sumes the values f(O) on the circle ICI = I. In this section, we shall study Pois-
son's integral under less stringent conditions imposed on the function f(t).
Let f(t) denote an arbitrary real function that is summable in (0, 2n) and
that has period 2n. Obviously, the function u(r, 0) defined 2) by the integral (1)
is again a harmonic function in the disk ICI < 1. Then we have
1) Strictly speaking, this chapter is not a part of the geometric theory of functions.
However, the information contained in it will be used to a considerable extent in the fol-
lowing chapter.
2)In this and the following chapters, a familiarity with the fundamentals of the theory
of functions of a real variable is assumed. Thus the integral (1) is understood in the
sense of Lebesgue. Also, because of the periodicity of f(t), we can displace the interval
(0, 277) and hence we can interpret the integral as being over the circle I CI = 1.
380
§1. LIMITING VALUES OF POISSON'S INTEGRAL 381
Theorem I. If the function f (O) is continuous at 0 = 00, then u (r, 0)

f(00) as C= rei0 approaches the point e`00 by any mode of approach through
points in the open disk < 1.
Proof. For given e > 0, we take 8 in the interval 0 < S < n such that
f(t) - f(00)I < E/2 whenever I t - 001 < S. Suppose that 10 - 00I < 8/2. Then,
since
2n
c P(r, t-O)dt=1,
2x a'
(3)
we have
2n
u (r, 6) --f (00) = - (f (t) -f &)) P (r, t - e) dt.

I
Let us partition the integral on the right into two integrals I1 and I2' the first
over he arc (00 - S, 00 + 8) and the second over the remaining arc A of the
circleIC I = 1. Noting that P(r, 0) > 0 in the disk ICI < 1, we obtain
Ap+b 2n
I1tI=4n S P(r, t-6)dt_ P(r, t-0)dt= 2.

00-a
Since I t - 01 > 8/2 on A and hence, P(r, t - 0) < P(r, 8/2), we have
1-ra
1121- 2n S If(t)I dt.
1-- 2r cos
2
+ r'
This shows that I2 0 as r -s 1. Consequently, there exists an rt > 0 such
that 1121 < e/2 whenever r > 1 - ri. Consequently, for r > 1 - n and 10 - 001 <
8/2, we have I u (r, 0) - f (00)1 < c, which completes the proof of the theorem.
As a consequence of Theorem 1, we obtain the familiar theorem that, if the
function f(t) is continuous for all t, then the function u(r, 0) defined on the
circle ICI = 1 as the limit of u(r, 0) when the approach is through points inside
the disk I CI < 1 is continuous on I C I < 1 and u (l, 0) = f(0). On the other hand,
if f (0) is continuous on some arc of the circle I C I = 1, then the function u (r, 0)
defined on that arc as the limit of u (r, 0) when the approach is through points inside
the disk I C I < 1 will be continuous in the union of the open disk I < 1 and the
I
set of interior points of that arc.

Theorem 2. If a function f(0) has a finite derivative at 0 = 00, then
au(r, 0)/a0 - f'(00) as t;'= re`' approaches the point e`00 through points in
382 IX. BOUNDARY PROBLEMS FOR ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
the open disk JCI < 1 along any nontangential path (that is, a path that lies in
ie0
some angle with vertex at e that, sufficiently close to eie0, lies entirely in-
side the disk ICI < I).
Proof. Let us first prove the theorem for the case of a function f(0) that is
linear in the interval (a, a + 27r): f(0) = A0 + B and that is extended as a periodic
function outside that interval. Then, from (1) we obtain
:du(, 0)= 1 a 2f(t)dp(r, t--0)dt=- Sexf(t)dP(r, 0)

2 a t dt
a a
(f (a -}- 21r - 0) -f (a -{- 0)) P (r, a - 0)

a+2x
} 2n f'(t)P(r, t-0)dO=-AP(r, a.-O)+A.
a
It follows that, for a < 00 < a + 2n, the derivative au (r, 0)1x0 --. A as rei0
e`00 along any path leading to the point e`60 from inside Icl < 1.
Let us turn now to the general case. It follows from (1) that
2x
f (t) P (r, t - 0) I - 2r2rcos

sin (t - 0)
du (r, 0) 1
d9 = 2a (t - 0) r' dt. (4)
Let us denote by uI(r, 0) the function obtained from (1) if we replace f(t) with
the linear function f(00) + (t - 00)f'(00 ) in the interval (a, a + 277), where eai
e` e 0 and extended as a periodic function outside that interval. From what we
have shown, au, (r, 0)100 - f'(00) as re` a -__, e`0o.
Now, from (4) and the same relationship applied to u 1(r, 0) we obtain, re-
membering the periodicity of f (o),
a+ 2x
du (r, 0)
de - du, (r, 0)
de - 1
T7C
a
S
r f (t) -f (00)
l t - 0o
- f' (00))
X P (r, t - 6) 1-2r2r
(t - 00) sin (t -- 0)
cos (t - 0) -f- r' d t (5)
Let us show that the last factor in the integrand in this equation is bounded
for t E (a, a + 277) if rece is sufficiently close to e`0b and lies in an angle with
vertex at a `90 and sides making angles `0.0, where 0 < a 0 < n/2, with the tan-
gent to the circle Cl I= 1 at the point a
We write this factor as follows:
§1. LIMITING VALUES OF POISSON'S INTEGRAL 383
sin (t
Q= 2r (t et 00). ret ° 0)
(6)
But j," - re`BI = Ie'('-'9) - rl > Isin(t - 0)I (this last is obtained by replacing
the absolute value of the expression as a whole with the absolute value of the im-
aginary part). Consequently,
2rIt-00I[
F9_'1__ Well
Furthermore, if we assume for the moment that I t - 001 < a.0 and note that
x
reie=etB se 2 e 0, a0<a--- a- MO,
we have
g°+.+2)lei x
{e'r-re`BI-Iett-eIBO-seI
t
sin t 2 00 -E I 2 1 sin (a - 2 00 1
t-00 2sin (a02) It2e°l= 2

x sin
2
sin It -Ool
(again the same sort of substitution). Consequently,
QL
sin. 2
that is, Q is bounded for It- 001 < a0. If re`B is sufficiently close to e`BO,
that is, if e < E0, then Q is bounded on the remaining part of the interval a < t <
a + 21r because the denominator in (6) is then bounded below. Thus, for C < co
and all t, we have IQ I < Q0. Therefore, we obtain from (5)
du (r, 0)
d0
- du, (r, 0)
d0
I
C Q0
21c
a+ 2,g
S
f (t) -f (00) -f (go) I
t-00 I
(r, t - 8) dt.
a
But Theorem 1 is applicable to this integral because f' (00) exists and hence the
first factor in the integrand approaches 0 as t - 00. Thus, this integral itself
approaches 0 as a -' 0, that is, as rei0--. e'B0 in the angle in question.
Therefore, by passing to the limit, we have
du
lira (r' 0) = lim du, do
(r' 0) =f' (00),
de
which completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 3. If the value of the function f(0) in (1) at 0 = 00 is finite and
equal to 0 = 00:(d/de) fof Wdt = f(0) 100 then u(r, 0) --+ f(0o) as t = re`0
approaches the point eie0 along an arbitrary nontangential path from inside
Iii < 1.
Proof. Suppose that .0 0 - 2n < a < 00. We define the function F(0) in the
interval a < 0 < a + 21r by the formula
a
F(8)=Sf(0)A
a
and then extend it as a periodic function. Then, F' (00) = f(00). If we now inte-
grate (1) by parts, we obtain
tt(r, 0)=2-F(t)P(r, t-0)l a+ 27c

- 2rz
a+2n
C F (t) aP (r, t-0) dt = 1 P (r, a-0)
a
a+2: 2,c
X S f (0) d0 + ae an F (t) P (r, t - 0) dt,
and Theorem 3 is obtained on the basis of Theorem 2.

Since f(0) is equal almost everywhere in (0, 20 to the derivative of F(0),
Theorem 3 leads to the important
Corollary 1. Poisson's integral (1) has almost everywhere on the circle
JCI = 1 limiting values equal to f(0) along all nontangential paths.
An analogous result holds for the more general integral, known as the Poisson-
Stieltjes integral
2x
it (r, 0) = 2' P (r, t - 0) da (t), (7)

d'
where a(t) is a function of bounded variation in the interval (0, 27T), which can
always be extended as a periodic function outside that interval. "Specifically,
Specifically,
1) The integral (1) can be regarded as the integral (7) with a(t) = fo f (t) dt. This
follows from the properties of a Stieltjes integral.
§2. REPRESENTATION OF HARMONIC FUNCTIONS 385
repeating the same reasoning as above, we can prove

Theorem 4. If the function a(t) in (7) has a finite derivative at 0 = 00
where 0 < 00 "< 2n, then u(r, 0) --s a'(00) as C= rei9 approaches e`B0 along
any nontangential path in JCI < 1.
Since a(t) has a derivative almost everywhere in (0, 27r), we obtain, as be-
fore,
Corollary 2. The Poisson-Stieltjes integral (7) has almost everywhere on

JCJ = 1 limiting values equal to a'(0) along all nontangential paths.
All the theorems of this section are due to Fatou, 11 who initiated the in-
vestigation of the boundary properties of analytic functions.
§2. The representation of harmonic functions

by means of Poisson's integral and the Poisson-Stieltjes integral
In this section, we shall take up questions of the possibility of representing
harm nic functions by means of Poisson's integral and the Poisson-Stieltjes in-
tegra. The answers to these questions involve special classes of harmonic func-
tions tr which we shall introduce special notation. Specifically, we denote by
h, where p > 0, the class of functions u (r, 0) that are harmonic in the disk
< 1 and have the property that the integral
2x
S I it (r, 0) Ip dO (1)
0
is bounded for 0 < r < 1. It follows from the obvious inequality x" < 1 + x',
which holds for 0 < p' 0, that, if u (r, 0) E hp, then a (r, 0) E
hp so that the class hp is broadened with decreasing p.
We begin with the representation of harmonic functions by means of a
Poisson-Stieltjes integral. To do this, we need as a lemma the following
Theorem 1 (Helly). Every uniformly bounded infinite family { f (x){ of real
functions that is of uniformly bounded variation 21 in the interval (a, b) contains
a sequence that converges at all except possibly countably many 3) points in (a, b)
to a function of bounded variation.
Proof. Obviously, it will be sufficient to consider the case in which all the
1) Fatou [1906].
2) This means that the total variations of all the functions in the interval (a, b) are
bounded by the same finite number.
3)Helly's theorem still holds even without this exception.
functions f(x) are nondecreasing in the interval (a, b). 1) Consider the set of all
rational points in (a, b) and arrange them in a sequence r1, r2, .
By using a diagonalization process, we can select from the family (f(x)1 a

sequence fk (x), for k = 1, 2, , that converges at all the points r1, r2, .
Let us show that this sequence converges not only at these points but everywhere
in (a, b) except possibly at countably many points. Let a denote a positive num-
ber. We assert that the set of points x in (a, b) for which
lim fk(x) - limfk(x):e (2)

k-.oo k_oo
is a countable set. If this were not the case, the set of these points would have
a cluster point and hence it would contain a monotonic, let us say increasing,
sequence of points xn, where n = 1, 2, .. Between each pair (xv, x,+1)'
v = 1, 2, , there would be a rational number rnv at which the sequence ifk(x)1
converges. By setting limk,. fk (rnv ) = f(rnv ), we obtain
f(r) -f (rnv_)= Jim fk (rny) - limk-oo

fk (rni_1)
k-.oo
lira fk (x') - lira fk (x,): E,
k_oo k-oo
v = 1, 2, . Consequently, f(r) > f(r) + (v + 1) e, that is, f(r) oo as
v --+ oo. But this is impossible because of the uniform boundedness of the func-
tions f(z). By giving e a sequence of values ev that approach zero and choosing
all points for which (2) holds with different ev , we see that fk (x) converges
everywhere in (a, b) except possibly at a countable set E of points. The limit-
ing function f (x) is defined and monotonic on the set (a, b) - E. Consequently,
at points of the set E it has left- and right-hand limits. If we define the value
of the function f(x) at points x in E as the arithmetic mean of these limits, we
obtain a function f (x) that is defined and monotonic throughout the interval
(a, b). Also, fn (x) -+ f(x) in (a, b) except possibly at countably many points.
Regarding the representability of harmonic functions by means of a Poisson-
Stieltjes integral, we have
Theorem 2. ') For a function u(r, 0) that is harmonic in the disk JCJ < 1 to
1)This is true because every function of bounded variation can be represented as the
difference of two nondecreasing functions and the total variation of each of these func-
tions does not exceed the total variation of the given function.
2)Plessner [1923].
be representable in that disk by means of the Poisson-Stieltjes integral (7) of §1,

where a(t) is a function of bounded variation, it is necessary and sufficient that
u(r, 0) belong,to h1. For u(r, 0) to have such a representation in the disk <1
when the function a(t) is nondecreasing, it is necessary and sufficient that
u(r, 0) > 0 in I[; I < 1.
Proof. 1°. If equation (7) holds for u(r, 0) in ICI < 1, by representing the
function a(t) as a difference of two nondecreasing functions, we also represent
the function u(r, 0) in that disk as a difference of two nonnegative harmonic func-
tions. -Let us denote these by u1(r, 0) and u2(r, 0). Then, for arbitrary r in the
interval 0 < r < 1, we have
2% 2' tic
I u (r, 0) I A S u1(r, 0) de -F- S u2 (r, 0) de = 2-n (ut (0) + U2 (0)),. (3)
0 or 0
Hers and in what follows, we shall write u(r, 0)I=U = u(0). Then it follows that
u(r,Eh1.
2b. Conversely, let us suppose that u(r, 0) E h1. Consider the function
a, (0)401 u(r, t) dt which depends on the parameter r, where 0 < r < 1. Since
Ia,(e) S u(r, t)IdtCM

0
and
n n Ok+1
ar (0k) - Qtr (0k+1) I c 1
S
tt (r, t) dt 1 c 2ivM,
k=1 h=1 ek
0-01<0$<...<0,,,+1=2v,
where M is finite and independent of r and 0, the set of functions a,(0), for
0 < r < 1, is uniformly bounded and of uniformly bounded variation with respect
to r for 0 < r < 21r. Consequently, if we take a sequence of functions a (0),
Pk
k = 1 , 2, , pk -+ 1, we can, in accordance with Helly's theorem, take a subse-
quence aP,k (0) that converges everywhere in (0, 2rr) except possibly at count-
ably many points to a function a(0) of bounded variation. Let us now fix the
point C = re`6 and let us suppose that r < pk K. Then, in accordance
with Poisson's ordinary formula we have, for k > K,
u (r, 0)
Zn
2x
Pk''
u (pk, t) pk9 - 2p kr cos (t- 0) -}- r9 A
If we integrate by parts, we obtain
Pk' - r'
27ru (r, e) = aPk (27t) Pks - 2pkr cos 9 -}- r°
2x q
!
Pk - l
aPk (t) at pill -26 r cos (t - 9) dt.
0
If we now take the limit as k -+ o and remember that aP,k (2n) = 277u(0) = a(2n),
we have
2x
2nu (r, 0) = a (2a) P (r, 0) - a (t) aP (rdt - e) dt.
Inverse integration by parts now yields formula (7) of §1. This completes the
proof of the first part of the theorem. The second part is proved analogously.
Corollary 1. For a function u(r, 0) to belong to the class hi, it is neces-
sary and sufficient that it have a representation in ICI < 1 in the form of the dif-
ference of two nonnegative harmonic functions.
Proof. Suppose that u (r, h) E h I Then, u (r, h) can be represented in ICI < 1
in accordance with formula (7) of §1. Consequently, as was shown above, it can
be represented in the form of the difference required. The converse follows from (3).
Corollary 2.I If a function u(r, 0) belongs to the class h I, it has definite'
limiting values constituting a boundary function u(9) almost everywhere on the
circle ICI = 1.
This follows from the theorem just proved and Theorem 4 of §1.
To establish conditions for representability of harmonic functions by means
of Poisson's integral and for many other questions that will concern us later.on,
we need to have some auxiliary inequalities, which we shall now prove. We shall
use the generally accepted notation. Specifically, we shall write Ax) E L" on E
(where p > 0 and E is a linear space) to indicate that I f(x)I" is summable on E.
For p = 1, we shall write simply L instead of L I.
Holder's inequality. If g (x) E L" and h (x) E L 9 on E, where p > 1, q > 1,
and 1/p,+ 1/q = 1, then g(x)h(x) CL on E and
Sg(x)h(x)dxI _(SIg(x)IPd.c)h/P(SIh(x)Igdx) '1Q. (4)

Proof. We note that, if a, b, a and ig are all positive and a + 8 = 1, then

aa'b,8 < as + 13 b. (5)
To see this, note that the function 0 (x) = b,8xa - ax - 3b increases in the inter-
val 0 < x o.
Since S6(b) = 0, it follows that O(x) < 0 for 0 < x < b; this proves (5) for a > b.
By reversing the roles of a and b, we can prove (5) in an analogous manner for
a < b. Let us replace a, 8, a and b in (5) with l/p, l/q, ap and bg. Then, for
a, b, p and q all positive with 1/p + l/q = 1, we have the inequality
.ab p ap + bq (6)
Now, since the functions I g (x)I 1 and I h (x)I q are summable on E, it follows
from 'o) that g(x) h(x) is summable. Furthermore, from (6) we have
11
I g (x) I I h (x) I dx
g(x)IPdx)'IP ((Ih(x)Igdx)'lq
i g (x) IP .+ 1 I h (x) I g dx,
Y SIg(x)IPdx
E
that is, we obtain inequality (4). It is easy to show that equality holds in (4) only
when I g (x) I P = A I h (x)I ' everywhere on E for some constant A.
Minkowski's inequality. If g(x) E LP and h (x) E LP on E, where p > 1,
we have
I g(x)+h(x)I"dx) "n (7)

E E E
Proof. By using (4), we have
51 9(x) +h (x) IPdx- S I g(x) I I g(x)+h (x) IP-t dx

E
+Sih(x)I g(x)+h(x)IP-'dx
(SIg(x)IPdx)' (SIg(x)+h(x)Iq(p-1)dx) '1q
+(S I h (x) Ipdx)''P (S i g(x)+h (x) Iq(p-t) dx)11q.

E E
Since q(p - 1) = p, this leads after some simplification to inequality (7). In

accordance with the remark concerning inequality (4), it follows that equality
holds in (7) only when g (x) = kh (x) on E for some constant X.
Using Holder's and Minkowski's inequalities, let us establish a test for the
possibility of taking the limit under the Lebesgue integral sign. Specifically,
If a sequence of functions fn (X)' for n = 1, 2, , defined on E approaches
a limit function f(x) almost everywhere on E and if
SIf, (x)1 dxcM,
F,
where p > 1 and M is finite and independent of n, then
Jim S fn (x) dx = S f (x) dx. (8)

n-oo E E
Proof. In accordance with a familiar lemma of Fatou, we have the inequality
SIf(x)V'dxc lim SIfn.(x)IPdx,

E n-+00 E
from which it follows that f(x) C LP on E. Furthermore, by applying the inequal-

ities that we have proved, we see that, for an arbitrary set e C E,
S (f (x) - f (x)) dx l C S I fn (x) - f (x) I dx

e
(S I fn (x) -f (x) IP dx)"P (mes e)li4

(mes e)'/a [(S I fn (x) I P dx)' IP
0
+ (S I f (x) I P dx)'/p11 (mes e) 11q . 2M 1/P,
By making mes e sufficiently small, we can make the right-hand member of this
inequality arbitrarily small independently of n. And this, in accordance with a
familiar test for the possibility of taking the limit under the Lebesgue integral
sign, yields (8).
Let us now turn to the representation of functions that are harmonic in 4 <
1 by means of Poisson's integral (1) of §1. We note first of all that not every
function u(r, 0) that can be represented in the form (7) of §1 can also be repre-
sented in the form (1) of §1.
For example, the function
u(r, 0)= (1+1)
which is harmonic and nonnegative in ICI < 1, by Theorem 2 can be represented in

the form (7) of §1. But its limiting values on the circle It; l = 1 are equal to zero
everywhere except at the point C= 1. Therefore, if it could be represented in the
form (1) of §1, we would have f(t) = 0 in (0, '2n) in accordance with Theorem 1
of §1 and hence we would have u(r, 0) = 0 in ICI < 1, which is impossible. We
do have 1)
Theorem 3. For a function u(r, 0) that is harmonic in the disk ICI < 1 to
have a representation in the disk ICI < 1 by means of a Poisson integral (1) of
§1, where f(t) E L°, where p > 1, in (0, 2n), it is necessary and sufficient that
u(r,0)Elhp.
Proof of the sufficiency. If u (r, 0) E hp, where p > 1, then u(r, 0) E h and, in
accord ce with Corollary 2 to Theorem 1, we conclude that u (r, 0) has almost
everywhere on the circle ICI = 1 limiting values along all nontangential paths, and
in particular along the radii. Furthermore, these limiting values define a function
u (0) C L° cause, by Fatou's lemma,
2x 2x
S I u (6) Ip dA - lim S I u (r, 0) Ip d0.

0 r-1 0
Consider Poisson's formula
u(r, 0)zi
In
u(p, t)
'-r'p'-2prcos(t-e)--r'dt, r<F<I. (9)
Since the fraction in the integrand is bounded as p -, 1 and since

2x
S Iu(p, 0)IpdOcM
0
for 0 < p < 1, we may take the limit in (9) under the integral sign as p-.1. As
a result, we obtain
2x
tt (r, 0) = 2 u (t) P (r, t - 0) dt,
I) The question of the representability of u(r, B) by means of Poisson's integral (1)

of §1 with f(t) E L has also been solved, but the complete result is complicated to for-
mulate.
in ICI < 1; that is, we have the representation (1) of §1 with f(t) = u(t) 6 L.
Proof of the necessity. Suppose that equation (1) of §1 holds in the disk
ICI < 1 with f(t) C GP, where p > 1. Then, by applying Holder's inequality (again,
1/p + 1/q = 1), we have
2x 2x 2x
I u (r, 6) IP de
{2a
If (t) I P (r, t - B) dt]9 d6
2z 2x
_ (21)P
f (t) I P11P (r, t - 0). PI /Q (r, t - 8) dt] P d6
2x 2x 2x
2a
If(t)I"P(r, t-0)dtde;--= f(t) j" dt,
in ICI < 1. Consequently, u(r, 0) E hp. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Finally, let us pose the question: What conditions must a function u(r, 0)
that is harmonic in the disk ICI < 1 satisfy for its harmonic conjugate v(r, 0) to
have a representation in accordance with Poisson's formula in ICI < 1?
A sufficient condition can be obtained from Theorem 2 and the following
theorem.
Theorem 4. I) If u(r, 0) E hP, where p > 1, then v(r, 0) E hp.
The proof of this theorem is rather complicated if p / 2. Therefore, we shall
not present the proof in the general case. 2) In the case p = 2, it follows easily
from Parseval's formula applied to the expansions
u (r, 8) = ao + Z (anrn cos n8 - barn sin n8),

n=1
00
v (r, 8) = bo + Z (burn cos n8 + anrn sin n8),

n=1
which constitute the real and imaginary parts of the Taylor expansion
00
a + Iv = E (Qn + tbn) (n.
n=0
Specifically, in this case, we have
1)M. Riesz [1927].

2) A proof can be found, for example, in the book by Zygmund [ 1959].
§3. LIMITING VALUES OF ANALYTIC FUNC'T'IONS
393
21c 2a
Iv(r, 8)I1 d8= S Iu(r, 6)11 d8-2,t(a09 -bo).

0 0
In conclusion, we note that the representation (1) of §1 is simply Poisson's
formula
2a
it (r, 0) = 2n u (t) P (r, t - 0) dt, (10)
which gives the value of a harmonic function u(r, 0) in ICI < 1 in terms of the
limiting values of u (t) along nontangential paths. This follows from the fact that,
in accordance with Theorem 3 of §1, we have f (O) = u(0) almost everywhere on
the circle ICI = 1. Therefore, Theorem 2 can also be regarded as giving a suffi-
cient condition for applicability of Poisson's formula (10) to u(r, 0). This condi-
tion is expressed in terms of the membership of u(r, 0) in the class hP, where
p>1.
§3. The limiting values of analytic functions
Using the preceding results regarding harmonic functions, we can easily de-
rive a very simple result regarding the existence of limiting values of analytic
functions.
Specifically, suppose that a function f(C) is regular and bounded in I C I < 1.
Then, its real and imaginary parts represent bounded harmonic functions in I C I < 1
which belong, in particular, to the class h1. In accordance with §2, these func-
tions have definite limiting values almost everywhere on ICI = 1 as C approaches
this circle along nontangential paths. Therefore, f(C) also has definite limiting
values along nontangential paths almost everywhere on that circle. These limit-
ing values define a function on ICJ = 1, which we shall denote by f(C) or by
f(e`0) where J= e`0.
This very simple result can now be generalized to the class N (introduced
by R. Nevanlinna) of functions f(C) that are regular in the disk ICI < 1 and that
can be represented in that disk in the form of the ratio of two bounded functions:
f(C)=`f ) (1)
We can always assume that and fi(C) are bounded in absolute value by
unity in the disk < I.
I I
Another way of characterizing the class N is on the basis of Nevanlinna's theorem:

Theorem 1. For a function f(c) / 0 to belong to the class N, it is necessary
and sufficient that the integral
2x
+
log If (rei) I dO (2)
0
be bounded by some constant M for 0 < r < I.

Proof. 1) If the function f(C) / 0 belongs to the class N, that is, if it can be
represented in the form of the ratio (1) with Io(t;)I < 1 and I(C)I < 1 in the disk
ICI < 1, then, since If(C)I < 1/Ii/,(C)I in that disk, we have
2x + 2x
log If (rei°) I A log 14' (re'°) I d6. (3)

0 0
Now, if ,/i (C) = c.C' + cm Cm+1 + ...,where m> 0, then in accordance with
+1
Jensen's formula as applied to the function ,/i(C)/C'", we have, for 0 < r < 1,
2
r
2 S log(retB)Id6-log Ic,,, + logICkl+mlogr. (4)
0 0<ICkI r
Here, the C. denote the zeros of the function O(C) in 0 < It; I < 1 and the sum
is over all the zeros of 4,(C) that lie in 0 < I C I < r. Since the right-hand mem-
ber of (4) is a nondecreasing function of r in 0 < r < 1, the right-hand member.,
of (3) is a nonincreasing function of r and, consequently, is bounded above in
0 < r < 1. This shows that the integral (2) is bounded in the interval 0 < r < 1.
Conversely, suppose now that the function f (C) J 0 is such that the integral
(2) is bounded for 0 < r < 1. Then, in accordance with the Jensen-Schwarz for-
mula, we have in ICI < 1
2w
r 9C - Ck)
logf (C) _ log
r -CkC + 2a S log If (re") I reiT C d6 -}- IC,
0
ICkI<r
where C is a real constant. This can be represented in the form
f (C) _ _r (r) (5)

9r (C) '
where we set
1) The proof given here differs only slightly from the proof of the more general Theo-
rem 1 of §5 of Chapter VII.
§3. LIMITING VALUES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 395
zx
-k r log+ 1 { reie +C
r (C-Ck) e 0
J(re10) I rata-C
CC
ICkI<r r
2x
- S log If(ree) I rate dC
The functions Or(C) and '/!r (C) are regular in ICI < r, also 1 and
(C) < 1 in that disk. If we take a sequence of numbers rk in the interval 0 <
rk < 1 that approaches 1 as k - Do, we can, on the basis of the condensation
principle, choose a subsequence {q,rk# (C)} from the sequence that con-
verges uniformly inside the disk ICI < 1 to a regular function 0 i( ). Also,
I S(C)I < 1 in I C I < 1. Since the values of r (0)I, for k = 1, 2,
I
, are bounded
below by a positive quantity independent of k, it follows that i# (C) A 0. It fol-
lows from (5) that the sequence JO k,(C)I converges in ICI < 1 to some function
(C is regular in ICI < 1; also (C)I < 1 in ICI < 1. This completes the
I

From the representation (1) for the functions f(c) 0 in the class N for 0 <
r < 1, we have
21c 2x 2.
S I log I f (reie) I I dO I log l y (re') I I dB -}- 5 I log I' (re") I I d9
0 0 0
2x 2x
s log I y (rei°) I d9 - s log I (re'B)I d6,

0 0
and, as in the first part of the proof of Theorem 1, the last two integrals do not
decrease in the interval 0 < r < 1. Therefore, not only the integral (2) but also
the integral
2x
S I log If (reie) I I de (6)

0
for 0 < r < 1 is bounded by a finite quantity independent of r. This property of

functions belonging to the class N will now be of use to us.
Theorem 2. If a function f(c) J 0 belongs to the class N, it has definite
limiting values f(e`9) almost everywhere on the circle ICI = 1 along all nontan-
gential paths. Furthermore, Ilogl f(e`9)II is summable on ICI = 1.
Proof. If a function f(c) E N, not identically zero, is bounded in 1,
then, as was noted above, it has almost everywhere on ICI = 1 definite limiting
values f(ei0) along all nontangential paths, and, in particular, along radial paths.
In accordance with Fatou's lemma, we have
2a 2a
S I log If (e') I dO Cr urn S I log If (re's) I I A.

I
(7)
In accordance with what was said regarding the integral (6), the right-hand member
of this inequality is bounded.
Consequently, Ilogl f(e`0)II is summable on ICI = 1. But then, the values of
log I f(e`g) I are finite almost everywhere on 1; that is, the values of f(e`B)
are almost everywhere nonzero on I cI = 1.
Now, if f(C) J 0 is an arbitrary function belonging to the class N, then in
its representation (1) the functions q(C) and O(C) have almost everywhere on
ICI = I definite limiting values along nontangential paths and these limiting
values are nonzero almost everywhere. But then the function f (C) has almost
everywhere on ICI = I definite limiting values f(e`0). If we again apply Fatou's
lemma to the integral (6), we conclude that Iloglf(e`B)II is summable on Ill = 1.
The finite limiting values of the function f(C) E N along nontangential
paths, which exist almost everywhere on 1, will now be called its boundary
values.
As a consequence of Theorem 2, we have the following uniqueness theorem.
Theorem 3. I) If two functions fI(C) and f2(C) E N have the same boundary
values on a set E of positive measure on the circle ICI = 1, they are identically
equal in the disk ICI < 1.
Proof. Obviously f(C) = fl(C) - fZ(C) E N. If f(C) 0 in ICI < 1, then, by
Theorem 2, Iloglf(e`B)II is finite almost everywhere on CI = 1; that is, f(e`B)
is finite and nonzero almost everywhere on It;I = 1. This contradicts the condi-
tion according to which f(ei9) = 0 almost everywhere on E (except at points at
which f, (C) = f 2 (0 = °O)'
In connection with the boundary values of functions in the class N, we also
have the following convergence theorem:
1) This theorem is a special case of a general theorem of Privalov, which will be

treated in §2 of Chapter IX.
Theorem 4. 1) Let If,, (C)j denote a sequence of functions that are regular in
the interval ICI < 1. Suppose that there exists a single finite constant M such
that for every n and for 0 < r < 1,
2a +
S log I fn (re`°) I dO M. (8)

0
Suppose that the sequence Ifn(C)I converges at all points belonging to a subset
E of positive measure of the circle ICI = 1. Then this sequence converges uni-
formly in the disk ICI < 1 to a function belonging to the class N.
Proof. If we take the real parts in formula (5) and note that the first two
terms o%
oethe
the right are nonpositive for ICI < r, we obtain in any disk ICI < r,
where r < 1,
\
logIf(C)I<2s log If(re`) I51 1ret± d9. (9)
If we apply this inequality to the functions f, (C) and use inequality (8), we ob-
tain the result that, in such a disk
loglfa(C) r+ItI
r ItlM
If we fix C in the disk I I < I and let r approach 1, we obtain the inequality
1+1CIM
If.(C)I<el-ICI
This inequality shows that the functions ff (C) are uniformly bounded inside the
disk ICI < 1. Let us suppose now that they do not converge throughout ICI < 1.
Then, just as in the proof of Vitali's theorem (§2 of Chapter I), they contain two
subsequences) &,k(C)1 and for k = 1, 2, .. that converge in ICI < 1 to
distinct functions that are regular in that disk. By hypothesis, the sequence of
the differences fk (0 = f° 'k (0 - fn"k (0 converges on the set E to zero and it
converges in ICI < 1 to a function q (c) A 0. Furthermore, since 2)
1) This theorem was proved by Hincin [1924] for uniformly bounded functions and
later generalized by Ostrowski.
2)This is true because, for arbitrary positive numbers a1 and a2,
log (a, + a2) C log (2 max ak) = max log (2ak) <C max (log a,, + log 2).
k=1, 2 *=- 1. 2 k-t, 2
E log a, } log a9 ± log 2.
log I (c) I < log Ifnk(C) I + log l l n t (C) I + log 2,
we obtain from condition (8), for k = 1, 2, and 0 < r < 1,

2s
log lpn (reiB) I dA ` 2M -}-log 2. (10)

2x S
0
On the basis of Fatou's lemma, we conclude from this, in particular, that 0(c) C
Let us now apply inequality (9) to the functions 0n(C). Since for arbitrary real a
we have a= 2a - l a 1, it follows that, for l l < r,
log I'Pn (C) l <2. 2u 2s log I pn (re") I fresh) A

2n
( reie dA
log Ipn (re') I I U
2%
r+iCi2(2M-+ -log2)r+ICI 2u ) IlogIpn(fe`B)IIdA.
Then, for any fixed C in 1, we obtain, letting r approach 1 and again

using Fatou's lemma,
2n
logIT.(C)I_i±ICI2(2M-+ -log2)-1+ICl loglpn(e,e)IIdA.
2n S
0
If we let n approach -o in this inequality, the integral on the right approaches

by virtue of Fatou's lemma because (b(e`0) = 0 on E and mes E > 0. This shows
that 0,(C) 0 in the entire disk ICI < 1. But this contradicts what was said
earlier about / (C). Thus the sequence { fn (t) S converges uniformly in the disk
1C1 < 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
We now consider another very important question associated with the zeros
of analytic functions. Let f(C) denote a function that is regular in ICI < 1. The
question arises whether there exists a function b(C) that is regular in the disk
ICI < 1, that satisfies the inequality Ib(C)l < 1 in that disk, that satisfies the
equation Ib(C)I = 1 almost everywhere on the circle ICI = 1, and that has in the
disk ICI < 1 the same zeros and of the same multiplicity as f(C). If such a func-
tion b(C) exists, it is called the Blaschke function for f(C).
§3. LIMITING VALUES OF ANALYTIC FUNC'T'IONS 399
The complete answer to this question is given by the following theorem of

Ostrowski.
Theorem 5. For a function f(C) that is regular in the disk ICI < 1 to have a
Blaschke function, it is necessary and sufficient that the integral
2c
S log If (rete) I d8
0
be bounded for 0 < r < 1. [We point out that, in accordance with Jensen's formula,
the integral (11) is a nondecreasing function of r for 0 < r < 1.1
Proof. First of all, let us show that the condition in the theorem is a neces-
sary and sufficient condition for the function f(C) to have a representation in
ICI < 1 of the form
(12)
where b is gular in I [; I < 1 and I b ([;) < 1 in I [; I < 1 ana where h ([;) is
regular and has no zeros in ICI < 1. In accordance with formula (5), we have in
the disk ICI < 1
f(C)_ r"Pr (C) hr (C),
where m = 0 if 'f (0) 0 and m = multiplicity of the zero z = 0 of the function

f (C) if f (0) = 0 and where
r (C - Ck)
Pr (Q = L ry-
o<lckl<r it C
2c
1 S log l 1tr ) I - +t de
hr(C)=e.
°
Moreover, in the disk II < r we have: r is regular and < 1, and also
hr(C) is regular and hr(C) 0. Let (rk1, for k = 1, denote a sequence of
functions in the interval 0 < rk < 1 that approaches 1 as k - 00. Then, the se-
quence (crk (C)( contains a subsequence that converges uniformly in the disk
C1 < 1 to a regular function O (C). Here, either 0(0) = 0, in which case O (C)
0 in I I < 1, or 0 (0) 0. In the first case, the corresponding subsequence of
the functions hr k (C) approaches 00 in I I < 1 and, in particular, at C= 0, which
means that the integral (11) is not bounded for 0 < r < 1. In the second case, on
the other hand, this same sequence converges to a regular function with no zeros
in ICI < 1, and then the integral (11) is bounded for 0 < r < 1.
This shows that, if the integral (11) is bounded, we have in ICI < 1 the re-
quired representation (12) (where b (C) = C m.0 (0).
Conversely, if (12) holds, then, for 0 < r < 1,
2: 29 2:
Slog lf(re:e)IdO=S logIb(re')Ido logIh(re')Ide 2,tlogIh(0)1;

0 0 0
that is, the integral (11) is bounded for 0 < r < 1.

It follows, in particular, that the condition in the theorem itself is necessary
because, if b (C) is a Blaschke function.for f (C), then we have the representation
f(C) = b
in ICI < 1, where the function h(C) is regular in ICI < 1 and has no zeros in
that disk. To prove the sufficiency of the condition in the theorem, it remains, as
before, to prove that the bounded function O (C) has a Blaschke function.
If the function q(C) j 0 is regular in ICI < 1 and Io(C)( < 1 in ICI < 1,
then when O(C) has only finitely many zeros in that disk, the representation (12)
is immediately obtained with
C_-Ck
b(C)=LmJT
1 .- CkC '
where the product is over all the zeros of the function O(C) in 1Cl < 1. On the
other hand, if there are infinitely many zeros, Cl' C2, , indexed in such a way
that ICII < ICZI < . , we form the infinite product

0o 1 - C
Ck
b(C)=Cm IIICk (13)
k=l 1
and we denote by b. (C) the finite product obtained by replacing Do with n. We

note that the function Ibn(C)I approaches 1 uniformly as J approaches the circle
ICJ = 1. Considering the function O(C)/b,,(0, we easily arrive at the inequalities
1.0 (C) I < I bn (4)l < 1
in ICI < 1.
Now, the sequence Ibn (C)( contains a subsequence that converges in ICI < 1
to a regular function b (C) / 0 that has the same zeros as and satisfies in
ICI < 1 the inequalities
I.O(C)I < ib(C)I < 1.

Here, in accordance with (13), we have b(m)(0)/m! = IIk_1 IQ' If the sequence
1b,,(C)I itself did not converge in ICI < 1, then, in addition to b(C), there would
be another function b* (C) with these properties. Then, in accordance with what
was said above, it follows that in ICI < 1 we have the inequalities I b* (C)I <
b (C) I and I b (C)I < I b` (C)I; that is, we have b` (C) = b (J). This shows that the
infinite product (13) must converge in ICI < 1. Having the function (13), we imme-
diately conclude that there exists the representation (12) with h(C) 0 in 16 < 1.
It remains to show that I b (C)I = 1 almost everywhere on I C I = 1.
To do this, we note first that, if the function g(C) is regular and bounded in
the disf
\ 1, then, by §2
in IcI < 1, so that

2a 1
2s
g(e") p(r, t-O)dt, (=reie,
2a
(eit) I
g (re") I 2a Ig P (r, t- 0) dt.
0
Integrating with respect to 0 from 0 to 2rr, we obtain

2n 2rz
(14)
l g (reie) I d& _ S I g (eu) I dt.
0 0
By applying inequality (14) to the function b(e)/bn(C) and keeping in

mind the fact that I bn(e`r)I = 1, we obtain
2E
2' b (reie)
.1 I bn Crete)
A I b (e'`) I dt. (15)
o 0
But the sequence Ibn(J)I converges uniformly on ICI = r, where 0 < r < 1, to
b(J). Therefore, if we take the limit under the integral sign in (15) as r
we obtain
2x
0
that is,
2,c
S(1-Ib(e`')I)dt0. (16)
0
But it follows from the inequality I b (t) < 1 in ICI < 1 that I b (ei0 )I < 1 almost
everywhere on the circle ICI 1. This, together with (16) shows that Ib(eit)I = 1
almost everywhere on ICI = 1. This completes the proof of the theorem. In particu-
lar, since the boundedness of the integral (2) in 0 < r < 1 implies boundedness of
the integral (11), we obtain
Corollary I. Every function f(t;) 10 belonging to the class N has a Blaschke
function.
§4. Boundary properties of functions in the class HP
Now, let us denote by HP, for p > 0, the class of functions f(C) that are
regular in ICI < 1 and have the property that the integral
2
S If(re'e)Ipd9 (1)
0
is bounded for 0 < r < 1.

Obviously, all functions that are regular and bounded in ICI < 1 belong to the
class H P for arbitrary p > 0. Furthermore, the inequalities xP ' < xP + 1, 0 < p' 0 and the inclusion relation f (C) C HP imply that f (t) C HP1; that is,
HP C HP, for all p and p', where 0 < p' < p. Finally, from the inequality logx =
(1/p) log XP < xP/p, which holds for arbitrary p > 0 and x > 0, we conclude that
f (C) C N if f (t;) C HP; that is, HP C N for all p > 0. It follows from this last
fact and §3 that a function f (C) E HP, for p > 0, has, almost everywhere on the
circle ICI = 1, definite limiting values along nontangential paths and these form
a limit function f(e`B). In accordance with Fatou's lemma applied to the integral
(1), by letting r approach 1 we conclude that the function Ado) C LP in (0, 20.
With regard to functions in the class HP, we have a number of theorems.
Theorem 1. 1) If f(C) E HP, for p > 0 and if f(C) 0, then
f (C) = b (C) h (C), (2)
in ICI < 1, where b(e) is a Blaschke function and h(C) is a function in H P

that is nonzero in IC I < 1.
Proof. Let us show first that the integral (1) is a nondecreasing function of
r in 0 < r < 1. For arbitrary fixed p in the interval 0 < p < 1, the function
fp(C) = f(pC) is regular in It;I < 1 and consequently has in ICI < 1 the repre-
sentation
f p(C) = bP(C)
1) F. Riesz [1923].
§4. BOUNDARY PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS IN CLASS Hp 403
where bP(C) is its Blaschke function and hP(C) 0 in ICI < I. The function
[hP(t;)]P is regular in ICI < 1. Consequently, from Poisson's formula applied to
this function,-we have in ICI < 1
2x
hp (refe)IPC 1 ` Ihp(elf)IPP(r, t - A)dt.
By integrating this inequality with respect to 0 from 0 to 2rr, we obtain

2x 2x .
I hp (re'°) IP dA I hp (e+e) I P dA. (3)
S
0 0
Bu since I bP(C)I < 1 in ICI < 1 and I bP(C)I = 1 on 1, it follows that I
fp(0I < hP(t )I in ICI < 1 and I fP(t)I = I hp(C)I on ICI = 1. Consequently, in
accordance with (3), we have a fortiori
2x 2%
S If (rpe") I P dA - S I f (pets)
IP dA,
0 0
which is now proved, for arbitrary r and p in 0 < r < 1. If we now replace r with
p'/p, where p' < p, we obtain an inequality proving that the integral (1) is non-
decreasing in 0 < r < 1.
Turning now to the proof of the theorem, we note that, in accordance with §3,
the representation (2) holds in the disk ICI < 1 with the function h(C), which is
regular and has no zeros in ICI < 1. Let us show that h(C) E HP.
Suppose that the least upper bound of the integrals (1) in the interval 0 < r < 1
is equal to M.
Let us denote by bn([;) the product of the first n factors in the representa-
tion (13) of §3 of the Blaschke function b(C) and, for fixed a in the interval 0 <
e < 1 and fixed n, let us choose rr > 0 such that I bn (C)I > 1 - e for It; I > 1 - rl,
which it is possible for us to do. For 1 - 77 < r < 1, we have
2x
re fP M
(4)
b(((ee )j dOc(1-r)P
But since this integral is a nondecreasing function of r in the interval 0 < r < 1,
inequality (4) also holds for 0 < r < 1 - 77, that is, throughout the entire interval
0 < r < 1. If we fix r and let n approach oc, we obtain, remembering the arbitrari-
ness of e > 0, the result that, in 0 < r < 1,
2x
S Ih(rera)IPdO<M.
0
This proves that h (C) C Hp and, in fact, that the least upper bounds of the inte-
grals (1) for f(C) and h(C) in the interval 0 < r < 1 are equal. This completes
Theorem 2. 2) If f(C) E Hp, where p > 0, we have
2a 2x
im S If(red) Ipd9=S If(e10)19d9 (5)
and
2+c
f(e'e) IP d0 = 0.
lim S I f (rere) - (6)
r_1 0
Proof. It will be sufficient to assume that f (C) j 0. If we represent f (C) in

accordance with formula (2), we conclude from Theorem 1 that the function
[h(C)]P"2 C H2. Consequently, by virtue of Theorem (2) of §2, the real and imag-
inary parts of this function can be represented in ICI < 1 -in terms of their limit-
ing values by means of Poisson's integral. But then, the function [h (J)]P / 2 itself
will'have such a representation in ICI < I.
2a
hp/2 (Tet°) = 2n hP12 (eu) P (r, t - 9) dt. (7)
In accordance with the Bunjakovskii-Schwarz inequality, this yields

2cc
I h (rele) IP C [S I V12 (e") I P'/2 (r, t - 0).pl/2 (r, t - 0) dt]2

0
2
CSI h(err)I'P(r, t-0)dt,

0
so that
21; 21t
S
I h(re") I"dO<S I h(e")IPdt. (8)
0 0
But since If(C)I < Ih(C)I in ICI < 1 and I f(O = I h(C)I almost everywhere on
ICI = 1, we obtain from (8), for 0 < r < 1,
1) F. Riesz [1923].
§4. BOUNDARY PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS IN CLASS HP 405
2x .2%
S If(1eia)I"dO S I f(e')IPdo. (9)

0 0
Therefore,
2w 2w
limy s if (re") I P dA C S If (e") IP dA. (10)

0 0
[The existence of the limit on the left follows from the monotonicity of the integral
(1).]
On the other hand, by applying Fatou's lemma to the integral on the left in (8),
we obtain the opposite inequality. Therefore, equation (5) holds.
To pr\ ove (6), let c denote any positive number. Then, let us choose 8 > 0,
such that, or any set e with mes e < S we have fe I f(eee)I P dO < e in the interval
(0, 2a). Sine I f(reee)I -- I f(eie)I almost everywhere in (0, 2a) as r--+ 1, by
taking an arbi y sequence of numbers r n < 1 that approaches 1 as n c, we
conclude on the basis of Egorov's theorem that there exists in (0, 20 a set el
such that mes eI < 8 and I f(rn eoe)I -' If(ei9)I uniformly outside e1 as n -
Therefore, if we denote the complement to e 1 with respect to (0, 20 by E, we
have
3Jim SIf(rneie)IPdA=SIf(eie)IPdA. (11)
It follows from (5) and (11) that

lim S I f (rnece) Ia
dA= S I f (ete) I P dA. (12)
n-oo e, el
But the right-hand member of (12) is less than E. Therefore, there exists a
positive number N such that fe 1 I f (rnefe)I P dO < e for n > N. Now, let us choose
N sufficiently great that we also have the inequality I f(rne`0) - f(eie)I P <e on E
whenever n > N. Then, since
Ia-bl"C(Ia(+IbI)P=(max(2Iai, 2Ib1))P
=2amax(1aIP, IbIP)C2P(IaIP+IbIP), (12)
for arbitrary complex numbers a and b, we have
2%
S If (r.ere) -f (e") I P dO c S I f (rnete)
E
- f(eie)1P dO
+S2°(If(rnere)IP+I.f(ei) I")dO--- 217E+2p2a=(27-, +2P+I) e.

el
Since c is an arbitrary positive number, this means that

2%
lim S I f (rnete) -f (e") la d9 = 0.

n-mp
Also, because of the arbitrariness of the sequence (rn1, equation (6) follows.
Theorem 3. 1) For a function f(C) that is regular in ICI < 1 to have a repre-
sentation in It; I < 1 in terms of Poisson's integral, it is necessary and sufficient
that f(t;) E H1. If this condition holds in ICI < 1, we have Poisson's formula
2+i
f(C)=2 f(e")P(r, t-0)dt. (13)-
Proof. If f (C) can be represented in the disk ICJ < 1 by the formula
2x
f(C)=2 p (t)P(r, t-0)dt,

where 9(t) E L for t E (0, 27r), then it easily follows that, for 0 < r < 1,
2x 2x
S If(reta)Ide<S I p(t)I dt,

0 0
that is f(t) E H1
Conversely, if f (C) E H I, then, for. 0 < r < p < 1, we have
2x
f (ref)= 2a f(pe")p2 - 2pr cos (t

r' e) + r d(.
Therefore,
-
211
f (Tets)
1
f (vtt) P (r, t - 0) dt
2%
<2 \ If (Pete) -f (ete) I

pi -2pr cos (tr' 0) +r' dt
2x
-}-2n If(ett)I p'-2prcos(t- 0)+r,_

P(r,t-0)I dt. (14)
1) Fihtengol'c [1929].
§4. BOUNDARY PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS IN CLASS HP 407
But in the first of the integrals on the right, the Poisson kernel is, for fixed
r in 0 < r < 1, bounded as p -+ 1. Therefore, in accordance with (6) with p = 1,
we conclude that this integral approaches zero as p -, I. Furthermore, in the
second of the integrals on the right, the integrand approaches zero almost every-
where in (0, 27r) and at the same time it does not exceed the function M if (e`B) I
for some finite M independent of p. Therefore, we can take the limit under the in-
tegral sign in this integral as p -p 1. This means that it approaches zero as
p -p 1. We conclude from inequality (14) that its left-hand member, being indepen-
dent of p, is egdal to zero and this yields formula (13). This completes the proof
of the theorem.
Theorem 4. Ii If f (t;') C HP, where p > 0 and if I f(e`9)I < M almost every-
where on ICI = 1, then I f(t;')I < M in ICI < 1. Furthermore, if f(C) C H , where
P
p > 0, and if f(e`0) C LQ, where q > p, then f(C) E H 4.
Proof. If f(C) C HP, where p > 0, then, in the representation (2), we have
h(C) C HP. Consequently, Poisson's formula (13)
2s
h9 T1- h"(e")P(r, t-0)dt

S
0
is applicable in I I < 1 to the function [h()]" C H I. Since I f (0I < I h (C)I in
ICI < 1 and I f(e`0)I = I h(e`0)I almost everywhere on ICI = 1, this formula leads
to the inequality
2n
If(C)IP2- If(e")IPP(r, t-0)dt.
Therefore, if If(e`0)I < M almost everywhere on ICI = 1, it follows that

I f (C) I < M in < 1. On the other hand, if f (e `B) C L Q, where q > p, then, by
using Holder's inequality, we have
2x
9-P
If(C)IP<Z, Qv (r,t -0)dt
2x r 2x 4-P
if (e it) 19 p (r, t - 0)
dt)P/9 ,
71
P (r, t - 0) dt) 9
a S
2x
dt)919,
(Zs)P/9 I f (eu) I Q P (r, t - 0)
1) V. I. Smirnov [1929].
that is,
2n
If (err) I q P (r, t- 9) dt.

I f () I° 2
If we integrate this over the circle ICI = r, we obtain, for 0 < r < 1,
2x 2x
f If(Te1) I'dO If(e")Igdt.

0 0
This proves that f (C) E H.. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 5. 1)1f the function f(C) is regular in the disk ICI < 1 and if
f(re`B) --y f(ei0) almost everywhere on the circle ICI = 1 as r- 1 and if
f(e`9) E L in (0, 2n), then, for Cauchy's formula
f(C)=2ai
1
2s
f (elf) it
to hold in the disk ICI < 1, it is necessary and sufficient that f(C) EH1. Further-
more, for an arbitrary function f(C) E H1, Cauchy's theorem
2
f(elf)dett=0 (16)
S
0
holds.
Proof. If f(C) E H1, then the proof of formulas (15) and (16) is the same as
the proof of formula (13).
Suppose, conversely, that formula (15) holds for the function f(t;') in ICI < 1.
The integral on the right can be regarded as a linear combination of four Cauchy
integrals of the form
2n
I y (t) dt (17)
tai . elf G'
0
where 9(t) is a real nonnegative function in (0, 2a). Now, if we denote by F(C)
the integral (17), we have
I
2n
1- r cos (t - e)
OR (F (C)) = 2a p (t) I- 2r cos (t - 9) + r3 dt: 0, C - retO.
1) F. and M. Riesz [1916].

§5. FUNCTIONS CONTINUOUS ON A CLOSED DISK 409
in I C I < I. If we rule out the case F(C) = 0 (when what we are trying to prove is
obvious), we have 92(F([;)) > 0 in ICI < I. Therefore, if F(C) = Rethen
101 < tr/2 in ICI < 1. Now, suppose that 0 0 in ICI < 1. Therefore
RP = uD (r, e)
cospO
C u. (r, e)
cosp
2
If we integrate this over the circle ICI = r, for 0 < r < 1, we have
2z 4,r
F (re") I P dO s ' up (r, 0)0- 2a(!),7C

cos cos
2
Consequently, F(C)' E H I) On the basis of this, we conclude that the Cauchy

P
integral appearing in formula (15) belongs to the class HP for arbitrary' p in the
interval 0 < p < 1; that is, f ([;) E HP. But f (e`9) E L. It follows from Theorem
4 that f(C) E H. Consequently, we have proved the necessity of the condition
in the theorem. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§5. Functions that are continuous on a closed disk
In conclusion, we point out some properties of some very important types of
functions that are regular in the open disk < 1 and continuous on the closed
disk 16 < 1.
Theorem 1. 2) For a function f(C) that is regular in the open disk 141 < 1
to be continuous on the closed disk IC I < 1 and absolutely continuous on the
circle ICI = 1, it is necessary and sufficient that f'(z) E HI. If f'(z) E HI,
then df(e`9)/d0= ie`Bf`(e`B) almost everywhere on the circle ICI = 1. In the

equation above, f' (e`0) means the limiting values of the derivative f' (z) as z
approaches ei9 along nontangential paths, and df(e`B)/de means the derivative
of f(e`9) with respect to 0.
Proof. Suppose that the function f (4) is continuous on I C I < 1 and absolutely
continuous on I4I = 1. In ICI < 1, we have
2z
f(re1A)=2a J f (eu)P'(r, t - 0) dt (1)
1)This property of Cauchy integrals was proved by Smirnov [1929].

2)F. Riesz [1923].
and, consequently,
2%
lretef (reee) - 2a C f (e1) dP (rat - 0) dt. (2)
If we integrate (2) by parts, we see that the function i J'(c) can be represented
in ICI < 1 by a Poisson integral. Consequently, iJf'(J) CHI; that is, f'(OEH,.
Conversely, let f' (C-) denote a member of H 1 Then, the function icf ' (0
can be represented in ICI < 1 in terms of its limiting values ie`Bf'(e''B) bymeans
of Poisson's integral:
2n
le1e f
(eat)P(r,t-0)dt. (3)
The function
t
(4)
0
is absolutely continuous in (0, 217) and, in accordance with Caucchy's theorem,

g(2n) = 0. Integrating (3) by parts, we have
2n
1Cf'(C)_ g(t)dP(r, t -0) dt,
that is,
elf (reie) =d 2:
g (t) P (r, t - 0) dt.

de ae6J
Therefore, in ICI < 1,

2n
f(C)=S g(t)P(r, t-0)dt+c(r),

0
where c (r) depends only on r. But c (r), being the difference between two func-
tions that are harmonic in ICI < 1, is itself a harmonic function. Since
d'c (r) 1 do (r)
Ac()
r dr' +r dr '
we easily obtain the result that c (r) = alog r + b, where a and b are constants.
Since c(r) is continuous at r = 0, it follows that a = 0 and hence c(r) = coast=c.
Thus, in I C I < 1,
2x 2x
f(Q=5 g(t)P(r, t-0)dt+c=S (g(t)+c)P(r, t-0)dt, (5)
that is, the function f(C) can be represented in the disk ICI < 1 by means of a
Poisson integral of an absolutely continuous function. Consequently, it is continu-
ous in the disk ICI < 1 and it is absolutely continuous on the circle ICI = 1.
Obviously, f(e`t) = g(t) + c and equation (5) becomes Poisson's formula (1).
Furthermore, it follows from (1) that lim,. ,1(df(re`B)/dB) = ie`Bf'(e`B) almost
everywhere on ICI = 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 2. If a function f(C) is regular in the open disk ICI < 1 and continu-
ous on the closed disk ICI < 1 and if it is a function of bounded variation on the
circle ICI = 1 (that is, if the real and imaginary parts of the function f(C) are
functions of bounded variation on that circle), then f(C) is absolutely continuous
on the circle ICI = 1.
Proof. Since f(C) can be represented in ICI < 1 in accordance with formula
(1), we find, just as at the beginning of the proof of Theorem 1, that the real and
imaginary parts of the function if'() can be represented in C1 < 1 by means
of a Poisson-Stieltjes integral and, consequently, f'() E H 1. It follows on the
basis of Theorem 1 that f(C) is absolutely continuous on the circle ICI = 1.
Theorem 3 (Hardy-Littliewood). For a function f(C) that is regular in the
open disk It;'I < 1 to be continuous on the closed disk It;'I < 1 and to satisfy a
Lipschitz condition
f(ete) -f I c K I 0 - 8' I°`, a 1, (6)
on the circle ICI = 1, it is necessary and sufficient that the inequality
where M is a finite constant, be satisfied in ICI < 1.

Proof. For a = 1, the theorem is obvious. Let us consider the case when
0 < a < 1. Suppose that f(C) is continuous on ICI < 1 and that inequality (6) is
satisfied on ICI = 1. Since f(C) can be represented in ICI < 1 in accordance
with Cauchy's formula
2" tr
f(L)--2a fe it dt'
it follows that, for I C I < 1,

-
29 2a
1 f (eet) eit f(elt) -f(ell)
f (0=2n S
e(" - C)a dt = 2n -(ell- 2 e tt dt,
where C = re". Consequently,
2+c .1 .0 it
f(C)I 2a
I
7t
But since sinx> (2/7r)x for 0 < x < a/2, we have
1 -2rcosp+r2=(1-r)2+4rsin' 2 J(1 + n;P$.
Therefore, on the basis of what was said above and also inequality (6),
m
k i p la d4 kyad
If (C) I -- 2n
(1-r)2+4y,2 n J (1- r)'+: 4r
1P'
it 0
l+a
00
kna r 2 ylld_
r)I-a . 1 +'P'
0
This shows that inequality (7) holds in 1/2 < ICI < I for suitable finite M inde-
pendent of r. If we take M greater than the least upper bound of the quantity
(1 - r)1-aI f'(C)I in ICI < 1/2, then (7) will hold in ICI < 1.
Conversely, suppose that inequality (7) is satisfied in the disk ICI < 1. Then,
the integral fQ f'(re`B)dr converges for every 0 and hence, the limit f(eò) =
limr,1 f(re°B) exists fo? every 0. Furthermore, if we integrate (7) with respect
to r from 0 to r, where 0 < r < 1, we see that f(C) is bounded in ICI < 1 and,
consequently, can be represented by means of a Poisson integral in terms of its
limiting values f(e`0). Let us show that (6) holds. It will then follow by virtue
of §1 that f(C) is continuous on the closed disk ICI < 1. Obviously, it will be
sufficient to prove (6) for 10 - 0' I < I. We have
f(ete)- f(ell')=Sf'(C)dC,
where we take for 1 a curve consisting of the radial segments (e`0, hei0) and
(eè0, heè) and the arcs (he`0, he`0) on ICI = h, where h = 1 In
this case, we have
1 8'
I f(ete)-f(eie')J
SIf'(1ete)I dr+I ShIf'(he")Idt
I 1 e,
Mdr
+ I f (re"') I dr < 2 (1- r)'- + (1-
Mh
by-a dt
ll
-M (1-h) hI8-8'I
-M ( 2
h )I 8-9`
1
2
a + (1-h)1â)- I'
that is (6) with k = M(2/a + 1). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 4 (Hardy-Littlewood). If a function f(C) that is regular in the open
disk It,'I < 1, is continuous on the closed disk ICI < 1, and satisfies a Lipschitz
condition
f(e,e)_ (8)
on the circle ICI = 1, then it satisfies the complex Lipschitz condition
if(t)-f(c')I<KIC-C'Ia (9)
on the closed disk ICI < 1.

Proof. It is easy to see that (9) will be proved if we can prove the two particu-
lar inequalities
If(rei°)-f(re"')IKI reie-rele'I°, (10)
--r'e'el-
If(re`-e)-f(r'ei) I _--KIre's (11)
for arbitrary points reè' re`B , r'e`B in the disk ICI < 1. To prove (10), we may
assume that 10 - 0'I < n. Now, the function 95e' t3 (t; )= (f (t; e`0) - f (t e `8')) / C is
regular in I C I < 1 and continuous on the closed disk I C I < 1. Therefore, the max-
imum of its absolute value on the closed disk ICI < 1 does not exceed the maximum
of the quantity I f(e°(t+0) - f(e`(t+e' )I in [0, 2n). In accordance with (8), this
maximum is no greater than k 10 - 0'I a Consequently,
I f(reie)-f(reie') I kr I0-0'I (12)
But
a e f sin
9 26
=-4I
ere - eie'I'
2 2
so that (10) with K = (7ra/2°)k follows from (12).

Let us now prove (11). Suppose that 0 < r < r' < 1. In accordance with Theo-
rem 3, inequality (7) holds in ICI <. 1. From this inequality we get
r' r
dt
I f (re°e) -f (re') I
If'(te;) I dt
r r
If r' < (1 + r)/2 and hence r' - r < 1 - r', we have
r
-f(re') M
M
(r- r)t_a=M.r - r)a.
If (rete) I (1 r') ) I-& dt
r
On the other hand, if r' > (1 + r)/2, so that r' - r > 1 - r', then
(reiB)-f(re°)I<_M
t (I - t)a rlr
a
<M (1-r')a
a
M
CQ li-rla.
In both cases, we have obtained (11) for suitable K. This completes the proof of
the theorem.
Theorem 5. 1) if a function f(C) = u(r, 0) + iv(r, 0) is the open
disk ICI < 1 and if u(r, 0) is continuous on the closed disk 1 and satis-
fies the Lipschitz condition
0<a<1, (13)
on the circle ICI = 1, then f(C) satisfies a complex Lipschitz condition on the
closed disk ICI < I.
Proof. Since f(C) can be represented in the open disk ICI < 1 in accordance
with the Schwarz formula
2x
f(C)=2n tt(t)e + Cdt+IC, (14)
it follows that
2x 2x
f (C) = 2 1
(e"- C), dt ==u (t)7- u(p(8)a rr dt.
2u (t) eir 1
Consequently, just as in the proof of Theorem 3, we obtain the inequality

M
IF'(r\I< (1-r)1--a 3
1) Privalov [1919].
in I CI < 1; that is, f (c) satisfies the condition of Theorem 3. But then, in accord-
ance with Theorems 3 and 4, it follows that equation (14) holds. This completes
Theorem 6. If a function f(C) = u(r, 0) + iv(r, 0) is regular in the open disk
ICI < 1 and u(r, 0) is continuous on the closed disk 1 and satisfies on the
circle ICI = 1 the condition
Iu(9)-u(9')I <a(le-e'I), (15)

where the function A(t) is nondecreasing and is such that the integral f (A(t)/t)dt
converges, then f(C) is bounded in the open disk ICI < I.
Proof. Formula (14) holds in ICI < 1. We transform this formula to the form
2x
f(C)=2 (u(t)-u(9)) ett±t dt+u(8)+IC

where (t = rei9). Consequently,
if f (C) I <_ I u (t + 9) - u (e) I 1 re« + M,

-x
where M is a constant. Therefore, in accordance with (15), we have
x
2 a (t) 2 a (t)
If(C)Ic a -reteIdt+M 1-rett1dt+Mt,
where M1 is also a constant. If we replace the absolute value in the denominator
of the integral on the right with its imaginary part and use the inequality sin t >
(2/7r)t, we obtain
x It
2 2
r sin)t dt + M ' lt) dt + Mt,

If (C) I < 2
S r
which proves the boundedness of f(C) in ICI < 1.
Theorem 7. ')If a function f(C) = u(r, 0) + iv(r, 0) is regular in the open
disk ICI < 1, and if u(r, 0) is-continuous on ICI < 1, then E H P for all
p>0.
Proof. Let p and c denote positive numbers such that p( < n/2. Since
u(r, 0) is continuous on the circle ICI = 1, it follows that, in accordance with
the familiar theorem on the approximation of periodic functions, there exists a
1)Smirnov [19321.
trigonometric polynomial
m
s (9) = as + Z (an cos nO + bn sin nO ,
n=l
such that Iu(6) - s(O)I < E in the interval (0, 27r).
If we set
in
p (C) = as + Ej (an -1bn) Cn
n-1
(so that 92(p(e`0)) = s(0)) and 0(e) = f(C) - p(C), we have, for 0 < r < 1,
(tC = e1Pp (0).
'S
ta
I t l=r
e1Pv
If we now separate the real and imaginary parts, we obtain

2x
e'PP (t) I cos p (u (9) - s (9)) dO - 9R (e'P? (o)).

2a S
Therefore, since
Cos P (U (9) - S (9)) ':- Cos pr > 0,

we have
2x
C"(etP9v (o
1 C I e'PP (t) I d9 (16)

2n J cospe
Inequality (16) has been proved for all r in the interval 0 < r < 1. This means
that eÒ(C) E H If we now keep in mind the fact that the function a-`P (C) is
bounded in IcI < 1, we obtain the result that e`f(C) E HP also. This completes
CHAPTER X
BOUNDARY QUESTIONS FOR FUNCTIONS THAT ARE

ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR
§ 1. The correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping

In the present chapter, we shall study various questions associated with the
boundary values of functions that are regular in a domain B that is bounded by a
rectifiable closed Jordan curve. In these investigations, an important role is
played by certain boundary properties of functions that map the domain B uni-
valently onto a disk. We shall begin with an exposition of these properties, which
were established by N. N. Luzin and L L Privalov. 1)
A continuous curve C: z = z (t) = x (t) + iy (t) for a < t < b is said to be
rectifiable if, for an arbitrary number n + 1 and an arbitrary sequence of values
t1, t2,...,tn+1 such that the sum
'I
21 1 zz (tk+l) - x (tk)
k=1
remains bounded. The least upper bound of these sums out of all possible com-
binations of values t2, ... , t is called the length of the curve C. It is obvious
from the definition that a necessary and sufficient condition for a Jordan curve C
to be rectifiable is that the functions x (t) and y (t) be of bounded variation in
(a, b). Furthermore, it is obvious that, if. the curve C is rectifiable, any arc of it
is also rectifiable. We denote the length of an arc z = z (t) for a < t < t ', which
is a function of t ', by s (t '). Let us prove the following lemma regarding s(t).
Lemma. If x(t) and y(t) are absolutely continuous in (a, b), then
s(t)=S z'(r)Idwr, act-< b. (1)
a
1) See Privalov [1919].
417
418 X. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR
Proof. Suppose that a < t < b and that a = t 1 < t 2 < . . . < 1, + 1 = t. Then, the
function
Pk('0=1z('t)-z(tk)I=V(x(T)-x(tk))9+(y(T)-y(tk))'
(for k = 1, , n) is absolutely continuous in (a, b) because the absolute value
of the difference between its values at any two points of the interval (a,1b) does
not exceed the sum of the absolute values of the corresponding differeces between
functions x(t) and y(t). Consequently, Ok(r) has a derivative almost everywhere
in (a, b) and
(x (T) - X (tk)) X' (T) + (y -y (tk)) y' (1)
(X (T) - .r (tk))' + (y (ti) -y (tk))
(X (T) - X (tk))2 + (y (I) -y (tk))' (,)'+y (T)9
Y (X ('t) - X (tk))' + (Y (T) -Y (tk))'
= I Z' (T) I
almost everywhere. Therefore, for tk < r < b, we have
IIfk(T)IC S Iz,(T)Idt.
tk
In particular, for r = tk + 1,
tk+1
z (tk+l) - z (tk) I< S I z' (T) L dT.

tk
Therefore
s(t)GSIz'(T)Idt. (2)
On the other hand, since s(t) is obviously a nondecreasing function, it is

continuous in (a, b) except possibly at countably many points. Excluding these
points, we have in (a, b) by Fatou's lemma
t t
lim s (ti + hh - 3 (T) dT s' (T) dT, h > 0,
and since
h t
S (T + h) - 3 (T) dc =-- 1 s (T) dT - s (T) dT

a
t A a h t+ h
=h [ s(T)dTs(r)dT,<h s(T)dc<S(t+h),
a t
it follows that
s (t) S s' (T) dT.

a
But at points at which all the derivatives s'(r), x'(r), and y '(r) exist, we have
As AX, + Ay,
s' (T) = lira Jim = x' (T)9 +y' (T)a = z' (T) I,
c'C-.o AT c-C-.o A%,
Consequently, at these points and hence at all points t E (a, b),
(T)IdT. (3)
a
Inequalities (2) and (3) lead to equation (1). This completes the proof of the lemma.
Suppose now that a finite simply connected domain B in the z-plane is
bounded by a rectifiable closed Jordan curve C. Suppose that a function 6 = X(z)
maps the domain B conformally onto the disk ICI < 1. Let z = &)(0 denote the
inverse function. In accordance with Theorem 4 of §3 of Chapter II, the function
X(z) is continuous on B and the function co(O is continuous on ICI < 1. Also,
the curve C can be represented parametrically in the form z = cu(ett) for 0 <t <
2n. Since C is rectifiable, the function t1)(e`t) is of bounded variation in (0, 27r).
In accordance with Theorems 1 and 2 of §5 of Chapter IX and the lemma just
proved we immediately obtain
Theorem 1. If a function z = a is regular in ICI < I and maps that disk
univalently onto a finite domain B that is bounded by a rectifiable closed Jordan
curve C, then the following hold:
1) &)(C) is continuous in the closed disk < 1 and is absolutely con-
tinuous on the circle
2) E H 1;
3) dtj(e`t)/dt = iett&)'(e`t) almost everywhere on the circle
4) the length s(t', t ") of the arc z = a )(e") for t' < t < t " is given by the
formula
ti,
s (r, r = S IW
(ett) dt. (3 ')
N
Let us now look at various sets of points on the boundary C. A set E C C

is said to be closed on C if it is closed as a set of points in the plane. A set
E C C is said to be open on C if its complement is closed on C. One can easily

show that an open set on C is the union of a finite or countable set of arcs. We
define the measure of an open set on C as the sum of the lengths of the arcs of
which it is composed. Now, let E denote an arbitrary set of points on C. The
outer measure of the set E is defined as the greatest lower bound of the measures
of all open sets on C containing E. We denote this outer measure by m E. We
define the inner measure, which we denote by miE, of the set E by t formula
miE = s - me CE, where CE is the complement of E with respect to C and s is
the length of C. We say that the set E is measurable on C if meE = miE. When
this is the case, we denote the common value of meE and miE by mes E and
call it the measure of the set E. If E is measurable on C, then it follows from
the relations
miE= s - meCE, miCE= s - meE, meE=miE
that CE is also measurable on C. In particular, measurability of open sets
implies measurability of closed sets. In general, one can show that all the theorems
regarding Lebesgue measure can be carried over to the study of curves and, for
this reason, we shall treat them as proved.
Theorem 2. The mapping mentioned in Theorem 1 maps a set of points of
measure zero (of positive measure) on the circle ICI = 1 onto a set of points of
measure zero (of positive measure) on C, and conversely.
Proof. 1. Let E denote a set on ICI = 1 such that mes EC = 0 and let EZ
denote the corresponding set on C. For any e > 0, there exists on the circle
I t I= 1 an open set 0 C such that E C C 0 C and mes 0< E. Corresponding to it
on C is an open set OZ that contains E. We have
meEz<mes Oz= S I w'(ei') I dt.
oc
But meEz does not depend on a and the last integral can be arbitrarily small for
sufficiently small c. Consequently, me E. = mes Ez = 0.
2. Before proving the converse, we make the following remark: Since
&)'(0 0 almost everywhere on ICI = 1, the measure of the set E(Ij S(C)I <
of points on CI = 1 at which < e approaches zero as c - 0, it follows
that when we set mes E (Icj'(C)I < E) = S(c), we have the limit relation S(e) - 0
as c--b 0. Therefore, if E is a measurable set on the circle ICI = 1 such that
1. CORRESPONDENCE OF BOUNDARIES 421
S w (e``)ldt<e,
then
; (err) dt >,- I a (e'`) I dt
e5
(mes E
so that
mesE<V +8( )=ry(e).
This shows that mes E can be made arbitrarily small by making a sufficiently
small and >f(E) depends only on e.
Now, let EZ denote a set of points on C such that mes EZ = 0. Let E.
denote the set of points on JC = 1 corresponding to it. For given e> 0, there
exists on C an open set OZ containing EZ such that mes OZ < e. In accordance
with the remark just made, we have mes 0 < ri(e), and consequently, meEz < rj(E)
But me E does not depend on c and q (c) - 0 as t -- 0. Therefore, me E _
mes E = 0.
3. To prove that corresponding to a set of positive measure on JCJ = 1 there
is always a measurable set of positive measure on C, we note that, if E is a
measurable set on 1 and mes E t > 0, then on I I = 1 there are closed sets
G (k), for k = 1, 2, , such that G(") C E. and mes G (k) -s mes E t. Let us
define G t= U k 1 GC Then, G C C E and mes G t> mes G (k), for k 1, 2,
so that mes G C = mes E,. Consequently, the set N = E - G t is a set of measure
zero on ICI = 1, and we have therefore represented E as the union of the set
N of measure 0 and the closed sets G (k), for k = 1, 2,
C
But corresponding
to the set N t is the set NZ of measure zero on C and, obviously, corresponding
to the sets Gk) are the closed sets G=k) on C. Consequently, the set E. corre-
sponding on C to the set E, is the set NZ U Uk 1Gik), which is a measurable
set. Its measure is positive because otherwise, E t would, from what we have
proved, be of measure zero. In an analogous way, we can show that corresponding
to a set of positive measure on C is a measurable set of positive measure on
ICI = 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Remark. It follows from part 2 of the proof of Theorem 2 that a function _
).(z) that maps the domain B onto the disk JC1 < 1 is absolutely continuous on
C if we regard it as a function of arclength on C because the inequality

Elsk - s kI < c implies
I I X (z (Si)) - X (z (S;)) I C i7 (e).

11
Theorem 3. The mapping z = 0)(C) in Theorem 1 is conformal almo t every-

where on ICI = 1 or, respectively, conformal almost everywhere on C.
Proof. Obviously, we can consider the conformality of the mapping only at
points on ICS = 1 in the one case and on C in the other.
%
Since the derivative dw(e`t)/dt exists and is equal to zero almost everywhere
on the circle CI = 1, there exists almost everywhere on C a unique tangent such
that in a neighborhood of a point of tangency, the curve C lies on both sides of
the normal to C at that point. Let us show that angles are preserved at all points
on ICI = 1 that are mapped into points of the curve C with this property. Let 4U
denote one of these points on ICI = 1 and let zo denote the point on C corre-
sponding to it. Then, every branch of the, function
u (C, CO) = arg M - (to)

C-Co
is continuous in the closed disk ICI < 1 except at the point Co. But since the
curve C has a tangent with the property described at the point zo, the function
u (C, CO) approaches a definite limit a as C approaches Co along the circle
ICI = 1 (this value being the same for approach from the two sides). We take this
limit as the value of is (C, C.) at the point Co. Obviously, the oscillation of the
function is (C, CO) in the portion of the disk ICI < 1 contained in a sufficiently
small neighborhood of the point Co is less than 3n. This shows that the function
u(C, CO) is a bounded harmonic function in ICI < 1 and it can be represented in
that disk in terms of its values on the circle ICI = 1 in accordance with Poisson's
formula. These values define a continuous function on ICI = 1. Consequently, the
function u (C, CO) is continuous on the closed disk ICI < 1 including the point
C., where it is equal to a.
Now, consider an arbitrary curve A lying in the disk ICI < 1 with endpoint
Co, and let l denote the corresponding curve in the domain B. Since u (C, CO) -- a
as C, t through values belonging to the disk ICI < 1, if the curve A has a
definite tangent at the point Co, the curve l will have a definite tangent at the
point z0 and vice versa. Also, if these curves have tangents at the points indicated,
a will be the angle of rotation of the tangent in the transition from the curve A to
the curve 1. Since this angle of rotation is the same for all pairs of curves A and
1, this is equivalent to conservation of angles at the point Co in the shift from the
disk ICI < 1 to the closed domain 8 or the other way around. This completes the
Let us now look at the question of the correspondence of boundaries under
conformal mapping of domains bounded by smooth Jordan curves. By a smooth
Jordan curve C: z = z(t), where a < t < b, we mean a curve possessing at every
point a tangent that rotates continuously as z moves along C, that is, a curve
for which the angle 0(z) of inclination of its tangent to the real axis is a con-
tinuous function of the point of tangency. In the case of a closed curve, we must
also have 0(z(b)) = 0(z(a)) + 21r. Obviously, a smooth curve is a rectifiable curve.
Therefore, 0(z) can also be regarded as a function of the arclength s on C:
0 = 0(s).
We now have
Theorem 4.1) Let z = a) (4) denote a function that is regular in the disk
< 1 and that maps that disk univalently onto a domain B bounded by a smooth
closed Jordan curve C. Let L'= a. (z) denote its inverse. Then arg &)%) is a
continuous function in the closed disk ICI < 1 and arg a.'(z) is a continuous func-
tion in the closed domain B. Furthermore, on the circle ICI = 1,
argni (()=9(Q-argC- 2. (4)
Proof. As a preliminary, we point out that, by virtue of the smoothness of the

curve C, for any point a E C and any number t > 0, there exists an arc on C
containing the point a as an interior point such that the angle of inclination of
the chord connecting any two points of that arc to the real axis differs from the
angle of inclination of the tangent at the point a by an amount less than t. This
follows from the fact that the angle of inclination of the chord is equal to the
angle of inclination of the tangent at some interior point of the arc intercepted by
that chord.
Now let us assume that the condition of the theorem is satisfied and let us
consider the function
1) Lindelof [1916].
u (G i) = arg Celt
-C (C) ,
which is, for arbitrary fixed r> 0, a harmonic function in the closed disk Icl < 1.
We assert that there exists a finite constant K such that lu (C, r)I < K for all C
in the closed disk ICI < 1 and all r in the interval 0 < r < n. If this were not the
case, there would be a sequence for n = 1, 2, , such that Mn =
max 1 CIS1 lu (C, as n -, oc. Obviously, r, -4 0 as n --, oc. Furthermore,
we can, by shifting to a subsequence of the arcs r, if necessary, arrange to have
the sequence 1 ,1 of points on i C 1= 1 at which lu (t,,, m converge to a
point Co on the circle ICI = 1. But because of the smoothness of C, the sequence
of the values is ((, converges to the angle formed by the tangent to C at the
point zo = w(Co) and the tangent to the circle I = 1 at the point Co. This con-
tradiction proves the assertion made.
Now let a= e4 denote an arbitrary point on the circle I = 1 and let 0
denote the angle between the tangent to C at the point a = w(a) and the tangent
to the circle I C I = 1 at the point a. Then, for given e > 0, there exist q > 0 and
S > 0 such that, for Irl < 8, we have
lu(C T)-?I< a
on an arc of length q containing points on each side of a.
Let us show that this inequality also holds in that portion A of some
neighborhood of the point a that lies in the disk C1 < I. If we set
U r) r 0 and I k I< 1 in accordance with Poisson's
formula
2n
U (G r) = 2L U (e "t, r) P (r, t - B) dt
V a
= 2n U(e", 2) P (r, t - 9) dt + 2n U(e", r) P (r, t - 6) dt,
where C= reie and I is the portion of the circle ICI = 1 complementary to the
arc (>/i - q , t/i + t?). Therefore,
U (C, r) l 47C
P (r, t - O) dt +
4-17
+X+ TI S P(r, t-6)dt-<2+K2I7I C P(r, t-6)dt.

27
But this last integral converges uniformly to zero as a through values in the
disk ICI < 1. Consequently, there exists an nl > 0 such that the inequality
IC- aI < rll, where ICI < 1, implies I NC, r)l < t, that is Iu (c., r) - 01 < t for all
r such that Irl < S. Then, for CC A, where A is the portion of a neighborhood of
the point a mentioned above, we have the limit relation u (C, r) ..._, arg to '(c) as
r -- 0. Therefore in A,
Iargw (C)-pI<e.
This shows that arg a)' (C) is continuous in the closed disk ICI < 1 if we define
this function at the points a such that IaI = 1 as being equal to the angle that
we have been considering.
The continuity of arg X'(z) in 9 now follows from the fact that X'(z) _
1/w'(c). Since 0 = B(s) - Vi - n/2, formula (4) also follows from what we have
shown. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 5. Under the conditions of Theorem 4, we have log w%) C H1 and
w'(0 C Hp for all p > 0.
Proof. From the inequality between the arithmetic and geometric means, we
have, for 0 < r < 1,
I
2% n zni
2n 1 log I w' (re1t) I dt - lim t log l w' (re n k) I
b n.oo n 1
n d k
lim log I w (re n )I
n-ao k- 1
1
n 2at 2cn
k
imo log log
I w' (Ten 2a } I w (re`t) I dt.
1
n (4 ')
n
Consequently, in accordance with Theorem 1, the first interval is bounded in the

interval 0 < r < 1. But since the integral
2n
S
I arg w' (re`°) I d6
0
is, by Theorem 4, bounded in the interval 0 < r < 1, it follows that log co' (i) E H I.
The second assertion of the theorem follows from Theorem 7 of § 5, Chapter IX as-
applied to the function u(p, 0) = arg co'(reè), which, in accordance with Theorem
4, is continuous in the closed disk This completes the proof of the
theorem.
Theorem 6 (Kellogg). Let z = to(G) denote a function that is regular in the
disk JAI < 1 and maps that disk univalently onto a domain B bounded by a smooth
closed Jordan curve C. Suppose that the angle of inclination 0(s) of the tangent
to C as a function of the arclength s on C satisfies the Lipschitz condition
Ja, O<a<l, k-const, (5)
Then, to'(C) is continuous on the disk JCJ < 1 and the following Lipschitz con-
ditions
(6)
log w' (ete) - log w (7)
(ei0') I k2 l 0 - 0' Ja
where kI and k2 are constants, hold on the circle JCI = 1.

Proof. By Theorem 4, we have
argw'(Q-0(()-argC- 2, (8)
and, by Theorem 5, we have a) 1(0 E HP for all p > 0. On the basis of this fact
and formula (3'), we have, for 0'< 0,
Is-s'IIai(etl)IA w(eie)I9A A-,--k,10-0'Ji/2,

e,
so that
largw (S)-0(S) -I-- le-e'I
k9 Is-s'I2 f I0-0'1<k910-0'la/2.
It follows on the basis of Theorem 5 of § 5, Chapter IX, that log c,'() and
hence to'(c) are continuous functions in the closed disk ICI < 1. But then,
e
I S- s' J- S I w (et°) I d6 - k3.10-6'j, k3 = max I w (() I,

e, ICI-1
and, consequently,
§ 1. CORRESPONDENCE OF BOUNDARIES 427
Iargw'(ei) -argw' (ete')I-k4I0-0'1",
so that, again by Theorem 5 of § 5, Chapter IX, inequality (7) follows.

Furthermore, for arbitrary w and w' in the disk Jwl < M, we have
00 ca
Iem_ew'1= wn
k-1
ft L n _1=kMIW-w'I.
k®1
nl
(Ae`Bi)
If we apply this to w = log w'(e'e) and w'= log and use (7), we obtain
Theorem 7.1) Let z = to(C) denote a function that is regular in ICI < 1 that
maps that disk univalently onto a domain B bounded by a smooth Jordan curve C
such that the angle of inclination O() of its tangent to the real axis, considered
as a function of arclength on C, is an absolutely continuous function and
9'(s) E LP, where p > 1. Then cj"(C) E Hp.
Proof. From the condition of the theorem, we find, by using H61der's inequality
s
le(s)-0(s)I=S0'(s)ds<(S0'(s)pds) 9(Sds)iiQMIs-s 111q,
s'
where 1/p + 1/q = 1. From this we conclude, by Theorem 6 (with a= 1/q), that
co'(0 is a continuous function on the closed disk ICI < 1. Since
dO (s)
dA
- d9 (s) I w (e;8) I,
ds 1
we conclude that d6(s)/d9 E L"; that is,

d
(argw'(e'e)+e+2)ELP.
But, by Theorem 3 of §4, Chapter IX, and Theorem 2 of § 1, Chapter IX, we have
almost everywhere on the circle ICI = 1
d log co' (e1e)
dA
- lee `",
(ell)
m' (et )
so that ! (ec0to "(e`B)/w'(e`°)) E L". It now follows from the representation of the
function by means of Poisson's integral that
1) Smirnov [1932].
Cam, (C)
E hp
Then, by Theorem 4 of § 2, Chapter IX, Cw "(C)/w'(c) E Hp. Consequently,

w "(c) E Hp. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§2. Privalov's uniqueness theorem

Let us agree on some terminology. Suppose that B is a domain bounded by a
Jordan curve C and that z0 is a point on C at which there is a unique tangent to
C and in a neighborhood of which the curve C lies on both sides of the normal.
We shall refer to a continuous curve l contained in B and ending at point z0 as
a nontangential path if that part of 1 in a neighborhood of z 0 lies inside some
angle of magnitude less than rr with vertex at the point z0 and with bisector coin-
ciding with the inner normal to C. When we speak of a set of points on the bound-
ary of the domain B, we shall usually mean only points at which there are tan-
gents to C possessing the property just described. Furthermore, if a function
f (z) that is regular in B approaches a value a as z approaches a point z0 on C
along every nontangential path contained in C, we shall say simply that f (z)
assumes (or has) the value a along nontangential paths.
We turn now to the investigation of functions that are regular in a domain
bounded by a rectifiable Jordan curve. We begin with the exceedingly important
uniqueness theorem of Privalov. 1)
'Theorem 1. Let f (z) denote a function that is regular in a domain B bounded
by a rectifiable closed Jordan curve C. Suppose that f (z) assumes the value 0
along tangential paths on some set E of positive measure on C. Then f (z) = 0
in B.
Proof. Let us consider first the case in which B is the disk Iz I < 1. About
every point z0 E E, let us construct a right angle with vertex at z0, with rays
directed into IzI < 1, and with bisector directed along the radius to z = 0. Let
us cut from this angle sectors S('), for n = 1, 2, , of radii 1/n. Consider a
0
sequence of functions fn(z), for n = 1, 2, , that are measurable 2) on E.
1) Privalov [1919].
2) The measurability of fn(z) follows from the fact that we can regard fn(z) as the
limit of a sequence of functions fn,r(z) constructed in the same way but issuing not from
sectors but from the parts of them lying in Iz I < r as r ---' 1. The functions fn r(z) are,
for r sufficiently close to unity, defined and continuous on E.
§2 PRIVALOV'S UNIQUENESS THEOREM 429
Define at the point zo 6 E as the maximum value of in the sector

SO). Obviously, this sequence converges to zero on E. In accordance with
0
Egorov's theorem, the set E contains a closed subset P of positive measure on
which the sequence converges uniformly to zero. The complement of P
with respect to the disk IzI = 1 is an open set and hence consists of finitely or
countably many disjoint arcs. We replace those arcs that are less than a semi-
circle with the sides of the right angles intercepting them from inside the disk
IzI < 1 in such a way.that the sides of the angles intersect the circle IzI = 1 at
an angle zr/4. On the other hand, we replace an arc greater than a semicircle with
the two radii that pass through its endpoints. As a result, we obtain in place of
the circle IzI = 1 a rectifiable closed Jordan curve C1 bounding the domain B1
and contained in the disk IzI < 1. Here, the set P lies entirely on the boundary
C1. The function f (z) is continuous in B if we assign to it the value 0 at
points of the set P. Let us now map the domain B1 onto the disk ICI < 1. Let
z = &)(C) denote the inverse of the function executing this mapping. Correspond-
ing to the set P is a measurable set P1 of positive measure on the circle 141 <1,
The function f 1(C) = f (w([;')) is regular in the open disk ICI < 1, continuous on
the closed disk I4I < 1, and equal to zero at points of the set P1. Then, in
accordance with 3 of Chapter IX, f 1(4) = 0; that is, f (z) = 0 in IzI < 1.
Thus, the theorem is proved for the case of a circle.
Let B denote an arbitrary domain defined by a rectifiable closed Jordan curve
C. And let us map it onto the disk ICI < 1. We denote by E ' the measurable set
of positive measure of ICI = 1 into which E is mapped. The function f (4) is now
transformed into a function fl(4) that is regular in the disk ICI < 1 and that
assumes the value zero along nontangential paths on the set E ' after deletion of
a set of measure zero at points in which this mapping does not conserve angles.
In accordance with what has been proved, f 1(4) = 0 in 141 < 1. Consequently,
f (z) - 0 in B. This completes the proof of the theorem.
The following theorem 1) is of great significance in applications of this unique
uniqueness theorem.
Theorem 2. There does not exist a function that is regular in a domain B
bounded by a rectifiable Jordan curve and that assumes the value oc along non-
tangential paths on a set of points E of positive measure on the boundary C.
1) Privalov [1919].
Proof. As above, it will be sufficient to prove the theorem for the case of the
disk IzI < 1. Let us suppose that a function, f (z) having the properties mentioned
in the theorem does exist. We follow the same reasoning as above except that now'
we define the functions frt(z) on E according to the formula fn(z) = mins(,)If (z)I,
and we apply.Egorov's theorem to the functions On(z) = 1/(1 + &W). As a result,
we can show that the function f (z) is regular in the domain B 1 (cf. preceding
proof) and approaches - on a set P of positive measure contained in the bound-
ary B 1. But the function f (z) has only a finite number of zeros in B 1. This is
true because otherwise, these zeros would have a cluster point which must lie on
IzI = 1 and the only boundary points of the domain BI on IzI =4 are points of
the set P such that f (z) -' 00 as z approaches them from inside B 1.
We denote by p (z) a polynomial having the same zeros in B 1 as f (z) has.
Then, the function p(z)/f (z) is regular and bounded in B 1 and it has limiting
values equal to zero on the set P. But (cf. again proof of Theorem 1) this func-
tion would then have to be the function identically equal to the zero in B 1 but in
the case that we are considering it does not have any zeros at all in B 1. This
contradiction proves the theorem.
As a direct consequence of Theorems 1 and 2, we have
Theorem 3. If two functions that are regular in a domain B bounded by a
rectifiable closed Jordan curve on some set of positive measure on the boundary
have equal values along nontangential arcs, they are identically equal in B.
§3. On the limiting values of Cauchy's integral

Let C denote a Jordan curve, closed or otherwise, in the z-plane. Since
every point z' on it is completely determined by the arclength s measured along
C from an initial point z o to z ', we can take s as parameter. Then, the para-
metric representation of C is z ' = z '(s) for 0 < s < S. Obviously, the function
z '(s) satisfies the inequality
(S1)-x
I'z (S9)I_S1-s9, 0<s9<s1 S,
and hence is an absolutely continuous function of s. Therefore, the derivative

dz'(s)/ds exists almost everywhere on C. Furthermore, in accordance with the
Lemma of § 1, we have Idz '(s)/dsl = 1 almost everywhere on C. But the curve
C has a unique tangent at every point zo E C at which dz'(s)/ds exists and is
nonzero and C lies on both sides of the normal in every neighborhood of zo. At
3. THE LIMITING VALUES OF CAUCHY'S INTIrGRAL 431
such points, we may speak of nontangential paths to C.

We shall say that a function f (z') defined on C is summable on C if the
integral fc f (z')dz', meaning the Lebesgue integral
S
f V(8)) a ds S) ds'
exists.
Now consider the Cauchy integral
(1)
where f (z') is a summable function on C. For values of z not on C, this integral

obviously exists and is a regular function. On the other hand, if z lies on C, the
integral (1) can be understood only in a conventional sense. Specifically, let
z o = z '(s o) denote an interior point of the curve C and let CE denote the part of
C obtained after deletion from C of the smaller arc from the point z '(s o - e) to
the point z '(s o + e). Then, the limit of the integral
f (z)
Z' - zo dz (2)
as c ---p 0, if this limit exists, is called Cauchy's singular integral, and this is
what we shall mean by the integral (1) when z = zo.
The following theorem 1) establishes a relationship between the limiting
values of the integral (1) as z approaches points on C and the existence of the
singular integral (2).
'Theorem 1. If Cauchy's integral (1) has almost everywhere on C definite
limiting values along all nontangential paths lying on one side of C, then
Cauchy's singular integral (2) exists almost everywhere on C and limiting values
of the integral (1) along nontangential paths lying on the other side of C also
exist almost everywhere on C. Conversely, if Cauchy's singular integral (2)
exists almost everywhere on C, then definite limiting values of Cauchy's integral
(1) along all nontangential paths on each side of C exist almost everywhere on
C. Here, in both cases the formula
urn
u
z z) dz = z (Z
zo
dz' ± if (zo) (3)
1) Privalov [1919].
holds almost everywhere on C. In this formula, the limit in the left-hand member
is understood to mean a limit along nontangential paths. In the right-hand\,,member,
the positive sign is taken when the nontangential path lies to the left of tie
tangent to C directed in the direction of the integration; the negative sign is
taken when the path lies to the right of that tangent.
Proof. It will be sufficient to prove that the difference
(z dz'- zf (z i, dz', a -Iz - zoo

C f z
(0)
approaches ± ni f (z o) for all z o E C as z approaches z o along all nontangential

paths. Here, the sign is plus when the nontangential path lies to the left of the
tangent to C at the point zo, and it is minus when this path lies to the right of
that tangent. If we can prove this assertion about the difference (4), then, almost
everywhere on C and in particular at points at which f (z') is finite, the existence
of one of the integrals (4) will imply the existence of the corresponding limit for
the other integral.
This assertion is easily proved if f (z') on C. Let z o = z'(s o) denote an arbitrary
point on C at which Idz'(s)/dsI = 1. The first integral in (4) gives the increment
in log (z '-z) for one circuit around the curve C. The imaginary part of this
increment is the increment in the angle of inclination of the vector extending
from the point z to the point z '. But (log (z '- z))c does not, change if we re-
place the arc (z '(s o - e), z '(s o + e)) on C with a semicircle y with the same
endpoints located on the other side of C from z. On the other hand, the increment
in log (z'- z) for one circuit around the new path will differ from the increment
in log (z ' - z o) for one circuit around this new path by an amount that approaches
zero as a -- 0. Obviously, the value of the subtrahend in (4) is equal to this last
increment decreased by the increment in (log (z '- z o))y, which, for sufficiently
small c, can be made arbitrarily close to + vi (the sign depending on the position
of the point z with respect to the direction of integration on C). This proves
that in the present case, the difference (4) approaches ± vi with the required
choice of sign as a 0.
To prove this same assertion in the general case, it will now be sufficient
to show that the quantity
F(z,zo)= z zadz'- Czf(z)dz'-f(zoI)
L7 [ ,dz
z-z-S dz,
C
§3. THE LIMITING VALUES OF CAUCHY'S INTEGRAL 433
f (zz - z(zo) dz - S f--(z-1 1 0

)
dz', e = z - z'
a (5)
approaches zero for all points z o E C as z approaches z o.

Now, suppose that the point z o = z '(s o) on C is such that the function f (z ')
is finite, and the derivative dz'(s)/ds exists and is equal to unity in absolute
value. Let yo denote the angle of inclination of the tangent to C at the point
z 0 to the real axis. By letting z approach z o along a nontangential path 1 and
setting z = zo+ icei(Xo++), we conclude that, for sufficiently small e, we have
III < qo or I-- qI < qio, where qio < p/2. We may assume that this last condi-
tion is satisfied for all points z on the curve 1.
Now, suppose that we are given Tj > 0. Let h = h (q) > 0 denote a number
such that, for Is - so 1 < h,
z'(s)-zo
S - so
=etxo+s, IaI`r)
Let a denote an arbitrary number in the interval 0 < e < h. We have
dz' (s)
(f (z' (s)) -f (zo)) ds
f (z) -f (zn ) dz
2 ' - 2
- - iXo
ds
I(Xo+'h)
If we now set s - s 0 = a, Se-`X0 = m = m (a), (f (z'(s) - f (z,,))(dz'(s)/ds) x

e- 'X0
= q (a), where m c Tj for I o I < h and 0 (0) = 0, we have
f(z')-f(zo)dz'= 9P (a) da
S z'-2 a-eie'
Therefore, we can write (5) as follows:
F
(z,
x°)_- etc' aicp (a) do
((1+m)a-aie'+) (1+m)a +
q (a) do
(1+m)a-iee'V' (6)
S
We require also that the point z0 be such that urn. 0c(a)/a= 0, where
a
' (a) = S I IF (a) I do = 5 I f(z' (So + a)) (so)) I do.
Let us show that almost all points on C satisfy this requirement. Consider the
set (r 1, r2, 1 of all points in the plane with rational coordinates. Note that,
for each rk, we have by Lebesgue's theorem,

s s+a
ds If(z'(s))-rkIds=oim a S
S
for almost all s in 0 < s < S. Therefore, if Ek is the set of points in the interval
0 < s < S at which the above assertion does not hold or at which f(z '(s)) = oo,
then mes Ek = 0.
1
Let us now set

00
E= U Ek,
k=1
Then mes E = 0. If s 0 does not belong to E, then, for arbitrary o > 0, we can
choose rk such that
If (z'(so))-rkI< a .
For a sufficiently small,
e a
If (z' (so + o)) -f (z' (so)) I da o I f (z' (so + o)) - rk I do.

Pf o
+c If(z'(so))-rkIds< 2 + 2 =s.
But this means that for so outside E,
G
(a)
0 as a-.0.
Under the assumption that we have made, let us find a bound for each of the
integrals in (6). We have
(a) do do
Rr=l J (1+m)a-eiet I
a '4 (a)
C SeI (I+ m) a-ciel0'('
or, replacing the modulus in the denominator with the imaginary part,
Rte cos+o -1 a Scos4+o

_e
2 mx
I I<h
()I.
Let us now break the first integral in (6) into three integrals over the arc Ch
and over the other two arcs, which together we denote by Ch. We have
g1Ve1cp (a) da c a cp (a) da
R9 = ICs ((1 -}- m) a - e ie (l -{- m) a [ ae'0-clI (I -,)a
.A eh
§4. CAUCHY'S FORMULA 435
or, replacing the modulus in the denominator with the real part,
R9< r 1 , f (a) I do _ a
1_ (a)
dd.
ar(cos`0-X1)(1-1j)-(cos`0-X1)(1-,) as 1
5 A
an
Integration by parts yields
t(;) L do= 11 a) I -{- 2. do
ah bah ah
max
lal<h
I (a) 13
L
h++h+ J
12
I
max
Consequently,
R9 ()
(cos o 1.1) (1- I) k I <h l as I '
As a consequence of these inequalities, we have

etet4'q (a) do
IF(z,zo)I<I S ((1+m)a-eie )(1+m)a +R
Ch
where
12
R (0 _ (2 -}- 1 - 0.
cos -+I I Amax " (a) , it aR (q)
Finally, we, note that the last integral approaches zero as c - 0 because we
can take the limit under the integral sign. Therefore, we conclude that none of the
limiting values of IF (z, z0')I as c --+ 0 exceed the number R(,1). But since these
limiting values are independent of 71 and since R(rl) ---+ 0 as 71 - 0, this means
that F(z, zp) -, 0 as c -+ 0, that is, as z --+ zp along the curve 1. This proves
the assertion and with it the theorem.
§4. Cauchy's formula

The results expounded in the preceding section enabled Privalov 1) to give a
complete answer to the question of the representability of analytic functions in
accordance with Cauchy's formula in the case of a simply connected domain
bounded by an arbitrary rectifiable closed Jordan curve.
Theorem 1. Let f (z) denote a function that is regular in a bounded domain
B, the boundary of which is a closed rectifiable Jordan curve C. Suppose that
f (z) has definite limiting values almost everywhere on C along nontangential
paths. Suppose that these limiting values define a symmetric function f (z ') on
C. Then for Cauchy's formula
1) Privalov [1919].
436 X. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR,
f(Z) = tai z (z
d z' ( 1)
to hold in B, it is necessary and sufficient that

f(zr)z,"di =0, n=0, 1,..., (2)
S
C
or, what amounts to the same thing, that outside B

i
(z'z dz' z 0 .
z (3)
Proof. Consider the function

(z) =f (z)'- tai zf (z z dz' .
(4)
If the function f (z) can be represented in the domain B in accordance with

Cauchy's formula (1), that is, if ,(z) = 0 in B, then Cauchy's integral
1 f -) dz'
2ni z'-z (5)
has limiting values equal to f (z') along all nontangential paths in B almost
everywhere on C. Conversely, if Cauchy's integral (5) has almost everywhere-on
C limiting values equal to f (z') along all nontangential paths in B, then
0 (z) - 0 almost everywhere on C along all nontangential paths in B. Con-
sequently, by the uniqueness theorem of § 2, V,(z) e 0 in B; that is, the function
f (z) can be represented in B in accordance with Cauchy's formula (1).
Thus, the function f (z) has a representation in B by.Cauchy's formula (1) if and
only if Cauchy's integral has almost everywhere on C limiting values equal to
f (z') along all nontangential paths contained in B. But, by formula (3) of § 3
with the positive sign taken, this last will hold if and only if Cauchy's singular
integral
2ni
1 f(z),dz'
z'-zo
exists almost everywhere on C and is equal to f (zo)/2. This, in turn, is by

formula (3) of §3 with the negative sign taken, equivalent to the requirement that
Cauchy's integral (5), which represents a function that is regular outside C, has
almost everywhere on C limiting values equal to zero along all nontangential
§4. CAUCHY'S FORMULA - 437
paths lying outside C or, by virtue of the uniqueness theorem, equivalent to the
requirement that equation (3) hold outside C. The expansion of the left-hand side
of (3) about z = - in powers of liz shows that condition (3) is equivalent to the
system of conditions (2). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 2. Let f (z') denot e a summable function defined on a closed recti-
fiable Jordan curve C. Then, for there to exist a function f (z) that is regular in
the finite domain B bounded by the curve C, that has limiting values almost
everywhere on C equal to f (z') along nontangential paths, and that can be repre-
sented in B in accordance with Cauchy's formula (1), it is necessary and suf-
ficient that the system of conditions (2) be satisfied.
Proof. If the function f (z) mentioned in the theorem exists, then, by Theorem
1, the system of conditions (2) must be satisfied. Conversely, if the conditions
(2) are satisfied, then outside B we have (3). Consequently, Cauchy's integral
gal) z (z dZ
z
has almost everywhere on C limiting values equal to zero along all paths lying
outside B. Therefore, from the theorem of §3, we conclude that Cauchy's singu-
lar integral exists almost everywhere on C and that
f (z') dz' - f (zo)
tai z' - zo 2 '
(6)
If we now set
f (z) = tat z (z dz'

z
in B, we conclude from the theorem of §3 that the function f (z) has almost
everywhere on C limiting values among all nontangential paths lying outside B
equal to
f (z')
z' - zo dz' +f (zo)
1
27ti 2
or, in accordance with (6), equal to f (z a). Consequently, the function f (z)
answers the requirements of the theorem. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§ 5. Classes of functions. Cauchy's formula

Suppose, just as above, that B is the finite domain in the z-plane bounded by
a rectifiable closed Jordan curve C. Let = X (z) denote a function that maps the
domain B conformally onto the disk ICI < 1. Let z = a) (C) denote its inverse
function. Let Cr denote circular images in the domain B, that is, curves in B
corresponding to circle 1 I = r under the mapping z
Let us denote by EP, where p > 0, the class of all functions f (z) J 0 that
are regular in B and have the property that the integral E
S If (z) I°ds (1)

cr
is bounded for 0 < r < 1 (V. I. Smirnov). By changing to the variable C in this
integral, ;e asil. see that the function f (z) belongs to the class EP if and only
if f (co '(t;) E Hp. Thus, by § 4 of Chapter IX and § 1 of the present
chapter, if the function f (z) belongs to EP, then f (z) has definite limiting values
f (z ') almost everywhere on C, over all nontangential paths; If (z ')I is summable
on C; and
limy S I}(z)Ipds` If(z')IPds. (2)
Cr C
The class EP for p > p, can also be defined in this way, but it can also be de-
fined independently of conformal mapping, namely, as the class of functions f (z)
that are regular in B and have the property that, for each of them, there exists in B
a sequence of rectifiable closed Jordan curves Cn, for n = 1, 2, , which con-
verge to C and for which the integrals
S If(z)Ids
C.
are bounded by a finite quantity independent of n. 1) Obviously, every function
f (z) E p satisfies this condition. Let us prove the converse. Suppose that, for
a function f (z) that is regular in B, there exists a sequence of curves Cn with
the property described. Let z = con(C )denote a function that maps the disk
ICI < 1 conformally onto a finite domain bounded by the curve Cn in such a way
that con (p) = w (0) and arg arg w' (0). Then, by the theorem on the con-
vergence of univalent functions, the sequence of the functions con(C), n = 1, 29 ,
1) Keldys and Lavrent rev [1937].

§5. CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS. CAUCHY'S FORMULA 439
converges uniformly in the interior of the disk ICI < 1 to the function w (C). Let
us set
,P (C) =f (w (C))p w' (C), T. (0 = f (w (C)) ° W. (C).
Since, for every n, the function f (wn(C)) is bounded in ICI < 1, it follows that
On(:) E HP. Therefore, for 0 <r < 1,
2x 2x
0
-S I cpn(e)IPA
0
If(z)I°dsA
CA
where M is independent of r. But the sequence ( On (j)1 converges uniformly in

the interior of the disk ICI < 1 to the function Consequently, for 0 < r < 1,
we have
2x
S tcP(reie)Ipd0 M or S If(z)Ipds<_M,
0 Cr
which proves that the function f(z) belongs to the class Ep.
We use the notation adopted above in the following two theorems :

Theorem 1. If f(z) E E1, then Cauchy's theorem holds:
Sf(z) dz'=0. (3)
C
This theorem follows from Theorem 5 of §4, Chapter IX if we apply the
latter theorem to the function f(&) (C ))w' (j).
Theorem 2. 1) Let f (z) denote a function that is regular in B. For this func-
tion to have almost everywhere on C definite limiting values along nontangential
paths and for Cauchy's formula
f(z)-2l z'(Z
dz' (4)
to hold everywhere in B, it is necessary and sufficient that f (z) be a member of

E1.
Proof. Let f (z) denote a member of E 1. Then, in accordance with what was
said above, the function f (z) has almost everywhere on C definite limit values
f (z `) along nontangential paths and these values are summable on C. Consider
the integral
1) Smirnov [1932a].
44 0 X. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR
2n
f (w (ere)) w' (e19)
I- 1
de's
(5)
We set
When we substitute this into (5), we obtain, remembering that f (rv(C))t,j' (C) 6 HIP
2%
1=f (w (C)) -{- 2L f (w (ere)) w' (ere) R (ere, C) deie. (6)
But, for fixed C in the disk ICI < 1, the function R(C', C) as a function of
is regular in IC'I < 1 and continuous on 10 < I. Therefore, the function
f (w(r;'))W'(C')R (C', C) is a member of H1 and consequently, by Cauchy's
theorem, the integral on the right side of (6) is equal to zero. Thus, we have
2x
1 f (w (ell)) w' (ere) Me
2x1 w (ete) - w (b -f (w (C))
If we now shift to the z-plane, we obtain Cauchy's formula (4). 1)
Now suppose, conversely, that the function f (z) has almost everywhere on C
definite limiting values f(z') along nontangential paths, that these values are
summable on C, and that Cauchy's formula (4) holds in B. Consider the integral
F_ 1 f (z') dz'
2ni X (z') - X (z)
c
We set
1 1
X (z') - X (z) - X' (z) -W- z) + Q (z ' Z)'

Then, for Z E B,
1,_`X'()+2ni )f(x)Q(z, z)dz'. (7)
But for fixed z 6 B, the function Q (z ', z) as a function of z' is regular in B

and continuous on B. Consequently, in accordance with Walsh's theorem,2) it can
be approximated uniformly in 1 by means of a polynomial to an arbitrary degree
of accuracy. Since by Theorem 1 of §4,
1) The proof given has the advantage that it does not depend on §§ 3 and 4 and can
be used to prove Cauchy's formula for domains with rectifiable boundaries other than
Jordan curves. On the other hand, if we do use Theorem I of §4, and keep in mind the fact
that, by Theorem 1, fC(f (z')/ (z'_ z))dz'= 0 for all z outside B, we immediately obtain
the validity of formula (4).
2) Walsh [1960], p. 47.
§6. ON THE EXTREMA OF MEAN MODULI 441
S f(x)z'ndz'=0, n=O 1,
C
we conclude that the integral in the right-hand member of (7) is.equal to zero. Con-
sequently, in B
1 f (z) dz' _ f (z)-
2ai X (z') - X (z) X' (z) '
If we now shift to the disk ICI < 1, we obtain

2
I f (6) (eie)) u' (ei0) de"
N-1 a -C =f (w (C)) (0' (C),
that is, Cauchy's formula holds for the function f (w (C))w '(c), which is regular in
ICI < 1. Consequently, f(wC AI; that is, f (z) E EI. This completes
§6. On the extrema of mean moduli

We keep the notation used in § 5 regarding the domain B except that we now
make the additional assumptions that the point z = 0 belongs to B, that 6j(0) = 0,
and that ca '(0) > 0. Let us show that, in this case, the function
Fp(z)= rX'(z)
1X' (0) )
yin,
P>O, (1)
and only this function minimizes the integral
I=SIf(z)J'ds (2)
c
out of all functions F(z) belonging to the class EP that satisfy the condition
F (0) = 1. We shall also show that this minimum is equal to 27rw '(0).
Shifting to the disk ICI < 1, we see that the problem of minimizing the inte-
gral (2) reduces to minimizing the integral
2n 2n
f IF(w(e'))w'(efe)I1PIPds=S I f(e")I'd9 (3)
0 0
with respect to the functions f ( j) = F (w (t;) I P belonging to the class Hp

that satisfy the condition [(0) = w '(0)1" P. Now, the only possible extremal func-
tion for the integral (3) is a function f (C) without zeros in ICI < 1 because,
otherwise, by dividing f (t;) by a Blaschke function b (C) we would get a function
f1(C) = b (0)f (C)/b (C) E HP for which f 1(0) = w'(0)11 P and for which the,, integral
(3) is equal to the same integral for the function f (C) except that it is mdltiplied-
by Ib (o)I P, where, obviously, Ib (0)I < 1. If we now consider the function' f (C) E
HP such that f (0) = a)'(0)1/ P without zeros in ICI < 1 and if we set
f (QP/z C0 = Ui (0),
n=0
we have
2s 2s cc
m 2a l I f (re16)2/pj9d6 -'ym 1 icn 9rF > I c0 y

I f (e!9) IPd6 1 n
z>< S
0 6 n=0
Here, equality can hold only when f() = c o P = cv '(0)1" P; that is, F(z) is given
by formula (1). This was what we wished to show.
Along with all the functions F W E EP, let us now consider the set E(') of
polynomials qn(z) of degree not exceeding n such that qn(0) = 1 and let us pose
the problem of minimizing the integral (2).
Let us show that extremal polynomials exist. Suppose that the integral (2) is
equal to M for one of the polynomials qn(z) C Er"). Consider the set of all poly-
nomials q(n)(z) C E(") for which the integral (2) does not exceed M. If qn(z) is
one of these polynomials and b (C) is Blaschke's function for qn(w (J)), then
f (z) _ (qn(z)/b(x(z)))P C E1. Therefore, in accordance with Cauchy's formula,
we have
f (z) = 1 z'f (Z)

-z dz'.
Now, let us denote by 6 the distance between the point z and the curve C.
For Iz - z'I > 8/2, we have
If(z)I c e If(z')Ids
and, consequently,
9n (z) Ip C xb 5 I q,, (z') 1-0 ds <o ,
But the coefficients in the polynomial qn(z) do not exceed certain finite
§6. ON THE EXTREMA OF MEAN MODULT 443
quantities depending only on S and M. Therefore, if we apply to the coefficients

in these polynomials the condensation principle, we find a polynomial that
yields the smallest value for the integral (2). This proves the existence of
extremal polynomials in E("). We denote these extremal polynomials by
We now define the function
2x 1s
d (C) = e
2a ° logy U1 lets) eie+- do (4)
which will play a significant role in all that follows. We have

2x
1 [
log l w' (eie) I P(r. a -'P) de
2x (5)
Id(C)I=e °
where C= reÒ. But, from Holder's. inequality, we have, for 0 < A < 1,
Rx
w (eie)IaP(r, A - cp)A
2. 2%
c(S Iw (e1B)I P(r, A-'P)dO)X.(SP(r,

0 0
e-p)dA)1-1.
that is,
2x 21;
Ix
P (r, A - y) A I cup (ete) I p de a
2a 1 I w (eie) 2
If we now expand both sides in powers of A, subtract 1 from both sides, divide
by A, and then let A approach 0, we obtain the inequality
2% 2x
S log I (eie) P (r, A - cp) dA <- log [2- ` I

w (eie) I P (r, e - p) A
7C
.
0
(5)
On the basis of this inequality, we obtain from
2x
Id(C)Ic2 Iw'(e!e)IP(r, A-`p)dA,

so that, for 0 < r < 1,
2x 2x
SId(rei°)Ido;SIw'(ei°)Ido.
0 0
This shows that d(C) C- H 1. Furthermore, it follows from (5) that

444 X. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR,
Id (e '19)1 = I(o'(e`B)1 almost everywhere on ICI = 1

It is obvious from (4) that the identity d(C) _ a)'(c) in ICI < 1 holds only
when the function log Ia)'(0I, which is harmonic in ICI < 1, can be represented in
that disk by Poisson's integral:
2x
logIw:(()I=2n log I w (ei°)IP(r, 0-p)d0. (6)

0
Condition (6) is satisfied, for example, when C is a smooth curve because then,
by Theorem 5 of § 2, we have log tz)'(c) E H I and consequently, the function
log a,'(%) itself can be represented in C1 < 1 by Poisson's integral. It follows
from the proof of Theorem 5 of §2 that condition (6) is also satisfied in the more
general case in which arg a)'(c) is bounded in 1. This will be the case, in
particular, for starlike domains and also for domains bounded by piecewise-
smooth curves that make nonzero interior angles with each other. 1) However, there
exists an example of a rectifiable closed Jordan curve C for which condition (6)
is not satisfied.2) We shall refer to Condition (6) in connection with the curve C
as condition (S), following Smirnov.3)
We note that condition (S) is equivalent to the condition
2x
logIw'(0)I=2a log Iw (ete)Id6, (6 ') .
that is, to the condition d(o) _ ('(0). This is true because (6) is obtained from
(6) with J= 0.
To prove that (6') implies (6), we note that (6) can be written in the form
of the limiting relationship
2x 2x
log I cu' (rei°) I dO = 2x C log I w (e'e) I d9. (6 N )
lim12n
On the other hand, the inequality log x < x'/p for p > 0 implies that the integral
1) Keldys and Lavrent'ev [1937] exhibited a number of other cases in which (6) is
satisfied.
2) Keldys and Lavrent'ev [1937].
3) Smirnov [ 1928].
§6. ON THE EXTREMA OF MEAN MODULI 445
2x +
S (log I w (ret) 1)2 dO
0
is bounded for 0 < r < 1. Therefore, in accordance with the familiar test for taking
the limit under the Lebesgue integral sign, we also have
2% 2x
'im log I w (reie) I d6 = C 1+0g I w (0) I d9. (6

2n 2a
If we double this equation and subtract it from (6 "), we get

2x 2x
Jim
2n .) I log I w (Ceè) I IA= I log w (el I d2
Keeping this in mind and reasoning as in the proof of equation (6) of § 4 of

Chapter IX, we obtain the limit relation
2x
urn S I log I w (reie) I - log I w' (eie) I I de = 0.

r-l0
Finally, from this we obtain equation (6) just as in the proof of Theorem 3 of §4,
Chapter IX.
We now have the
Theorem.') In the case of an arbitrary rectifiable closed Jordan curve C
that encircles the point z = 0, we have
imo S I P., p (z') j ds = 2-m d (0), (7)
R-
where d (o) is given by formula (4).
Proof. Since the family of polynomials E(n ) becomes broader with increasing
n, the integrals in (7) do not increase. Consequently the limit in (7) exists.
Let bn,p(z) denote the Blaschke function for pn,p([v((;)) and suppose that
P.,p(w()) =b..p(C)h.,p(Q.
Then, the equation bn,p(0)hn,p(0) = 1 implies that Ihn.p(0)I > 1. We have
2x
S IPn,p(z)Ipds=S
1) Keldys and Lavrent 'ev [1937].

446 X. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC INSIDE A RECTIFIABLE CONTOUR'
2a
S Ihn, d(ei0)I dO
0
2s
I hn/2 (e') d1/2 (ei°)
S I9 dt 2,m I hn. p (0) I P d (0) 2,,d (0)
0
and, consequently,
l im
n-00
It remains now to construct a polynomial q(z) E E(") for which the \alue of the
integral (2) will be arbitrarily close to 217d(0).
Since, by (5), log Id(i)I can be represented in ICI < 1 in accordance with
Poisson's formula, we have, in particular,
2a
log d (0) = 2 S log I d (eie) I A,

0
Consequently, by setting
g(g) d((0))
we conclude that the function g(0) is summable in (0, 2n) and that
2n
S logg(0)de=0.
0
On the basis of this, the interval (0, 2n) contains a measurable set P on which
the functions g (0) and 1/g(6) are bounded, whereas on its complement CP,
2n S I log g (8) I dO < log (1 + e), g (B) d9 < e ,

CP
2- P
where c is a given positive number.

Let us denote by 0(0) the function that is equal to 1/g(9) on P and 1 on
CP. Define
2a
2xp S log y (e) e+ C de - 2 cp S t°g S (e) eie de

e
e -C
=e P
e C
We have
1 almost everywhere on P,
9T)
1 almost everywhere on CP.
§6. ON THE EXTREMA OF MEAN MODUCI 447
Now,
2n
(eye)IPId(ete)IdO=
S
I
g(e)Id(e+B)Ide+ Id(e`B)Ide
CP
= d(0)Ide+Id(0)I 5g(O) A
P
c 21rd (0) + 2ire d (0) = 2ad (0) (1 + e). (8)
Furthermore,
2a
I
2xp logy (0) dB - Zip S 109 B (B) dO log 8 (b A
2a
'I(0)=e 0 =e P =e pCP
Consequently, 1 (0) > 0 and

(9)
But it follows from the theory of trigonometric series that corresponding to

a bounded measurable function 1,(e'9) is a sequence of polynomials an (e`B)
(Fejer's sums 1)) in e`B, uniformly bounded in (0, 2nd that converges almost
everywhere in (0, 270 to t,(e`9) with an(0) = i/i(0) Obviously, for these poly-
nomials,
2a 2a
lim S Io, (em)IPId(e18)Id9=S

n-_oo 0 0
For sufficiently large n, we therefore have

2a
S Ia.(e")IPId(et0)IdO. 21rd(0)(1 +2e)
0
or
S Io, (X(z'))IPds2ad(0)(1 +2e) (10)

C
and furthermore,
1
Qn(0)> I + 2f
Since the function an (Y (z)) is continuous on B it can, in accordance with

1) Specifically, if gr(eè 2n00=0ene one then o-,
(e"9) = Yn-1 ((n - k)/n)e `k 0
k= 0
Walsh's 1) theorem, be uniformly approximated -B by a polynomial p(z) that also

satisfies inequalities (10) and (11). 1ben,,
P(0) = 1, we have j
S I P(z)Ipds <2ad(0)(1 +2s)9=tad(0)(1 +a),
the polynomial P(z) = p(z)/p(0),
where c' and a are arbitrarily small. This completes the formula of (7), and hence
the theorem.
§7. Approximation in mean and the theory of orthogonal polynomials

As an application of the results of §6, let us now look at questions of
approximation in the class E2- 2)
Theorem 1. The sequence of the extremal polynomials pn 2(z) defined in §6
converges in mean on C to the function
F2 F2 (0) 1, (1)
(z) d (x (z))
that is,
limoSIF1(z)-Pn.2(z)I9ds=0. (2)
Proof. Shifting to the disk Ill < 1, we have

a
21t wet
F1 (z) - P..9 (z) I2 ds Pn.9( ( )- d) -d (O)
j
ie
I d (e)I d6'
2A
= S IPn,s(w(ei°)) 1 d(et)- d(0)Isd6

0
2n
= S
0
I Pn, 9 (w
(e'e)) I21 d (e'e) I
d6 + 2ad (0)
2n
- 25? ( d (0) S Pn. 9 (w (e;e)) d (e;5 d6)

0
and, since 2((0 (C)) d (C) E H21 this is equal to

5 I Pn, s (z) I9 ds - 2ad (0).
1) Cf. Walsh [1960] p. 47 of 1965 ed.

2) Smirnov [19281 We note that the theorems that follow have been generalized by
Keldys and Lavrent'ev to the case of the class Ep.
§7. APPROXIMATION IN MEAN 449
Equation (2) then follows on the basis of the theorem in §6. This completes the
Since
d
F a (z) = (x(0)(z)) = d (0) X (z) ,
almost everywhere on C, condition (S) is a necessary and sufficient condition for

F'2(z) to be identically equal to F2(z), where F2(z) is defined by equation (1) of
§6. Therefore, the preceding theorem leads to
Theorem 2. For the limit relation
nl m S I F2 (z) - Pn. 2 (z) l ds - 0 (3)

c.
to hold, it is necessary and sufficient that the curve C satisfy condition (S) (cf.
p. 444).
We turn now to approximation in mean. We shall say that the family of all
polynomials in z is complete in a domain B_if, for any function F(z) E E2 and
any e > 0, there exists a polynomial P(z) such that
5
I F (z) - P (z) Is ds < e.
C
Theorem 3. For the family of all polynomials in z to be complete in a domain

B, it is necessary and sufficient that the curve C satisfy condition (S).
Proof of the sufficiency. Suppose that condition (S) is satisfied. Then, in
accordance with Theorem 2, we have equation (3). Now,' if F(z) E E2, then
f (C) = F (W (C)) W E H2 and, consequently, in accordance with Theorem 2 of
§ 4 of Chapter IX,
2x
5
I f (ete) - f (rete) J2 d6 = 0
iii
or r
r-1 C IF (z) -f (rX (z))

lim S I s ds -- 0.
This means that, for given e > 0, there exists an r in 0 < r < 1 such that
5IF(z)-f(rX(z))
C
X'(,&)I9ds<e.
But the function f(r)((z)) is continuous on B. Consequently, in accordance with

Walsh's theorem, l) there exists a polynomial Q(z) such that, in B,
If (rx (z)) X' (0) - Q (z) I < e.
Let us form the polynomials Pn(z)= Q(Z)P". 2(Z)' We have
I F(z)-Pn(z)I$dsCs(IF(z)-f(rX(z))Y X ()I
C _C
+ If (rX (z)) (Y X (z) p .. , , 9 (z) " iC (0)) I
+ I Pn. 2 (z) (f (rX (z)) Yx' (0) - Q (z)) I )gds.

Of
Consequently, by applying Minkowski's inequality, we obtain
(IF(z)_Pn(z)I2ds )1/9
1/2
_(SIF(z)-f(rX(z)) VX7 (z) I'ds)
C
+ max If (rX (z)) I (S IF2(z)-Pn.g(z)I'ds)1/9

zFB C
+ e \ CS I Pn, g (z) 11 ds)19

Here, the right-hand member is, for sufficiently. large n, less that 2f. Since e
is an arbitrary positive number, this proves the sufficiency of the condition of the
theorem.
Proof of the necessity. Suppose that the system of polynomials is complete
for the domain B. Then, for the function f7(z) E E2, there exists a sequence
of polynomials Pn(z) such that
lim JI
(z) - Pn (z) I2 ds = O. (4)

n-00 C
If we now apply Minkowski's inequality twice, we have
5 I Pn (z) I' ds)1/' = (S I P. (z) Ig d$)1'9 + (S I x '(Z) I ds)1'9 ,

C C C
(5 I x '(z) I ds)1I9 (5 I X' (z) - Pn (z)12 ds (S I P,, (z) I2
which, in accordance with (4), yields

IPn(z)Igds=2Tr
lim C
(5)
1) Cf. Walsh [1960], p. 47.

§7. APPROXIMATION IN MEAN 451
On the other hand, we obtain from (4), by use of Cauchy's formula, the result that
litn P.(z)=
n-.oo
in B. 1) In particular, limn-+cPn(0)=
Therefore, if we set pn(z) = Pn(z)/Pn(0), pn(0) = 1, we have, in accordance
with (5),
n i S I P,, (z) I9 ds = 21rw (0).

oo
In accordance with §6, this yields d(o) = &)'(0); that is, condition (S) is satis-
fied. This completes the proof of the theorem.
The results that we have obtained are closely connected with the theory of
orthogonal polynomials for a domain B.
By a system of orthogonal polynomials, we mean here a sequence of poly-
nomials for n = 0, 1, - , such that, for each n, K,,(z) is of degree n and
1, if m=n, (6)
SKm(z)Kn(z)ds= 01 if min.
Obviously, an arbitrary polynomial in z can be represented as a linear combina-
tion of the polynomials
Now, if F(z) E E1, then the numbers
cn=SF(z)K,,(z)ds, n=0, 1, ..., (7)
are called the Fourier coefficients of the functions F(z).

Theorem 4. For the family of all polynomials in z to be complete in a domain
B, it is necessary and sufficient that an arbitrary function F(z) in E2 satisfy
the closedness condition
F(z)11ds= Ck (8)
C k=1
where the ck are the Fourier coefficients for F(z).
Proof. Let p(z) denote an arbitrary nth-degree polynomial and let use
1) See proof of Theorem 6.

represent it in the form
r)
P (z) _ c Kk (z). (8
k=0
For f(z)EE2,
SIF(x)-P(x)I9ds= SIF()12ds+SIP(z)I'ds
C
- 2,9R F (x) P (x) ds) = S I F (z) l i ds + n I ck I9

C C k=0
- 2(Ek-0 C
CkCk)=SlF(z)I9ds- E ICkI9+
k=0
E
k-0
ICk-C;12.
It follows that the minimum for the integral
I F (x) -P (x) I e dt (9)

C
yields a polynomial p(z) determined in accordance with formula (8) with ck =

e k. Here, this minimum is equal to
JF(z)12ds- IckI'.
(10)
k=0
For the system of all polynomials in z to be complete, it is obviously necessary

and sufficient that the difference (10) approach 0 as n oo for an arbitrary
function F(z) E E2, that is, it. is necessary and sufficient that equation (8) hold.
By combining Theorem 4 with Theorem 3, we immediately obtain
Theorem 5. For an arbitrary (unction f (z) E E2 to satisfy the closedness
formula, it is necessary and sufficient that C satisfy condition (S).
We now have
Theorem 6. When condition (S) is satisfied, an arbitrary function F(z) E E2
can be expanded in B in a Fourier series
00
F (x) ckKk (z), ck = S F (z) Kk (z) ds,

k=0 C
§7 APPROXIMATION IN MEAN 453
that converges uniformly inside B.
Proof. Since the minimum of the integral (9) out of all polynomials in z yields
a polynomial defined in accordance with formula (8) with ck = ck, for k = 0,
1, , n, it follows that, for these polynomials pn(z),
lim IF(z)-Pn(z)I9ds=0, (12)
if. condition (S) is satisfied. Now, by Cauchy's formula, we have in B
F (x) -Pn (z) = 2z1

I F (z') -Pn (z') dz .
z' - z
If E is a closed set in the domain B and if S is the distance from E to C, then,
for
I F (z) -Pn (z) I I F (z') -Pn (z) I ds
2sg F(z)-'Pn(z)I C
From this.we conclude in accordance with (12) that pn(z) - F(z) uniformly on E.
Since pn(z) is a segment of the Fourier series (11), this proves the theorem.
In particular, if we apply Theorem 6 to the function f (z) = X '(z) and keep
in mind the fact that then
2x
c,=S YT X (z)Kn(z) ds=SK.(w(ete)) dO
2rrKn (0) ylw (0),

we obtain
'Theorem 7. For curves C satisfying condition (S), we have in B the formula
LJ Wk (0) Kk (z))
k
X'(z)=2a (13)
2' 1K, (0) 1.2

k=0
where the convergence of the series in the numerator is uniform inside B.
CHAPTER XI
SOME SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
§ 1. Gluing theorems
Gluing theorems establish the existence of analytic functions that obey
certain relationships on the boundaries of certain domains. The nature of these
relationships is clear from the statements of the theorems we now present.
Theorem 1. Suppose that a function x'= g(x) sets up a continuous one-to-one
mapping of the interval 1: - 1 < x < 1 into itself, mapping each endpoint onto
itself. Suppose also that, as a function of a complex argument, g (z) is regular
and univalent in a sufficiently narrow circular tune with vertices at the points
± 1 and containing the interval 1. Under these conditions, there exist two func-
tions w = f 1(z) and w = f2(z) that map the semidisks B 1: IzI < 1, (z) > 0, and
B2: Izl < 1, Nz) < 0, respectively onto two disjoint domains G1 and G2 obtained
from the disk JwJ < 1 by making it a smooth cut A that is analytic at all interior
points. 1) Furthermore, the mappings are such that, on 1,
A (x) =fs (g (x)),

that is, such that any two points x, g(x) E I that lie on the boundaries of the
domains 81 and B2 are mapped into the same point X.
Proof. It follows from the conditions of the theorem that the function z
g(z) is regular and univalent in a sufficiently narrow segment 8(1) bounded by
the interval l and the circular arc contained in ` (z) > 0 and that, on this seg-
ment, `(G(z)) > 0. We can take the segment B(1) in such a way that the values
of the interior angles at the vertices are equal to n/2n, where n is an integer.
Let B(2) denote the segment symmetric to B(1) about the x-axis (see Figure 17).
In B11) we consider the function w = g1(z) = g(z), and in B12> the function
w = 92W = z. For arbitrary x E 1, these functions map the domains B") and
1) That is, such that any interior arc of it is an analytic curve.
454
§ 1. GLUING THEOREMS 455
B(2) in such a way that the points x and g(x) in the interval l are mapped into
the same point w of that interval (see
Figure 18). Let us now map the univalent
domain made up of the images G(1) and
C(2) of the domains B(1) and B(2) under
these mappings and of the interval l uni-
valently onto the lune Bc' U B(2) U 1 in
the w '-plane in such a way that the points
± 1 are mapped into themselves. Under
this mapping, the domains G(1) and G(2)
are mapped into domains adjacent to some
smooth curve Al that is analytic at all
Figure 17 interior points (see Figure 19). If a func-
tion w'= f (w) provides this mapping, then
the function w '= f (gk(z)) = gk +2(z), k = 1, 2, will provide mappings of the
domains B(1) and 8(2) onto these same adjacent domains. In accordance with
the symmetry principle, the functions w'= gk+2(z), for k = 1, 2, also map the
Figure 18 Figure 19
"double segments" B(3) and BW bounded by the interval I and the circular
arcs inclined to l at the angle rr/2"-1 in an analogous manner. Let G'3) and
G(4) denote the images under these mappings and then let us map the domain
C(3) U G4 )U kl univalently onto the lune B(3) u B4 )U l in the w "-plane in
such a way that the points ± 1 are mapped into themselves. Under this mapping,
the domains G(3) and G(4) are mapped into domains that are tangent along some
smooth curve A2 that is analytic at all interior points. By applying the symmetry
principle n - 1 times as indicated, we obtain the mappings mentioned in the
456 XI. SOME SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
theorem. This completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 1 is a modification of a gluing theorem of Lavrent 'ev. 1) By using
Lavrent'ev's theory of quasiconformal mappings, Volkovyski%Z) succeeded
in obtaining several other gluing theorems that play an important role in the theory
of Riemann surfaces. In these theorems, the requirements imposed on functions of
the type g(x) are weaker. -
Another procedure for obtaining gluing theorems is based on the use of the
boundary properties of analytic functions that were obtained in Chapters IX and X.
Specifically, let us prove
Theorem 2.3) Let a and b denote two distinct points on the circle jzj
and let yl denote one of the arcs connecting them. Let g(z) denote a function
defined on yl that possesses the following properties: 1) g(z) is regular and has
nonzero derivative at all interior points of the arc yl; 2) the function z '= g(z)
maps the arc yl bijectively onto the complementary arc Y2 on the circle Izl = 1
and maps the endpoints into themselves. Under these conditions, there exists a
function
W=F(z)= z +alz+ ..., (1)
that is regular in the closed disk jzj < 1 except at the points 0, a, and b and
that satisfies the equation4)
F(z)=F (g (z)) (2)
at all interior points of the arc yl.

Proof. Consider the family IR of functions F(z) of the form
i
F(z)= +z+f(z)
where f (z) E H2 and f (0) = 0 (with regard to the class H21 cf. § 4 of Chapter
IX) that satisfy almost everywhere on yl the relationship
f (F(g (z))) = at (F (z)). (3)
1) Lavrent'ev [1935]
2) VolkovyskiT [1946]
3) Schaeffer and Spencer [1947]
4) In a monograph by the same authors [1950] the existence of a function F(z) that
is univalent in Iz) < 1 is proved.
§ 1. GLUING THEOREMS 457
An example of such a function is the function

F(z)= _1_Z.
We pose the extremal problem: Out of all functions F(z) E 9, find the one
minimizing the integral
IF =S
iZ S If (z) I9 ds. 1
(4)
Let m denote the greatest lower bound of the integrals (4) in the family P. Let
us show that, for some function F(z) E 9 , we have IF = m. Let us suppose the
opposite. Then, there exists a sequence of functions F,,(z) = z-1 + z +
for n = 1, 2, , such that IF. m as n - - . Let us define
CD
fn (z) _ E Ckn1,Zk.
k=1
Then,
00
(nl 9 (") 9
r 9k n, v=1, 2, ...
l-.1k=1
Therefore, the functions fn(z) are uniformly bounded inside the disk Izl < 1 and
the condensation principle is applicable to them. Let } f,,k(z)} denote a sub-
sequence of functions that converges uniformly inside the disk Izl < 1 to the
function fo(z). Obviously, fo(z) E Hz.
Furthermore, in accordance with Minkowski's inequality, we have, for
0<r<1,
/2n
I S
0
I f0 (e'2 -fn (e ,B) 12 de)i/9 ` (
n
5 1A (efl) _ f0 (re') j9 A)
1/2
+1/2 2s
) /' --' (S If (re1B) -fn (e,a) I9 d6)1/°.

Ifo (rei°) -f,, (re'° j 9 dB n
(5)
For given c > 0, we choose r in the interval 0 < r < 1 in such a way that the
first and third integrals of the right side of inequality (5) are less than e. Then,
we can choose N > 0 in such a way that the second integral is, for n > N, less
than e. Consequently, for n > N, the integral on the left side of inequality (5) is
less than 9c. This means that the sequence of values of this integral converges
to zero as n --, Then, as we know, the sequence of values of converges

almost everywhere on I zI = 1 to f0(e`0). But equation (3) holds almost every-
where on yl for the functions Consequently, this will also be true for
F0(z) = z-1 + z + fo(z). This means that the function F0(z) E 11. Furthermore,
since
IsSS r Ifo(z)'ds= nJim zf li.

for 0 < r < 1, it follows that IF _< m, which means that IF = m. This proves
0 0
that our extremal problem does indeed have a solution. Let F0(z) denote any of
the extremal functions. Let X(eiO) denote an arbitrary real function of 0 that is
twice differentiable on the arc yl and is constant in a sufficiently small
neighborhood of each of the points a and b. Let us define X(e`B) on the arc y2
by the equation
x (g (z)) = X (z). (5)

Let us now denote by t(z) a function that vanishes at z = 0, is regular in
the disk jzl < 1, and has on Izi = 1 a real part equal to X(z). This function is
constructed in accordance with the Schwarz formula, on the basis of which, when
we set
00
(z) = E akzk, (6)

ka0
we have
2a
ak = 2a X (e') a-k,e d9, k= 1, 2, ... .
If we integrate the right-hand member by parts twice, we see that jak 1 < M/k 2,
for k = 1, 2, . Here M is finite and independent of k. This shows that the
-
function (6) is continuous on the closed disk 1z I < 1, and by (5) satisfies on
yl the relation
a' ('P (g (z))) _ OR ('P (z)) (7)
Let us set IF(z) _ (z) - a 0 and let us define
F* (z) = Fo (z) + e(D (z).
1. GLUING THEOREMS 459
Obviously, this function belongs to the family 2 for arbitrary real C. We have
IFS = IFe -}- 2 e T }o (z) ' (z)) ds + s9
IZI<1 11 10' (z) )s ds.
IzI<1
By virtue of the extremality of F0 and the arbitrariness of e, this leads to the
condition
J1 MVo(z)V(z))ds=0. (8)
Izl<1
But, if we set fo(z) = u o + iv o and IF (z) = u + iv, we have, by Green's

formula and the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, for 0 < r < 1,
v0d1=- Liu
voaXdx+zoddy
ay7
S
Iz °r IzI mr
du duo') ds =
_S S ` ax ax ax 1 JJ Co (z) ' (z)) ds.
Izl<r I'I<r
Therefore, condition (8) can be written in the form
lim vo (z) du (z) = 0
and also in the form
lim vo (rele) de u (rei°) dO= 0.

r-I
From Poisson's formula, we see (integrating by.parts) that the function
c9u(re`B)/aO is bounded in Izl < 1 and the integral
a,c
vo (rel) 19 dB
0
is bounded in 0 < r < 1. Therefore, in equation (9), we can take the limit under
the integral sign as r - 1. When we do this, we obtain
Za
vo(e'e)WeX(e')
A=0,
that is,
vo (ele) dX (ere) = 0.
1
0
By using equations (2) and (7), we see that, if a = eà and b = e`,8, then
S (vo (et°) - vo (B (e °B)) dX (e') = 0. (10)
If we now set
V(ere)=S(vo(e°)-vo(B(ei))dA
and integrate by parts, we obtain
V (e d9, X (e-4) dA = 0. (11)
This equation is established for an arbitrary function X(0), that satisfies the
conditions mentioned above.
Now let Xl(e`B) denote an arbitrary function defined on yl that has a con-
tinuous.first derivative with respect to 0 and vanishes in sufficiently small
neighborhoods of the points a and b. Then the function
X (e') = S X, (eis) do
satisfies the conditions mentioned above. Therefore, equation (11) yields
V(eA)doXt(eb0)d9=0.
We now have the conditions of a well-known lemma of du Bois-Reymond in the

calculus of variations. Therefore, we conclude that V (e`B) = const on YI It
then follows from (10) that
vo (g (z)) = vo (z),
and hence
2 (F0 (g, (z))) = 2 (F0 (z))
almost everywhere on yl. This, together with the relationship

T (Fo (g (z))) = OR (Fe (z)),
implies the validity of the relation
Fo (9(z)) = Fo (z) (12)
almost everywhere on yI.

Now, let zo denote an interior point of the arc yl. The function w = g(z) is
§2. MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED RIEMANN SdRFACES 461
univalent in a sufficiently small neighborhood U. o of the point z 0 and it maps

U20 into some neighborhood Uw0 of the point wo = g(zo) E Y2. Here, the subset
UZ of the neighborhood UZ0 that is contained in the domain jzj > 1 is mapped
0
into the subset U,,,o of the neighborhood U,,,0 contained in the disk IwI < 1. Thus
the function Fo(g (z )) is regular in UZ 0 Consequently, the neighborhood UZp is
partitioned by the circle in I = 1 into two subsets, in one of which the function
F0(z) is regular, and in the other the function Fo(g (z)) is regular. These two
functions are equal almost everywhere on the common arc y of the circle. Further-
more, the values of these functions on the boundaries of the corresponding domains
or on the boundaries of suitable subdomains are such that their absolute values
are square-integrable. But then, Cauchy's formula and theorem can be applied.
When we use these, we can show by the usual line of reasoning that each of the
functions F0(z) and Fo(g (z)) is an analytic continuation of the other across the
arc y. In particular, these functions are regular and equal to each other on the
arc y itself. Since zo is arbitrary, we conclude that the function Fo(z) is regular
at all interior points of the arc yI and that equation (2) holds for it everywhere
on yI. This completes the proof of the theorem.
§2. Conformal mapping of simply connected Riemann surfaces

Let us now consider the question of the conformal mapping of simply con-
nected Riemanp surfaces onto a one-sheeted disk. In the constructive definition
of Riemann surfaces, we take for the simplest plane figures not circles, as is
sometimes done, but triangles, including curvilinear triangles.
Specifically, suppose that there are over the w-plane and parallel to it a
finite or countable set of triangles A I, A2, . By "triangle" we mean here
either a finite domain bounded by a closed Jordan curve consisting of three ana-
lytic arcs that meet each other at nonzero angles or a domain obtained from such
a domain by inversion about one of the "vertices". 1) We shall refer to the three
boundary arcs as sides and we shall refer to their endpoints as the vertices of the
triangle. These triangles are connected, i.e. glued, along the sides in such a way
that, for each k the triangle dk is glued along some or all of its sides to another
triangle in the set which has no other points in common with Ak. The triangles
together may overlap but their points lying over the same point in the w-plane
1) The difference between the two cases mentioned in the definition of triangles
disappears if we shift to the Riemann sphere.
are treated as different points if they are not identified under the gluing described
above. We shall denote the points of the triangles by the same letters as the
points in the w-plane over which they lie.
Consider a Riemann surface F consisting of (1) the interior points of all the
triangles Ak, (2) the interior points of all those sides of each triangle Ak that
are also sides of other triangles adjacent to Ak, (3) the vertices of the triangles
Ak in which a finite number of triangles Ak adjacent to each other are connected
in circular order. We note that the sum of the angles of the triangles at each vertex
is a multiple of 2n. If this sum exceeds 27r, the vertex is called a branch point
of the Riemann surface. A characteristic property of connectedness for surfaces
is assumed satisfied for Riemann surfaces, namely, if any two points lying on F
lie in the triangles Ak and Ak', F contains a sequence of triangles Ak1'
Ak 2, , Akn, each adjacent to the next, such that Ak 1 = Ak, and Akn = Ak .
Let us suppose that we can assign to the surface F a one-sheeted simply

connected domain B consisting of triangles A, of the same kind. Suppose also
that there exists between the triangles Ak and Ak a one-to-one correspondence
that always assigns to two adjacent triangles on F two adjacent triangles in B.
In this case, the Riemann surface is said to be simply connected. With regard
to simply connected Riemann surfaces, we have Poincare's theorem, which con-
stitutes the subject of the present section:
Theorem 1. An arbitrary simply connected Riemann surface F is in one-to-
one correspondence with a disk Iz I < r, where 0 < r < w, or the entire z-plane,
where the correspondence is defined on the disk or plane by some meromorphic
function. 1)
Proof. Suppose that the triangles Ak in the composition of the surface F are
in the relationship described above with the triangles ok constituting a one-
sheeted simply connected domain B. Let us construct in B a finite or countable
set of simply connected domains B,,, for n = 1, 2, , such that B C Bn + 1, for
n > 1, is obtained from Bn either by adjoining to Bn one of the triangles A,
1) If r < m, F is called a surface of the hyperbolic type: if r = m, it is called a

surface of the parabolic type; in the case of the entire plane, it is called a surface of
the elliptic type. (In the last case, the meromorphic function in question is obviously a
a rational fraction.) A simply connected Riemann surface F is always of a definite type.
This is a simple consequence of Liouville's theorem.
§2. MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED RIEMANN SURFACES 463
that do not appear in Bn and one side of Ok or by adjoining to B. the common
side not belonging to Bn of the two triangles appearing in B. Furthermore, let us
assume that, in the case of a finite number of domains Bn, this last coincides
with B. In the case of an infinite number of domains B, these constitute a
sequence exhausting the domain B. Obviously, such a construction can always be
done beginning with B 1 = A, . The triangles Ak corresponding to the triangles
Ok appearing in B (for n = 1, 2, . ) constitute a simply connected Riemann
surface F contained in Fn + 1, and an arbitrary point of the surface F lies in
Fn beginning with some n.
Obviously, the surface F 1 = A 1 is the image of some disk Iz I < r 1, where
r 1 < DO, under a suitable univalent function w = f 1(z) such that f 1(0) is a point
(fixed) in the interior of the triangle Al and f'(0) = 1. Let us now suppose that,
for some n, the surface Fn is in one-to-one correspondence with a disk Iz I < rn,
where rn < oo, the correspondence being defined by a meromorphic function w =
fn(z) such that fn(o) = 0 and fn'(0) = 1. Let us show that this will also be true
for Fn + 1 (with the disk in question possibly replaced with the domain Iz I <
or the entire z-plane). Here, we need to consider two cases:
1. Suppose that the surface Fn + 1 is obtained by adjoining to Fn the tri-
angle Ak along one of its sides 1. In such a case, Fn and Ak can be regarded
as the single-valued images of the semidisks B 1: Iz I < 1, N z) > 0 and B2: Iz I < 1,
'Az) < 0 under suitable meromorphic functions w = g1(z) (see Figures 20 and 21)
G
Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22

and w = c2(z) in such a way that both mappings map the arc 1 common
boundary diameter. Obviously, the function g(x) = 024-1 1W), satisfies the con-
ditions of Theorem 1 of § 1. On the basis of this theorem, there exist functions
z '= Vi 1(z) and z '= 02(z) that map B 1 and B2 univalently onto two complemen-
tary domains G1 and G2 of the disk Iz 'I < 1 (see Figure 22) in such a way that
the points x and g(x) (for - 1 < x < 1) on the boundaries of B 1 and B 2 are
mapped into the same point of the disk Iz 'I < 1. But then the functions
w = 01(0 i 1(z)) and w = map the domains G1 and G2 onto Fn and Ak

respectively in such a way that the common portions of the boundaries of these
functions coincide. In accordance with Riemann's theorem on analytic continua-
tion, we conclude that both these functions define a meromorphic function w =
F(z) on the disk IzI < 1 that maps that disk bijectively onto the surface F + 1.
By a suitable normalization, we easily obtain the function w + 1(z), fn + 1(0)
wo, f + 1(0) = 1, which yields such a mapping of the disk IzI < r + 1, where
rn+1 < oo on Fn+1.
2. Let us now consider the case when the surface
F to Fn, of two triangles Ak and
Ak' contained in Fn. If a and b are the endpoints of the arc 1 and a lies in
Fn + 1' we remove from the surface Fn a sufficiently small one-sheeted or
multiple-sheeted disk K: Iw - al < E constituting a neighborhood of the point a
on Fn + 1 but cut along 1. The surface Fn with points belonging to K deleted
from it and the disk K, with a sufficiently small arc VC 1 with endpoint at a
adjoined can obviously be regarded as the single-valued images of the semidisks
B1: IzI < 1, %z) > 0 and B2: IzI < 1, %z) < 0 (see Figure 23) under meromorphic
Figure 23
functions. Here, both functions map the common boundary diameter onto the
portions of the boundaries lying over the circle Iw - al = E. Therefore, reasoning
as in case 1, we can show that the surface Fn U 1' is the image of a finite disk
under a suitable meromorphic function. When we note that the surface Fn U 1' is
obtained from Fn by shortening of the cut 1, we continue this shortening process
indefinitely so that as a result we exhaust the entire cut 1. If we now use the
§2. MAPPING OF SIMPLY CONNECTED RIEMANN SURFACES 465
convergence of the corresponding normalized functions w = where

wo and 0v'(0)=1 for v = 1, 2, which was proved above for the surfaces F
,
themselves, where n = 1, 2, , we conclude that the surface F,, + 1 is the image

of the disk Izi <r,,+,, where r,, + 1 < oc, under the meromorphic function w =
fn+1(z), fn +1 (0) = w0, fn +1(0)= 1. Here, r,, +1 can be 00 only if F,, +1 has no
boundary arcs because otherwise we would run into a contradiction with Theorem
2 of § 2, Chapter X, but then F,, + I coincides with F.
If the number of surfaces F. is finite, we conclude that the surface F is in
one-to-one correspondence with a disk IzI < r, where r < 00, or with the entire
z-plane, the correspondence being defined by a suitable meromorphic function.
On the other hand, if the number of surfaces is infinite, we shall have a
sequence of functions f,,(z) and we need to investigate what happens when we
take the limit.as n --. oo.
To do this, consider the functions
C = n (z) =fn+ 1 (fn (z)), in (0) = 0, 4n (0) =1, n =1, 2,, .. .
The function C= is regular in the disk IzI < r,, and the values that it
assumes in that disk all lie in the disk ICI < r + 1. By the Schwarz lemma, we
have ,b'(0) = 1 < r + 1/r,a. This means that r does not decrease with increasing
n. Therefore, the sequence Irj approaches a finite or infinite limit r as n
We now set
(Pn. , (z) =fn' (f, (z)) = z + ... , v < n, n ^ 1, 2,
We see that, for every fixed v (v = 1, 2, - ), the functions c,,, (z), n = 1, 2, - - ,

are regular and univalent in IzI <ru. Consequently, the sequence of these func-
tions has a subsequence n lvl Y z) that converges in IzI < r to a univalent
k
function Here, we may assume that the sequence of the numbers n k > is
contained in the sequence of the numbers n(k1) (with v = 1). Since.
ow v) (0y. 1(z)) = 0n (V) 1 (z) in the disk IzI < r l, so that 1(z))
k k
it. follows that .01(fl 1(w)) in A1.
This shows that the function w = f (0v 1(C)), inverse to C= 0 (f v 1(w)) is
independent of v. Here, if C is the image of the disk zI < r,, under the map-
I
ping L= then the function

w= 00
maps the one-sheeted domain onto the surface F1, It follows that G. C Gv+19
v = 1, 2, . It remains to show that the limiting domain G of the sequence of
the domains G, v= 1, 2, , coincides with the entire open disk ICI < r.
Suppose that r = oc. Since the image Gv of the disk Iz I < rv under the map-
ping '_ (hv(z) is contained in the disk ICI < r,/4 for all v = 1, 2, (by
Koebe's theorem) the domain G contains in this case an arbitrary finite disk and
consequently must coincide with the entire finite plane.
Now, suppose that r is finite. Then, we have Icv(z)I < r in the disk Iz I < rv.
Consequently, by the Schwarz lemma, we have in Iz I < rv
I(P,(z)I`TIzI
Let us now take arbitrary p, P11 P21 0 < P < P1 < 02 < r. Let v denote a number
such that P2 < rv < r. If we set
co
akv)Zk,
(
21
k-2
we have
0 4
ZR -) I py (P9eè) 19 dO = P8 + I I a" 19 P2k T9 Pg.

lbj k.=2 Y
Consequently,
j
w
L.i
k=2
I
(Y) sk
I9 P2 c
r- - ry
ra - P9
Therefore,
Iak(Y)
_rs
rY
- rY 1
Pik=2, 3, ... .
Using this inequality, we have on the circle IzI = p1,
Ip,(zW I.Pi-
, IakY)IPi=Pt- 'I
00 00
r9
rY
r,- k
P`
P9-I
k.7 k=2
Pi
-Pt r,
rt-rY9
P9-P1'
3. EXTREMUM FOR BOUNDED FUNCTION 467
that is,
T' -Tv
v(z)Pi- rv
Pi
Pa - PL
Since for sufficiently large v the right-hand member of this inequality is greater
than p, it follows that, for such values of v, the domain G,,, being the image of
the disk Iz( <r, under the mapping C_ contains the disk < p. This
means that the same will be true of the domain G for all v = 1, 2, . But since
G is obviously contained in the disk ICI <r, the domain G coincides with the
disk ICI < r.
Thus, in the case of an infinite number of triangles Ak, the surface F is the
single-valued image of the disk ICI < r, where r < oc, under the meromorphic func-
tion w = qi (C). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Poincare"s theorem assigns to each simply connected Riemann surface F a
function that is meromorphic in some disk (or on the entire plane) that maps
that disk bijectively onto F.
It is easy to prove the converse, namely, that to every function f (z) that is
meromorphic in the disk Iz I < r, where r < oc, can be assigned a simply connected
Riemann surface onto which the function f (z) maps the disk Iz I < r bijectively.
Specifically, we partition the disk Iz I < r into small triangles, in each of which
the function f (z) is univalent, and consider the surface F composed of
the images of these triangles.
Thus, simply connected Riemann surfaces can be regarded as the geometric
equivalents for functions that are meromorphic in a disk (or on the entire-plane).
This conclusion is completely analogous to the conclusion that follows from
univalent functions when we use the existence theorems established in
Chapters II and V.
§3. An extremum for bounded functions in multiply connected domains

In § 2 of Chapter II and ' 1 of Chapter VI, we considered questions dealing
with an extremum of the quantity f'(0) in certain classes of analytic functions
defined in a given domain B. This led to important existence theorems dealing
with mappings of the domain B onto a disk.
We now answer one of those questions.
Theorem 1.1) Let IR denote the family of all functions f (z) that are regular
in a given n-connected domain B with nondegenerate boundary continua, that are
bounded by unity in modulus in B and that satisfy the condition f (a) = 0 at a
given finite point a E B. Then the quantity I f '(a)I is maximized by a function
mapping the domain B onto the complete n-sheeted disk (see §5 of Chapter VI).
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that B is a finite domain
bounded by n closed analytic Jordan curves K1, , K,,: K = U k=1Kk.
That the extremal problem posed in the theorem has a solution is obvious.
Let f o(z) denote one of the extremal functions. Since I f U (a)1 > 0, the point z = a
is a simple zero of the function f o(z).
Suppose that the function fo(z) has, in addition to a, zeros at the points
al, , z,,, in the domain B. (Of course, it is not assumed that these are all the
zeros of the function fo(z) in B.)
Consider the Green's function g(z, C) for the domain B and the harmonic
function h(z, C) associated with it. In addition to fo(z), consider the varied func-
tion f1(z) E 9, defined by
109 1fi (Z) 1=109 I.fo(z) I +u(z), (1)
where
U m
(z) (s
(g (z, zk) - g (z, zk)),
k=1
where, in turn, zk E B for k= 1, . , m.

Obviously, If 1(z)I < 1 in B. Also, for f 1(z) to be single-valued in B, it is
necessary that the conjugate function
m
v (z) = E (h (z, zp) - h (z, zk))
A-1
be single-valued.
Since, in accordance with (10") of §6 of Chapter VI,

(h (z, zk))Kl = - 2Ttiw1(zk), (h (z, zk))Kl = - 2nlwl (zk), l=1, ... , n,
where wl(z) is the harmonic measure of the curve K1 with respect to the domain
B, it follows that single-valuedness of v(z) in B leads to the n conditions on
1) Ahlfors [1947].
§3. EXTREMUM FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS 469
the zk:
m
F1 (z;, ... , Zm) _ E1 (w1 (zk) -- W 1(Zk)) = 0, 1- 1, ... ,
n. (2)
Since 17j 1W1(z) = 1 so that the function f (z i , .. , z;n) can be expressed as a

linear combination of the functions Fk(z , , z,F,), k = 1,
10
, n - 1, the nth of
conditions (2) is a consequence of the remaining conditions and we can drop it.
When conditions (2) are satisfied, we have by virtue of the extremality of the
function f 0(z)
log If, (a) I - log I.fo (a) I

m
= E (g(a, zk) - g(a, zk)

k-1
(g (zk, a) - g (zk, a)) - 0.

k-1
This leads to the conclusion that the function
m
Fo (zi, ..., zm)= E g(zi,, a), (3)
ks1
where the zk belong to B, k = 1, , m, and satisfy conditions (2) for 1=
1, , n - 1, is minimized when zk = zk for k = 1, , m. But then, the rank of

the matrix (zk = xk + ix,, +k, zk = xk + ixm +k)
OF,
dx,,ll, k=1, ..., 2m, 1=0, 1, ..., n-1, (4)
with xk = xk, k = 1, , 2m, does not exceed n - 1. This is true because if the
rank of this matrix were equal to n (which can be the case only when 2m > n - 1),
then the functions 61 = F1(z i , , for 1= 0, , n - 1, would map a
neighborhood of the point (x1, , xvm) in 2m-dimensional Euclidean space
onto an open set in n-dimensional space containing the point (0, 0, , 0). The
intersection of this set with the S0-axis (61 = 62 = . '= 6n-1 = 0) is an open
segment containing the point (0, 0, , 0). Consequently, the function
F0(z 1 , ... , z,) would not be minimized when z k = zk, k = 1, , m.
From what we have shown, we conclude that there exist real numbers A0,
X1, , an-1, not all equal to 0, such that the 2m equations hold:
as =0, k=1, ..., 2m. (5)
kt
Keeping (2) and (3) in mind, we conclude from (5) that, for the values Ak
mentioned above, the partial derivatives with respect to x and y (where z = x + iy)
of the function
- Agg(z, a) ill (z) T ... -1- (z)
vanish at z = zk, for k = r, , m. This function is obviously not a constant

since the Ak are not all zero.
Let us define analytic functions p(z, C) and wk(z), k = 1, , n, by
8 (z, C), = at (P (z, C)), wk (z) _ M (Wk (z))

(see §6, Chapter VI) and let us define
n-1
w (.z) _ - Aop (z, a) + A1w1(z).
1=1
From the latter equation, we conclude that the derivative w '(z) is not identically
zero but that it has zeros at all the points z 1, , Z M.
Since the real part of the function w(z) is constant on each boundary curve
K1, for l = 1, , n, in the case in which w'(z) has no zeros on K, we obtain
the result
n
(arg (z))K (arg (z))K,

t=1
n
[(arg )K1- (arg 2a (n - 2),

W -- _
where ds is the element of arc length on the boundary K. We note that the.func-
tion w' (z) is regular at a when A0 = 0 and we note that w '(z) has a simple pole
z = a in B when A0 0. Therefore, we conclude from Cauchy's theorem on the
number of zeros and poles that the number of zeros of the function w'(z) in B
distinct from z = a does not exceed n - 2 if A0 = 0 and is exactly equal to n - 1
if A0 0. This result will also hold when w ' (z) has zeros on K, as follows
from the same theorem of Cauchy but this time with consideration of the zeros on
the boundary. Here, the zeros on K are counted with half multiplicity. I)
This result leads to the first important conclusion regarding the extremal func-
tion fp(z). The zeros of the function fo(z) in the domain B are also zeros of the
function w ' W. The number of these zeros does not exceed n - 1. If there are
exactly n - I of them, then A0 i 0.2)
Now suppose that z 1, , zm, m < n - 1, constitute all the zeros of the
function fo(z) inside B. Then, the function
U(z)=log Ifo (z) I +g(z, a) + g(z, Zk) (6)

k-l
is harmonic in B and U(z) < 0 in B. Since this last inequality is satisfied in
the part of the domain B contained in a small neighborhood of an arbitrary point
of the boundary K, if we shift to the disk by means.of a univalent mapping and
use the boundary properties of nonnegative harmonic functions in a disk (see §2
of Chapter IX), we conclude that U(z) has definite limiting values almost every-
where on K along nontangential paths and these values define a summable func-
tion on K.
Now, let f2(z) denote the varied function obtained from the relationship
log I fs (z) I =log I fo (z) I + u (z), (7)
where u(z) is a harmonic function in B. To make f2(z) single-valued in B, we

require that the conjugate v(z) to u(z) be single-valued in B. For If2(z)I not to
exceed 1 in B, it will be sufficient to require that u(z) be bounded in B and
that U(z) + u(z) be nonpositive almost everywhere on K. This is true because,
in the first place, by virtue of (6), and (7),
m
-B (z, a) - E 8 (z. Zk)
If2(z)I=e U(z)+u (z) e k=1
I.fo (z) I (8)
in B. Furthermore, under the assumptions made, u(z) also has definite limiting
1) For a direct derivation of this theorem for the function w '(z), consider neighbor-
hoods not only of its zeros lying in B but also of its zeros lying on K. Then Cauchy's
theorem can be applied to the logarithmic derivative of w'(z). If we then let the
neighborhoods of the zeros shrink to a point, the difference between the number of zeros
and the number of poles of the function w '(z) in B will be equal to (argw'(z))K. This
last expression means the sum of the increments in argw '(z) over the set of arcs con-
stituting K and not encircling the zeros of w '(z).
2) (A more complete study of the zeros of the function fo(z) has been made by
Garabedian [19491)
values almost everywhere on K. From Green's formula
0(z)+u(z)-2a J z)ds,
where K. is the set of curves g(z ', z) = e (where a is a sufficiently small positive
number), we obtain Green's formula for the domain B
dg (z', z)
U(z)+u(z)-
2a J (U(z) 'u(z)) ds (9)
by taking the limit as c --p 0. (As always, the normal n is directed inside the
domain B.) It follows that U(z) = u(z) < 0 in B. Therefore, in accordance with
(8), Ifz(z)I < I in B. Thus, f2(z) E IR.
If we rewrite (7) in the form
log ff (z) = log fo (z) I + u (z),

z-a I
I z-a
and let z approach a, we obtain
log'I f9 (a) I = log I fo (a) I + u (a).
Then, by virtue of the extremaliry of the function f o(z), we have u(a) < 0. By
using Green's formula (as derived above), we see that this leads to the inequality
dg (z', a
u(a)= 2n c u(z) (10)
Furthermore, if we denote by KE.1,1 a curve in B that is close to Kt and defined

by the equation i1(z) = 1 - e, where a is a sufficiently small positive number,
and if we denote by KE,I,k, where k 1, a curve in B close to Kk and defined
by the equation &)I(z) = e with the same e, then the single-valuedness of v(z) in
B can be expressed in the form of n - 1 equations (for sufficiently small e):
Td u
(v (Z)) K,. 1, 1= S dv (z) _ - S do
ds = - S (w1 (z) + e) n
ds
K., 1,1 K 1.l K+ 1,1
(m1(z)-e) do ds+2a duds=

k s
I Kr11, k
S
§3. EXTREMUM FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS- 473
u
(z) !L do z) ds + 2e
do
ds = 0,
S s
n K,0 1, 1
UK,
kal
1, k
1=1, ..., n-1.

Here, Fo is a fixed small positive number. This is equivalent to satisfaction of
the n - 1 limiting (as E -- 0) equations
u(z)d!- ds=0, I=i, ..., n-'1.
Turning now to the function (6), let us suppose that, for some q > 0, there
exists a subset E of K of positive measure such that U(z) < - q for z E E. Then,
for u(z) we may -take the function defined by the boundary values
(0 on K outside E
U (z) - I
(
s ll- °
dg (z, a)
n
do + k=1 k^ do J
d'k`
on E,
where the Ak, for k = 1, ... , n - 1, are constants and F is a constant of either
sign but sufficiently small absolute value. (To construct u(z), we need only shift
from the domain B to the disk ICI < 1, as was done in § 3 of Chapter VI, then
use Poisson's formula to construct a harmonic function on that disk from the new
boundary values, and finally return to the domain B with it.) For this function
u(z), conditions (11) take the forms
n-1
dg dm1 c duk
do . do ds = 0'
kk
do do ds + 1
(12)
k=1 CCC
1=1,...,n-1,
and, by virtue of the choice of the Ak, for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, they must be
satisfied. But conditions (12) constitute a system of n - 1 homogeneous linear
equations with n unknowns Ak, k = 0, 1, , n - 1. Therefore, this system has
nonzero solutions. Let us now denote by Ak, k 0,...,n - 1, any nonzero sys-
tem of solutions and let us construct from them the function u(z) in (10). We then
obtain an inequality in which the left-hand member includes the factor c, which
maybe of either sign. This leads to the condition
n-1
'Xo)
(dgdn
a))2ds+ I
k=l
a
dwk
do
dg (z a)
do
ds = 0. (13)
If we multiply equation (13) by -A0 and equations (12) by Al (for each 1 =

1, , n - 1) and then add all the resulting equations, we obtain
(_X6 11, a) +X1 d&)

+...+kn_t
dwn_y
) ds=0.
do do do
It follows that, almost everywhere on E,
nom)-11
- o do + Lj
Aff Xk
do = 0.
k-1
Since, in addition, everywhere on K we have
n-I
-0+ d
k_1
kk dSk
dw
0,
we conclude that the function

n
w'(z) AoP1 (z, a) + 2] Akwk (z),
k-1
which is regular on K, vanishes on E. But then w '(z) __ 0 in B and hence the

function
- kog (z, a) + Akwk (z)

k-l
is constant in B. However, this cannot be the case because of the choice of the
Ak for k = 0, 1, , n. This contradiction shows that U(z) = 0 almost every-
where on K. But then, if we apply Privalov's uniqueness theorem (cf. §2 of
Chapter X) to a suitable subset of the domain B, we conclude that U(z) - 0 in
B; that is, in B we have
m
IogI/o(z)I =-g (z, a)- Z g(z, zk)
k-1
and
m
I p (z, z )
ffe (z) = e k I
Now, the conditions under which f0(z) is single-valued in B take the form
(argfo (z))K, = wt (a) + I wl (zk) = V1, l =1, ... ,

2a n, (14)
k=1
where the vi are integers. Obviously, vl > 1, for 1 = 1, , n. If we sum (14)

over l = 1, . . . , n, we obtain
n
m+1= vl:n.
r= l
But m <n- 1. Consequently, m = a - 1 and vt = 1 for 1 = I, - , n.
Summarizing what we have said, we conclude that the function f0(z) has
exactly n zeros in the domain B and that it is equal to unity in modulus on K.
Then, by evaluating (arg (f 0(z) - w0))K, we prove that the function f 0(z) - w 0
has, for each w 0 in the disk Iw0I < 1 exactly n zeros (counting each one
according to its multiplicity) in B, and this means that the function w = f0(z)
maps the domain B onto the n-sheeted disk Iwl < 1. This completes the proof of
the theorem.
By means of a third, more complicated variation of the function f0(z), one can
show 1) that the extremal function is unique up to a constant factor ei°. However,
we shall not stop here to do this.
Let us denote by F(z, a) that one of the extremal functions of Theorem 1 for
which the derivative is positive at the point z = a, thus emphasizing its de-
pendence on a. This functions also appears in the construction of extremal func-
tions of certain other extremal problems associated with the same class of bounded
functions. 2) We present one theorem of this kind:
Theorem 2. Suppose that a function f (z) is regular in a finitely connected
domain B with nondegenerate boundaries and that If (z)I < 1 in B. Then, in B,
z)
If'(z)Ic(I-If (z)I9)F(z, z), (f'(z, z)=OF(dt c=zl' (15)
with equality holding at the point z = a E B only for functions of the form
f(z)=el+aF(z, a), IEI=1, IalZ 1. (16)
1) Cf. Ahlfors [1947].

2) Alenicyn [195oa]. (See also Alenicyn [19611.>
476 , XI. SOME SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
Furthermore, in B,
I f' (z) I c F' (z, z), (17)
with equality holding at z = a E B only for ((z) = EF(z, a), where IEI = 1.
Proof. If a is any point in the domain B, then the function g(z) _
(f (z) - f (a))/(1 - f (a) f (z)) satisfies the conditions of Theorem 1, and conversely,
if g(z) satisfies the conditions of Theorem 1, then the function 1(z) =
(g(z) + a)/(1 + ag(z)), where a is a constant such that la I < 1, is of the type in
question. By Theorem 1, we have Ig'(a)I < F'(a, a), which is inequality (15) with
z = a. Obviously, equality holds only for the function (16). The second part of
the theorem follows immediately from the first. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
§4. The three-disk theorem

If a function f(z) is regular in the closed annulus r1 < IzI <r2, if I1(z)I <
M1 on the circle I z I= rI, and if If(z)I < M2 on I z I= r2, then, as was shown in
§4 of Chapter VIII,
r
log r8
r
log
rl
tog rtr' ]ogrl ry (1)
If (Z) I C M1 M9 ;
for r1 < IzI < r2, with equality holding for some zo in the open annulus rl <
Izol < r2 only in the case of a function f (z) = czwhere c and A are constants
depending on Izol, r1, r2, M1, and M2, and where A is real. Since this last
function is regular in the annulus only for the exceptional values of Izol at which
A is an integer, it is only in these cases that inequality (1) is sharp. The
problem arises of finding a sharp inequality in the remaining cases. We shall now
investigate this question. 1)
We note first of all that, by means of simple transformations, we can reduce
the problem posed to the case when r1 = q, r2 = 1, M1 = p, M2 = 1. Hence, we
can consider functions f (z) that are regular in the closed annulus q < Iz I < 1 and
satisfy the inequality I1(z)I < 1 on the circle IzI = 1 and the inequality If(z)I < p
on the circle IzI = q. The question then deals with the maximum value of I1(z0)I
1) Robinson [1943].
§4. THE THREE-DISK THEOREM - 477
at some point zo in the open annulus q < Izol < 1. We can also assume that zo
is positive and that the maximum sought may be found only among the functions
f (z) for which f (z0) > 0. Let us denote the extremal functions by f (z, p), thus
pointing out their dependence on p. Then, we can easily see that between suitable
extremal functions we have the relationship f (z, pq) = zf (z, p). This last means
that the case of arbitrary p can be reduced to the case in which q < p < 1. We
shall now consider this case. We note that the case p = 1 is trivial because we
then have f (z, p) _- 1.
Lemma. If the function f (z) is regular in the annulus q < Izl < 1 except
possibly at a single simple pole on the segment - 1 < z <- q and if l1(z)I < 1 on
the circles Iz I = 1 and Iz I = q, then If U) I < 1 on the open segment q < z < 1
with equality holding only in the case f (z) = const.
Proof. We may confine ourselves to the case when f (z) actually does have a
pole on the interval - 1 < z < - q. Suppose that q < z 0 < 1. We may assume that
f (z 0) > 0. Let us define
F (z) = (f (z)+f (z))>

2
This function also satisfies the conditions of the lemma and it assumes real
values for real values of z. If F(z) is regular in the open annulus q < Iz I < 1
and F(z) coast, then obviously F(z0) < 1. Let us now consider the case in
which F(z) has a simple pole on - 1 < z < - q. Since IF(- 1)I < 1 and IF(-q)I <
1, it follows that F(z) assumes on the interval -1 < z < - q every real value of
absolute value greater than 1. On the other hand, it easily follows from Cauchy's
theorem on the number of zeros and poles that the function w = F(z) assumes
every value w such that Iw I > 1 at exactly one point of the annulus q < Iz I < 1.
Consequently, IF(z)I must not exceed 1 anywhere on the interval q < z < 1 and,
in particular, F(z o) < 1. If equality holds here, then F'(z 0) = 0 and a neighbor-
hood of the point z 0 would be mapped by w = F(z) into a multiple-sheeted
neighborhood of the point w = 1 or of the point w = - 1. But then, F(z) would
assume certain values w such that Iwi > 1 at certain points of the annulus q <
IzI < 1. Thus, we have shown that F(z0) < 1 with equality holding only when
F(z) = const. But F(z 0) = f (z 0) and, consequently, f (z 0) < 1. Now, if f (z 0) = 1,
we have F(z 0) = 1 and then F(z) - 1. On q < z < 1 and - 1 < z < - q, this yields
R (f (z)) ° 1, Consequently, the image of the interval - 1 < z < - q will be the
entire line R (f (z)) = 1, and the image of the interval q < z 1. On the other hand,
it follows just as above that the function f (z) assumes every value w exceeding
I in modulus at exactly one point of the open annulus q < zl < 1. This con-
tradiction proves that f (zo) must be less than 1. This completes the proof of the
lemma.
Theorem. Out of all functions f (z) that are regular in the closed annulus
q< lzl < 1 such that l f (z)l < 1 on the circle lz l = 1 and i f (z)l <p on the circle
l z I= q, where q < p < 1, the maximum value of I f (z o) I for given z0 such that
q < z0 < 1 is attained only by functions of the form f (z) = Ef0(z), where IEl = 1
and w = fo(z) is a function that maps the open annulus r < lzl < 1 univalently
onto the open disk lwl < 1 with a cut along some arc lwl = p, largwl < $.
The explicit expression for fo(z) is given by the formula
0(p q)
fo(x)=z l -,
(2)
e (qz, q)
where
00
®(z, q) _ II (1 + qv'-t z) (1 + q9R-1 z-1) (3)

n=
(the function 0(z, q) differs only by a constant factor from the familiar theta
function $(z) = I'=_m qR 2z 26).
Proof. That the function f0(z) mentioned in the theorem exists is shown as
follows: we map the disk lwl < 1 with cut along the arc lwl = p, largwl < S onto
the annulus q'< zl < 1 in such a way that the point w = 1 is mapped into z = 1.
By the symmetry principle, the entire w-plane with cuts along the arcs lwl = p,
larg wl < $ and lwl = 1/p, larg wl < S is then mapped univalently onto the annulus
q ' < lzl < 1/q' with linear directions conserved at a point.
In accordance with Theorem 2 of §5 of Chapter V, the quantity q is a con-
tinuous function of S that varies from 0 to p as S varies from 0 to rr. There-
fore, for some S in the interval 0 < 8 < rr, the quantity q' assumes the value q
mentioned in the theorem. The inverse function w = fo(z) then serves as the
required function. It follows from the condition of symmetry that the only zero of
§4. THE THREE-DISK THEOREM 479
fo(z) in the annulus q< IzI < 1 is a point on the interval - 1 <z <- q.
Now, if f (z) is an arbitrary function satisfying the conditions of the theorem,
the function f(z)/fo(z) satisfies all the conditions and consequently,
If (zo)/fo(zo)I < 1; that is If (zo) I < Ifo(zo)I. Here, equality holds only for a func-
tion of the form f (z) f o(z), where I E 1 = 1. This proves the first part of the
theorem.
To prove the second part, we note that the extremal function fo(z) can be
characterized by the following considerations: 1) fo(z) is regular in the closed
annulus q < IzI < 1, 2) Ifo(z)I = 1 on the circle IzI = 1, 3) Ifo(z)I = p on the
circle IzI = q, 4) fo(z) is positive for positive values of z, and 5) fo(z) has a
unique simple zero lying on the interval - 1 < z < - q. To see this, suppose that
f1(z) is another such function. Then, the functions fl(z)/fo(z) and fo(z)/f1(z)
both satisfy the conditions of the lemma. Consequently, on the interval q < z < 1
we have Ifi(z)I < Ifo(z)I and Ifo(z)I < If1(z)I, so that Ifo(z)I = Ifi(z)I and, again
in accordance with the lemma, this can be true only when f l(z) = f o(z).
With this in mind, let us now look at the function (2) with 0 (z, q) defined by
(3). Since the infinite product (2) converges for all z # 0, it represents a regular
function in 0 < IzI < - and the points z = - qtr- I, for n = 0, + 1, + 2, are simple
zeros of it. Consequently, the function (2) is a regular function in 0 < Iz I <
except at the simple poles - q 22/p, for n = 0, + 1, + 2, . Since all these poles
lie outside the annulus q < IzI < 1, the function fo(z) is regular in it. Further-
more, the function fo(z) has simple poles z = - pg2r-2, for n = 0, ± 1, + 2, ,
one of which, namely, z = - p lies in the annulus q < IzI < 1. Finally, on the
circle IzI = 1,
CO
(l+qsn-9 P
(1+g2n'Z)
P z
n=l
Ito(z)I=IzI 00
(1+q,n-¢pz) (l+qsn'
pz )
n=l
00 (1 +.qsn Z) (1 +qan-apz)
U P
n=t (l+q2' pz) (l+qsn Z
= 1,
P)
that is, If o(z)I = 1 and, analogously, If o(z)I = p on IzI = q. This shows that the
function fo(z) satisfies all the conditions 1)-5) enumerated above. Therefore, it
coincides with the function fo(z) mentioned in the theorem. This completes the
§5. Transformation of analytic functions by means of polynomials

In this section we shall establish a property of transformations of analytic
functions by means of polynomials, which we shall then apply to the derivation of
certain theorems dealing with the transfinite diameter of closed sets of points in
the plane and with polynomials. 1)
The property referred to is described in the following theorem:
Theorem 1. Let f(z) denote a function that is regular for large z and has
the expansion
f (z) = (1)
k=1
in a neighborhood of z = Let p(z) denote the nth degree polynomial p(z) =

aoz" + alz"-1 + + an , where ao 1 0 and n > 1. Suppose that the function
f. (z) = f(p(z)) has the expansion
O
.f* (z) ZJF
(2)
k=1
if we set
a1 a9 ... am
as as ... a,. 1
A. = f
am am+1 ... a9m-1

(3)
a1 ag ... Qm
-
A*m -
ag* a8 ... am*+I
am am+l ... a,m-i
1) Goluzin [1946b].
§5. TRANSFORMATION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 481
then the Am, for in = 1, 2, , are independent of the values al, a2, ... , an
and are expressed in terms of the A. according to the formulas
Am= ±ao "P'Ap for m=pn (p=1, 2, ...) (4)

{ 0 for other m.
Furthermore, if we set
9
D = Iim mA, D* = lim-m- m9 _JA m I, (5)
m-.co m-.co
we have
D
D*= (6)
laol'
Proof. It will be sufficient to prove the theorem in the two special cases
when p(z) = aoz and when p(z) = z" + alz"-1 + + ar, , because we can then
obtain the proof of the theorem for the general case by considering first f(z)
and p(z) = aoz and then the functions f1(z) = f (a0z) and p(z) = z" +
(al/a0)zn-1 +
...+ a"/ao.
In the case p(z) = aoz, we have ak = aok ak, for k = 1, 2, . Consequently,
by making a substitution in A. and by then taking the common factors out of the
rows and columns of the determinant, we arrive at (4) and then at (6).
Let us now consider the case when p(z) = z" + alz"-1 + . + an. Suppose
that the function f(z) is regular in I z I > R. Let r > R be such that
min IP(z)I > R. Then, by.Cauchy's formula we have in IzI > r
f(P(z))=-27vi J C p(z) A, (7)

RCCCin
where the integral is over the circle C: the counterclockwise direc-

tion. Let us expand the fraction 1/(p(z) - 4) as a function of z in a neighbor-
hood of z = = in a Laurent series
-I -
m
I _ bk (C)
(8)
P(z) - C
k=1
which converges uniformly on C with respect to C if IzI > r. From this result we
obtain the equations
b, (C) = bs (C) _ ... = bn-1(C) _ 0, bn (C) =1, (9)
bn+1 (C) + alb. (C) _ 0,

(C) + aibn+1 (C) + asbn (C) = 0, (10)
bon-1 (C) + aib2n-s (C) + ... + art-lbn (C) _ 0;

bm (C) + albm-1 (C) +. . . + ambm-n (C) = Cbm-n (C), m > n. (11)
The fact that (11) holds also for n < m < 2n - 1 follows from (9) and (10). When
we substitute the expansion (8) into (7) and keep (2) in mind, we obtain by equat-
ing coefficients of like powers
ak- tai S f (C) bk (C) dC, k ^ 1, 2, .. . (12)

C
Let us now return to the determinant A. Let us replace the coefficients ak in

it with their integral representations (12) denoting the variable of integration in
the with row (for v = 1, 2, , m) by ,,. Then, by the properties of determi-
nants,
Am = (tai )m S S ... 1 f (C1) ... f (Cm)

CC C
b1 (C1) bs (C1) ... b,,, (C1)
X bs (Cs) bs (Cs) ... bm+1(Ca)

dC1 ... dCm. (13)
bm (Cm) bm+1(Cm) ... bsm-1(Cm)
For m <n, we have A. = 0 from (9). For m > n, let us set m = np'+ q, where
0 < q < n, and let us transform the determinant in the right-hand side of
formula (13). Specifically, let us add to each column from the last to the (n + 1)st
the n preceding columns multiplied respectively by a,,, an_1, . , al and let us
use (11). We then obtain a determinant of which the with row (for v = 1, 2, , rn)
has the form
b, (C,), ..., b,+n-1 (Q, C,,b, (C.), C,b,+1(C,), ..., C,bm+,-n-1 (C,).
Then (for m > 2n), let us add to each column from the last to the (2n + 1)st
the n preceding columns, multiplied by a,,, 1, .. , al respectively. Then,
again using (11), we obtain a determinant whose with row has the form
§5 TRANSFORMATION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 483
by (CY), ..., by+n-1 (C. ), C,b, (C'), ..., Cvbv+n(Cv) C b (Cu), ..., C9bm+y 9n-1(Cv)
After p such operations, we obtain a determinant in which the with row has
the form
by (Cj, ..., Cubv (C'), ... ,
Cyb (C') ... , Cpbp (Cv), ..., C'bv+q-1(C,)
Let us substitute into (13) the determinant thus transformed and let us put the
integral signs back into the rows. We now change the symbols for the variables of
integration specifically, we denote the variable of integration in all elements
of the with column by ,,.
Then, putting the integral signs back in front again, we obtain
1
m
b, (CI) ... bn (C,1) Cn+1b1(C,,+1) ...
r
`4'n - \ 2nt) S f (C1) ... f (Cm) b9 (C1) . bn+1(Cn) Cn+1b9 (Cn+1) ...
C . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bm (C1) ... bm+n (C,) Cn+1b,n (Cn+1) ...

... C9nbn (C9n) Cs9n-f-1b1(C2, 1) ... Cmbq (Cm)
... C9nbn+1(C9n) Q. 4-1b9 (C9n+1) ... Cmbq+1 (Cm)
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dC1 ... dCm (14)
C9nbm+n (C9n) CCn+Ibm (C9n+1) . . . Cmbm+q-i (Cm)
Let us now perform the same operations in the determinant in this equation, but
this time on the rows instead of the columns. After p steps, we arrive at the
determinant (see p. 484) composed of p2 n x n matrices, 2p rectangular matrices, and one
q x q matrix. It is convenient to regard the last 2p + 1 of these matrices as
truncations of n x n matrices, of which we shall have occasion to speak below.
On the basis of (9), in every square matrix of the type indicated, all the elements
to the left of the secondary diagonal are equal to zero. Furthermore, if in each
matrix we add the first k rows (k = 1, 2, , n - 1) multiplied respectively by
ak, , a 1 to the (k + 1) st row and keep (9) in mind, we arrive at a matrix in which only
the elements of the secondary diagonal are nonzero. Since these operations are performed
simultaneously on the complete rows of the determinant (15), it is trans-
formed into a determinant in which only the elements containing b remain nonzero. But
b = 1. Consequently, the determinant (15) and hence A. do not depend on a1, , a,,.
0.
00
bl (C1) ... bn (Cn) Cn+ibi (Cn+1) ... C9nbn (C9n) C4+1b1 (Cnp+1) ... Cmbq (Cm)
b9 (C1) ... bn+t (CA) CA+tb9 (Cn+1) ... C9nbn+1(C'en) C +1b9 (.np}1) ... Cmbq+1(Cm)
bn (Ct} ... 69n t ltin) Cn+ibn (C.+1) ... Cen b9n-1 (C9n) Cnp+tbn (Cnp+i) ... Cmbn+1-q (Cm)
.......................................................... :..............................................................................:........ ...................... ........ .................... ..........................
C1b1 (Cl) ... Crtbrt (Cn) Cn+1b1 (Cn+1) ... Csnbn (+dn)
C1b9 (Ci) ... Cnbn+1 `C,.) Crt+ib9 (Cn+1) ... C9nbn+l (C9n)
(15)
Cibn (Cl) ... Cnb9n-1(Cn) Cn+tbn (Cm+i) ... Cgnb9n-1(C9A

................................................................ .......
.................................. ......................... :..................................................................... ............... ........
.................................................................................
...........................................
Cibn (Cn) Cnp+ 1b1 (Cnp+1) ... Cmbq (Cn)

Cib1(Cl) ...
C p+1b9 (Cnp+1) ... Cmbq+1 (Cm)
Ci bq (Ci) ... Cn bn+q-i (Cn) Cnp+lbq (Cnp+1)' ... Cmpb9q-1 (Cm)

§5. TRANSFORMATION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
485
On the basis of what has been shown, to calculate A.*, we can now set
Then, ak (where v = 1, 2, ) and ak = 0 for
all of k. Consequently, A, is of the form
I n
at as
at 79
ap+t
...............................................................................:..........................
a3
ap+t
as a3
........................................ --........ .......................... ,......................... (16)
a p+t
........................................................................................
ap+i
m=np+q,,
where the unfilled-in spaces are occupied mostly by zeros. We now put the
columns numbered n, 2n, , 2np into the 1st, 2nd, , pth positions (without
changing the order of the remaining columns) and we put the rows numbered n + 1,
2n + 1, , n(p - 1) + 1 into 2nd, 3rd, , pth positions. Then we arrive at a determinant
that is equal to the determinant AP multiplied by a determinant in which, for every nonzero
q, the qth row from the bottom consists only of zeros, so that the determinant is equal to
zero. On the other hand, if q = 0, this last determinant will have the same form as (16) with
p replaced by p - 1. Repeating the same operation, we show after p steps that the determi-
nant (16) is equal to + AP.
n
This completes the proof of (4). 'Therefore,
my 12,p2
D* - lim Am I = lim Anp =11m I _AP la = ,
m-00 P-00 P- W
which is equivalent to (6). This completes the proof of the theorem.
We turn now to some applications of this theorem.
Theorem 2. For functions that are regular in an infinite domain B with
boundary K consisting of a finite number of closed Jordan curves and having the
expansion f(z) = Ek=1ak/zk, in a neighborhood of z the inequality D < d(K)
given by Theorem 3 of §2, Chapter VII, is sharp. Here, D is defined as in
Theorem 1 and d(K) is the transfinite diameter of the set K.
Proof. We shall go through the proof only for the case in which the curves
mentioned in the theorem are all analytic. Then, if we denote by g(z, ,) the
Green's function for the domain B, we conclude that this function is harmonic on
K. Therefore, for sufficiently small S > 0, the equation g(z, -) = - S defines a
set of closed analytic Jordan curves approximating the curves in K and defining
domains B 8 containing B. If g S (z, ,) is the Green's function for the domain
B g, if t n, g (z), for n = 0, 1, are the Chebysev polynomials for the boundary
K 8 of the domain B g which have all their zeros on K g, if mn, g =
ti
maxZEK8Itn,8(z)I, and if d(K3) is the transfinite diameter of Kg, then one can
easily see that g g (z, 00) = g(z, -) + S and, consequently,
n
d(Ka)=d(K)e--8 lim Itn,a(z) e8(z.-)+a
n- 00 mn, a
(§3, Chapter VII). The convergence in this last formula is uniform in every closed
subset of the domain B g, and in particular on -ff. From this last it follows that
there exists a positive number N such that, for n > N, we have It n, S (z)I > Mn. S
ti
on B. This means that, for n > N, the set E* = E(I t n, 8(Z)1 < Mn, 8) lies entirely
outside the domain B.
Now consider the function
00
(17)
f (Z) = z2k
k=1
By setting up the determinants Ak for this function, we easily see that

A 2n + 1 = 1,for n = 1, 2, . Therefore, D > 1 for it. On the other hand, since
it is regular in Iz I > 1, it follows from Theorem 3 of § 2, Chapter VII, that D < 1.

Consequently, D = 1. From the function (17), we now form the function f. (z) _
f (t n, g (z)/mn, 8) = 1k ak/zk. This function is regular outside the set E * and,
1
in particular, in the domain B. By Theorem 1, D* = nV/ n , 8 D mn, g . But

S = d (K g) = d We- 8. Consequently, for sufficiently large n we have
D * > d(K)e- 8 - S. Since 6 can be chosen arbitrarily small, we can make D'
§6. ON p-VALENT FUNCTIONS 487
arbitrarily close to d(K). This proves the sharpness of the inequality mentioned
in the theorem. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 3. For any complex numbers a and b, an arbitrary positive integer
n, and a continuum E such that d(E) < l a - b I/4, an arbitrary polynomial
Pn(z) = z" + c 1zn-1 + - + cn assumes either the value a or the value b some-
where in the complement of E with respect to the z-plane. The number
" a - b /4 cannot be replaced by a larger number without additional restrictions
on E.
Proof. It was shown in §2 of Chapter VII that D = limn+ccnI= 1/4 for
the function f(z) = - log (1 - 11z) = 11z + 1/2z2 + . If we now apply Theorem
1 to this function and to the polynomial p(z) = (pn(z)b)/(a - b), we see that D* _
n
a - bl/4 for the function
f* (z) = log Pn (Z) - b ak

vn(z) - azk
k=1
If all the zeros of the polynomials pn(z) - a and pn(z) - b lie in the continuum
E, the function f.(z) is regular in the supplementary domain B containing -.
Consequently, by virtue of Theorem 3 of §2, Chapter VII, D* = n 1a - 4<
d(E). But this contradicts the conditions of the theorem. Consequently, the poly-
nomial pn(z) assumes in B at least one of the values a, b. That the inequality
for d (E) cannot be improved is shown by the example of the polynomial pn(z) _
zn + a' and the set E = E(zn E e), where e is the segment connecting the points
0 and b - a. In this case, we have, in accordance with Theorem 2 of §1,
n
Chapter VII, d(E) = ja - bl/4 and this polynomial pn(z) assumes the values a
and b respectively at the point z = 0 and at the points Jb - a . e 21tki/n, where
k = 1, 2, , and all these points lie on E. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
§6. On p-valent functions 1)

A function w = f(z), which is regular or meromorphic in a domain B in the
complex plane is said to be p-valent (for p = 1, 2, ) in that domain if no com-
plex value is assumed by f(z) at more than p points in B, that is, if the
1) Goluzin [19401.
Riemann surface onto which the function w = f(z) maps B bijectively covers
each point in the w-plane with no more than p sheets.
In the present section, we shall consider the following classes of p-valent
functions:
S, is the class of functions of the form
w=f(z)=z"(1'+atz'+avz2-}-...), (1)
that are regular and p-valent in Izl < 1.

1p is the class of functions of the form
that are p-valent and regular in > 1 except for a pole at J= .

p is the class of functions in lp that do not assume the value zero in the
domain 16 > I.
For these classes of p-valent functions and also for certain of their sub-
classes, we now give a number of sharp inequalities regarding the initial coef-
ficients and we shall establish the analogues of the area, covering, and distortion
theorems, which are well known for univalent functions.
1°. Lemma. If F(4) E Y-p (where p > 1), then, for 1 > 0 and p > 1,
a IF(pere)Jad9:0. (3)
do
Proof. The function w = F(C) maps the domain 1 onto a

Riemann surface RP bounded by an analytic curve L P and having the maximum
number p of sheets in a neighborhood of w = -.
Let R and ID denote polar coordinates in the w-plane. Consider the integral
S R' dO, 1>0,

P
(4)
over LP in the direction that puts LP on the right. This integral is the limit of
the Riemann sum constructed as follows: From the point w = 0, we draw a suf-
fici ently large number n of rays G 1, G 2, ... , G. that are not tangent to L P and
do not pass through multiple points of L P. We denote by A01, A 2, ... , Otpn
the magnitudes (nonnegative) of the angles between pairwise-adjacent rays. There
are finitely many points of the curve L p that lie over Gk (for k = 1, 2, , n).
Let us index these points A1,k+ A2,k, ..., Ank,k We denote their distances from
the point w = 0 by Ri,k. R2,k, , Rnk,k. Let us suppose that they are indexed
in such a way that Rl.k >R2.1, > ...> Rnk,k. We assign to the point Al,k (for
l = 1, 2, , nk) the number el,k, which is defined to be + 1 if the coordinate $
increases as we move around LP in a neighborhood of Al,k and equal to - 1 if
I' decreases. Then, the integral (4) is the limit of the Riemann sum
n
a e9,kRa.k-- a
1 [e1,kR1+ + ... +enk.kRRk k]D'Pk (5)
But if we move along Gk (for k = 1, 2, , n) from w = - to w = 0, it follows

from geometric considerations that the numbers of sheets RP lying above segments
of the ray Gk between AI,k and Al+l,k (for 1 = 1, 2, - ) are respectively equal
to p - V,1 Es .k , and these numbers do not exceed p. Therefore,
1
1=1, 2,...,nk, k=1, 2,..., n.

s=1
Thus, if we set
a1, k = es, As
s=1
all the numbers 01,k will be nonnegative.

Furtherniore,
a1.kel,k, Q1.k-01-1,k-el,k, 1=2, 3, ... , nk.
Consequently, we can rewrite the sum (5) in the form

n
r px x a a
LJ [Ql. k t l', i, l9. k) + a,. k lR9. k - \9. k + ... + aRb. k Rna. k] 'Ok
k=1
It follows that this sum is always nonnegative. Therefore, the integral (4) is also
nonnegative.
On the other hand, since the curve L p has the parametric representation
w = F(pe`B), where 0 < 0 < 2n, we have
R'd( R'de d8.

S
0
But if we set Re", where peie, we have

a_p aR
de-"Rdp
Consequently,
2,,
2s
Rd=p
a
R 1 OP
aRd g
= dP Rk A. (6)
P 0 dl
On the basis of what was said above, we then get (3). This completes the proof
of the lemma.
20. Beginning with this lemma, let us prove the following theorems:
Theorem 1. If the function (2) belongs to the class Ir (where p > 1), then
00
nIap+n (7)
Proof. From (3) with A = 2, we have

.a
0
! p9 (p-n) I an I9 > 0, P > 1,
n=1
or
Co
1
21 (p n)lanl9P9>0.
n=1
By letting p approach 1, we get (7), which completes the proof of the theorem.
For p = 1, Theorem 1 coincides with the theorem on areas for univalent functions.
Theorem 2. 1) If a function (2) belongs to the class Yp (where p > 1) and if
a1=a2=...=ak_1=0 (where k>1), then, for n=k, k+ 1,---,2k- 1, we
have
IanIC2p (8)
with equality holding only for a function

2p
F(Q `Cp(1 +n)n, I(9)

1) For p = 1, Theorem 2 was proved by the author [1938, where it was erroneously
formulated for the class 11 instead of the class 2i.
§6. ON p-VALENT FUNCTIONS - 491
belonging to the class Ip.

Proof. )From the lemma as applied to the function (2), we have, for A > 0 and
p > 1,
2x
1F(pe'°)I9Xd6
aP ` 0. (10)
3'
For 1, we set
[F (C)]'' = C"p (1+ ct C-1+ ...).
Then, (10) yields
OD
(n - Ap) P 2 (n_).pl < 0, co =1.

A=O
If we let p approach 1, we obtain
I (n - )a)I C. 11 Xp
n=1
But the expansion [F(t)]" in I C I > 1 begins as follows:
Consequently, cn = Aa,,, where n = k, k + 1, , 2k - 1. Keeping this in mind,

we obtain from (11) the following inequality for A < k and n = k, k +
2k-1:
(n-Xp)X,Ia.11<Xp,
that is,
9 p
Ianl <X(n_Ap)
If we now set k = n/2p, we obtain
IanlcLPn (12)
Equality can hold in (12) only if c 0 for v n, that is, only if

2,0
F(t)=Cp(1 +jn)n, ICI=1. (13)

The function (13) belongs to the class lp because the function
is univalent in ICI > I. This completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 3. If the function (2) belongs to the class EP (where p > 1), then
IayIc2p, (14)
with equality holding only for a function of the form
F(C)=Cp(1 +C!-),Pp InI=1. (15)
Furthermore, for n = 1, 2, 3, .
,
Ia.ICAn.pp (16)
where A,,,p is a finite quantity depending only on n and p.
Proof. The first of inequalities (14) follows from Theorem 2 for k = 1. To
prove the remaining assertions of the theorem, we set
F(C)=V1/1 +C'+c'+
...1p
C C2
for I
I > 1. Then, from the lemma, with A = 2/p, we obtain, by letting p approach
1 from above,
co
21 (n-1)IcAI9<1.
,-2
It follows that Ic,a I < 1 for all n = 2, 3, . Since the an, for n = 2, 3, , are
easily expressed in terms of the ca, for n = 1, 2, , this proves (16) for
n = 2, 3, , because, in addition, the inequality Ia11 < 2p and the equation
c 1 = al/p yield the inequality Ic 11 < 2. In particular, since
act I =Pc9 +P (P 2 1) ci,
we have
I«9I<PIc9I+P(p2 1)Ictla<p+P 2 1)4=P(2P-1),

with equality obviously holding only for the function (15). This completes the proof of
the theorem.
By using inequalities (14) and (15) to find a bound for the right-hand side of
(7), we obtain immediately
Theorem 4. If the function (2) belongs to the class Ep (for p > 1), then
r
CC)
unI(XP+n1'_Bp
n=1
(17)
where Bp is a finite quantity depending only on p. In particular,

1) p = 2,
ur nap+nl9C1$;
m
A-1 18)
+c)`, I nl=1; (19)
2) for P = 3,
00
I n I aP+n I9 < 300; (20)

M=l
CB (1 + t )6, 17 I I. (21)
F (C) ---
We note that constants analogous to. An,P and Bp do not always exist for
the class Yp, as is shown by -the example of the function
F(C)=((+c+ )p,
which belongs to the class >p for arbitrary c and for which the coefficients
al, ... , a2p_1 can be made arbitrarily large with sufficiently large c. Further-
more, an arbitrary polynomial zp + a,zp-1 + - + ap belongs to the class Gp.
If we note that the function (2) belongs to the class lp if and only if the
function
1
= - zP(1 +.QtZ -
1- ...)
F
belongs to the class Sr, and if. we note that, for a 1 = a 2 = . . = ak_ 1 = 0 (k > 1),
we have and a,,=-a,,, where
then, in accordance with Theorem 2, we obtain the corresponding theorem for the
class SP:
Theorem 5. If the function (1) belongs to the class SP (for p > 1) and if
a1 = a2 = = ak-I = 0 (for k> 1), then, with n = k, k+ 1, , 2k - 1, we have
2
anI , (22)
Equality holds in the above relationship only for a function of the form
ZP
F(z)= 2P, 171 (23)
(1+'n'n
belonging to the class Sp. In particular, for an arbitrary function (1) in the class
SP, we have la1I < 2p.

3°. From what we have already shown, we can obtain some results concerning
coverings.
Theorem 6. Let 52 denote a Riemann surface onto which a function (1)
belonging to the class SP (where p > 1) maps the disk JZ) < 1. Then,
1) ! completely covers the disk Jwj < 1/2p+1;
2) if a1 = a2 = . = ap_ 1 = 0, then 3 completely covers the disk Jwl < 1/4
though not always any larger disk with center at w = 0 since the function
f(z)=(I.sxp)'=zP+2zIP+...
(24)
belongs to the class in question;

3) if a, = a2 = = ap = 0, then R completely covers the disk 'wj < 1/2
though not always a larger disk with center at w = 0 since the function
f (Z)= 1
ZP
=ZP-f-ZeP-{- (25)
ZIP
belongs to the class in question.

Proof. We begin with part 2) of the theorem. Suppose that the function
f (z) = zP + a yz9p + ...
belongs to the class Sp. Let c denote a value that f(z) does not assume in
Iz) < 1. Then the function
cf (z) xP
1
z9P
C -f (Z) ^ + 1aP + c) +
also belongs to Si,. Therefore, by Theorem 5,
2, I aP I 2,
so that
that is,
(26)
This shows that % completely covers the disk Iwl < 1/4. In the case of the func-
tion (24) the surface R does not cover the point w = - 1/4. This proves 2). If,
in addition to the preceding, aP = 0, then, from (26), we have Icl > 1/2; that is,
92 completely covers the disk iwl < 1/2. In the case of the function (25), the
surface 92 does not cover the point w = - 1/2. This proves 3).
Now, let the function (1) be any function in the class Sp. Then, the function
ft(z)_P } 1 f(zP+1)=zP+P+l xa' + ... (27)
also belongs to the class SP. This is true because, if there were points z
z2, ... , zP+1 in the disk IzI < 1 at which fl(z1) = f1(z2) _ f1(zp+1), we
would have
f(zl+l)=f(zf+')= ...
so, that by virtue of the p-valence of the function f (z), among the numbers
zi+1, zZ+1, , zp+i, there would be some that are equal. Suppose that
zP+l = z2+1. Then, z2 = riz1, rf+1 = 1. But since the series (27) contains
only terms with powers Zn (P + 1)+P, for n = 1, 2, , we would have
fi (z9) =f1('riz1) = I Pfi (z1)
and consequently if = 1. From the equations if = 1 and if + 1 = 1, we obtain

the result 71 = 1; that is, z 1 = z 2, which proves the p-valence.
Now, if c is a value that f (z) does not assume in the disk Izl < 1, then
f 1(z) does not assume the value P +1 . Consequently, in accordance with 3) we
have P V I7 > 1/2, that is, Ic 12! 1/pP + This completes the proof of the theorem.
4°. Let us find another bound for the absolute value of the derivative of func-
tions belonging to the classes 1P and Xp .
Theorem 7. If the Function (2) belongs to the class YEP (where p > 1), then,
in the disk ICI > 1, we have
as, ..., aP-t)ItICIl
where c(a1, a2, ... , aP_1) is a finite quantity depending only on a1, a2, ... ,
ap_1. If the function (2) belongs the class lp (where p > 1), then, in the disk
IcI > 1,
IF'(C)Isc(p) IcIP
where c(p) is a finite quantity depending only on p.

Proof. From (2), we have, in the disk I C I > 1,
00
IF'(Ql<PICIP-1+(P-Mall ICIP +... IaP 11+1 nll lnnl

n=1
co
=plCln-t+(p-1)1aiIICIP-9+... +1 a9-tl+y
IC nl' ap'l.
n-1
cPICIP-1+(P-1)la1IIC19 +...+lap-tI
00
+ (Istn-u nlaP+n l'

s
n=1 n=1
from which Theorem 7 follows by virtue of Theorems 1 and 3.

We note that the order of the inequalities given by Theorem 7 is sharp since
F'(p)= psoo. 1
for the function

F(C)=ppC-1
§7. ON THE CARATHEODORY-FEJER PROBLEM 497
which belongs to the class Y_P' for arbitrary. P> I.
§7. Some remarks on the Caratheodory-Fejer problem

and on an analogous problem 1)
In subsection 1° of the present section, we shall give a simple derivation of
the results of Carathe'odory and Fejer2) dealing with the problem of the extend-
ability of a polynomial in z (by adding terms of higher powers of z) to a power
series representing a rational fraction with constant modulus on the circle IzI = 1
and on the minimal property of the maximum of the modulus of such a fraction in
the open disk Izl < 1 among all functions that are regular in that disk. This
derivation is based on simple results dealing with the solution of the problem of
coefficients in the case of bounded functions. In subsection 2°, we consider the
extendability of a polynomial in a similar fashion, starting with results dealing
with the problem of the coefficients in the case of functions with bounded mean
values of the modulus on concentric circles. Here, the minimization of the maxi-
mum value of the modulus is accordingly replaced with minimization of the maxi-
mum of the mean value of the modulus. A particular case of the extendability of
a polynomial that is considered in subsection 2° has more than once found appli-
cation (by Landau, Fejer, Szasz, and others) in inequalities relating to bounded
functions. However, the problem of sharp inequalities has remained unsolved if
the particular extendability referred to does not exist. As will be shown in sub-
section 2°, our second method of extension enables us to indicate a path for
obtaining sharp inequalities in all cases, thus removing this gap at least theoreti-
cally. We note further that in subsection 1° we shall, by beginning with the solu-
tion of the Caratheodory-Fejer problem, give a simple derivation of the final form
of the solution given by I. Schur to the problem of coefficients for bounded func-
tions in the case of interior points of the domain of the coefficients.
We shall use the following notation:3) We denote by B the class of func-
tions f (z) = c 0 + c 1z + that are regular in the open disk Iz I < 1 and that
satisfy in that disk the condition If (z)I < 1. We denote by H 1 the class of func-
tions f (z) = c 0 + c 1 z + . that are regular in the disk Iz I < I and that satisfy
the condition
1) Goluzin [1946a].
2) Caratheodory and Fejer [1911].
3) (Here, the notation used by the author [1946a] is kept.)
2%
2rz If (rel) I de l
for 0<r<1.
Consider the space Rn, for n > 1, the points in which are the complex n-
tuples (c o, c 1, , cn_i). A neighborhood of a point (c 09 c 1, . , cn_1) iq, this
space is the set of all points (c c i, , 1) satisfying the conditions
Irk - ckI < E, where k = 0, 1, n - 1, for some t > 0. Beginning with the con-
cept of a neighborhood, we define cluster points, interior and boundary points of a
set, open and closed sets, and convex sets in the usual way. The space Rn can,
in case of necessity, be regarded as a 2n-dimensional Euclidean space with
Cartesian coordinates corresponding to the real and imaginary parts of the numbers
CO, C1,...,cn-1
We denote by B(n) the set of points (co, c1, , cn_1) E Rn such that the
numbers c 0, c 1, , cn_1 are the first n coefficients of some function in the
class B. We denote by HP) the analogous set for H1. These are bounded sets
in 3n because, for all k = 0, 1, , we have Ic k I < 1 for both the functions in
B and the functions in H1, by.virtue of the integral representation of the ck.
Since the principle of compactness holds.for functions in B and H1 and since
the limit. of a sequence of functions belonging to either of these classes also
belongs to the same class, it follows that B(') and H ln) are closed sets. Further-
more, since for functions f 1(z) and f2 (z) belonging to one of these classes the
2(z) for . 0 < A < 1 also belong to the same class, it
functions A f 1(z) + (1 - W 2(z)
follows that B(') and H ln) are convex sets. It is also obvious that the origin
(0, 0, , 0) is an interior point of these sets since the polynomials c 0 =
C 1z + - + cn_lzn-1 belong, for small ck, both to B and to H1.
1°. Theorem 1 (Schur). To points (c0, c1, ... , cn_1) on the boundary of B(n)
there correspond in B only fractions of the form
an-1 + a0Zn-1
a0 + a1Z T ... + an_1zn-1 (1)
Proof. 1) Let us suppose that a function f (z) E B other than a fraction of the
1) The basic idea of the proof is borrowed from Schur. See Schur [1917] and also
Bieberbach [1927].
form (1) corresponds to a point (c0, c 1, , on the boundary of Br" ).

Following Schuur, we de{fine a{sequence (fk(z)I inductively by
J o (z) =J (z)r J k ('z) = Z fk-1 (Z) -fk-1 (0) k = 1, `2, ... (2)
1 -fk-1 (0) fk-1 (Z)
Let us show that I fk(0) < 1 for k = 0, 1, , n - 1. Since the fk(z) belong
to B whenever they are defined, we have Ifk(0)I < 1. Let denote the first
function in the sequence such that Ifv(0)l = 1. 'Then, E, where JEI = 1.
'then, by calculating the functions f y_1(z), , f0(z) from the formulas inverse
to (2),
v () = E, / k-! (z) = fk-1 (0) '+' Zfk (Z) (3)

1+fk-1(0)Zfk (Z)'
we can show by induction that
l v-k (Z) = Ek kNo+'F Y12 ++ }k OZk , I gk l = 1, k = 1, `2, ... , .
Here we can assume the Ek equal to 1 because otherwise we could arrange for
this by changing the arguments of f3p, , Ok. In particular, f0(z) = f (z) is also
a fraction that reduces to the form (1) when we multiply its numerator and denomi-
nator by 1 + z + + z"- "-1 and this, by the hypothesis of the theorem, is
impossible. Since Jfk(0)l < 1 for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, the functions (2)are defined
for k = 0, 1, , n - 1 (that is they have denominators not identically equal to
0). For these functions, the inverse formulas
{k-1 (Z) = fk-1 (0) "+' Zfk (Z) I k = n - 1, ... , 1, fo (z) =J (z) (4)
J 1 +fk-1 (0) Zfk (Z)
are also meaningful. Now keeping the values fk(0) for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, let
us calculate the functions f k(z), for k = n - 1, , 0, from the formulas
f,*-1 (z)=f"-1(0), fI-1(Z)= fk-1(0)'+' zfk(z)

k=n- 1,..., 1. (5)
1 +fk-1 (O)zfz (z)
All the f k(z) belong to B. From (4) and (5), we have
fk-1(Z) -fk-t (z)
_ (1 - fk -1(0) 1') z (fk(Z) -fk (z)) _-z k (z)
(1 +fk-1(0) zfk(z))(1 +fk-t(0)zfk (z)) (Z)
where the t4k(z) are, for k = n - 1, , 1, regular ink{I zI < 1. Therefore

f (z) - {J0 ('z* W = Zn-1p1 (z)... pn_i W V n-I W -fn-1 (0)).
Since the point z = 0 is a zero of the right-hand member of multiplicity no less
than n, the first n coefficients in the expansions of f (z) and f o(z) about z = 0
are identical; specifically, they are c 0, , cn_1. On the other hand, since fk(0),
for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, are rational functions of C 0, , Cn-1, C 0, , Cn-1
and since c 0, c 1, , cn_1 in our notation satisfy the inequalities Ifk(0)I < 1
for k = 0, 1, , n - 1, these same inequalities are satisfied for all systems of
numbers (c 00*, , cn-1) sufficiently close to the preceding ones. The functions
f:(z) calculated from fk(0) corresponding to c0, c1, , cn_1 belong (by virtue
of formulas (5)) to the class B. On the other hand, if we take for fo(z) the poly-
nomial c00 + + Cn_1zn1 and then calculate the fk(z), for k = 1, 2, , n - 1,
from formulas (2), these fk(z) again satisfy.(4) Just as above, we can show from
(4) and (5) that the function f (z) - f o(z) now has a zero of multiplicity at least
n at z = 0. Consequently, the first n coefficients of the function f p(z) are
c 0, , c n-1; that is, this function corresponds to the point (c 0, , c _ 1),
which therefore belongs to B (n ). This.shows that (c 0, , c,,_ 1) is an interior
point of B(n ) in contradiction to the assumption. Therefore, only fractions of the
form (1) can correspond to boundary points of B(n). This completes the proof of
the theorem.
Theorem 2 (Caratheodory and Feje'r). For any polynomial c 0 + c 1z + +
Cn_1z"-1 J 0, there exists a unique') fraction of the form
R (z) - as + .+.. -+ -±,hiZn-t , A 0, (6)
that is regular in Iz I < 1 and that has as its first n coefficients in its expansion
about z = o the numbers c 0, c 1, , cn_ 1. Out of all functions f(z) = c o +
c Iz + that are regular in I zI < 1 and have the same first n coefficients c 0,
c 1, , cn_1, this function and only it minimizes the quantity Mf = maxlz 1<1If (z)I
Proof. Let q0 denote the least upper bound of the set of positive numbers q
such that (qc0, , gcn_1) G B("). The number q0 is finite and positive since
B(') is bounded and since the origin is an interior point of B (" ). If corresponding
1) By uniqueness is meant that any two such fractions are identical as functions of
z, that is, after all possible cancellations have been made.
to some positive q is a function f (z) E B, then there exists a q '< q to which

corresponds the function (q '/q) f (z) E B, and we see that (qc o, , qc,-1) E B(n)
for all q <q0. Therefore, by virtue of the closedness of B(°), we conclude that
(q oc 0, ' , q oc n-1) E B(n ). It follows from the definition of q0 that
(goco, '', gocn_1) is a boundary point of B(n). By Theorem 1, corresponding to
it in B is a fraction of the form (1). The fraction R(z) = A (z), where A = 1/qo,
is of the form (6). It is regular in Iz I < 1 and has c o, c 1, , cn_1 as its first
n coefficients in its expansion about z = 0. Except for the uniqueness, this proves
the first part of the theorem. We leave aside for the moment the question of
uniqueness of the fraction R(z) and proceed to the second part of the theorem.
Let f (z) denote any of the functions mentioned in the theorem with finite M1.
In such a case, the difference f (z) - R(z) and hence the function
(ao + . . . + a,,_1zn-1) [f (z) - R(z)] have the expansions about z = 0 that begin
with terms of degree not less than n. This yields
(a0 + ... + a1z'-1) (Z) _ A Ca.-, + ... + a0Zn-1)

+ E Qk Zk
k-n
If we now integrate the squares of the moduli of both sides of this equation with
respect to 0 (where z = re`B) over the circle Iz.l = r, where r < 1, we obtain
, 2x
d
l ao +... + an-1z"-1 Ie If (z) I9 dO
- 9 (l an-1 I9 +... I a0
I9r9IR-1)) +
E I ak I9 r9k.
k=n
If we now replace If (z)I with max jZ I = r If (z)I < max j= i<1 if (z)l = Mf and let r
approach 1, we obtain
co
(Mt-a9)(Ia0 E IakI9.
k-n
Consequently, Mf > A = MR (z) with equality holding only ,hen all the
ak = 0, for k = n, n + 1, , that is, only when f (z) = R(z). This proves the
second part of the theorem.
The uniqueness of R{z) now follows easily. Suppose that, in addition to
R(z), there exists another fraction R `(z) the first n terms in the expansion of
which are the same as those in the expansion of R(z). Let us denote the number
corresponding to A by A`. Then, on the basis of the minimal property proved

above as applied once to R(z) and f (z) = R *(z) and once to R *(z,) and f (z)
R(z), we see that A > A and A > A* so that h = A* and hence R 5(z) - R(z). This
In what follows, the fraction R(z) mentioned in Theorem 2 which is uniquely
determined by c 0, - , c,,- 1, will be denoted by R(z, c o, , 1) and the
number A corresponding to it by A(c 0, , cn_1).
Theorem 3 (Caratheodory and Fejer). The number A(c0, , is equal

to the largest positive root of the equation of degree 2n
-x 0 ... 0 co Cl . Cn-1
0 - A ... 0 0 C. . Cn-9
D. (A) _
0 0 ...-l 0 0 ... Co
t`'a 0 ... 0- A 0 ... 0
- 0. (7)
c1 to ... 0 0 -X ... 0
t'._1 en-9 ... t0 0 0 ... - Aj

If all the c 0, c 1, , cn_1 are real, then ,1(c 0, , cn_1) is also the greatest
of the absolute values of the real roots of the equation!) of degree n
-h 0 ... 0 co
0 - A ... co Cl
do(A)= 1==O. (8)
I
Co Cl ... C._1 - J
Proof. We seek all fractions of the form
as-1+...+aozn-l
Co + ... + a,_1zn-i . A > 0, (9)
the first n coefficients of which in the expansion about z = 0 are equal to

c 0, , cn_ 1. These fractions include the fraction R(z, c 0, , c,_1). If we
cross-multiply in the equation
an-1 + ... -+ aozn-1 _
C0 C 1.Z
ao + + an-1z"
and equate coefficients of like powers of z we obtain a system of equations for
1) Furthermore, by virtue of the familiar properties of characteristic equations, all

the roots of equations (7) and (8) are real, but this factor is of no significance to us.
determining A, ao, - - ,
kIn-i = colo,
la!n_s = Coll + C10ro,
(10)
Aa:o = COan_t + ... + Cn_1a0,
If we combine these equations with the equations -obtained from (10) by

replacing all terms with their conjugates, we obtain a system of 2n linear homo-
geneous equations in 2n unknowns an-1, .. , ao, a0, ... , an_1. For this system
to have nonzero solutions, it is necessary that its determinant be equal to zero,
and this leads to equation (7), which the corresponding a must satisfy. Since the
required fractions exist (the fraction R(z, c0, , can serve as an example),
equation (7) must have positive roots. For each such root, the system of equations
referred to has nonzero solutions in the unknowns a1+ ' ' ' , ao, ao, ' ' ' , 0-n-1-
However , a system of values of these unknowns is necessary in which ak and
ak are, for 0, 1, - , n - 1, complex conjugates. Such a system exists. Specifi-
-
cally, if. N-(n-1)+ "' , 0-o, 13o' , Nn-1 is an arbitrary nonzero system of solu-
tions, then the numbers Nn-1+ 0, --o+ --(n-1) also provide a system
of solutions, as one can easily verify. Therefore, each of the systems yk = $k +
$_k, for k=-(n-1),...,-O,O,...,n_1 and Sk=i(t3k- 0-0, for k=
-(n-1),..- , -0, 0, , (n - 1) is also a system. Here, at least one of these
solutions is other than the zero solution because, if this were not the case, the
system PA, would also be the zero solution. Since yk and Sk satisfy the con-
ditions yk = Y -k and Sk = S_k, this proves the assertion made. Thus, we have
shown that corresponding to every positive root of equation (7) is a fraction (9)
with the property required.
Suppose now that all distinct positive roots of equation (7) are constituted
by A0, , A,,, where A0 > . . . > Av and suppose that corresponding to them are
the fractions RO(z), , of the form (9). Let us show that of these,,only
R0(z) is regular at IzI < 1. We note first of all that the fractions Rk(z), for
k = 0, 1, , v, have no zeros or poles on the circle Izl = 1 since IRk(z)I = Ak,
for k = 0, 1, , v, on IzI = 1. Suppose now that Rko(z)'is regular-in the
closed disk Izl < 1. Let Rk1(z) denote an arbitrary fraction among the fractions
Rk(z). The difference O(z) = Rk0(z) - Rk1(z) has an expansion about z = 0 that
begins with terms of power no less than n. Therefore, the number r of roots of
(h (z) (counting each root according to its multiplicity) in the open disk IzI < 1,
and the number or of poles in that disk does not exceed n - 1; specifically, it is
equal to the number of all the poles of Rk 1(z). Furthermore, on IzI = 1,
IIf (z)I!IIRk0 (z)I-IRki(Z)11=IXko -Xk1 I :?4- °

Consequently, (A (z) 0 on IzI = 1. Therefore, as z moves.around the circle
IzI = 1, the function arg ai(z) acquires an increment 27r(r- a), and the function
arg Rk 1(z) acquires an increment of 27T(t - a), where t is the number of zeros of
Rk1(z) in IzI < 1. This number does not exceed n - 1. Therefore, the increment
in arg 4(z)/Rk1(z)) as z moves around IzI = 1 is equal to 2rr(r- t) > 27r. Con-
sequently, the circle IzI = 1 includes a point z0 at which h(z)/Rk1(z) is posi-
tive. We have
k0 - I Rk0 (Zo) I - I p (z0) -I- Rk1(ZO) I = I Rk1(ZO)I I 1 -

1 kt (Z O)
>IRki(Zo)I=Xk1,
that is, Ak 0 > Ak 1. This shows that kk 0 must be equal to Ao; that is, the fraction
(9), which is regular in IzI < 1 corresponds to the greatest root of equation (7).
Therefore, R(z, c0, . , c,,_1) = R0(z) and A(co, , ,ko, which proves
the first part of the theorem.
Now, in the case of real c o, . . , c n_ 1, if we set ak = xk + iyk, the system
(10) can be broken, by separating the real and imaginary parts, into distinct sys-
tems each consisting of n homogeneous linear equations in the unknowns xk for
one system and Yk for the other. Here, the determinant of the first system is the
determinant (8) and that of the second system is d(-,A). For the system (7) to
have nonzero solutions, it is obviously necessary and sufficient that one of these
smaller systems have nonzero solutions, that is, that A be a root of the equation
dn(,k)dn (-,A) = 0. Furthermore, just as in the proof of the first part of the theorem,
we can show that A must be the greatest root of this equation, that is, the great-
est of the absolute values of the roots of equation (8). This completes the proof
of the theorem.
Before turning to the following problem of the Caratheodory-Fejer type, we
shall give an application of what we have just discussed to the derivation of the
§7. ON THE CARATHEODORY-FE JER PROBLEM 505
final form of the solution by Schur of the problem of coefficients for bounded func-
tions in the case of interior points of the domain of the coefficients.
Theorem 4 (Schur). For the point (c0, , to be an interior point of
B("), it is necessary and sufficient that the inequality
Co Cl ... Ck_1
0 Co ... CA-2
0 0 ... 1 0 0 ... co
Dk(l)= 110 0 ... 0 1 0 ... 0
>0, k=1,...,n, (11)
Cl ce 0 0 1 ... 0
...............
Ck_t Lrk_y ... ED 0 0 ... 1
be satisfied.
Proof. We note that the determinant D"(,A) (cf. (7)) is an even function of A
because, if we divide each of the first n rows and the first n columns by - 1, we
obtain D"(A). Therefore, the determinant D"(1) is of the form (11).
We first prove the necessity of the conditions of the theorem. If the point
(c0, , lies inside B(n). then the point(gco, , qc"_1) lies in B("
for some q > 1. Consequently, there exists a function f (z) E B whose expansion
begins qc o + - + qC"_ 1z"-1 + . On the other hand, the function f 1(z) =
f (z)/q = c 0 + + Cn_1 z"-1 + satisfies in I z I <I the inequality If1(z)I _<
l/q. It then follows from Theorem 2 that X (c 0, ... , c"_1) < 1/q. But then, in
accordance with Theorem 3, D"(A) has no roots in 1 < h <+ oo. Since
D"(+') = + oo, we have D"(1) > 0. Furthermore, since (c 0, , c,_1) is an
interior point of B(n)t it follows that the point (c 0, , c k_1) is obviously, for
k < n, an interior point of B(k ) in the space Rk. Consequently, by analogous
reasoning, Dk(1) > 0 for k = 1, 2, , n - 1. This proves the necessity of con-
ditions (11).
We now prove the sufficiency of the conditions of the theorem. If conditions,
(11) are satisfied, then the equations Dk (,A) = 0, for k = it - , n, cannot have
roots in the interval 1 < A <+ a-. To see this, let us assume the opposite. Let
Du(o) = 0 be the equation with smallest k = u that has roots in the interval 1 <
A < + 00. Let us denote by Dk.1(,A) (where k, 1 = 1, 2, , n) the minor of the
determinant Du(A) obtained from that determinant by removing the kth row and
the lth column. Let us denote by Dkl,kl(A) the minor of DM(A) obtained by remov-
ing the kth and lth rows and the kth and lth columns. From the familiar proper-
ties of determinants, we have
7µ
Dµ (A) _ E Dk, k (A), (12)
k=1
Dk, k (A) Dl, l (A) - Dk. I (A) D1, k (A) = Dµ (A) Dkl, kl (A). (13)
In the present case, with real A, we have: Dk,k(A) are real, Dk,l(A) = Dk,l()L),
and D1 1(A) = - ADµ_1(A) If A* _> 1 is a multiple root of DE,,(h) = 0, it follows
from (13) that all the Dk,k(A5) are, for k = 1, 2, - - , 2µ, different from 0 and
have the same sign. It then follows from (12) that Dk,k(A5) = 0, for k = 1,
2, - , 2;L, since Dµ (A5) = 0. In particular,
-
D1, 1(A*) = - A*Dµ_I (A*) = 0,

which cannot be the case. This shows that the equation D,,,(A) = 0 has no multi-
ple roots in 1 < A <+ oc. Furthermore, the interval 1 < )L < + oo cannot have more
than one simple root because, otherwise, when we denote by A5 and A* * two
consecutive roots and use (12) and (13), we can show that D.µ(A«) and
Dµ_1(A*) have the same sign, as is true, analogously, for DE,,(A55) and
But Dµ(A5) and obviously have the same sign. Therefore
Dµ_1(A*) and'Dµ_1(A55) must have the same sign. This leads to the fact that
DA_1(A) = 0 has a root between A* and A* Since by assumption this is impossi-
ble, it follows that the equation D, (A) = 0 has no more than one root in the inter-
val 1 < A <+ 00. However, DE,,(+-) _ + oo and Dµ(1) > 0. Consequently D,,,(A) = 0
has no zeros at all in I < A <+ oo, which contradicts the assumption. This con-
tradiction shows that 0 has no roots in the interval 1 < A < + 00. There-
fore A(c0, ... , C,-,)<l and, consequently, the fraction R(z, c0, ,. , c,-1)
is an example of a function in the class B that is different from a fraction of the
form (1) and that has an expansion beginning z0 + - + c,,- 1 z"-1 + . By
Theorem 1, the point (co, . , c,_1) is an interior point of B('). This com-
pletes the proof of the sufficiency.
2°. Theorem 5. Corresponding to the points (co, , on the boundary
of H(') there correspond in N1 only polynomials of the form
(ao + ... + a;z°)s @0 -+- ... { prt_Y_tzrt Y"') (Pry .-t -I- ... -}- Pazrt y-,) (1)
o V< n,
where
ao+... +ayz"# 0 in IzIC1.
Proof. Let us solve the following extremal problem: Out of all the functions
f(z) _ 'EX=o c k xk belonging to class H 1, find those that maximize the quantity
n-1
1 I
1Tkck
k 0
for given complex numbers yk not all zero.

By virtue of the familiar boundary properties 1) of functions belonging to the
class H1, the function
co
f(z) I ckzk E H1
k=1
has definite limiting values almost everywhere on the circle jzj = 1 along all non-
tangential paths in the disk Izi < 1 and it can be expressed in terms of these
limiting values in accordance with Cauchy's formula. Consequently, we obtain
for the coefficients ck the integral representations
ck
-tat j C (i A, k = 0, 1,
(2)
1
(Here f (C) means the limiting values mentioned above.) On the basis of this,
rt-1
+ToCn-t)dC.
5 ftn) (T--t+ ... (3)
k=O Icl=1
But, in addition to formulas (2), we also have the formulas
tat f(C)CkdC=0, k=0, 1, ...

Ici=1
This enables us to replace the parenthesized expression in (3) with an arbitrary,

function, regular in the closed disk ICI < 1, whose expansion about r;= 0 has its
first n coefficients equal to y.- 1, yo. For such a function, we may take,
1) If we remain within the framework of the elements of the theory of functions, we

can interpret the class Hl in what follows as functions satisfying the additional condition
of being continuous in the closed disk Iz 1 < 1.
in particular, a fraction R(z) of the form (6) of subsection 10 constructed from

these data. Then, from (3) we obtain
n-1
_ 1 f(C)R C) dC
TkCk - 2J1 C"
k=0 IC al
and, consequently,
n-I
y0 kCk 2n If(0R(C)dCI
ICI=1
S
If(C)dCI A=
that is,
n-1
J E Tkck J < (7n-t...., 70) (5)
Here A(yn_ 1, ' ' ' , yo) is the quantity referred to in subsection 1°.
Let us investigate whether equality can hold in (5) and, if so, for what func-
tions. For equality to hold in (5), it is necessary that equality hold in both
places in (4), that is, that the function f (z) satisfy the two conditions
1) argf (CC Rl(C) -const almost everywhere on ICI = 1;
2) 2 S
If(e)dCl=1.
ICI=l
But the fraction
R (z) an_1 -- ... aoin-, n 1z --ikZ

= E 1J k
o + ... + n_i , IEI - 1, lk I < 1
k=1
if we cancel all common factors in the numerator and denominator, assumes the
form
,
R (Z)
at
where as + + a;, z'1 # 0 in IzI < 1. Therefore, on r; = 1,
erg f (C) RCn-1(C)

--erg f (ao+ ... `}-apt")
Cn-v-1 (ao+ ... +aC")
f (C) (6)
- arg Cn-v-1 (ao+ ... --avCv)
and condition 1) is equivalent to the condition that the last argument has a con-
stant value almost everywhere on ICI = 1; in other words, the function
e°R [(C)/C"-v-1 (a. + + a;, C")2 has only real limiting values almost every-
where on ICI = 1 for suitable !B. But then, the function
///r
e `` rn-1
which is regular in Ii < 1 and for which the integral (1/277) fo" I0(re'e)IdO,
is bounded for 0 < r < 1, has an imaginary part whose limiting values coincide
almost everywhere on ICI = 1 with the values of an analytic function of the arc-
length. If we represent J(d(z)) in the disk IzI < 1 in terms of its limiting values
in accordance with Poisson's formula (which is possible since d(z) itself can
be so represented in terms of its limiting values, we conclude that POW) is an
analytic function of the arclength on IzI = 1 and is continuous on IzI < 1.
But this in turn implies that 0 (z) and, consequently, f (z) are regular on IzI < I.
Thus, we need to seek the extremal functions only among the functions f (z) that
are regular on IzI < 1. From what was said above, condition (1) is equivalent to
the condition that the last argument in (6) have a constant value on ICI = I or,
what amounts to the same thing, the condition that arg (f (C)/(a0 + + a;, C1)2)
acquire an increment 277 (n - v - 1) as 4 moves around the circle I I = I in the
positive direction. This means that the function f (r;')/(a' + - + Sv)2 has
exactly n - v - 1 zeros in the open disk < 1, counting multiple zeros in
I
accordance with their multiplicity and counting half the multiplicity for zeros on
Furthermore, in accordance with the symmetry principle as applied to
f (C)
Cn-v-1 (a0 .+ ... +avC')°
it follows that this function is regular on the closed disk ICI > 1 except for a
pole at C= oo and that it has zeros symmetrically distributed with respect to the
preceding zeros about the circle Consequently, f (c) must be of the form
.f (C) - c (a + ... + (PO + ... n 1Cn_v
1) i p_
X (Pn-v-1 + (7)
where c = const. If we choose c in such a way that condition 2) is also satisfied,

we obtain a function f (z) C H 1 for which equality can hold in (5). We can show
by direct verification in (4) that, for an arbitrary choice of go, , g,_,_1 and
the corresponding choice of c, equality does indeed hold in (5). Thus, we have
found the entire class of solutions of our extremal problem. 1)
We can now proceed directly to the proof of Theorem 5. Let (c c n-1)
denote a boundary point of If we treat H(n) as a set of points in 2n-
dimensional Euclidean space with Cartesian coordinates xk, Yk (that is, ck =
xk + iyk) and keep in mind the fact that it is convex, we conclude that through
the point (c 0, , cn-1) we can draw a hyperplane yk=0 (akxk + Pkyk) = c,
where c > 0, possessing the property (the support plane) that H(") is contained
in the portion of space defined by the inequality. k=0 (akxk + gky'k) < c
(Minkowski). Since the equation for the hyperplane can be written in the form
(yk=0ykck) = c, where yk = ak - isk, we conclude from our assumptions that
k-Q ykck) c; for all functions f (z) C H 1. But since the function ef (z)
belongs, for arbitrary real a, to H 1 whenever f (z) does, we have
Irk=o ykckl < c. But equality can hold here for an arbitrary function f (z) C HI
corresponding to the boundary point (c 0, .. , c,,_ 1). Consequently, this f (z) is
extremal and hence is of the form (7). This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 6. For any polynomial c0 + c 1 z + + cn_1zn-1 A 0 there exists a
unique polynomial of the form
_
q
P (Z)=(M0+- ..+avzr1 ('0 +... + P"_r-1Z"-°-1)
pp
(9._V_1 +... + ROZ"_Y-1
v<n- 1, (8)
20+... +a,.z5:0 a IZI<1,
such that the coefficients of z0, z, . , z"-1 are equal respectively to co,
c 1) , c"-1. Out of all the functions f (z) = co + c Iz + , that are regular in
IzI < 1 with the same values of co, c 1, , c,,_1, this polynomial minimizes the
quantity
2x
ij = O<r<l0
sup S
If (reie) I A
1) We note that the question of inequalities dealing with the class H1 has been
investigated in detail by the author in [1946g]. (This second work of the author is
directly associated with the results of the present section. It could not be included in the
book because of technical reasons. )
§7. ON THE CARATIiEODORY-FEJER PROBLEM 511
Proof. By beginning with Theorem 5, one can prove the existence of the
required polynomial P(z) of the form (8) in just the same way as the existence of
the fraction R(z) in Theorem 2 was proved on the basis of Theorem 1. Leaving
aside for the moment the question of uniqueness, let us prove the minimal property
of this polynomial that was asserted in the theorem.
It will be sufficient to consider functions f (z) of the type mentioned in the
theorem for which If is finite. As we know, such a function f (z) has almost
everywhere on Iz I = 1 definite limiting values along nontangential paths inside
IzI < 1. We denote them by f (e "e). We have
2is 2is 2%
!f= sup S If(re`1)I dO='lim S If(reie)I dO S If(et')Id6.

O<r<1 0 r-1 o 0
If we now set f (z) = P(z) + z"Q (z), we see that Q (z) is regular in IzI < 1. We
have
IT
71 S If(C)dCI=2n S
P(Q+C"Q(Q))IdCI
ICJ=1 ICI=)
=2n SIP(C)IIIP(C)I$-C^Q(C)P(C)IIdCI
Icl=1
1 C 1(,
r 51 (IP(QI'-VQ(QP(Q)IdC
J
2nIcI_1P)I
InI IP(C)dCI- 1
2-- J
{(C"Q(C)P(`)1 JAI.
\ IP(=)I / (9)
ICJ=1 IcI=1
But, on ICI - 1, ,
P (C) _ (CEO + ... + a;C2 Cn-,-' I PO + ... + I

(10)
and, consequently,
n v-i ay ... {-a0C
P(C) 1
lao+...+a,C9Is
IP(C)I
If we substitute this into the last integral in (9) and then evaluate it in accordance
with the theorem of the mean, we see that it is equal to zero. Thus,
if 2 S1P(c)dCI=Jpz.
Iti=1
Equality holds here only if
J(IP(C)I$-C4Q(C)P(C))=0, i.e. JC°Q (C) P (C)) = 0,

almost everywhere on in accordance with (10), this last relation can be
written in the form
J(C'+1
l
Q(C)
(ao+...+- CV)8)
!-0
Since the function C " + 1Q(C)/(ao+ + a"C")Z can be represented in
ICI < 1 in terms of its limiting values on ICE = 1 in accordance with Poisson's
formula, this will also be true of the imaginary part. Also, since the limiting
values are almost everywhere equal to zero, we have Q(z) - 0 in Iz I < 1; that is,
f(z) = NO. This shows that P(z) is an extremal function and, in fact, the only
one for the extremal property in question. The uniqueness of the extremal function
now implies the uniqueness mentioned in the first part of the theorem. This com-
In the proof of Theorem 5, we considered the question of a bound for the sum
1 k=0 ykCk I with regard to functions in the class H , as a result of which we
obtained the sharp inequality (5) and we exhibited the whole class of functions for
which this least upper bound is attained. Theorem 6 makes it possible to investi-
gate the same question in an analogous manner for functions belonging to the
class B.
Suppose that f (z) = F,k0Ck zk E B and let yk, k = 0, 1, , n - 1, denote
arbitrary complex numbers not all zero. Keeping formula (2) in mind, we again
obtain
n-1
1 f (C)
TkCk -tai J Cn (Tn +... + 7oCn t) dC (11)
k=0 I C -1
We now replace the polynomial in the integrand with the polynomial P(C)
having the same coefficients for CO, C, , Cn-1 that is represented in the
form (8). Then,

A-1
1 C f (C) P (C)
TkCk = tai J (n dC
k=0 SCI-.1
so that
n
I rkCkl . S If(C)P(C)dCl Z; S
IP(C)dCl, (12)
k=0 ICIm1 IcI=1
that is,
n-1
Ikm0
I TOk I - 2a S I (ao+...+RrCr) (I;0+...+
12141. (13)
For equality to hold in this last relation for some function f (z) E B, it is
necessary and sufficient that
1) arg (f const almost everywhere on
2) If (C)I = 1 almost everywhere on 1.
Condition 1), which is equivalent to the condition
arg f (C) (a0 arc =const almost everywhere on

C
leads, just as above, to the conclusion that f (4) must be regular on < 1. But
this condition can be represented in the form
arg f (C) (ao+...+RrCr)= const on

..+-..+a(JCr
and from this we conclude immediately that

// Rr } ... - aaCr
fly)=g ao + ...+ ar(v r
E = const.
Furthermore, from condition 2), we have Jel = 1. This is the only possible form
for a function for which equality is possible in (13) and, as one can easily see
from (12), equality does indeed hold here. The inequality that we have obtained is
sharp.
We note that, in earlier works.by various authors, a bound for the sums (11)
for the class B was made by replacing the polynomial on the right with the square
of another polynomial of degree not exceeding n - 1 that has the same coefficients
of C,, C, , Cn-1 as the original polynomial. However, the inequality obtained
could be shams only in random cases when the corresponding polynomial (8) is
also a perfect square. Thus, a sharp bound was obtained, in particular, for the
finite sum s = C 0 + + c,_1 (Landau 1)), and also a sharp bound was obtained
for the arithmetic mean of finite sums an = (s o + + sn_1)/n. 2) However, the
inequalities obtained for the absolute values of arbitrary functions in the class
B were not always sharp (Szasz).3) This is explained by the fact that, in the
latter case, the parenthetical expression in an integral of the type (11) was
replaced by a polynomial that is not a polynomial of the type (8) for yn-1 +
...+yn-1.
0
§8. Some inequalities for bounded functions4)

We shall consider the following classes of analytic functions.
1) the class B of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk IzI < 1 and
satisfy the inequality If WI < 1 in that disk;
2) the class R of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and
satisfy the inequality R (f (z)) > p for I Z I < 1;
3) the class BG of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and
assume in that disk only values belonging to a given closed convex region G.
Our purpose is, first of all, to establish sharp inequalities regarding func-
tions belonging to the class B in which only functions of the form f (z) = ezm,
where 1c l = 1, can be extremal. Such inequalities dealing with the derivative
were examined by the author earlier. The basic tool was then the invariant form
of the Schwarz lemma. 5) Here, we shall use an essentially different method, one
1) See, for example, Landau [1929a].
2) Ibid.
3) Szasz [1920].
4) Goluzin [1950].
5) Goluzin [1945]. We note that by the same procedure Dieudonne had already
obtained the following results [1931a]: If f (z)= 10=lcnzn E B, then If'(z)I < 1 in the
closed disk IzI < XF2 - 1 but not always in a larger disk (see also Caratheodory [1936]).
§B SOME INEQUALITIES FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS 515
that will enable us to study questions in an extremely general and exhaustive

form. This same method can be applied at the same time to the establishment of
inequalities regarding functions in the classes R and BG.
1°. We shall establish some general theorems.
'Theorem 1. Let m denote a nonnegative integer and let Yn (n = m, m + 1,
denote complex numbers such that y,,, 0 and Y-n _m lyn I < -. Then
1) If m = 0, a necessary and sufficient condition for the inequality
C6
21 T.C.
n-0
clToi (1)
to hold for all functions f (z) = Em=ocnz" E B is that

0
` To I TnCn)l 2 on ICI=1. (2)
n-o
Equality holds in (1) only for f (z) = c o, where Ic o I = 1;
2) If m > 0, then a necessary and sufficient condition for the inequality
00 m-I
1 1 _
Tm Z Tncn + TM Ttm-ncn
n-m n-0
to hold for all functions f (z) _ IW=ocnzn E B is that
00
I
n=m
TnCn-M)
2 on ICI = 1. (4)
Equality holds in (3) only for f (z) = c,nz", where Icm I = 1.

(We note that, by virtue of the assumptions of the theorem, the series in (2)
and (4) converge uniformly on the circle It; I = 1 and the series in (1) and (3)
converge for all f (z) E B since we then have Icn I < 1 (n = 0, 1,
Proof. -Since the functions f (z) = Y,W=oc nzn E B have limiting values along
radial paths almost everywhere on the circle Iz I = 1, if we denote these limiting
values on ICI = 1 by f (z) and take the limit as r approaches 1 from below. in the
formulas
cn
2n!
I C =r
Cn+, ! ' = o (n=0' It ...
ICI=r
which hold for 0 < r < 1, we obtain the formulas
cn = 1
tai
f C)Cn+tdC f (C) Cn dC =O (n=0, 1, ...),
where C is the circle 141 = 1 and the integrals are Lebesgue. On the basis of
this and the uniform convergence of the series lm=mynCF on the circle
we have
7m
n=m
1
7ncn = 2a1
i f (C)
Cm+t
\
n=m
7n
7mCn-m
d
C
-
Co Co
f (C) I 7nCm-11 7n7m
-C m-n f (C) n
1
2n! m+i l A 2a!

I
Cm+i d
7m
19-M n=m n-m 7m C
2a! C(C) 251

\ 7m I 7-Cm-n) - tai C(C r 'V 7m Cn m
nm nm
2M
27! L (m+)i [2D1 (7m001

7nCm nl
-1A- _1 TnC9m-ro
a-m 1 7in n-m+l
that is,
Co m - l
Tncn + T m-ncn
7m 7m n-0
a=m
Co
' -L
2n! C(Cr 12`9 y 7nCm-n) -1] dC. (5)
(7m
n-m
For m = 0, the second summation on the left disappears. If condition (4) is satis-
fied on the circle JCJ = 1, we obtain from equation (5)
cc m-l
-
00
I Tncn + -1 G l
1 1
L T9m-ncn [281 I&P = 1,

7m 2a TnCn-m)
n=m 7m n-0 m
n-m
where C = e`0; that is, we obtain inequality (3) and, by setting m = 0, inequality
(1). Since the function in the square brackets in equation (5) is not identically
equal to zero on the circle JCJ = 1, equality holds in the relation (3) or in (1)
§8. SOME INEQUALITIES FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS 517
only when If(C)I = 1 and arg ([(C)/[,m) = coast on a set of points of positive
measure on the circle ICI = 1. But then [(C)/Cm = const on the set mentioned,
and this can be the case only if f (z) = e is zm in the disk Iz I < 1. Then equality
does indeed hold in (3) or (I). Thus, the sufficiency of the conditions of the
theorem is proved.
Let us suppose now, conversely, that inequality (3, or inequality (1) if
m = 0, holds for all ((z) E B. If we apply this inequality to a function
Co
f(z)=zn
1-az -zm(-a+ A=1 (1 -IaI2)an 1Znl E B,

for which
CO=C1=...=Cm_1-0, Cm=-Oy Cn=(I -ICE I2)Zn-m-1
(n=m+1, ...), IaI<I,

we obtain
Co
-a+1-1a1' Tin
T
n-m-1
cl
n=m+l
or, by squaring,
00
IaI9-21R. Tlale Ton-m) 1-la la n-m-1
T
n=m+1 / Tin
m+l
If we transpose the term 10_1 2 to the right and divide both sides by the common
factor I- IaI2,
we obtain
- 2 t (T1 , WE+ (I - I a Ie) II 00
To
&n-m-1
in a-W Tm
n=m+1 a=m+1
If we now let IaI approach 1, we obtain inequality (4) with C= a, Since

arg a is arbitrary, this proves the necessity of condition (4). This completes the
Theorem 2. Let y, (n = 0, 1, ) denote complex numbers such that yo 0
and Im=o Iyn I < -. For the inequality
co
I(
` 7o i 11 inure) 0 (6)
no
to hold for all functions ((z) = 1W=0cnzn C R, it is necessary and sufficient that
(1 Y co
n=0
Proof. Let us suppose that condition (7) is satisfied and that f(z) is a
member of R. Just as above (formula (5) with m = 0), we can prove the formula
00 -
n f (C)
TncnP =tat [2T TnPnC n) -1] dr7o (8)
\ 70
n= 0 ICI -r n=0
where C= re`(b, and 0 < p < r < 1. Therefore,
00 2a m
/
sR (
1
70
TncnPn) = 2a c
(f T,,
)n)
1]d?. (9)
n=0 (1 C
Since the integrand is nonnegative, we have

co
s 1
L TncnP )
it
0, (10)
70
n-0
and this holds for arbitrary p in the interval 0 < p < 1. But the series E°n°-0yncn
converges. Consequently 10°=o Yncnpn W_oyncn as p -- 1. Then from
inequality (10) we obtain inequality (6). This proves the sufficiency of the condi-
tion in the theorem.
To prove its necessity, we apply inequality (6) to the function
co
(z)1-=I+2IanznER,
n=1
We then obtain
co
( + 2
70
Tnan)
n=1
which yields condition (7) for C= a. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 3. Suppose that yn (n = 0, 1 , ) are complex numbers such that
YO #0 and limn co Vl yn l < 1. For the inclusion relation
co
1
Tncn E d, ( 11 )
70
n=0
to hold for an arbitrary function f (z) = >. =ocnzn E BG whenever the series
Im converges, it is sufficient that the inequality
n=oynCn
co
r( 1 n 1
(12)
A-0
hold in the disk ICI < 1.

Proof. Again assuming that 0 0 on the circle ICI = r and since fi t 1=ru(C) do =
1, the integral on the right side of equation (13) can be regarded as the integral
mean of f (C) on the circle r with weight u (j). Since the values of f (C)
on the circle ICI = r lie in a convex domain G, it follows that this mean also lies
in G; that E G. It follows that, if the series Fn=oyncn con-
verges, then, by taking the limit as p we obtain condition (11). This com-
We note that the sufficiency of the assertions in Theorems 1 (for m = 0) and
2 follows from Theorem 3.
Theorem 4. Let Jyt,01 and y(Z)1 (n = 0, 1 , ) denote two sequences of
complex numbers such that 0, ySZ)= 0, and 20°=o1ynl)I + Fcolyn2)I <oc.
For the inequality
00 00
E T(i)C,
n E TT9)Cn -<ITo')I (14)
A=0 n=0
to hold for an arbitrary function f (z) = Fm=OCnzn C B G, it is necessary and

sufficient that
-2.
00 00
rnt)Cn) T`1
oi) 1 )
1 Tn9)Cn on ICI-1. (15)
n=0 e n=0
Equality holds in (14) only for functions f(z) = c0, where Ic01 = I.
Proof. Inequality (14) is satisfied if and only if the inequality
Co 00 00
JaT(2))
Lj 7Rt )cn + eiu Lj 7n9)cn Nn I) + e C. IT;') I
(16)
n=0 n=0 n=0
is satisfied for all real a. But, for fixed a-, this last inequality is satisfied for
all functions f (z) C B if and only if (Theorem 1)
00
OR (TRr)+e"71))Cnl on ItI-1, (17)

n=0
Consequently, for inequality (16) to hold for all f (z) E B, it is necessary and
sufficient that inc quality (17) hold for all real a and this is equivalent to the
condition
00
2)Cn
Tl ) n=0
1
o
,
n 2
on ICI=l,
n=0
which is what we needed to show. In accordance with Theorem 1, equality holds

in (14) only when f(z)= c0, where Icol = 1. This completes the proof of the
theorem.
With an eye to applying these general theorems to particular cases, we note
that it is convenient to write condition (4) (condition (2) in case m = 0) in a
different, equivalent form. Specifically, condition (4) is equivalent to the
inequality
00 m 0
1 --1 ! Tm
TnCn-m
on ICI=l,
n-m I I n=m
§8. SOME INEQUALITIES FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS
521
that is, to the inequality

cc co
n =m
17rtCn-m G`,
7rt
Cn-m
on ICI= 1. (18)
n=m+1
The same is true for condition (12). By an analogous. transformation, we can show
that condition (15) is equivalent to the condition
0 00 m 9
1 1
lot) 7rtl)C - 2 Wit) na'C" 7(t) v,
7rtt>Cn
on ICI = 1. (19)
n0 ° n=1 ° n=1
20. As an application of Theorems 1-4, we present Theorems 5-10.
Theorem 5. 1) For all functions f (z) E B in the disk Iz1 <
21 (m + 1) - 1 but not always in a larger disk, we have
If(m)(z)+ }J (n+1)(n+2)...(n+ m)cm_nznl gym!, (20)

n=l
with equality holding only for f (z) = cm z'", where Icm I = 1.
2) For all functions f(z)_ Ym=mCnzn e B in the disk IzI < 21/('"+1)- 1
but not always in a larger disk, we have
I f(m) (z) I < fin!, (21)
with the same extremal function.

Proof. To prove 1), we need to investigate whether the condition of Theorem
1 holds, with
7n = n (n - 1) ... (n - m -f - 1) zn-m (n = m, m + 1, ...).
In this case, condition (4) or condition (18), which is better, takes the form
1 d- 0i ,nrn-m 1 dm `,
co zn(n-m
on ICI=I.
if dam mldz (22)
nmm twin
But
dm
W1 dzm
nam
I00
1 dm
ml dzm
n=0
m
IzC
nnm _i m
1 d 1n t-11
- ]
m+j
Therefore, inequality (22) takes the form

on ICj=1 (23)
But, on the circle we have
I-1(1-Cz)m+l-1I>1-((1+Iz1)mit-1)=2-(1 +IzI)m+t,
and this inequality is sharp (equality holds only when C_ - e-targz)Con-

sequently, inequality (23) is satisfied if and only if 2 - (1 + z0"`+1 _> 0, that is,
if and only if Iz I < 21/ (m +1) - 1. By Theorem 1, this proves 1) of Theorem 5,
including the uniqueness of the extremal function f (Z) = Cmzm, where ICmf = I.
To prove 2), 1) we need only note that the function AZ) = IW=mcnzn belongs
to the class B if and only if f (z)/zm E B. Therefore, the assertion in 2) regard-
ing the point z is equivalent to the inequality
00
E (n + 1)...(n + m)Cnzn
n=0
in the class. B. By Theorem 1, this requires that we investigate the condition

0
ml
+1)...(n+m)znCn
n=0
'
r nl I (n+1)...(n+in)znCn-ll
I
n-0
on ICI-1.
But this condition is identical to inequality (22) and is satisfied only for
1- 1 < 21' (m + 1) - 1, which proves part 2). This completes the proof of the
theorem.
In what follows, we denote by sm(z ) and r,n(z) the mth partial sum (begin-
ing with m = 0) and the corresponding remainder of the series Yn°=0cnz":
S,n(Z) _ jn=0jC0Zn, r,n(Z) _ °n°=mCnZn.
Theorem 6. Let m denote an integer greater than 1. Let r,n, with 0 <r,, <
1, denot e the (unique) positive root of the equation 2rm + r - 1 = p.
1) Inequality (21) is obtained from inequality (20) by applying the latter to the func-
tion f (z) = yn-mcnzn E B. However, the problem then is to.find the greatest disk for
which inequality (21) is valid.
1) For all functions f (z) E B, the inequality Ism(z)I _< 1 is valid in the
closed disk IzI < rm. Equality holds only for f (z) = co, where Ic01 = 1. For even
m, the number rm cannot be replaced with a larger number.
2) For all functions f (z) E R, the inequality 32(sm(z)) > 0 holds in the disk
Izl < rm. Here, rm cannot be replaced with a larger number.
3) For f(z) E BG, we have sm(z) E G in Izl <rm.
We note that r2 < r3 < r4 < . . . , that r2 = 1/2, and that limm,mrm = 1.
Proof. Let us apply Theorems 1-3 with Yn = zn for n = 0, 1, , m - 1, and
Yn = 0 for n > m. Inequality (18),' which with m = 0 is equivalent to inequality
(2), is of the form
1+zC+...+zm-iCm-1I>Iz(+...+zm-1Cm-1I
I
on ICI=1,
that is,
/I on ICI=1.
(24)
The inequality
I 1 -Cmzml -IzI I 1 zm-1Cm-1
=1 -Izim-IzI(1+ Izim-1)=1-IzI-2Izim,
where ICI = 1, and its sharpness for even m (equality holds when _ - e-àrgz)
imply that inequality (24) holds for all z for which 1 - IzI - 2 Izim > 0, that is,
for IzI <rm. Here, when m is even, we cannot replace rm with a larger number. l)
By virtue of Theorems 1-3, this proves all the assertions of the present theorem.
But rm < rm +1 (for m = 2, 3, ) since
2rm+i+r,n+l-I>2rm$i+2rm+i-1=0 and 2rm+rm-1=0.
If limm,W rm = q < 1, then, for all m = 1, 2, , we have rm < q and, con-
sequently, 2qm + q - 1 > 0. By letting m approach - in this last inequality, we
see that q > 1. Thus q = 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
1) In the case of odd m, the corresponding greatest number is obviously equal to the
greatest r in the interval 0 <r < 1 for which
min
ICI=
and it is distinct from r,,,.
Theorem 7. For every in > 1, let rm denote the unique positive root of the
equation 4rm + r - 1 = 0 and set rl = 1/3. For all functions f (z) C B, we have
Ism(z)I+Irm(z)I--- 1, (25)
in the disk I z I < rm with equality holding only for f (z) = c0, where Icol = 1. For
even m, the number rm cannot be replaced with a larger number. We note that
r,<r9<r9<... u lim rm-1.
m -.oo
Proof. Let us apply Theorem 4 with yn1) = Zn for n= 0, 1, , m - 1, and

yn1)=0for n>m; ynz)=0 for n = 0, 1,...,m_1, and y(2)
n
= for n > in. Z"
Inequality (19), which is equivalent to inequality (15), is now of the form

-Cmzm 2-
I
1 - Cz
2I
Cmzm
1 - Cz
Cz - Cmzm
I-Cz
2
on ICI=;1,
that is,
I1-Cmz"'I2-2IzlmI1-CzI-1z1211-Cm IC1=1. (26)

For in > 1, the inequality
I 1 -CmzmI2-2IzjmI 1 -C2I--121211-Cm-1zm-112
(1-Izlm)2-212lm(1-f-Izl)-Izl2(1-f-Izlm-1)2
=1-Iz12-41zIm-4IZIm+1=(1+IzDO
-IzI-41zIm)
and its sharpness for even m (equality holds for C= e-à`gz) imply that
inequality (26) holds for those z such that 1 - IzI - 41zIm > 0, that is, for IzI <
rm. Here, for even in, the number rm cannot be replaced with a larger number.
For m = 1, we have analogously on the circle 1 I = 1
I I -CmzmI2-2 1zI11 -CzI-1zI2I 1 -Cm-1z" 12
=11 21zI I 1 -Cz1-l 1 - Cz1(1 -3121),
which > 0 in the disk IzI < 1/3, but not always in a larger disk. By virtue of
Theorem 4, this proves the assertion of the theorem. The supplementary remarks
about the rm are proved in the same way as in Theorem 6.
Theorem 8. For functions f (zr) C lB, the inequality
I-msm 1 /+r z( z) I 1, (27)

§& SOME INEQUALITIES FOR BOUNDED FUNCTIONS 525
where in is an integer > 1, holds in the disk IzI < 1. Equality holds only for
f (Z) = c,nzm, where I cmI = I.
Proof. Here, we need to apply 2) of Theorem 1 for the case y" = z"-m (for
n = in, m + 1, ). Then, condition (18) takes the form
m
Cn_m
co
m 1. I E Cn-mzn-m I on ICI = 1,
n°m n=m+I
which reduces to the obvious inequality ICzI < 1, which is satisfied on the circle
ICI = 1 for all z in the disk IzI < 1. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Theorem 9. If, for f (z) E BG, we set
om(z)so (z)+s1 (z)+...+sm_, (2)
l in
then om(z) E G for all m = 1, 2, and all z in the disk IzI < 1.
Proof. Let us apply Theorem 3 with yo = m, yt = m - 1, , ym_ 1 = 1, and
yn = 0 for n > in. Condition (12) takes the form
91 (m + (m - 1) C +... + 2 on ICI =1,
which we can rewrite in the form
-1 +
Cm m + ... -}- m
9 I -} m -{- (m -1) C -{- ... -I Cm 1 p, ICI =1
or
m 11 (1 + C + ... + Cm-1)g 0
or, finally, by setting C= e ` 9
The assertion of the theorem then follows.

Theorem 10. For all functions f (z) = Im 0 c"z" E B, the inequality
If,(z)I+If,(z)I<1, (28)
where (z):= 00 00
f1 L.J cyn+lz9n+1 A (z) _ E Cgn,Z9n'
n=0 n=0
holds in the disk 1zI < - 1 but not always in a larger disk. Equality holds in
(28) only for f (z) = c 0, where Ic oI = I.
Proof. Let us apply Theorem 4 to the case yi2n = z 2n, y(1) 2n
+ 1 = 0, yi2 = 0,
2n
yen +1 = z 2n +1 for n = 0, 1, . Condition (19) then takes the form
1-z2 2 12- 2 I l zC I
l
1 z°9 I 1 on ICI=1,
or
1-IzI'-21z111-z9C on C1= (29)

But, on the circle I I = 1,
1-IzI`-2Iz111-z9C9I}1-IzI*-2IzI(1-I-Iz19)
=(1-}-Izl9)(1-21zI-IzI9).
This inequality.is sharp (equality holds for C= ie-"'I" ). Consequently, inequality
(29) holds on the circle ICI = 1 only for 1- 21z1 - 1z12 >0, that is, for IzI <
- 1. By virtue of Theorem 4, the assertion of the theorem follows.
§ 9. A method of variations in the theory of analytic functions I)

Among the various classes of analytic functions, we consider those in which
the functions have a parametric representation containing a Stieltjes integral of
the form
b
S g (z, t) da (t)
a
where a, b, and g(z, t) are given and a(t) ranges over all possible.monotonic
functions of a given variation in the interval a < t < b. The solution of extremal
problems in such classes reduces to determination of functions a(t) correspond-
ing to an extremum.
As is well known, the idea of variations as applied to certain specific
questions of this nature has already been encountered in the literature. In particu-
lar, this method was used to give a complete solution to the rotation problem for
the class of functions w = f (z) = z + C2 z 2 + that are regular and starlike in
1zI < 1. This solution will be given now in a somewhat different treatment.
In the present section, this idea of variations will be applied to the deriva-
tion of convenient variational formulas. We shall then use the variational
1) Goluzin [1952].
§9. A METHOD OF VARIATIONS 527
formulas to investigate a number of general extremal problems for classes of star-

like and typically real functions. Here, as with many other variational methods,
the complete solution of the problem rests on the determination of certain unknown
constants, which involves an individual difficulty in each particular problem. The
author will use the example of a distortion theorem to illustrate this difficulty,
indicating in a roundabout way.the varied nature of extremal functions depending
on Z.
1°. We shall derive two variational formulas. Let us denote by Ee the class
of functions f (z) defined by a Stieltjesintegral of the form
f (z) g (z, t) dot (t), (1)

a
where a and b are given real numbers, where g(z, t) is a given regular function
defined in the region IzI < 1, a < t < b, and where a(t) ranges over all possible
functions nondecreasing in a < t < b and satisfying the condition
b
Sda(t)-a(b)-a(a)=1. (2)
a
Let us consider two types of variations of the function f (z) E Eg that are
obtained by means of a suitable variation of the function a(t).
1) Let t 1 and t2 denote any two numbers such that a < t 1 < t 2 < b. We leave
unchanged the values of the function a(t) outside the interval t 1 < t < t2 but
replace its values inside that interval once with the average (weighted) values of
a(t) and a(t 1 - 0) and once with the average of a(t) and a(t 2 + 0), that is, with
the values
(1 - A) a (t) + Aa (tl - 0),

A=const, O<kc 1; (3)
(1 -A)a(t)+Aa(ty+0).
Here, we take a(a - 0) = a(a) and a(b + 0) = a(b). The varied functions al(t)
and a2(t) thus obtained obviously remain nondecreasing in the interval a < t < 6
and they continue to satisfy condition (2). They can be represented in the form
ak (t) = a (t) + Apk (t), k = 1, 2, (4)
where Sk(t) = 0, k = 1, 2, outside the interval t 1 < t < t 2 and
Pt (t) = a (ti - 0) - a(t) _ - I a (t) - a (tl - 0)

P9(t)=a02+0)-a(t)=IaV2+0)-a(t)I,
inside that interval. This can be written in the single formula

Pk (t) _ (- 1)k I a (t) - ck I , ck = const, k = 1, 2. (5)
The corresponding varied functions in the class Eg are
fk (z) = bg (z, t) da
k ()t==f (z) +' g(z, t) dPk (t), k = 1,
tp
2.
a tl
Integration by parts yields, in view of the fact that j8k(tI) = Pk(t2) = 0,

t,
fk (z) =f (z) - (- 1)AA S gi (z, t) I a (t) - ck I dt, k = 1, 2. (G)
tl
Formula (6) can be written more simply in the form
Is
f*(z)=f(z)+A gi(z, t)Ia(t)-cldt, (7)

tj
where A is an arbitrary number in the interval - 1 < A < 1, where c is a constant

with respect to t and A (except that c depends on the sign of A), and where
f.(z), like [(z), is a function in the class Eg. Formula (7) is.the first variational
formula in the class Eg.
2) If t 1 and t2 are two points of discontinuity of the function a(t) such that
a < t 1 < t 2 < b, then, for sufficiently small real A, the function
a*(t)=a(t)+XP(t),
where a(t) is equal to zero outside the interval t 1 < t < t 2 and equal to 1 inside
that interval and is defined in a suitable manner at the endpoints t1 and t2, is a
nondecreasing function in the interval a < t < b that satisfies condition (2). The
corresponding function in the class E, is determined form the formula
b
f**(z)=f(z)+ASg(z, t)dP(t),
a
which yields
f**(z)=f(z)+A(g(z, t1)-g(z, t9)) (8)
Formula (8) constitutes the second variational formula in the class Eg.
We note that, if the function g(z, t) satisfies the condition g(z, a) = g(z, b),
it can be extended as a function of t to the entire real line as a periodic function
of t with period b - a. if we extend a(t) according to the formula
a(t+b-a)-.a(t)+1,
we can replace the interval of integration a < t < b of the integral (1) with any
other interval of the same length without changing the value of the integral. In
this case, the variational formulas (7) and (8) are also meaningful on the entire
t-axis except when 0 < t2 - t1 < b - a.
2°. We denote by S* the class of functions
w=f (z)=z+C2Z2+..., (1)
that are regular in the disk IzI < 1 and that map that disk univalently onto domains
that are starlike about the point w = 0. We know that a necessary and sufficient
condition for the function (1) to belong to the class S' is that the inequality
at (-,f (z)l>p
f(z)/I
be satisfied in Iz I < 1, and this in turn is.equivalent to the integral representa-
ti on
z f (z) = x
S e
e' - z
da (t)
f (Z) (2)
-a
in Izl < 1, where a(t) is a nondecrrasing function in the interval - n < t < n
such that a(n) - a(- n) = 1. By virtue of this last condition, formula (2) can be
reduced to the form
zf (z) 1= Z-da(t)
f (z) e z
_x
If we then divide by z and integrate with respect to z from 0 to z, we obtain in

I z I < 1 a formula equivalent to (2):
-2 J log (I - e-'tz) da (t)
f(z)=ze -n (3)
Here, the logarithm refers to the branch that vanishes at z = 0.

Relying on formula (3) and § 1, we shall present two types of variation of the
of the function f (z) E S. Specifically, we denote the integral in (3) by 0(z) and
we apply it to the variational formula (7) of subsection 1°. The function f,(z)ES*
corresponding to the varied function g.(z) is defined by the formula
12 _ttP
(Z)+XS We la([)-cadf
f*(z)=ze tl , 1'X1[11
which, for small A, yields
12
21e 't z
f*(z)=f(z)+A Cf(z) a(t)-cIdt+O(ts). (4)
Here, 0( ) denotes the order of smallness with respect to A; 0 (A2) is an

analytic function of z in Izl < 1.
Analogously, if we apply to c(z) the variational formula (8) of subsection
1°, we obtain, for small real A, the varied function
f** (z) =f (z)
-4-- Xf (z) [log (1 - e -'t2 z) - log (1 - e "z)) + 0 (A') (5)
Formulas (4) and (5) yield variations of two types in the class S. In
accordance with the remark made at the end of subsection 1°, we can take for t
and t 2 in formula (4) any two real numbers such that 0 < t 2 - t 1 < 2n. In formula
(5), these numbers must be points of discontinuity of the function a(t).
Returning to formula (3), we note that, if a(t) is a step function with discon-
tinuities at t 1, t 2 , , to such that < t 1 < t 2 < ... < to < 2n and if Ak is the
saltus in a(t) at tk, that is, if
n
Ak=a(tk+0)-a(t*-0), h=1, ... n, E 1k=1, (6)
k-I
then
z (7)
f (z) = n
11 (1 - 2
k=I
This function maps the disk Iz < 1 onto the entire z-plane with n radial cuts.
3°. Let us give some applications of the variational formulas of subsection

2° to the solution of extremal problems in the class S*.
Theorem 1. For a given entire function 4(w) and a given point z in the disk
IzI < 1, the maximum value of each of the (unctionals
ai(iClog fzz))),
0 (log fZZ)) (1)
in the class S* is attained only by a function of the form
(2)
where a is real. Here, we are excluding from consideration the case in which
4'(log (f (z)/z)) = 0 at the extremum. Therefore, in IzI < 1, we have the
inequalities
1t ( (log fiz))) - maax R (c (log(1-etaz)°)) (3)
0 (logf Zz)) (log

ma ax I (D
Cl
- eta z)9 (4)
Proof. The existence of extremal functions of these extremal problems is

obvious. Also, the function f (z) that gives an extremum to the second of the
functionals (1) gives at the same time an extremum to the functional
(e'T $ (iogf
zz)))
with suitable y and this functional fits the type of the first of the functionals
(1). Therefore, it will be sufficient to prove the theorem for the first of the func-
tionals (1), which we now denote by If. Let f (z) denote one of the extremal
functions.
Let us calculate the value of If for the varied function (4) of subsection 2°.
Since
0 (log f* z(z)) = (logf (z) )
z
is
1
1
tr
1e-z i cI dt +
1) Here the logarithms refer to those branches that are regular in Iz I < I and that
vanish at z = 0.
we have
1s
z tt
i toe_tiz (t)-cldt} 0(1`9). (5)
i,
The extremality of the function f (z) requires that the coefficient of A vanish,
that is, that
is
Tie
(logfzz))1 cIdt=O. (5)
Condition (5 ') shows that, if the interval (t 1) t 2) contains no roots of the

equation
F (t) _ ((1' (logf zz)) 1 to et )=O, (6)
then 10.(t) - c I must be equal to zero in that interval, that is, a(t) = c = const.
But in the case in which '(log (f (z)/z)) A 0, as we shall assume in what follows,
equation (6) is equivalent to the equation
T (z' (logfi) Le ttz (1 - ettz)) = 0, (7)
that is, to a quadratic equation in e`t. Consequently, it has no more than two
solutions in e`t. This leads to the conclusion that the function a(t) is a step
function with either one or two points of discontinuity in the interval - rr < t < >t
and that the corresponding values of t must satisfy equation (6).
Let us suppose that there are two such points of discontinuity t 1 and t 2.
Let us construct the varied function f. .(z) in accordance with formula (5) of sub-
section 2°. For this function, we have
1f.. =1f
pt ((D' (logf Zz)) [log (1 - e tt9 z) - log (1 - e-", z)]) + 0 (A9),
which, by virtue of the eztremality of f(z), yields
51 ((D' (logf Zz)) [log (1 - e-tt, z) - log (1 - e-", z)]) = 0. (7

This condition shows that the function
91 ((' (logfiz)) log (1 - e `t z))
has equal values at t = t 1 and t = t2. Consequently, its derivative with respect
to t, which is equal to F(t), must vanish at some point t3 in the interior of the
interval (t1, t2). But then the equation will have three distinct solutions in a",
which is impossible. This contradiction shows that a(t) has only one point of
discontinuity in - rr < t < 7T. But then, in accordance with formula (7) of subsection
2° with n = 1, it must be of the form (2). This completes the proof of the theorem.
By applying Theorem 1 to the case when (D(w) = aeh"' + b (where a, b, and
A are constant, we conclude that the maximum of the functionals
(a(fix))1+b)and (fiz))1+b
a
I
in the class S` is attained only by the function`` (2). Since

z
=Izl,
1
f (z)(z) -
for the function (2), by taking a = 1, b = - 1, and X=-1/2, we conclude that

the sharp inequality
z 1c zI
f(z) I
(which was proved by the author earlier by a different procedure) holds in the
class S*
Theorem 2. For a given entire function cb(w) and a given point z in the disk
Iz < 1, the maximum of either of the functionals
Rt (4) (log f (z))) and ID (logf (z)) (8)

in the class S* is attained only by a function of the form
f (z) _ (I - eta z)1, (1- e1P z)1s , (9 )
where Al and h2 are real nonnegative numbers such that h1 + h2 = 2 and a and
A are real. The case when db'(log f'(z)) = 0 is excluded from consideration.
Proof. Again, it will be sufficient to consider the problem of maximizing the

functional
If = Ut (0 (logf' (z))).
The existence of extremal functions is obvious. Let f (z) denote one of

these. Let us calculate the value of If for the varied function (4) of subsection
2°. We have
ie
log f . (z) =-- (z) + l` f (z)) I a (t) - c I dt+O (A9)
fI (z) dz 1 1
11
and consequently
92
If.=If+A t((D'(logf'(z)S fia(t)-cIdt)+0(A9).

(z)dz e e +(i
h
The extremality of the function f (z) leads to the condition
dzi)
ty
/D' (logf'
CD' (z)) d to 1t zf (z)
f'(z)
tl
It follows from this condition that a(t) = const in an arbitrary interval (t 1,
containing no roots of the equation
'I (log f (z)) d ie dt zf (z))
F()-
t= f' (z) dzz - 0. (10)
But equation (10) leads to a fourth-degree algebraic equation in ett. This means
that a(t) must be a step function with no more than four points of discontinuity
in the interval - n < t < ii, which must be roots of the equation F(t) = 0.
On the other hand, application of the variational formula (5) of subsection 2°
in the present case shows that the quantity
/ 41' (log f' (z)) d
l f(z) dz (z)1og (1 - e it z)) (10)
as a function of t has different values at all points of discontinuity, so that its
derivative with respect to t, which is equal to F(t), also vanishes inside the
intervals between any two adjacent points of discontinuity. If there were more
than two points of discontinuity of the function a(t) in the interval -77 < t < n,
the number of roots of the equation F(t) = 0 in that interval would exceed 4, which,
from what was said above, is impossible. On the other hand, if there are no more
than two, then, by virtue of equation (7) of subsection 2°, the function f (z) must
be of the form (9). This completes the proof of the theorem.
In the same way we can prove the more general theorem:
Theorem 3. For a given entire function c(w), a real constant k, and a given
point z in the disk Izl < 1, the maximum of either of the functionals
((D (log
f (z -))' IJ wy-) (11)
in the class S' is attained only by a function of the form (9). The case when
D' (log )f=0
at an extremum is excluded from consideration.
As a special case of this with k = 2, we obtain
Theorem 4. For a given entire function c(w) and given C such that ICI > I,
the maximum of either of the functionals
Ut (0 (log F (C))) I T (log F (C)) (12)
in the class V of functions F(C) = C+ ao + a1/C+ that are regular in the
domain JCI > 1 excluding the pole C= - and that map the domain ICJ > 1 onto
domains with complement that is starlike about C= 0 is attained only by a func-
tion of the form
F(C)=C(1et_)a°,
alt, A910, A1+A9=2. (13)
The case when

t'(IogP(C))=0
at an extremum is excluded from consideration.
We note that, for 0 < Al < 2, the function (13) maps the domain > I onto
the w-plane with two rectilinear cuts issuing from w = 0 at an angle other than
it. In a number of special cases of the type that we are considering, the extremal
functions (9) and (13) degenerate into functions with k2 = 0. For example, this
is the case in questions of maximizing or minimizing W`(z)I WI in the class S* or
of minimizing IF%)I in the class V. However, this degeneration does not

always occur. For example, in the question of maximizing IF'(C)i in the class
V for the function F(C) = C+ eiQ'C1 + const, we have
I F, (C) 1==1 + It'll ,
whereas, for the function (9) with 0 < AI < 2, we see that obviously F'(a)
as C approaches any point on ICI = 1 that corresponds to boundary points on
w=0.
An analogous situation occurs in the problem of maximizing IF%)I in the
subclass 12 of odd functions F2(C) belonging to the class V. These functions
have. the representation
F9 (C) = F (0,
where F(C) E V. It follows from Theorem 3 for k = 3/2 that the only extremal
function here is a function of the form
F2(C)=C 1 - eta)
C2
X1 / e1P X2
l\1 - C,
where Al and A2 are nonnegative constants-such that Al + A2 = 1 and where a

and 0 are constants. Here we conclude just as above that, for ICI close to 1,
we have 0 <A1 < 1 in the case of this extremal function. However, for ICI suf-
ficiently large, one can show by a roundabout procedure that the function F(C) _
C+ e`°'t;'-1 is an extremal function. This fact is included in the following distor-
tion theorem.
Theorem 5. For a function F ( c ) = C+ a1/C+ a2/ C2 + E V the sharp
inequalities
It+. , (14)
argF'(C)I<aresin Il, (15)
hold for ICI > f + 1 with equality holding only in the case of a function of the
form
§ 9. A METHOD OF VARIATIONS 537
F(C)=C+eCa, (16)
where a is a real number.

Proof. For the functions F(C) mentioned in the theorem, it was shown by the
author [1938] that the inequality
IF(C)-CI< ICI (17)
holds in the domain ICI > 1. Let us set f (z) = F(l/z) - l/z = Then,
in accordance with (17), we have If W1 < 1 in the disk IzI < 1. Furthermore,
f (0) = 0. But then, as we know, 1)
If'(z)IG1 in I zI (18)
with equality holding only in the case of a function of the form f (z) = ez, where
leI = 1. Inequality (18) yields
f zs F'1)-Z, IClin
or
IF'(C)-1 Ic ICI9 in ICI>1+l.

This inequality leads to inequalities (14) and (15). This completes the proof of
the theorem.
It is still an open question whether inequality (15) is valid in the entire
domain ICI > 1 under the conditions of Theorem 5. The corresponding question
with regard to a bound for larg f'(z)I in the class S* has an affirmative answer.
This will be shown below.
4°. Let us establish a theorem for the inverse of a starlike function. Although,
as we have mentioned, the application of the variational method set forth here
to the particular question of solving this problem is not new, we shall nonethe-
less give its solution, treating it as an application of the general 'Theorem 2 of
subsection 30
Theorem. For given z in the disk IzI < 1, the function argf'(z) in the class
S* attains its maximum and minimum only in the case of functions of the form
1) See the author's article [1945] and also Theorem 5 of §8, Chapter XL
.f(z)= (1-etaz)2 (1)
where a is a real number.

Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that z = r > 0. The problem
that we are considering is a special case of the problem of Theorem 2 of sub-
section 30 when 1(w) = ± iw. It follows from the proof of that theorem that the
function a(t), corresponding to an extremal function f(z), has in the interval
- n < t < n no more than two points of discontinuity, which must be roots of the
equation
F(t) 1 C (1-ee ttr)l

t(1ê ;tr + ur )_ f(r)
)-0' C= rf'(r) (2)
(this is equation (10) of subsection 3° with I(w) = + iw). If there are two points
of discontinuity, the function
(t)=t (l log (1-e ttr)-C1 tre-

(3)
(cf. (10') of subsection 3° with 0(w) = iw) has the same value at the two points.
Let us suppose that there are two such points of discontinuity t 1 and t 2,
indexed so that t 1 < t 2. Then, the function F(t) = tp'(t) has one zero inside each
of the intervals (t 1, t 2) and (t 2, t 1 + 2n). By ridding equation (2) of denominators,
we reduce it to the form
at (e" (1 - e-tt
r) (1 - eit r)9 -4-- Ce tt (1 - ett r)9) = 0
and we can then reduce this to the form
at (e-9" r - e` t (l +C+2ra)+2r+ra+2Cr -ett (r9+Cr9))=0.
If we now replace the first two terms with their complex conjugates, which does
not change the real part, we obtain the .equation
at (e91t r - e't (1 + 3ra + C + Cr') + 2r + ra + 2Cr) = 0. (4)
Then, by setting C= e`t, we write this equation in the form of a fourth-degree
algebraic equation
rC`-(1+3r3 -C -Cr9)C3+a9C9+a3C+a4;0. (5)
This.equation must be satisfied by the numbers bk = eItk, for k = 1, 2, 3, 4,

corresponding to the numbers tk mentioned above.

We now have from (5)
4 4
rn
1
Ck) I =
L COS tk = + 3r +1 + OR (C).
k=1 k=1
On the other hand, since R(((z)/z('(z) > 0 in Izl < 1, we have

(C)at ( rf'f(r)(r) J +r'
Consequently,
+3r+1-}-r° 1-r _3+r+ (1-r)9(2+r)>3+r.

4
costk-::- r(1+r)
r r 1-}-r
k.1
This shows that

cos tk > r, k -1, 2, 3, 4.
It follows, in particular, that cost > r for t 1 < t < t 2. But then, since
dt
(l log (1 -e 't r))=- (1
e-11
tr)1r ecoitr I'
f
we conclude that the first term in (3) decreases in the interval (t1, t2), so that
81 (1 log (1 - e-tt, r)) > 81 (1 log (1 - e- its r)). (6)
Furthermore, remembering that the extremal function ((z) is of the form

z
f(z)= (1-e-ttlz)zz(1-e tt2z)s t-a) 0< A 1,
we obtain
C= f (r) 1
rf' (r) - 1+e 111 r

1-] 1 `tsr
-.
1-e tt,r (
)
e
e-tear
Therefore, by setting
-ttk
-4-e
Ck= 1 k= 1, 2,
1-e ttkrr
we have
le itlr le e1'r
C 1-e
-e-"'r rC
1-a-11'r )
_ _
(ic(-e- t11r
1-e111r
e-1t'r
1-e-1t'r ))_T- 1 DI (i
1
Cl-Cs
xC1+ (1-A)C.
2IS-1
C ((C2-C1)(ACi+(1 -A)Ci))
(1 - ) 2I (C1C2)
= I C 1' (1-{-- a+1t1 r 1 -{-

a-1t, r) _ jC I' 2r (1- r) (sin t1- sin t,)
2 1-a+1tir 1-et1Yr 2 I1-e't'rj2.I1-ehi2rI9 <0'
so that
C
lei11r C (C ie 11'r
1 (7)
By subtracting (7) from (6), we obtain the inequality tli (l1) > (t Z), which con-
tradicts what was said above, namely, that the function Tli(t) has equal values
at the two points of discontinuity t 1 and t2- This contradiction shows that a(t)
cannot have two points of discontinuity in the interval - n < t < n. Consequently,
the function f (z) must be of the form (1). This completes the proof of the theorem.
5°. The same method of variations can be applied to tht solution of extremal
problems in the class of typically real functions. A function
f (.Z)=z+csz9+... , (1)
that is regular in the disk IzI < 1 is said to be typically real in that disk if it
is real on the diameter - 1 < z 0 for 2(z)>O

V (x))
<0 for 3(z)<O.
at all the remaining points of the disk IzI < 1. The author showed [1950a] that
any such function can be represented in IzI < I according to the formula
_ 1 z
f(z)` S
0
1-2zcose { z' da(9), (2)
where a(0) is a real nondecreasing function in the interval 0 < 0 < n such that
a(n) - a(0) = n. Conversely, every function f (z) defined by this formula is typi-
cally real in IzI < 1. Formula (2) can be replaced by the equivalent formula
1
f (z) = S s (z, t) da (t), (3)
where
z
s (z, t) _ 1-2tz+z2 ' (4)
and a(t) is a real nondecreasing function in the interval - 1 < t < 1 such that
a(1) - a(-1) = 1. For arbitrary fixed t in the interval - 1 < t < 1, the function
s(z, t) itself is typically real; furthermore, it is univalent in the disk IzI < 1. If
we denote by T, the class of all functions (1) that are regular and typically real
in I z I < 1, formula (3) is a parametric representation of that class. By relying on
formula (3), the author solved [1950a] a number of extremal problems for the class
T,. In all those problems, the functions (4) proved to be the only extremal func-
tions. We now apply the idea of variation to the solution of more general problems.
To do this, we write the variational formulas corresponding to formulas (7)
and (8) of subsection 1° as applied to the integral (3). Specifically, we obtain two
variations of the function (3) in the class T,:
is
f*(z)=f(z)+AS S; (z, t)Ia(t)- cIdt, (5)

if
f** (z) =f (z) + A (s (z, t1) - s (z, t9). (6)
In formula (5), t I and t 2 are arbitrary numbers such that - 1 < t 1 < t 2 < 1 and c
is a constant in the interval t 1 < t < t2. In formula (6), t 1 and t 2 are points of
discontinuity of the function a(t) in the same interval. In both formulas, A is an
arbitrary sufficiently small real number.
Theorem. 1. For a given function c(w) that is regular in 0 < Iwl < o and a
given point z in Izl < 1, the maximum of each of the functionals
R (I (f (z))) or 10 (f (z)) I (7)
in the class Tr is attained only by suitable functions of the form
f (z) _ Ats (z, ti) + A9s (z, t9), A1, X9 > 0, A1-f- A9 =1, (8)
where t1 and t2 are numbers in the interval - 1 <t < 1. We exclude from
consideration the case in which c'(f(z)) = 0 at an extremum.

Proof. It will be sufficient to consider the problem of the maximum of the
first of the functionals (7). The existence of extremal functions is obvious. By
applying formula (5), we can show, just as before, that, if f (z) is an extremal
function and (3) is its representation in Izl < 1, then a(t) = const between any
two roots of the equation F(t) _ R (I'(f (z)) s: (z, t)) = 0. Consequently, the only
possible points of discontinuity of the function a(t) are the endpoints + 1 and
the roots of the equation F(t) = 0, which is a 2nd-degree algebraic equation:
R (''(f (z)) (1 - z9) (1 - 2t2 .- - z9)2) = 0, (9)
so that the number of these discontinuities does not exceed 4. If there are more
than two points of discontinuity, denote three of them by t 1, t2, and t3, indexed
in such a way that - 1 < tl < t2 < t3 < 1 and F(t2) = 0. By applying formula (6),
let us show that 3(4'(f (z)) s (z, t)) has, as a function of t, equal values at the
points t1, t2, and t3. But then its derivative has a root inside each of the inter-
vals (t 1, t2) and (t 2, t 3); that is, equation (9) has three distinct roots. This con-
tradiction shows that a(t) does not have more than two points of discontinuity in
the interval - 1 < t < 1, and this means that the function f (z) is of the form (8).
We shall now give an example in which the extremal function (8) does not
degenerate into a function of the form s(z, t). We knowl) that, for fixed z in
IzI < 1, the maximum value of If(z)I in the class Tr is attained only by a func-
tion of the form f (z) = s(z, t), where, for certain z, we have - 1 < t < 1. The
function z2/(l - z2)2 f(z) belongs to Tr whenever f (z) does. (This follows
from the necessary and sufficient condition for f (z) to belong to the class Tr,
namely, that the inequality
zze f(z))>0
holds for IzI < 1.) Therefore, for IzI < 1, the minimum value of If(z)J in the
class Tr is attained only by a function
f(z)
_ Za z zs
=12ts(z, 1)+
1) Goluzin [1950e].
which is of the form (8) but with Al and A, positive. Then, the problem of
minimizing If (z)I is equivalent to the problem of maximizing c(f (z))I with
(w) = l/w.
Theorem 2. For a given entire function c(w) and a given point z in the
disk IzI < 1, the maximum of either of the functionals
R (I (f' (z))) and I (D(f ' (z)) I
in the class T, is attained only by functions of the form

3 3
f (z) = l ns (z, tn), hn > 0, E hn = 1,

n=1 n-1
where to belongs to the interval - 1 < t < 1. A'e exclude from consideration the
case in which 4''(f'(z)) = 0.
The proof is analogous to that of Theorem 1.
THE SCIENTIFIC WORKS OF GENNADI! MIHAILOVIC GOLUZIN
(All in Russian)
1929 On certain inequalities dealing with functions executing a univalent con-

formal transformation of a disk, Mat. Sb. 36, 152-172.
1933 (with V. I. Krylov), A generalization of Carleman's formula and its applica-
tion to analytic continuation of functions, Mat. Sb. 40, 144-149.
1934 The solution of the fundamental plane problems of mathematical physics
for the case of Laplace's equation in multiply connected domains bounded
by circles (the method of functional equations), Mat. Sb. 41, 246-276.
1934a Solution of the three-dimensional Dirichlet problem for Laplace's equation
and for domains bounded by a finite number of spheres, Mat. Sb. 41, 277-283.
1935 On the theory of univalent conformal transformations, Mat. Sb. 42, 169-190.
1935a Solution of the plane problem of heat flow for multiply connected domains
bounded by circles in the case of an isolating layer, Mat. Sb. 42, 191-198.
1935b On the majorization principle in the theory of functions, Mat. Sb. 42, 647-650.
1936 On distortion theorems in the theory of conformal mappings, Mat. Sb. 1(43),
127-135.
1936a On the theory of con formal mappings, Mat. Sb. 1 (43), 273-282.
1936b On theorems of inverses in the theory of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 1
(43), 293-296.
1937 On distortion theorems for conformal mapping of multiply connected do-
mains, Mat. Sb. 2 (44), 37-64.
1937a Some covering theorems for functions that are regular in a disk, Mat. Sb.
2 (44), 617-619.
1937b Supplementary remarks to the article "On distortion theorems in the theory
of con formal mappings", Mat. Sb. 2 (44), 685-688.
1937c On con formal mapping of doubly connected domains bounded by rectilinear
and circular polygons in Con formal mapping of simply connected and mul-
tiply connected domains, ONTI, Moscow, pp. 90-97.
545
546 SCIENTIFIC WORKS OF GENNADIY MIHATLOVIC GOLUZIN
1937d Conformal mapping of multiply connected domains onto a plane with cuts
by the method of functional equations in Conformal mapping of simply
connected and multiply connected domains, ONTI, Moscow, pp. 98-110.
1938 Some bounds on the coefficients of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 3 (45),
321-330.
1938a On the continuity method in the theory of conformal mappings of multiply
connected domains, Mat. Sb. 4 (46), 3-8.
1939 Iterational processes for conformal mapping of multiply connected domains,
Mat. Sb. 6 (48), 377-382.
1939a On limiting values of Cauchy integral, Leningrad State Univ. Ann. Math.
Ser. 6, 43-47. MR 2, 181.
1939b On complete systems of functions in the complex domain, Leningrad State
Univ. Ann. Math. Ser. 6, 48-51. MR 2, 188.
1939c Zur Theorie der schlichten Funktionen, Mat. Sb. 6 (48), 383-388.
MR 1, 308.
1939d Interior problems of the theory of univalent functions, Uspehi Mat. Nauk 6,
26-89. MR 1, 49.
1940 Uber p-valente Funktionen, Mat. Sb. 8 (50), 277-284. MR 2, 185.
1943 Uber Koeffizienten der schlichten Funktionen, Mat. Sb. 12 (54), 40-47.
MR 5, 93.
1943a Zur Theorie der schlichten Funktionen, Mat. Sb. 12 (54), 48-55. MR 5, 93.
1943b On the theory of the airfoil in the two-dimensional flow, Mat. Sb. 12 (54),
146-151. MR 5, 21.
1945 Some estimations of derivatives of bounded functions, Mat. Sb. 16 (58),
295-306. MR 7, 202.
1946 On the theory of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 18 (60), 167-179. MR 7, 515.
1946a On the problem of Caratheodory-Fejer and similar problems, Mat. Sb. 18
(60), 213-226. MR 8, 22.
1946b On some properties of polynomials, Mat. Sb. 18 (60), 227-236. MR 8, 22.
1946c On the distortion theorems for "schlicht" conform representation, Mat. Sb.
18 (60), 379-390. MR 8, 574.
1946d On the number of finite asymptotic values of integral functions of finite
order, Mat. Sb. 18 (60), 391-396. MR 8, 23.
SCIENTIFIC WORKS OF GENNADII MIHArLOVIC GOLUZIN 547
1946e On distortion theorems and coefficients of univalent functions, Mat. Sb.

19 (61), 183-202. MR 8, 325.
1946f Method of variations in the theory of conform representation. I, Mat. Sb.
19 (61), 203-236. MR 8, 325.
1946g Estimates for analytic functions with bounded mean of the modulus, Trudy
Mat. Inst. Steklov., 18, 1-87. MR 8, 573.
1946h The method of variations in conformal mapping, Leningrad. Naucn. Bjull.
Univ. 9, 3-5.
1947 Method of variations in the theory of conform representation. II, Mat. Sb.
21 (63), 83-117. MR 9, 421.
1947a Method of variations in the theory of conform representation. III, Mat. Sb.
21 (63), 119-132. MR 9, 421.
1948 Some covering theorems in the theory of analytic functions, Mat. Sb. 22
(64), 353-372. MR 10, 241.
1948a On the coefficients of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 22 (64), 373-380.
MR 10, 186.
1948b On distortion theorems and the coefficients of univalent functions, Mat. Sb.
23 (65) 353-360. MR 10, 602.
1949 On analytic functions with bounded mean modulus, Leningrad. Gos. Univ.
Ucen. Zap. 111, 120-125.
1949a Variational derivation of a distortion theorem for univalent functions,
Leningrad. Gos. Univ. Ucen. Zap. 111, 126-134.
1949b Some inequalities for analytic functions, Izv. Akad. Nauk Kazah. SSR 60
Set. Mat. Meh. 3, 101-105. MR 13, 639.
1949c Some questions of the theory of univalent functions, Trudy Mat. Inst. Stek-
lov. 27. MR 13, 123.
1949d On mean values, Mat. Sb. 25 (67), 307-314; English transl., Amer. Math.
Soc. Transl. (1) 2 (1962), 275-283. MR 11, 339.
1950 Some estimates for bounded functions, Mat. Sb. 26 (68), 7-18. MR 11, 426.
1950a On typically real functions, Mat. Sb. 27 (69), 201-218. MR 12, 490.
1951 On the theory of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 28 (70), 351-358-
MR 13, 639.
1951a On the theory of univalent functions, Mat. Sb. 29 (71), 197-208.
MR 13, 223.
548 SCIENTIFIC WORKS OF GENNADIT MIHArLOVIC GOLUZIN
1951b On the majorants of subordinate analytic functions. I, Mat. Sb. 29 (71),

209-224. MR 13, 223.
1951c On subordinate univalent functions, Trudy Mat. Inst. Steklov. 38, 68-71.
MR 13, 733.
1951d Variational method in con formal mapping. IV, Mat. Sb. 29 (71), 455-468.
MR 13, 454.
1951e On the parametric representation of functions univalent in a ring, Mat. Sb.
29 (71), 469-476. MR 13, 930.
1951f On majorization of subordinate analytic functions. II, Mat. Sb. 29 (71),
593-602. MR 13, 454.
1951g On the problem of the coefficients of univalent functions, Dokl. Akad.
Nauk SSSR 81, 721-723. MR 13, 546.
1952 On a variational method in the theory of analytic functions, Leningrad.
Gos. Univ. Ucen. Zap. 144, Ser. Mat. Nauk 23, 85-101; English transl.,
Amer. Math. Soc. Transl. (2) 18 (1961), 1-14. MR 17, 1070;
MR 23 #A1803.
1952a Geometric theory of functions of a complex variable, GITTL, Moscow.
MR 15, 712.
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SUPPLEMENT
METHODS AND RESULTS

OF THE GEOMETRIC THEORY OF FUNCTIONS
Since the publication of the first edition of Goluzin's monograph, there have
been a large number of results in the geometric theory of functions by both Russian
and foreign authors. Many of these results are directly related to the content of
the present book and many of them have been obtained by applying Goluzin's
ideas. Because inclusion of these results in the main text of the book would re-
quire considerable change in the author's text, it seemed expedient instead to
supplement the present book with a separate survey of these results.
This survey is by no means exhaustive. Some of the methods that have been
developed at the present time and the results obtained by these methods could not
very well be included with sufficient completeness within the framework of a sup-
plement to the book. Furthermore, the direction of the scientific interests of the
authors is unavoidably reflected in the choice of material included in the supple-
ment.
§ 1 of this supplement was written by N. A. Lebedev, § 2 by G. V. Kuz'mina,
and §3 by Ju. E. Alenicyn.
Introduction
As a preliminary, we list certain classes of functions that will be frequently
encountered in what follows.
S the class of functions f (z) = z + c 2z 2 + that are regular and uni-
valent in the disk IzI < 1;
I the class of functions 4+ a0 + a1/4 + that are meromorphic
and univalent in the domain 141 > 1;
S") (k = 1, the class of functions f(z) E S that have an expansion of
the form
563
564 SUPPLEMENT
3:e the subclass of functions F(C) in I that do not vanish for ICI > 1;
1(k) (k = 1, 2, ) the class of functions in V that have an expansion of
the form F (C) = C+ ak-l/0-1 + a2k-l/y2k-1 + ... ;
SR the class of functions f (z) = z + c 2 z2 + E S with real coefficients
c2, c3'...;
S` the class of functions w = f (z) E S that map the disk IzI < 1 onto a do-
main that is starlike about the point w = 0;
S the class of functions f (z) E S that map the disk I zI < 1 onto a convex
domain;
the class of functions w = f E I that map the domain ICI > 1 onto
a domain whose complement is starlike about the point w = 0;
the class of functions in I that map the domain ICI > 1 onto a domain
with convex complement;
SM (M > 1) the lass of bounded functions f (z) E S: I f (z)I < M for IzI < 1;
1m (m > 0) the class of functions F(C) E I such that IF(C)I > m for 1;
S(1) the class of functions f (z) = az + a 2 z 2 + , where a > 0, that are
regular and univalent in the disk IzI < 1 and satisfy the inequality
I1(z) I < 1 for IzI < 1.
R the class of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1;
C the class of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and
satisfy the inequality R(f (z)) > 0 for IzI < 1;
T the class of functions f (z) = z + c2 z2 + that are regular in the disk
IzI < 1 and satisfy the inequality %f W)Nz) > 0 for IzI < 1;
R the class of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and that
satisfy the inequality f (z 1) f (z 2) 1 for arbitrary z 1 and z 2 in the
disk IzI < 1;
L the class of functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and that
satisfy the inequality f (z 1) f (z 2) -1 for arbitrary z 1 and z2 in that
disk;
L the subclasses of univalent functions in the classes R and L respec-
tively.
The classes of functions that are subclasses of several of these classes will
be denoted by the corresponding indexes. For example, S( ) is the class of
§1. BASIC METHODS 565
functions f (z) E S(k) f SM, and SR) is the class of functions f(z) E S(I) l SR.
Other notation will be explained when introduced.
§1. Basic methods of the geometric theory of functions

of a complex variable
10. The principle of areas. The principle of areas (area is nonnegative) was
used in its simplest form by Gronwall (cf. the area theorem in §4 of Chapter II).
By using the theorem on areas, Bieberbach proved the familiar theorems in the
`class S and I (cf. §4 of Chapter II). The principle of areas was used in a finer
fashion by Prawitz [1927] and Grunsky [1939]. Later, Goluzin (see Chapter XI, §6)
proved the theorem on areas for p-valent functions. In more general cases, the use
,of the principle of areas leads to the proof of a "generalized theorem on areas".
Furthermore, such a theorem is the starting part for obtaining inequalities of
various kinds. One of the first theorems of this nature was obtained by Lebedev
and Milin [1951]. Lebedev [1961] gave a generalization and strengthening of this
result, which we shall now briefly expound.
Let (oo, aI, , an) denote the class of all systems {fk(z)Jn of functions
w = fk(z), for k = 0, 1, , n, that map the disk Iz < 1 conformally and univa-
lently onto pairwise disjoint domains such that fo(0) = oo and fk(0) = ak, for
k= 1, n, where aI, aZ, , an are fixed points. We denote by Bk(r), for
It = 0, 1, , n, the image of the disk I z I < r, where 0 < r < 1, under the function
w = fk(k). We denote by B (r) the complement of the set U k = 0 Bk(r) with respect
to the extended w-plane. Suppose that a function Q(w) has a regular and single-
valued derivative in the domain B (r0), where 0 < ro < 1. The problem is to calcu-
late the area a (r), where ro < r < 1, of the image of the domain B (r) under the
function 6 = Q (w):
o(r)= I Q'(w)dw, (1)

B(r)
where dri is the element of area. Consider some single-valued branch of the func-
tion Q (w). Then, in the annulus r0 < I z I < 1 with appropriate cut, we have the
expansion
00 00
Q (f4 (z)) = b(k)z'F + P(k) log Z,

= P(k)zZ q + (2)
q-l q-0
in which only the coefficients 0" o and the branch of logz depend on the choice
566 SUPPLEMENT
of branch of the function Q W. If we compute o (r) and let r approach unity, we

obtain in the limit the following inequality (generalizing the theorem on areas):
n
k=0q1
CO
q I bgk' I9
n 00
< E Z q IP9k' 19 - 2 t
k=0q=I
n
Z p'k'(bok) -
k=0
art
k
J=0
p , (3)
in which the form of the summation with respect to j is associated with the par-
ticular choice of the branch of Q W. It is easy to give various necessary and
sufficient conditions for equality to hold in this conditional inequality. For n = 0,
we obtain the generalized theorem on areas presented by Lebedev and Milin [1951].
If F (C) belongs to E and if the function Q (w) is regular in the complement of
the image of the domain p0, where po> 1, under the function w = F(C),
then, by setting
CO CO
Q(F(C))= J, bn Cn + b0+ Y Pnr.n' 1 < <Pu,

n=1 n=1
we have
CO w
2] E gIPgI'- (4)
q=1 q=1
Inequality (3) is the starting point for obtaining various kinds of inequalities
(cf. Lebedev and Milin [1951] and Lebedev [1951, 1961]). Success depends on
suitable choice of the function Q(w). In applying this method, one does not al-
ways obtain sharp inequalities (in connection with this, one can apply Bunjakov-
skiPs inequality). However, this method sometimes makes it possible to obtain
certain inequalities even when other methods fail.
As an example of the illustration of the application of this method, let us
prove Theorem 3 of § 2 of Chapter IV. If we set Q (w) = Y. v=i yv log (w - F (c)),
we have
n
Q(F(Q)= , yV log
V=1
0 n
0) ( 1l
9Cv
q=1 q=1 v=1
and (4) takes the form
§1. BASIC METHODS 567
00 n
t t
q I bq Y,7v, log (5)
q-1 V. CyQ -1
The left-hand side member of inequality (8) of §2, Chapter IV, is equal to
cJ/' I' qI bq Lr q 117

00 n' n,
I
(6)
L1
q=1 v'=1
bq (C1,)q
q=1 q=1 v'=1
V,
9(tv,)q
By using the preceding inequality, we obtain inequality (8) of § 2, Chapter IV, and
the theorem is proved. One can find the conditions under which equality will hold
in (5).
All these generalized area theorems and the basic inequalities obtained from
them can be written in integral form, which is also very convenient for obtaining
a number of inequalities.( For example, inequality (4) can be written
SS ly'(z)Isda< SS
Izl<1 Izl<1
where da is the element of area and where 0(z) = k1 bkzk and bi(z) = fk=lJ3kz
We can consider the case of disjoint multiply connected domains. In this case,
series of the form (2) are not applicable, but we can use the theory of orthogonal
functions (over a domain) introduced by Carleman [1922] and Bochner [1922] (see
also Bergman [1950] and Meschkowski [1962]). The case of a single function and
a simply or multiply connected domain was considered by Milin [1964, 1964a, 1964b].
A generalized theorem on areas in integral form was obtained by Lebedev
[1966] in the case of disjoint multiply connected domains. (See also §3 of the
present supplement regarding theorems on areas for multiply connected domains.)
2°. The method of contour integration. This method is closely connected with
the principle of areas and it consists basically in examining a double integral over
the domain in question. Usually the integrand is nonnegative (in particular, the
square of the modulus of the derivative of some function that is regular in the do-
main in question). It is chosen in such a way that, in the contour integral obtained
by use of Green's formula, one of the factors in the integrand has values on the
contour of the region that are complex conjugates of the values of some other func-
tion and in such a way that the use of this relationship makes it possible to re-
place this integral with the integral of a meromorphic function and calculate it
with the aid of the residue theorem. By such a procedure, we obtain an inequality.
The success of the method depends on successful choice of the double integral.
568 SUPPLEMENT
The method of contour integration was first used to solve extremal problems
in the geometric theory of functions by Grunsky [1932]. In §4 of Chapter V, we
shall present some results of the work of Garabedian and Schiffer [1949], in which
this method is used systematically to obtain various identities in the theory of
conformal mapping of multiply connected domains. The method of contour integra-
tion has been applied by numerous authors, for example, Goluzin [1937, 1946,
1946e], Grunsky [1939], Bergman and Schiffer [1951], Meschkowski [1953], Nehari
[1953], Alenicyn [1956, 1961]. (With regard to certain results obtained in these
works, see §3 of this supplement.)
3°. The parametric method. This method consists in using Loewner's equation
(see §2 of Chapter III) to solve extremal problems in the theory of functions. Loew-
ner used his equation to obtain the inequality I c31 < 3 for the functions f (Z) =
Z + c 2 z 2 + c 3 z3 + C S. Peschl [1936] generalized Loewner's equation some-
what. In a number of articles, Goluzin [1936, 1937b, 1939c, 1946c, 1946e, 1949c,
1951, 1951a] used Loewner's equation and extended considerably the possibilities
of its application. Solutions of Loewner's equation have been studied in detail by
Kufarev [1946, 1947a, 1947b, 1947c, 1947d, 19481. Furthermore, Kufarev [1943,
1947] gave a generalization of that equation. We shall present the formulation of
one of his theorems without proof:
Suppose that a function p (w, t) is regular with respect to w in the disk
Iwj < 1 for every t in the interval 0 < t < oo, and measurable with respect to t in
that interval for every w in IwI < 1. Suppose also that p (0, t) = 1 and
R (p (w, t)) > 0 for IwI < 1, 0 < t < m. Then, the solution w = f (z, t), f (z, 0) = z
of the differential equation
W -wp(w, t), 0ct<oo,

dw
is a function that, for every t in the interval 0 < t < 00 is, as a function of z,
regular and univalent in Izj < 1 and f (0, t) = 0, f i(0, t) = e-' , If (z, t)1 < 1 for
Izi < 1, 0 < t < oo. Furthermore, the function
f(z)=1imetf(z, t)= z+c z'+c3z3+ ...
belongs to the class S.
The parametric method is constantly used in articles on the theory of univa-
lent functions (cf. Bazilevic [1951, 1951a, 1957], Kolbina [1952a], Lebedev
[1955a, 1955b], Slionskii [19591). It frequently leads to success in obtaining
§I. BASIC METHODS 569
explicit inequalities but, as a rule, it does not ensure description of the extremal
functions or complete information regarding their uniqueness. This method has
been extended to doubly connected domains. In this connection, see Komatu [1943],
Goluzin [1951e], Li En-pir [1953], Lebedev [1955c, 1955d], Kuvaev [1959a]. Fur-
thermore, Kuvaev and Kufarev [1955] have obtained a generalized equation of the
Loewner type for multiply connected domains. Kuvaev [1959] has obtained one for
automorphic functions. All these generalized equations are extremely complicated
and few specific results have been obtained from their use.
4°. Variational methods. We stop only for those variational methods that have
led to the solution of a number of extremal problems in the geometric theory of
functions. The first of these methods is the variational-geometric method of La-
vrent'ev [1934]. By this method, some remarkable results have been obtained in
applied questions (see, for example, Lavrent'ev and Sabat [1958, Chapter IV]).
Problems in geometric theory that were solved originally by this method can now
be solved quite easily by other variational methods.
The next variational method in order of discovery is that of Schiffer. In his
articles, he used both boundary [1938, 1938a] and interior variations [1943]. The
use of Schiffer's method in the solution of extremal problems leads to certain dif-
ferential equations for an extremal function, one for each extremal function. Later,
Goluzin [1946e, 1947, 1947a, 1951d] (see also Chapter III, §3), gave his variant
of the method of interior variations and obtained formulas for the varied function
under fewer assumptions. Beginning with these formulas, he arrived at the same
differential equations as Schiffer did, but by a simpler path. Goluzin's method
frequently leads to the final solution of various extremal problems in the geometric
theory of functions. However, in many cases, this method does not enable us to
carry the problem to its conclusion, and then it gives only a qualitative charac-
teristic of the extremal function and the domain onto which this function maps the
unit disk. Frequently, this domain is the entire plane with cuts along a finite num-
ber of analytic curves. To a considerable degree, this information removes the
difficulties involved in the use of Loewner's method. This suggests combining
the parametric and variational methods. An attempt to do so was made by Lebedev
[1951, 1951a]. Since he did not give the proofs in the article [1951], we shall ex-
pound certain ideas briefly here. If a function w = f (z) in the class S maps the
disk I z < 1 onto the plane with cuts along a finite number of Jordan curves, then
the function f (z) (see Chapter III, § 3) can be represented in the form f (z)
g (f (z, t), t), for 0 < t < oo, where f (z, t) is a solution of Loewner's equation
570 SUPPLEMENT
(cf. (18), p. 96) with some function k (t), for 0 < t < oc. Let t/1(t) and ri2(t) denote
arbitrary functions that are continuous for 0 < t < oc except at a finite number of
points of discontinuity of the first kind and suppose that they satisfy the condi-
tions ITj 1(t) etl < b1 and I712(t)I < M for 0 < t < oo, where M > 0. Then, for suffi-
ciently small real A, the solution w = f (z, t, A), f (z, 0, A) = z of the equation
dw 1 + k (t) ea"19 U) w
dt --(1 + 1`'q1 (t)) w 1- k (t) eiA (1) w, 0 t < 00,
is, for every t in the interval 0 < t < oc, a regular and univalent function of z in
the disk Izl < 1 and satisfies the conditions
t
-1-AJ*li(z)di
f(0, t)=0, fZ(0, t)=e °
Relying on this fact, we obtain the varied function f*(z) E S:

CO
f* (z) =f (z) + A 5 [L (z, t) lit (t) - IN(z, t) 71s (t)] dt -+ X2R (z, t), (1)
0
where
t)1+ k (t) f (z, t)

L (z, t) =f (z) - f (z) f,f (z,
(z, t) 1- k (t) f (z, t)
2k
N(z, t)=f'(z) f ((ztt) ( 1 k((t) ( (z, tt))'
and R (z, t) is a function that is uniformly bounded with respect to t inside the
disk Izl < 1. By a suitable choice of T11(t) and rt2(t) in (1), we obtain the varied
function f*(z) E S:
X m
f* (z) =f (z) + X Ak P (x, zk) - k E AkQI (z, zk, t)
k=l k=1
M
- Jl E A kQs (z, Zk, t) + X9R* (z, t), (2)
k-1
where the Ak are arbitrary complex numbers, the zk are points in the disk
Izl < 1, R*(z, t) is a function that is uniformly bounded with respect to t inside
the disk Izl < 1, and
§ 1. BASIC METHODS 571
I
zkf
P (z, zk) = (?k)
f (zk) ) f (z)2f-f(Z)s
(zk) '
f f (z, 0 f (zk, t-f (z, t
Q1 (z, zk, t) = ( zff (zk,
Z (zk, t\ ( (z) (z)
t) fz (z, t) f (zk, t) --f (z, t)
f (z, t) +f (zk, t) f (z, t) l
Qs (z, zk, t) = (Zf Z (zk, t) (f (z) -.f' (z)
f (zk, t) fz (z, t) 1 -f (zk, t) f (z, t) Jf
If we set t = 0 in formula (2), we obtain a formula that differs only insignificantly
from Goluzin's formula (24), of §3, Chapter III. If we apply it to a function
f (z) E S that is extremal in some problem, we obtain a differential equation for
f (z) that contains the parameter t. We also obtain differential equations for
f (z, t) and g (z, t), for the boundary of the image of the disk under the function
w = f (z), and for the function k (t) in Loewner's equation. By this procedure,
Lebedev [1951, 1951a] obtained only certain qualitative results for extremal func-
tions in the problem of coefficients for functions in the class S.
With greater success, Kufarev [1951, 1954, 1956b] (see also [1963]) combined
Goluzin's variational method and Loewner's method of parametric representation.
The variational-parametric method constructed by Kufarev for solution of extremal
problems also leads to a differential equation for the function g (z, t) (and conse-
quently for f (z) and f (z, t)). Furthermore, by using this equation and Loewner's
equation, we reduce the problem of finding the function k (t) in Loewner's equa-
tion to that of solving a boundary problem for a system of differential equations.
If from this system we succeed in finding the function k (t), then integration of
Loewner's equation reduces to determining the extremal function and the solution
of the extremal problem. By means of Kufarev's variational-parametric method,
mathematicians of the Tomsk school have solved many difficult extremal problems
in the geometric theory of functions (for some of these see §2 of this supplement).
Goluzin's variational method has been extended to multiply connected do-
mains (see Kufarev and Semuhina [1956], Aleksandrov [1963a], Gel'fer [19621)
and to multivalent functions (see Gel'fer [1954, 1956], and Goodman [1958, 1958a,
1958b, 1958c]). It is easy to obtain variational formulas of the type of Goluzin's
formulas for classes of functions that can be represented by means of a Stieltjes
integral (convex, starlike, typically real, etc.). However, it seems more conven-
ient to us in such cases to use other methods, in particular, other variational for-
mulas. We shall speak of such methods in subsection 8°.
572 SUPPLEMENT
5°. The method of extremal metrics. These methods rest on inequalities be-
tween the lengths of curves belonging to a family and the areas of the domains
filled by them. Grotzsch [19281 was the first to use this method as a method in the
theory of univalent functions and he called it the "method of strips". His method
is expounded in Chapter IV, §6. By means of it, Grotzsch solved numerous prob-
lems for both simply connected and multiply connected domains. Many of these
can now be solved more easily by other methods, in particular, by the method of
contour integration. The method of strips was perfected by Ahlfors [19301. He
proved a very important inequality, known as the principle of length and area. We
shall give a formulation of this result.
Let f (z) denote a function that is regular in a domain B and let n (w) denote
the number of roots of the equation f(z) = w that lie in B. Define
ZR
n(pe10)dg, p>0.
p(P)= 2w J
0
Let l (p) denote the total length of the level curves if (z)I = p in B and let a de-
note the area of B. Then
00
(P)' dP < 27ta.
P P (P)
b
The reader can find a proof of this result, certain of its applications, and a
suitable bibliography in the book by Hayman [19581.
In 1946, Ahlfors and Beurling gave a new formulation of the method of extremal
metrics and this formulation later enabled Jenkins [19581 to give a further develop-
ment of this method. The name "method of extremal metrics" is connected with
the fact that special metrics are introduced in certain of the studies in a domain
filled by a family of curves.
6°. The method of quadratic differentials. The significant role of quadratic
differentials in the solution of extremal problems was already disclosed in the
familiar investigations of Grotzsch (see subsection 5°). In particular, in his theo-
rems on the existence of conformal mappings of multiply connected domains onto
canonical domains, the latter are determined in a number of cases by the trajec-
tories of a quadratic differential. The role of quadratic differentials also showed
up in the solution of extremal problems by the variational method. As we know,
the method of interior variations usually leads to a differential equation for ex-
tremal functions and for the boundaries of the corresponding extremal domains.
§1. BASIC DOMAINS 573
Here, these equations are expressed by means of suitable quadratic differentials,

and, to investigate the problems of integrating these equations, we need in a num-
ber of cases to have a qualitative picture of the trajectories corresponding to these
quadratic differentials.
This aroused interest in the behavior, local and global, of the trajectories of
a quadratic differential. The first systematic investigations in this direction were
the works of Schaeffer and Spencer [1950], Jenkins [1954a], and Jenkins and Spen-
cer [1951]. Furthermore, the theory of the trajectories of quadratic differentials on
a finite oriented Riemann surface was developed by Jenkins [1958, 1960c]. In par-
ticular, he obtained a very general "fundamental structural theorem " [1958,
Chapter III].
The fundamental result of the method of quadratic differentials is Jenkins's
"general theorem on coefficients" [1958, 1960a, 1963a]. This theorem deals with
a set of univalent functions f1(z) that are regular or meromorphic in disjoint sub-
domains Al of a Riemann surface R and that map these domains into disjoint
subdomains of R. It is assumed that the domains Al are bounded by the trajec-
tories of the quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 on R. 1) Under these conditions, one
can establish an inequality containing the coefficients in the expansions of the
functions f 1 (z) and Q (z) in neighborhoods of each pole of Q (z) of order m > 2.
If Q (z) has in a neighborhood of z = o- (we use a local parameter that maps the
pole into the point z = ea) and expansion Q(z) = a/z2 + terms of higher degree in
z-1 (that is, a second-order pole of the quadratic differential), then an admissible
function f1(z) must have an expansion f1(z) = az + ao + a1/z + terms of higher de-
gree in z-1 . If Q (z) has in a neighborhood of z = oc an expansion Q(z) = az n 4 +
terms of lower degree in z, where m > 3, an admissible function f1(z) must satisfy
the condition f1(z) = z + az-k + terms of higher degree in z-1 , where k > %m - 2
(Jenkins [1960a]). Jenkins's theorem on coefficients was supplemented by Tamra-
zov [1965c] for the case in which the differential Q(z) dz2 does not have poles of
order higher than 1.
This very general theorem enables us to obtain systematically many familiar
results in the geometric theory of functions: with it, one can easily prove the dis-
tortion theorems for functions that are univalent in the interior or exterior of the
1) With regard to the definitions in this subsection, see the monograph by Jenkins
[1958].
574 SUPPLEMENT
unit circle, one can study sets of values of these functions and their derivatives,
one can obtain a number of results regarding univalent functions without common
values, and one can prove existence theorems for mappings of multiply connected
domains onto canonical domains. With the aid of the "general theorem on coeffi-
cients", Jenkins posed and solved a number of difficult extremal problems. (With
regard to some of these results, see §2 of this supplement.)
7°. The method of symmetrization. At the present time, we know several
methods of symmetrization. We pause briefly for circular symmetrization proposed
by P6lya. For a simply connected domain B containing the point z = 0, one can
easily prove that there exists a unique simply connected domain B. with the fol-
lowing property: if a circle I z I = r, where 0 < r < no, intersects the domain B
along arcs whose lengths add up to l (r), where 0 < l (r) < 277 r, then this circle in-
tersects the domain B,, along a single arc of length 1(r) with center at the point
z = -r. The domain B. is symmetric about the real axis. If w = f(z) and w =
f.(z), where f (0) = f,(0) = 0, are respectively functions that map B and B* uni-
valently and conformally onto the disk Iwi < 1, then
If (Z) I I f* (Z) I s
z E B.
1-If(Z)I' 1-If*(Z)I
There are other inequalities connecting certain quantities for B and B. The
method of symmetrization rests on an inequality of this sort. It is expounded rather
completely in the books by Hayman [1958] and Jenkins [1958].
We note that this method, especially in combination with the method of ex-
tremal metrics, made it possible to solve a number of extremal problems that had
not been solvable by other methods (see §2 of this supplement). A generalization
of the method of symmetrization to multiply connected domains has been given by
Mitjuk [1964a] (see §3, subsection 2° of the supplement).
8°. The method of integral representations. The solution of extremal problems
is simplified in the classes of functions that have an integral parametric represen-
tation. We shall consider classes A of functions that have a representation by
means of a Stieltjes integral
b
f (z) = S g (z, t) dR (t), (1)

a
where [a, b] is a finite interval, where g (z, t) is a fixed function that is regular
with respect to z in some domain B for a < t < b and continuous with respect to
§1. BASIC DOMAINS 575
t in that interval for every z E B (the kernel of the class), and where 1t(t) is a
function that is nondecreasing on the interval [a, b] and that satisfies the condi-
tion 1t(b) - p(a) = 1 (the parameter of the class). In what follows, we shall de-
note the set of such functions p (t) by M [a, b].
For example, the class C of functions f (z) such that f (o) = 1 is represented
by the formula
it
f(z) = S 1 z dp (t), 1, (t) E M [- it, it]. (2)
The class of typically real functions f (z) (the class T) is represented by the
formula (see Chapter XI, §9)
cx
f (z) 1- 2z cos t zs d[., (t), R (t) E M [- it, it]. (3)
In the solution of extremal problems and problems on finding the domains of

the values of the functionals and systems of functionals in the class of functions
that can be represented by means of a Stieltjes integral, we sometimes find the
following theorems) useful.
Suppose that the set 2 of points (x1, .. , x n ) in n-dimensional Euclidean
space Rn is represented by the formulas
b
xk= gk(t)dt',(t), k-1, 2,..., n, (4)

a
where the gk(t) are fixed functions that are continuous on the interval [a, b] and
iz(t) is a function in the class M [a, b] (these functions being, in general, different
for different points of R). Then R is the closed convex envelope of the set of
points
xk=gk(t), k=1, 2,..., n, ar tcb,
and every point in R can be represented by formulas (4), where p(t) is a piece-
wise-constant function in M [a, b] with no more than n points of discontinuity.
This theorem and special cases of it have been repeatedly used by various
authors (sometimes, unfortunately, without reference to Caratheodory).
I) This theorem follows easily from the results of Carathe'odory [1911] (see also F.
Riesz [1911]).
576 SUPPLEMENT
Caratheodory's theorem cannot by any means be applied to all extremal prob-

lems in the class of functions that is represented by formulas (1). In such cases,
two variational formulas proposed by Goluzin (formulas (7) and (8) on p. 528) are
very useful. It is possible to give other analogous variational formulas in the
class A (see, for example, Zmorovic [1952]), and from one of these formulas we
can obtain variational formulas of the type of Goluzin's formulas in the class S
(see Chapter III, §3). Goluzin's formulas and Zmorovic's formulas usually lead
immediately to the fact that the extremal function is of the form
m M
f (Z) = }J Akgk (z, t), Ak ,:- 0, E Ak = 1, (5)

k=1
where the tk are points in [a, b], and they indicate the value of m.
We give yet another variational formula in the class A. Let f (z) denote a
member of A. Since g (z, r) E A for every r in a < r < b, the function
f,x (z) = (1 - A) f (z) + Ag (z, r), 0 < A < 1,
also belongs to this class and we have the following variational formula in the
class A:
b
f* (z) =f (z) + A (g (z, t) - f (z) =f (z) + X S [ga (z, ti) - g (z, t)] dµ (t),
O<A<1, a t b.
(6)
This formula, like Goluzin's formulas, usually leads immediately to the fact that
the extremal function is of the form (5).
In many cases, the class of functions can be represented with the aid of a
Stieltjes integral. For example, the class S" of functions that are starlike in the
disk I zj < 1 is represented by the formula
-2 f log (1 - e11z) dP (1)

f (z) = ze
-' , w (t) E M iv].
Naturally, the use of Goluzin's variational formulas or formula (6) does not pre-
sent any difficulty in such cases.
9°. Many different results can be obtained by combining various methods. We
spoke in subsection 4° about a combination of the variational and parametric
methods (the variational-parametric method of Kufarev). Jenkins used successfully
§2. UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS IN DISK AND ANNULUS 577
a combination of the method of extremal metrics with the variational method and
the method of symmetrization. With regard to the methods of the geometric theory
of functions, see also Kufarev [1956a, 19581 and Jenkins [1958, Introduction].
§2. Univalent functions in a disk and in an annulus

1°. Ranges of values of various functionals and systems of functionals and
inequalities involving them. A significant role in the investigations in the geo-
metric theory of functions in recent years is played by the results dealing with
problems of obtaining bounds for different functionals characterizing the geometric
properties of functions in the class S and other classes and also the more general
problem of determining the ranges of values of these functionals and systems of
functionals. It is primarily with such results that the study of functionals directly
characterizing the distortion of the preimage deals.
Goluzin's theorem on the distortion of chords (see Chapter IV, § 2), which
has found numerous applications, has been strengthened by Bazilevic` [1951a] to
the case of the class £m by use of Loewner's parametric representation: for arbi-
trary e I and C 2 in the domain ISI>1,
2
1
2 m
Tt
H 1 I Cj I' r F (C,) - F (Cs) TT
LI_
1 I F (Cj) l9 (1)
/I ]
9 C Cs
j= I 1- I C1
I F(C/) I' I'
for F(C) E 1m. Equality can hold in the first of these conditional inequalities for
all ISII=IC2I>1 but it can hold for the second only when C 1 = C 2'
By the same method, Bazilevic [1951] obtained, for all S I and C2 in the do-
main ICI > 1, a bound for the functional
C1- C2
F (C1) -f- F (C2)
log F(C1)-F(C9) C 7R C2
in the class £m21 . From it, we obtain the sharp inequalities
11 l+ IF(Cj)I IC j_ F (Cl)+F(Cs) C1-C_

F(C1)-F(C9) C1H-Ca
1 IF(Cj)I l+ICjl
1
1J-
I F (Cj) I I Cj l
m 1
1+ IF( j) 1 IC-l
578 SUPPLEMENT
By using the generalized area theorem, Milin (see Lebedev and Milin [1951])
established the following sharp inequalities for F (C) E y( 2), for arbitrary p and
q and for arbitrary C1 and C2 on the circle 1/r> 1:
(1-r2)2(IP+qI+IP-ql)
_ F(C1)-F(C9)IP
IC,-C2 P
(1 +rp) a (IP+qI-LP-q1)
2 (IP+qI-IP-qI)
X I C1+C2 Iq
C (1+r') I
F(CC)+F(Ca) Iq (IP+qI+IP-ql)
_2
r2)
In this particular case these results have a simple geometrical interpretation

and they have led to a number of covering theorems for the classes S and S.
(see §2, subsection 2° of this supplement).
General inequalities of the type of the distortion theorems, which constitute
an application of formulas (2) on p. 118, have been obtained by Kolbina [1952a].
In particular, a generalization has been obtained of Theorems 3 and 4 of § 2, Chap-
ter IV.
Nehari [1953] was the first to use systematically in the theory of univalent
functions a method based on the classical minimal property of the Dirichlet inte-
gral for a harmonic function obtained by finding its singularities. His technique
has led to a number of new results in this category of questions. We present one
of his theorems.
Let f(z) denote a function that is regular and univalent in the disk Izj < 1
and satisfies the inequality If W1 < 1 in that disk. Let z1, z2,..., zn denote
points in zI < 1 and let all a2,..., an denote complex constants such that
Then
n n
log 1 if (za)Z (z.
µ .v=1
avaµ logf (zz)
-fµ
(zµ)
1 -< 1
µ.v=1 v
(2)
Using this inequality, Nehari obtained, for the coefficients in the expansion
of a function f (z) = a0 + a1z + a2 z2 + that is regular in a neighborhood of the
point, a necessary and sufficient condition for f (2) to be regular, univalent and
bounded in modulus by unity in the disk IZ < 1.
Together with the class of functions that we have considered above, let us
also consider the class S. By letting M approach oo, we obtain the corresponding
results for univalent functions without the boundedness condition. In particular,

we obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for a function to belong to the
class S, one that is equivalent to Grunsky's univalence condition 119391 for mero-
morphic functions.
By means of Loewner's method of parametric representation, Slionskii [19591
obtained in 1956 results for bounded univalent functions that are directly connected
with a number of theorems in §2 of Chapter IV. Thus, Slionskii obtained a neces-
sary and sufficient condition for a function to belong to the class Im. These re-
sults also include a strengthening of Goluzin's Theorem 1 of §2, Chapter IV for
the case of the class Y,m. In particular, inequality (1) follows. Suppose also
(D (x, Y) log f(X)_y (y)

f(X)f(y)'
1 f (X) f (y)
(x,y)=log -2 , Ixl<1, lyl<l.
Let f (z) denote a function in SM. For arbitrary complex numbers y and y
and arbitrary zv and zv, in the disk I zI < 1 (where v= 1, , n; v =
1,
n n'
ZZ
v-l v,=1
xkyk
I v l v, (D(2k) (z,) zv,)
n n'
{ yy y1 vy1 v }1/9,
(3)
1v1v 1 (zky )k (zv, 2v,) z2ky)k (zv,, 2'j
V. v,-l V. v,_ I
for k=0, 1, 2, .
Then, by using the familiar relationship between functions in the classes S.

and 1m, where m = 1/M, Slionskii obtained for F (C) E 1m bounds for
n' F(C)
nn
I 1 7v7" log
Iv=lv'=1
for arbitrary complex numbers yv and y',,,, and arbitrary Cv and cv, in the do-
main ICI > 1. This result strengthens Theorem 3 of §2, Chapter IV.
Another consequence of inequality (3) for functions f (z) E SM is the inequality
/f' (zi) -f' (z2) 1
C{ 1 If' (Z2) J2/M2
I lJ (zl) -f (Z2))2 (z1 -Z2)$ I
(1 - I Zl 12)' (1 - I f (Z2) 12/M2)2
l 1/2
X 1 - If' (zl) I2/M2
(1 - I z2 12)2 (1 - If (zl) I2/M2)2 T
580 SUPPLEMENT
If we now set zl = z2, we obtain the well-known inequality (Alenicyn [19561)
If, z}I (M11 f(z) I9)2 (4)
where if, z } is Schwarz's invariant. On the one hand, inequality (4) gives a bound
for Schwarz's invariant in the case of bounded univalent functions; on the other
hand, it sharpens for such functions the well-known inequality of the hyper-
bolic metric. Inequality (4) can also be obtained in an elementary way (see Lebe-
dev [1961]) from the well-known inequality of Nehari [1949] for the absolute value
of Schwarz's invariant in the class S:
We note that if a function ((z) that is regular in the disk I z I < 1 and satis-
fies the inequality
I{f,Z
in that disk, it is univalent in it (Nehari [1949]). Here, the constant 2 cannot be

replaced with a smaller one (see Hille [1949]). Pokornyt [1951] has obtained a
generalization of this result of Nehari.
A number of sharpenings of the familiar distortion theorems for the class S
and also for a broader class of functions have been obtained by means of the
method of symmetrization. We shall give some of these results below.
The solution of extremal problems in the form of the obtaining of certain
bounds on functionals is a special case of the more general problem of determin-
ing the ranges of values of the corresponding functionals and systems of func-
tionals in a given class: If we find the range of values of a given functional or
system of functionals, from it we can obtain various inequalities.
A considerable amount of study has been devoted to the obtaining of results
in this more general posing of the problem.
Grad [1950] has found the range of values of logf'(z) (where z is a fixed
number in the disk IzI < 1) in the class S by the variational method. The boundary
functions of this range are determined by a differential equation depending on a
single real parameter and can be expressed in terms of elementary functions.
By using Goluzin's variational method and certain other considerations, Le-
bedev [1955] solved the more general problem of determining the range of values
§2. UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS IN DISK ANNULUS 581
_A/f
D of the functional J = log (zk f'(z)1 (z)A) (where A is a given real number)
defined on the class S. He obtained a differential equation for functions f (z) E S
corresponding to nonsingular boundary points Jo of the domain D, that is, points
for which there exists an a f- D such that IJ - al, where J E D, attains its mini-
mum with J = Jo. The set of nonsingular points is everywhere dense on the bound-
ary of D. This equation contains a parameter that is a root of a sixth-degree alge-
braic equation. As a special case, we obtain the complete solution of the problem
_A/f
of the maximum and minimum of $2 (J) = log I zA f '(z)1 (Z)AI.
By using and developing further Loewner's method of parametric representa-
tion, Lebedev [ 1955a] determined the range of values of the system I a, log (f (z)/M
in the class S(1) of functions f (C) = at + a 2 t 2
+ ... that are regular, univalent,
and bounded in modulus by unity in the disk ICI < 1 and also the range of values
of the functionals log (zf '(z)/f (z)), log (az 2 f'(z)/f 2 (z)) and log a f '(z) in the
class S(1) (If (z)J] of functions in S(1) with given value of I f (z)j . In this last
problem, the range of values is not determined directly by an inequality obtained
from Loewner's equation but is found as the convex envelope of a portion of the
boundary of that set. In all cases, the boundary functions are found; here Loew-
ner's equation plays an essential role.
A number of results in the problem of determining the ranges of values of
functionals have been obtained with the aid of Kufarev's variational-parametric
method. Thus, Aleksandrov [1958] has found the range of values of the functional
_A/f
log (zA f'(z) I (z)A I f (z)I µ) (where A and p, are arbitrary real numbers and z is
a fixed complex number in the disk I z I < 1) on the class S(k), where k = 1, 2, .
Red'kov [1960, 1962, 1962a] solved an analogous problem for the class S(1) (a)
of functions in S(1) with fixed a in the interval 0 < a < 1 and he found the
_A
ranges of values of the functional log (zA f '(z)1 f '(0)"/f (z)A I f (z)I''') (where A,
p., and v are real numbers) on the classes S(1)[I f (z)I] and S(I). Furthermore,
Aleksandrov [1963] considered the problem of determining the range of values of
the functional I (f (z), f (z), f'(z), f'(z)) on the class S(k), where
J (w1, w2, w3, w4) = J (xI + iyl, , x4 + iy4) has continuous first and second
partial derivatives of their arguments xk, yk' for k = 1, 2, 3, 4, and he determined
conditions from which we can find boundary functions of this range of values.
Red'kov [1963] considered the problem of finding the range of values of the func-
tional J (f (z), f (z), f'(z), f'(z), f '(0)) on the class S(1)[I f (z)I]. Aleksandrov [1963c]
studied the properties of boundary functions of the ranges of values of weakly
582 SUPPLEMENT
differentiable functionals defined on the class S(z0) of functions f(z) that are
regular and univalent in the disk lzl < 1 and satisfy the conditions f (0) = 0,
f (z0) = z0, where z0 is a fixed number in the disk Iz0l < 1. As an application,
we determine the ranges of values of the functional JIf"(z)/f'(z), f(z)/f'(z)},
defined on that class and thus on the class of all functions f (z) that are regular
and univalent on the disk l z l < 1 and also of the functional J (f (z), f (z), f'(z), f '(z))
on the class S(z0) by indicating the method of finding the arguments of the func-
tions J (t 1, t 2) and Ay 1, t 2, t 3, t4) corresponding to nonsingular boundary points
of the ranges of values in question. The logical conclusion of these investiga-
tions is a consideration of infinite systems of weakly differentiable functionals.
Theorems of a general nature dealing with boundary functions of the ranges of
values of such systems defined on the classes S and 10 are established in Alek-
sandrov's article [19651.
As an example of the use of Jenkins's general theorem on coefficients, we
point out that he obtained [1960] the most definitive results in the problem of the
range of values of the functional f (z) for fixed z = re `0 in the disk I Z I < 1 on
the class SR. Suppose that f(z) = pe"o. He established, and one can easily show
from a well-known result of Rogosinski [1932], that, for arbitrary fixed t/, such
that arg(re`9/(1 + re' 19)2) <Vi < arg(re`B/(1 - rei0)2), the greatest value of p is
obtained only by the function h (z, r, 0, z/(1 + 2tz + z 2), where t E
is found from the condition arg h (rer, 0, Eli) _ Eli. With regard to a lower bound
for p, for arbitrary Vi in the interval indicated, the extremal function of this in-
equality is determined by the same investigating procedure in the terms of geome-
try and the theory of quadratic differentials, which theoretically solves the prob-
lem in question.
Using Goluzin's method of variations, Ulina [1960] studied the range of values
of the system Ilog(f (z)/z), log f'(z)} on the class S for fixed z in lzl < 1, and
she obtained a system of equations characterizing the boundary of that set. Using
Loewner's method of parametric representation, Popov [1965] obtained the com-
plete solution of this problem in a somewhat modified posing; specifically, he de-
termined the range D of values of the system of functionals
Jlog f (z)
1 z
arg f (z) , log f
zf'((z)
I' arg zf'(()1
defined on the class S. The set D is closed, bounded, convex and symmetric in
the sense that if it contains a point (X + t', Y, U, V), where 0 =-log(1- zl2),
it also contains the points (X + t,, - Y, U, -V) and (U + tk, V, X, Y). On the
boundary IF of the set D, there are four points, namely, the points
(1+1212,
(log 1-IzI ' 0)l
0 log 1+121
and
(0,-2arc sin Iz1, -log l-l1z12, 2arc sin IzI}

and the points symmetric to these through each of which there passes a definite
one-parameter family of support hyperplanes of the set D. Furthermore, F con-
tains a two-parameter family of rectilinear segments. The support hyperplanes of
the set D at the remaining points of F are tangent to F and they have no other
points in common with F. For every point of F a specific procedure is shown for
constructing one of the functions in the class S that map this point into D.
In recent years, a number of investigations of both Russian and foreign
authors have been devoted to the finding of bounds for various functionals in
problems dealing with disjoint domains. Many extremal problems for basic classes
of analytic functions reduce to these problems.
Let us turn first to the problem of conformal radii of disjoint domains. Golu-
zin, using his variational method, considered the following problem: Find the
maximum of the functional lIv If' (O)l out of all possible systems of functions
fv(z) that are regular and univalent in the disk IzI < 1, that map it onto disjoint
domains, and that satisfy the condition f,,(0) = av, where the av (for
v = 1, 2, , n) are arbitrary given distinct finite points. For n = 2, the solution
of this problem is the familiar result of Lavrent'ev [19341. For n = 3, Goluzin

also found the complete solution of the problem (see §4, Chapter IV).
Applying Goluzin's variational method, Kolbina [1952, 19551 obtained a sharp
inequality for the products Ilv_ If, (0)I av and II3V =1 I f ; (0)I av for arbitrary given
positive numbers av.
With regard to the problem of the maximum of the product IIv_1 If, (0)Iav in
the case of arbitrary n > 2, Alenicyn [19561 obtained the following result in this
direction by extending the corresponding results of Nehari:
If the functions Q z), for v = 1, 2, , n, map the disk I zI < 1 univalently
onto disjoint domains and if z = 0 is a regular point of these functions, then, for
arbitrary real constants av 0 such that Iv=1 av = 0 we have the inequality
584 SUPPLEMENT
11 I f v (0)
v=1
Ia" < [ 1z.Ei k<v::E n
fk (0) -J v (0) I-9akav (5)
Equality holds here if and only if there are distinct numbers ¢k, k = 1, 2, , n,
and a positive number p such that the curve
n
1-1 Iw-aklak=P (6)
k-1
partitions the w-plane into n simply connected domains. Extremal systems of
functions are constituted only by the solutions wu = f ,(z) of the equations
1 n 1
(wv-ak)ak)av
z=Evp av(wv - av) J1
k=1
k #v
wv (0) = av, I E I = 1 (v = 1, 2, ..., n),
corresponding to the curves (6) that partition the plane into n simply connected
domains. These solutions map the disk IzI < 1 univalently onto the domains in-
dicated.
In the simplest case of n = 2, Lebedev [1955b] posed and solved a more gen-
eral problem. Specifically, let B denote a simply connected domain containing
given distinct points a1 and a2. If ak oo, for k = 1, 2, let w = fk(z) denote a
function that satisfies the condition fk(0) = ak and that maps the disk Izi < 1
univalently and conformally onto a domain Bk contained in B. If a 2 = oo, let
fzW denote a function satisfying the condition 12(00) = oc that maps the domain
ICI > 1 onto a domain B2 contained in B. The domains B1 and B2 are disjoint.
Let B (all a denote the set of points M (x I. x),
1' z 2 where xk = 11'k (0)I if ak
and x2 = if' 2(.)' if a2 = .
Lebedev [1955b] obtained the result that, in the case in which B is the en-
tire plane (including w = Dc), the set &B (0, oo) is the domain 0 < x1 X 2 < 1,
x1 > 0, with x1x2 = 1 only when f 1(c) = tc', for ICI < 1, and (2(C) = c/t, for
ICI > 1 and 0< t < oa, and the set &B (a1, a2) is the domain 0 < x1x2 < Ia1-a2I2,
x1 > 0 with x1x2 = Ia1 - a2I2 only when f1(C) = (a1k1 - a2c)/(k1 - C), (2(C) _
(a1k2 - a2c)/(k2 - c), and Ik1k21 = 1. Furthermore, by applying Goluzin's varia-
tional method, Lebedev determined the region &B (a1, a2) for cases when B is
the plane with the point oo excluded and when B is the disk Iwi < R. As a con-
sequence of these theorems, one can again obtain the results of Lavrent'ev [1934]
and Kolbina [1952] (here B is the unextended plane) and those of Kufarev and
Fales [1951] (here, B is a disk).
§2. UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS IN DISK ANNULUS 585
Let Ro denote the set of all functions f (z) that are meromorphic and univa-
lent in the disk I zI < 1 and satisfy the condition 1(0) = 0. Let R.. denote the set
of all functions F(C) that are meromorphic and univalent in the domain ICI > 1
and satisfy the condition F (oc) = cc. Let 2 denote the set of ordered pairs
(A(z), F(c )) such that f(z) / F(c) for every z in Izl < 1 and every c in ICI > 1.
For the class 9, Alenicyn [1956a] used Nehari's method to obtain the following
inequality for arbitrary z in I z I < 1, arbitrary c in J CJ > 1, and arbitrary con-
stants a1 and a2:
{al log Z'f (!) f (0) + 2a1; log (1 - f (Z) + log F' (C)
f (z) 1 F (t)/ F' (oo)l
Iall2log(1-Izl')- I%1glog(1 -Itll,).
(The values of the logarithms on the left-hand side are taken on suitable branches.)
This result leads to inequalities involving various functionals both in the
class of functions mentioned and for univalent mappings. In particular, Alenicyn
obtained [1958] the following inequalities, which do not involve the derivatives
of the functions in question:
Let f1(z) and f2(z) denote two functions that are meromorphic and have no
common values in the disk I z I < 1. Suppose that fl(0) = 0 and (2(0) _ c. Then,
for arbitrary points zI, z2 in the disk I z I < 1,
log(1 A(ZO) '-2log(1-IztI)(1--Iz9I9),

H(a - I ztz2 I/l"(1- I zj I') (l - I z2 I')
These inequalities are sharp for arbitrary z1 and z2 such that Iz1l = lz21 = 1
with equality holding only in the case of univalent functions.
These results lead immediately to a number of sharp inequalities for functions
in the classes R and L and functions associated with them (see Alenicyn [1956a,
1958]). For other results in this direction, in particular their extension to a cir-
cular annulus, see §3, subsection 20 of this supplement.
The same functional 11(zl)/f2(z2) in the class of functions indicated was
studied by Lebedev [1957] by means of the variational method: for the class R,
he found in explicit form the boundary of the range of the functional 6=
f (zo)/F (Co) or, equivalently, of the functional 6= f (r)/F (p), where r = Iz0I and
p = I Col. The pairs of functions corresponding to given boundary points of this
range can be determined from the differential equations that we have obtained for
586 SUPPLEMENT
them. As a consequence, sharp bounds have been obtained for If (r)/F (p)I and
I log (1 - f (r)/F (p)) 1, the radii of disks that prove to be the ranges of values of
f'(0)/F(p) and f (r)/F'(oo), the range of values of the system (I f (r)I, 1/IF(p)I) in
the class I, and also the range of values of the function f W in the class R.
The range of values of the system (If "(°)/f '(0)I, I f '(0)/F'(00)I) in the class
R was determined by Ulina [1960). This led to the solution of the problem of
maximizing the functional 'I = I f ,1(0)/f ,(0)I a I f '(0)/F'(°)I Q , a > 0, )9> 0 in
that class.
Lebedev [1961) has obtained a number of results of extremely general nature
in problems dealing with disjoint domains by beginning with the area principle.
He considered the class 2 (-, a1, , an) of all systems {fk(zW, of functions
fk(z), for k = 0, 1, , n, that map the disk I z I < 1 conformally and univalently
onto disjoint domains in such a way that fo(0) = oo and fk(0) = ak, k = 1, , n,
where a1, - , an are fixed points. By using the generalized area theorem for
functions in this class (see §1, subsection 1° of this supplement), Lebedev ob-
tained a number of distortion theorems in the class Dl (m, a1, an), in particu-
lar, inequalities of the same type as the distortion theorems of Goluzin in the
class 1. The following results are among the applications of these general theorems.
If {fo(z), f1(z){ E$!f(-, 0), then
2n 2a
1
If, (ele) Is d9 d9 <_ 1,
T7-; I fo (eye) Is
d
with equality holding if and only if

fo(x)= z +b, IaI>IbI, f1(z)=(I al - I b.z9)lz
- = const, 171I =1. a
From this and the familiar result of Rogosinski (Theorem 1, §8, Chapter VIII), it
follows that, for functions f (z) in R (or L),
tic
S I f (e!e) I2 d9 1 (7)
2a
1
b
with equality holding only for

f(z) = z
P±jTP-li1z
, Pal, I iI =1.
Inequality (7) strengthens the previous result of Lebedev and Milin [1951]: if
f (z) E R (or L), then
2n
1 C I f(ere) I d6
2x 5
with equality holding if and only if f (z) = 77z, where 1771 = 1.

In the problem of conformal radii of disjoint domains, Lebedev [1961] obtained
the following result:
Let yk, for k = 1, , n, denote fixed numbers such that 0 yk = 0. Then,
for { fk(z)In E 9l (oo, al, , an), we have
n
2s {Tk1I},
11 I ak - at (8)
where f0'(0) = limZ_0 1/zf0(z). The cases in which equality holds in (8) were all
listed.
Inequality (8) generalizes to the case of complex yk the inequality known
earlier for real yk.
A recent paper of Jenkins [1965] is closely related to this class of questions.
In that paper, Jenkins started with the area principle and established a more gen-
eral inequality of the distortion-theorem type for the class fit, defined above, of
pairs of functions If (z), F (C)1 that depend on a large number of parameters. From
that inequality, one can obtain a number of particular inequalities for the functions
f (z) and F (C) and for functions in the classes R and L. Furthermore, by means
of the extremal metric, Jenkins obtained a number of results for the functions f (Z)
and F (C) in question, though omitting the requirement that they be univalent, and
for the classes R and L.
A number of theorems of the distortion theorem type have been established for
more general classes of functions, in particular, for functions that are p-valent in
mean (in various senses of the word).
A function w = f(z) that is regular in the disk I z I < 1 is said to be p-valent
in mean with respect to circumference in IzI < 1 if it maps the disk IzI < 1 onto a
Riemann surface R lying above the w-plane such that the total angular measure of
open arcs lying on R over an arbitrary circle Iwi = p, where p > 0, does not ex-
ceed 217p. The function w = f (z) is said to be p-valent in mean with respect to
area in the disk IzI < 1 if it maps the disk IzI < 1 onto a Riemann surface such
588 SUPPLEMENT
that the part of its area that lies over an arbitrary disk IwI 0, the equation
f (z) = w either has exactly p roots in I zI < 1 for every w on the circle IwI = p
or (2) has fewer than p roots in IzI < 1 for some w on the circle IwI = p. If p is
a positive integer, the property of being weakly p-valent is a less stringent condi-
tion than the property of being p-valent in mean with respect to circumference, but
being p-valent in mean with respect to area does not imply weak p-valence or vice
versa.
We denote by FO (respectively F° or FI ), where p is a positive integer,
the class of functions of the form
C p+9Z7+9 +...'
disk= za + C p+ tzP+1 +
f (Z)
that are regular in the IzI < 1 and p-valent in mean with respect to circum-
ference (respectively p-valent in mean with respect to area, weakly p-valent) in
that disk.
A powerful tool in the theory of conformal mapping is the following symme-
trization principle.
Suppose that a function w = f (z) = wo + c +
,z'
, where c 0 and p > 1
,
is regular in the disk IzI < 1. Let B = Bf denote its range in the disk IzI < 1.
Suppose that the domain B* obtained from B by symmetrization about a straight
line or ray passing through the point wo lies in a simply connected domain B0.
Suppose that a function w = 4(z) = w0 + c' z +
1
is regular and univalent in the
disk I z I < 1 and maps it onto the domain Bo. Then
ICpI<IC;I.
When p = 1, this theorem was obtained by Hayman [1951, 19581 by means of a
combination of a bound that he obtained for the inner radius of the range of a regu-
lar function with the symmetrization results of Polya and Szego. For p > 1, the
theorem was proved by Kobori and Abe [1959].
This theorem has led to a number of distortion and covering theorems for regu-
lar functions, in particular, for functions in the classes FO and F, (see, for ex-
ample, Hayman [19581).
A generalization, also obtained by Hayman [1951a], of Fekete's familiar
theorem on the transfinite diameter (Theorem 3, Chapter VII, §3) for the case of
nonunivalent mappings1) has also found applications in this class of equations.
For weakly p-valent functions, Hayman [1951a, 19581 has obtained the follow-
ing generalization of Bieberbach's classical bounds on the modulus of a function
and its derivative in the class S (see Chapter II, §4).
Let f (z) = z' + cp +1 zp +1 + denote a function belonging to FP'. Then,
cp+tI -2p (9)

Also, for IzI = r, where 0 < r < 1, we have the sharp inequalities
rp rp
(1+r)2 f(z)I (1-r)'p
if, (z) I -p (1 -r) If (z) I =p(1-1 r)9p r) .
Furthermore, w = f (z) assumes every value in the disk IwI < 4-P exactly p times
in the disk IzI < 1. Equality holds in all these inequalities only for the function
f (z) _ 'P ap, 161=1. (10)
By combining the method of extremal metrics that he developed and the re-
sults of the symmetrization method and by generalizing his own results for the
class S [1953a], Jenkins obtained [1955, 19581, for f(z) E F?, the least upper
bound of I f (r2) I, where 0 <r2 < 1, for a given value of if If(-r1), where r 1 is a
fixed number in the interval 0 < rl < 1. In particular, we have the theorem:
Suppose that f(z) E F?, that 0 < rl < r2 < 1, and that 9 is a real number.
Then
(raete) I
If (- rle`B) I -}- I f + (1 f-lrr)'
If rl < r2, equality holds only for f(z) = z/(1 - e iez)2. If r1 = r2, equality
holds only for f(z) = z/(1 ± ei6z)2.
As a consequence, we have the following inequality for a function A z) E F?:
If(-z)I+If(z)I_c_2r(1+:.),
(1-r) Zr
II=(O<r<l). (11)
1) Mitjuk [1964a, 1965d] has obtained a further sharpening of Hayman's symmetriza-

tion principle and of his theorem on the transfinite diameter, and has extended them to
multiply connected domains. With regard to the first question, see §2, subsection 20 and
§3, subsection 3°of this supplement.
590 SUPPLEMENT
Equality holds in (11) only in the case of functions f(z) = z/(1 ± eiez)2, where
z = reie. In the case of univalent functions, this result was obtained by Goluzin
[1946c] without the assertion of uniqueness of the extremal functions.
By applying the same investigating technique Jenkins [1954) found a solution
of Gronwall's problem in explicit form. This problem consists in finding, in the
class S (c) of functions f (z) = z + c +
2z2
E S with given fixed c 2 = c, where
0 < c < 2, the least upper bound of the maximum of I f (z)I for arbitrary fixed I z I =r,
where 0 < r < 1. This maximum m (r, c) is attained by a function with real coeffi-
cients. As r --a 1,
(I - r)° m (r, c) -- 4a-1 exp (2 - 4a t), a = 2 - (2 - c)1/1.
We note that we can obtain the sharp inequality
Ic3I < 3 (12)
for f (z) E F? from inequality (11) by an elementary procedure. Because of the
simple relationship between the classes F? and FO , namely, that the relation
f (z) E F implies the relation [f (z)]" E F?, we easily obtain from (11) by a
suitable choice of branch of the root the following sharp inequality in the class F0:
P
P cP+s+ ZP (p 1)c;+t3.
From this inequality and inequality (9) we obtain, for f (z) E FO, the inequality
cP+elc2ps+pp
with equality holding for p > 1 only in the case of the functions (10).
As Spencer [1941] has shown, inequality (9) is also valid (and sharp) in the
class F°.P However, as follows from an unpublished result of Schaeffer and Spen-
cer (see Jenkins [1957a], the class F° includes functions for which Ic3I > 3.
This shows that the result Jenkins obtained for the class F? does not hold for
the entire class F.
We note that the last assertion in Hayman's theorem has been carried over by
Garabedian and Royden [1954] to the case of functions in the class FP°. With re-
gard to this question, see also Jenkins's article [1957a].
We cite yet another example of the extension of familiar distortion theorems
for univalent functions to nonunivalent mappings.
We give the following definition: A family 2 of functions f (z) is said to be
linearly invariant if it satisfies the following two conditions:
1) all the functions f E 2 are regular and locally univalent in the disk I z I < I
(that is, f '(z) # 0 for I z I < 1) and are of the form
f (z) = z + c%zl + ...
2) if f(z) E 2 and 0(z) is a fractional-linear transformation of the disk
I zI < 1 onto itself, then
f OF (z)) -f (p4 (0)) ... E
(0)f'('P(0)) =z
Examples of linearly invariant families are the classes S, S, S*, the class of
functions that are locally univalent and p-valent in the disk I z I < 1, and also the
class of all functions that are regular and locally univalent in the disk IzI < 1. A
number of results with which we are familiar for univalent functions can be carried
over (see Pommerenke [1964]) to linearly invariant families of locally univalent
functions. Specifically, a number of inequalities involving only the order a of the
family 2, where
a= sup 1C21
fE8
have been obtained. (Here a > 1. Furthermore, a is finite if and only if £ is a
normal family, and a = 1 if and only if all functions in the family 2 are convex.)
In particular, for a = 2, we obtain the classical distortion theorems for univalent
functions (see Chapter II, §4).
We now stop for certain results of the distortion-theorem type for doubly con-
nected domains.
In analogy with Loewner's parametric representation of univalent functions in
a disk, Komatu [1943] gave a parametric representation of functions w = f (z) that
are regular and univalent in the annulus I 1 with cut along a Jordan curve. Here, the circle IzI = 1
is mapped onto the circle IwI = 1 and f (1) = 1.
Goluzin [1951e] gave a simpler variation of the solution of this problem in a
different form. Let K (m/M) denote the class of functions w = f (z) that are regu-
lar and univalent in the annulus m 0, that do not vanish in
that annulus, and that, for m < r1 < r2 <M, map the circle IzI =r into the interior
1
of the image of the circle I z I = r2. Let K (m/M, 1/1) denote the class of functions
f (z) E K (m/M) for which f (1) = 1 and m < 1 < M. Following the method indicated
in the article by Goluzin cited above, Li En-pir [1953] considered the problem of
592 SUPPLEMENT
generalizing Loewner's parametric representation for functions in the class

K (m/M, 1/1) that map the annulus in < I z I < M onto the domain obtained from the
w-plane by deleting two Jordan curves that terminate respectively at the points 0
and oc. Lebedev [1955c] gave the complete solution to this problem. The para-
metric representation that he obtained makes it possible to obtain a number of in-
equalities in the class K(m/M) and its subclasses with a complete clarification
of the question of extremal functions. As an example, we give the following re-
sult. Let w = fl(z) and w = f2(z) denote functions in the class K (m/M, 1/1) that
map the annulus m < I zl < M onto the entire w-plane with cuts along a segment of
the real axis with endpoint at w = 0 and along the ray lying on the real axis ex-
tending in the opposite direction from the coordinate origin. Suppose that for f 1(z)
the finite cut lies on the positive half of the real axis and for f2(z) on the nega-
tive half. For the functions f1(z) and f2(z), we have explicit expressions (see
§2, subsection 4° of this supplement). We have the following theorem (Lebedev
[1955c, 1955d]):
For f (z) E K (m/M, 1/1) and I z I= r, where m<r < M,
Ifs(-r)I<If(z)I<If9(-r)I, (13)
with equality holding in the first (second) inequality only for the function f1(z)
(f2(z)).
Inequalities (13) had been obtained earlier [1953] by Li En-pir without the
assertion of uniqueness of the extremal functions.
Let F denote the class of functions w = f (z) that are regular and univalent
in the annulus B: r < I z I < 1 and that map that annulus onto a domain contained
in the disk Iwl < 1 in such a way that the circle Izl = 1 is mapped onto the circle
IwI = 1. Let FO denote the class of functions in F that satisfy the condition
f (z) 0 in B.
Duren and Schiffer [1962] developed the method of variations in the class F
and applied it to solve certain extremal problems in that class. Duren [1963] ap-
plied that method to the problem of maximizing and minimizing the quantity 1001
for fixed b in r < b < 1 out of all functions in the class F0. The minimization
problem is solved for all b E (r, 1) by mapping the domain B onto the unit disk
with cut along the radius connecting the origin and the point f W. The maximiza-
tion problem was solved by Duren for every b > b*(r) (the exact value of b*(r)
was also determined): the extremal mapping is the one that maps the domain B
onto the unit disk with cut along the radius connecting the origin with the point
-f(b). When b = b. (r), the extremal function changes its nature: the radial cut
forks at one end.
Let B denote a doubly connected domain in the z-plane that includes the
point z = 0 and is bounded by the unit circle and the radial cut r: q0 < z < po,
where 0 < q0 < po < 1. Let I denote the class of functions w = f (z) that are
regular and univalent in B and map B into the unit disk in such a way that the
point z = 0 is mapped into w = 0 and the circle I z i = 1 is mapped into the outer
boundary of the image. Let Ic denote the subclass of functions in I that satisfy
the condition If'(0)I = c, where c is a fixed positive number.
Tamrazov [1965c] posed and solved the problem of determining the quantities
pf= supZEr If(z)1 and qf= inf_ If(z)I in the class 1c for various positive
values of c. Let fo(z) denote a function in the class I that maps B onto the
unit disk with cut along a circular arc with center at the coordinate origin and
midpoint on the positive axis. Suppose that If 0'(0)1 = co. We know that, for c>co,
the classes IC are empty and the class I0 consists only of functions of the form
f(z) = cfo(z), where I c I = 1.
For c E (0, 1], the only extremal functions are functions of the form f (z) _
ESC(-z) in the case of the first problem and of the form f(z) = Egc(z) in the second,
where I E I = 1 and w = IL (z) = c z + maps the disk I z I < 1 univalently onto the
disk Iwi < 1 with cut along a segment of positive radius. For c = 1, this cut is
constricted to the point w = 1. For c E (1, c0), the qualitative nature of the ex-
tremal mappings is different. The solution of the problem in this case depends on
extensive use of the theory of quadratic differentials, the general theorem on Jen-
kins's coefficients, and Tamrazov's supplement [1965c] to that theorem. For arbi-
trary fixed c E (1, c0), the maximum pf in the class I is attained by all the func-
tions (and only by these functions) f (z) = c f B(z), Ic I = 1, where the functions
w = fe(z) = cecez + , - $(c) < 9 < $(c), constitute a one-parameter family of
mappings one of which (namely, w = fo(z)) is symmetric about the real axis and
for two of which the family is degenerate along one of the three arcs constituting
the inner boundary of the image. The problem of minimizing of in the classes l
(1 < c < c0) has an analogous solution. By the same procedure, we can make a
complete analysis of the form of the extremal mappings and the question of their
uniqueness in the problem of Duren mentioned above (see Tamrazov [1965c]).
In the investigation of questions associated in an essential way with classes
594 SUPPLEMENT
of mappings of a variable doubly connected domain that are not compact in them-
selves, the basic method is clarification of the existence of finite bounds for cer-
tain functionals in these classes. A number of extremal problems of this type for
bounded mappings are solved in the papers by Tamrazov [1962, 1962a, 1962b,
1963, 1965b]. In these articles bounds have been found for the values of the func-
tionals in question that depend only on the modulus of the doubly connected domain.
We present the following results dealing with unbounded mappings of an annu-
lus. Let g denote the class of regular univalent mappings w = f (z) of the annulus
B: r < Izj < 1 for which the bounded component of the complement of the domain
Bf with respect to the entire plane includes the points w = 0, 1 and contains the
image of the circle IzI = r. Let pf denote the distance between the images of the
circles Izl = r and Izj = 1 under the mapping in question. Whereas the problem
of finding inf Z =1 If (z) I in the class Zg can be solved in a simple manner by the
method of circular symmetrization (the solution of this problem also follows from
the familiar results of Teichmnller [19381), solution of the problem of minimizing
p1 in the class 9 required the application of variational methods (Tamrazov
[1965c]). Specifically, we have the following theorem:
Suppose that a function w = g(z) maps B univalently onto the entire w-plane
with cuts -oo < w < _t (where t = t (r) > 0) and 0 < w < 1. In the class 21, we
have pf > t with equality holding if and only if f (z) = g (e z) or f (z) = 1 - g (e z),
where Ie I = 1.
2°. Geometric properties of a univalent conformal mapping. Among the results
obtained under this heading a significant place is occupied by covering theorems.
The distortion theorems mentioned at the beginning of subsection 1° of §2 of this
supplement have led to a number of such results. Specifically, Bazilevic [1951]
obtained the following sharp bound on the linear measure of a covering of the
circle jwl = p by the image B (r) of a disk of the form lzi < r < 1 under functions
in the class S:
If a function f (z) E S, then, for arbitrary r in the interval 0 < r < 1 and arbi-
bitrary x _> e"I er, the intersection of the circle Iwl = p with the domain B (r) has
linear measure not exceeding the intersection of that circle with the domain B*(r)
corresponding to the function f *(z) = z/(1 - ez)2, where I kI = 1.
This result was obtained independently, with the method of areas, by Lebedev
and Milin [1951] for p2 > (2/f)r/(1 - r2).
The extremal property of Koebe's function that we have mentioned leads to

bounds on the area a(r) of the image of the disk I z I < r, where 0 < r < 1, under
mapping by functions in the class S and its subclasses S(k) , to bounds on the
mean modulus of the function, and to other bounds (cf. the articles mentioned
above). For example, in the class S(2) Bazilevic obtained the inequality
c (r) rrl (l ±r4)Y + c (r).

This inequality deviates from the sharp inequality by no more than c (r), which
approaches zero as r -- 1. For the mean modulus of a function f (z) E S, he
proved the inequality
2%
2a
S If (re"')I dp<
0
1 r rz+0.55,
which deviates from the sharp inequality by no more than an additional term.
A number of results obtained by Bazilevic in 1958 (cf. his article (19611)
belong to the same class of problems.
These results are closely connected with the problem of finding bounds for
the coefficients. Thus, Bazilevic [19511 obtained for f(z) E S the inequality
IcnI< 2 n+1.51,
which was not improved until 1964 (cf. §2, subsection 3° of this supplement).
With regard to bounded functions, Bazilevic [19591 obtained bounds on the
linear measure of a covering of the circle IwI = p by the image of the disk IzI <
r < 1, the area of that image, and also the mean modulus and its square in the
class SM.
We mention a few results dealing with a familiar class of problems on cover-
ing of segments and areas.
Jenkins [19531 posed and solved the problem of maximizing the linear meas-
ure lf(p) of the set of values on the circle IwI = p, where % < p < 1, that a func-
tion w = f(z) in the class S does not assume in the disk IzI < 1. Specifically,
with the aid of Lindelof's principle and the principle of circular symmetrization,
one can easily show that the function maximizing lf(p) where % < p < 1, in the
class S is uniquely determined up to a rotation. One of these functions, which
we denote by w = f0(z), maps the disk I z I < 1 onto the entire w-plane from which
an arc of the circle IwI = p, symmetrically located about the real axis and
596 SUPPLEMENT
intersecting its positive half, and the ray p < w < - have been deleted. When we
find if0 (p), we obtain for f (z) E S the inequality
1, (p) - 2p arc cos (8 Yp - 8p - 1).
Sato [1955, 1955a] obtained the solution of the analogous problem for the
class SM, where M > 1, by the same method. Goodman and Reich [1955] have ob-
tained a strengthening of Jenkins's result for a subclass of functions in S.
By using the symmetrization results for doubly connected domains, Kubo
[1954] generalized the result of Jenkins given above to the case of functions that
are regular and univalent in the annulus r r in such a way that the circle 1z] = r is mapped into the
circle I wj = r.
Goluzin showed (see p. 144, Theorem 2) that the maximum value of the third
transfinite diameter of the complement of the image of the domain ICI > 1 under a
function in the class I is equal to the transfinite diameter of the continuum con-
sisting of three segments connecting the coordinate origin with the points repre-
senting the cube roots of 4 (see also articles by Garabedian and Schiffer [1955],
Reich and Schiffer [1964].
However, the four intervals connecting the origin with the points representing
the four fourth roots of 4 no longer form an extremal continuum maximizing the
fourth transfinite diameter in the family of all continua whose outer conformal
radius is equal to 1 (Garabedian and Schiffer [19551).
In this connection, we give the following result: by assuming symmetrization
of a special form, Szego [1955] showed in a very simple way that the outer con-
formal radius of a system formed by n segments the product of whose lengths is
given and which issue from the coordinate origin at angles each equal to the next
is maximized when all these segments have the same length. It follows from this
and from Lindelof's principle that, if the function w = f (z) E S*, then, for n arbi-
trary points al, a2, , an lying on n rays issuing from the point w = 0 at equal
angles and belonging to the boundary of the image of the disk I z I < 1 under the
mapping w = f (z), we have
ata9 ... an
with equality holding for a function of the form f (Z) = z/(1 + e z")2"" , where jcl =1
n
Associated with the familiar theorem on 1/4 solving Szego's problem on
the covering of n segments for the class S (cf. p. 174) is the following result of
Xia Dao-xing [1958]: let KP (where p is a fixed number > 1) denote a family of
convex domains B in the w-plane that have the following properties: each domain
B includes the point w = 0, and its interior conformal radius about w = 0 is equal
to 1; for every boundary point of the domain B, there exists a circle of radius p
that passes through that point and encircles the domain B. Let wk, for k= n,
denote the boundary points of the domain B C KP that lie respectively on n arbi-
trary rays issuing from w = 0 at equal angles:
T,a (p) = min min max I Wk I
B E K, (wi..... w,) k
By use of the extremal metric, one can show that this minimum is attained by a
.domain bounded by a regular n-sided circular polygon whose sides are arcs of a
circle of radius p. This enables us easily to determine the quantity Tn(p) If we
let p approach oo, we get the solution of Szego's problem for the entire class S.
By the same method, Xia Dao-xing [1956] obtained certain theorems on the
covering of intervals under a univalent conformal mapping of an annulus. Tamra-
zov [1965] obtained some very general theorems on the covering of curves under a
univalent conformal mapping that generalize the familiar results on the covering
of segments and provide us with more precise information. For example, he ob-
tained a precision of Rengel's theorem [1933] on the covering of n segments in
the case of functions that are meromorphic and univalent in a disk, and the analo-
gous result for an annulus.
Closely associated with questions on the covering of segments is the well-
known problem of Lavrent'ev (see Chapter IV, §4) on the determination of the re-
gion maximizing the conformal radius in the family of all simply connected regions
containing the coordinate origin but not containing - or a given system of points
aI, , am (for m > 1). This problem was solved by Gel'fer [1958, 1960] for the
case of a family of fundamental domains of groups of fractional-linear transforma-
tions associated with elliptic or automorphic functions.
Koebe's theorem on the covering of the disk Iwi < % by the image of the
disk I z I < 1 under a function w = f (z) C S has been sharpened by Jenkins
[1960] to the case of the class SR. Let Bf denote the image of the disk IzI < 1
under the mapping w = f (z) and define D= fl fESR Bf. Applying the phrase "gen-
eral theorem on coefficients", Jenkins found the set D determining the boundary
598 SUPPLEMENT
functions of that set in terms of the theory of quadratic differentials. On the

basis of Lavrent'ev's results in the above-mentioned problem of maximizing the
conformal radius in their simple particular case, Kuz'mina [1962] determined in
explicit form the set D 1 = fl fE S [B B f], where B 1. is the domain symmetric to
fu
Bf about the real axis. It follows from the form of the boundary functions of the
set D 1 (they have real coefficients) that the sets D 1 and D coincide.
A number of generalizations of Koebe's theorem on the sharp bound for the
modulus of the function f (z) E S in the disk I z I < r, where 0 < r < 1, have been
obtained by the Romanian mathematician Mocanu [1957, 1958]. Fel'dman [1963]
obtained more general results in the same direction. For example, for a domain b
contained in the disk Izl < I and bounded by a closed Jordan curve defined by
parametric equations in polar coordinates, he found in certain particular cases the
domains U fE S b f and fl fE s b f, where b f denotes the image of the domain b under
the mapping w = f (z), and he also solved the analogous problems for the class S.
Cernikov [1962] found the set Ufssbf in the case in which b is a disk
I z l< r, where 0 < r< 1.
We give one result dealing with problems of this nature for an annulus. Let
{B} denote the family of doubly connected domains in the z-plane that contain the
point z = 0, have the circle I z I = 1 as one of their boundary components, and
satisfy the following condition: under a univalent mapping of the domain B onto
the disk Iwl < I with cut along a segment of positive radius that maps the unit
circle. and the coordinate origin into themselves, the point z = 1 is mapped into
the point w = 1 . Tamrazov [1962b] determined explicitly the majorant domain con-
taining an interior boundary of an arbitrary domain in the family of domains in I B I
with given fixed Riemannian modulus and pointed out a number of properties of
these domains.
The behavior of the level curves (the images of concentric circles Izl = r < 1)
also shows clearly the degree of distortion under a univalent conformal mapping of
a disk. This question has been well studied for sufficiently small values of r.
For example, limits of convexity and starlikeness have been found (see Chapter
IV, §5).
It is also natural to study the behavior of functions in the class S on circles
with a displaced center.
The well-known results of Nevanlinna and Grunsky asserting that an arbitrary
function in the class S maps a disk with center at the point z = 0 of radius not
exceeding R. = 2 - V3 onto a convex domain and that such a function maps a

disk with the same center but of radius no greater than RS = tanh (7r14) onto a
starlike domain (Chapter IV, §5) have been supplemented by Aleksandrov [1958a,
1959, 1960] as follows:
Every disk of radius p < 2 - v/3 612 with center at the point %', where
161 < 1, is mapped by an arbitrary function in the class S onto a convex domain.
The bound on p is sharp.
Every non-Euclidean disk with non-Euclidean center at a point 6, where
161 < 1, the non-Euclidean radius of which does not exceed rr/2 is mapped by an
arbitrary function in the class S onto a domain that is starlike about f (6). This
result is sharp.
Goluzin (see Chapter IV, §5) introduced the concept of "generalized star-
likeness". The following theorem of Aleksandrov [1960] deals with his results on
the limits of generalized starlikeness in the class S:
Every non-Euclidean disk with non-Euclidean center at a point 6, where
161 < 1, the non-Euclidean radius of which does not exceed nn/2 is mapped by an
arbitrary function in the class S onto a domain of the form Dn[f (6)]. This result
is sharp.
In particular, every disk of radius not exceeding Rns = tanh (nn/4) with
center at the point z = 0 is mapped by every function in the class S onto the
domain Dn(0).
Of special interest is the problem of the change in the curvature of the level
curves under a univalent conformal mapping. We present the basic results that
have been obtained in this direction.
Miros`nicenko [1951] first showed that the following inequality holds, giving
the greatest lower bound of the curvature K. of a level curve Lr (the image of
the disk Iz = r) in the class S for 2 - < r < 1:
K'l 1-4r+r' (1-+19

r ll -r
He also showed that the inequality
1- 2 (k+1) rk + rek (1 + rk)2/k

K, r (I - r)o
gives the greatest lower bound in the class S(k), where k > 2, for
600 SUPPLEMENT
k + 1 - k2 + 2k < rk < 1. These bounds are attained by the functions f (z) _

z/(1 + z)2 and f (z) = z/(1 + zk)2/k, respectively.
Beginning with Loewner's parametric representation, Korickii [19601 showed
that these inequalities are valid in the entire unit disk.
Up to the present time, the least upper bound of the curvature of the level
curves in the class S has not been found.
By using Theorem 4-of §3 of Chapter IV, Korickii [1957, 19601 found the fol-
lowing least upper bound for the curvature KP (the image of the circle = p > 1)
for functions in the class 11k1, where k > 1:
p <
K_ P[P°k+2(k-1)pk+1]
(P -1) oft+ 1)2/k
which is attained by the function F(C) = (ck + 1)2/k/C.
In certain subclasses of S and 1, the problem has been solved completely.
For example, ZmoroviZ [19521 obtained greatest lower and least upper bounds for
the curvature of the level curves in the classes S(k), where k > 1, and in the
class I by using the integral representations of these classes. .
In 1952, Bazilevic first found in the class S* the greatest lower bound
of the curvature of the level curves by the method of embedding of the class
S* in a larger special class of functions that are regular in the disk IzI < 1
and in the class S(k)* , for k _> 2; Korickil [1955) did this by the same
method. Korickii [19551 also obtained the greatest lower and least upper
bounds of KP in the class 1(k), for k > 1.
Aleksandrov and Cernikov [19631 first found the least upper bound of the
curvature of the level curves in the class. S(k)*. For k = 1, this least upper bound
is attained for all 0 < r < 1 by the function f (Z) = z/(1 + z)2 . For k > 2, this
bound has a different form for different values of r: for 0 < r < r0, it is attained
by the function f (z) = z/(1 + zk)2/k ; for rp < r < 1, it is attained by the function
f (z)- [(1 + -",?I G -Z

51412/h
where ji1, p.2, and ro depend only on k and r (with 0 < p.l, N.2 < 1, µl + µ2 = 1).
The investigation of the behavior of the level curves as we approach the
boundary of the unit disk is a difficult problem because the behavior of the level
curves as r --+ 1 may prove to be very complicated. For example, it is natural to
assume that the level curve Lr1 embedded in the curve Lr2 (where rl < r2) is
"more regular" in the geometrical sense than the curve Lr2. However, Bazilevic
and Korickii [19531 showed that, under a mapping of the disk IzI < 1 by a func-
tion in the class S, the number of points of inflection of the level curve Lr and
the number of points of destruction of its starlikeness (points on the level curve
at which the direction of rotation of the radius vector changes as the point z
moves around the circle IzI = r in a specified direction) can change nonmonotoni-
cally with increasing r; that is, if r1 < r2, it may happen that the level curve Lr1
has more points of inflection or more points of destruction of starlikeness than
the level curve Lr2 does. Furthermore, this paradoxical behavior of the level
curves can occur even for bounded functions in the class S.
Nonetheless, for sufficiently rapid growth in the absolute value of a function,
there will necessarily be a certain amount of regularity in the behavior of its level
curves as r ---' 1. Specifically, Bazilevic and Korickii [19621 proved the existence
of absolute constants ak and as such that:
If an arc of a level curve Lr of a function f (z) E S is contained in the annulus
akR(r)<If(z)I<R(r), R(r)=(1 r r)., IzI=r<l,

it is convex, but there are functions f (z) E S for which some arc of a level curve
that is contained in the wider annulus
(ak - E)R (r)0,
is not convex if r is sufficiently close to unity.
If an arc of a level curve Lr of a function f (z) E S is contained in the annulus
a5R(r)<If(z)I<R(r), IzI=r<1,
it is necessarily starlike, but the same is not true of any of the wider annuli
((xs-e)R(r)<If(z)I<R(r), 8>0.
Bazilevic and Korickii found lower and upper bounds for the constants ak
and as. They proved analogous theorems for the class I. With regard to func-
tions in the class S, in connection with the problem of finding the exact values
of the constants ak and ac, they posed the question: in what parts of the annu-
lus r/(1 + r) 2 < I f W1 < r/(1 - r) 2 is an arbitrary arc of a level curve L r
or starlike with respect to the origin for all f (z) C S. r
602 SUPPLEMENT
Stepanova [19631 obtained analogous bounds for the annulus of starlikeness

and the annulus of convexity for the classes S(k), where k = 2, 3, . With re-
gard to the behavior of the level curves for small values of If(z)I, Stepanova
[19631 showed that there is no interior annulus of starlikeness, that is, no annulus
of the form
r
R(r)<If(z)I<PR(r), R(r)= (l+r)a,
where 0 is independent of r, in which the arcs of the level curves are starlike
for all functions in the class S.
The complete solution of the problem posed by Bazilevic and Korickii with
regard to starlikeness of arcs of level curves was obtained by Aleksandrov and
Popov [19651: For every r such that tanh (7r14) < r < 1, values as(r) and 6s(r)
have been found such that every arc of a level curve Lr is starlike for an arbi-
trary function f (z) E S if and only if L,, lies in the annulus
R (r) < If (z)I<PS(r)R(r)

or in the annulus
as (r) R (r) l .mr-1 Ps(r) = 1, as(r) < limr ,i as(r) = aS = 0.109 .
Stepanova [19651 established an analogous relationship between starlikeness

of arcs of the level curves and the values of If '(z)I.
Together with a more profound study of the geometrical properties of conformal
mapping by univalent functions, a number of results of the covering-theorem type
have been established for general classes of functions.
For functions that are regular in the disk IzI < 1, there is the following gen-
eralization of Koebe's theorem on !/4.
Let f(z) = z + c2 z2 + ' denote a member of R and let d f denote the linear
measure of the set of all positive p for which the circle jw1 = p is contained in
the image Bf of the disk I z I < 1 under the mapping w = f(z). Then df> %, with
equality holding only for functions of the form
f(z)=(1 Z6Z)s IEI=1.

This result was obtained by Hayman [1951a] by use of the geometric proper-
ties of the transfinite diameter.
By applying the ideas presented in Hayman's article [1951a] to the hyperbolic

transfinite diameter, Kubo [1958] obtained a number of theorems for functions that
are regular or meromorphic in an annulus. We present one of these.
Let R(B) denote the class of functions w = f(z) that are single-valued and
regular in the annulus B: 1 1, and that map the circle jzj = 1 onto the circle lwl = 1. Suppose
that a function w = f *(z, R), where f `(1, R) = 1, maps the annulus B univalently
onto the domain Iwl > 1 with cut w > P.
If f(z) E t(B) and if df is the shortest distance from the origin to the inner
boundary of the domain B f, then df > P with equality holding if and only if f (z) _
c f *(riz, R), where IE I = 1711 = 1.
Kubo obtained an analogous inequality for bounded functions in R (B):
l f (z) l <M, where M> R, for z E B. For univalent functions, this last result had
already been shown by Grotzsch [1928] and Komatu [1943].
The method of symmetrization proposed by Szego [1955] for starlike domains
has been generalized by Marcus [1964] for arbitrary sets. Let SZ denote an open
subset of the z-plane that does not include the point oc and let z0 denote a point
in 11. For an arbitrary disk z - zo i < p, where p > 0, contained in El and for arbi-
trary 0 in the interval 0 < q < 27r, let us consider the set E of points z E U
such that 1Z - z01 = r > p and arg (z - z0) = 0. Let us define
L, dr , R ('P) = P eXP LP
5
.Furthermore, for arbitrary n = 2, 3, .. , we define
LpLn
n-I
n-I
k=0
+2nk)
2ak
R(n) RI In (T = P exp LP(n) (p).

k=0
Obviously, R(") (0) is independent of p. We shall refer to the transformation of
the set 1 into the set of points z such that z - z0 = re`s, where 0 < r < R"")(0)
and 0 < 0 < 27r, as the S" transformation of the set SZ with center at the point z0.
Under the S"-transformation, an arbitrary domain is mapped either onto the
plane or onto a domain that is starlike about the point z0 and possesses for n > 2,
604 SUPPLEMENT
n-fold symmetry of rotation about that point. As Marcus has shown, such symme-
trization does not increase the interior radius of the domain. By using this last
result, Marcus obtained the following theorem:
Suppose that f (z) = z + c2 Z2 is a member of R. Suppose that the Se,-
transformation with center at the point w = 0 is applied to the domain Bf. Then,
V-4 , 0<2;r
with equality holding for a function of the form
f(z)= (I-czn)t/' r IEI=1

This theorem shows that at least one ray of an arbitrary system of n rays
issuing from the point w = 0 at equal angles to each other intersects the domain
Bf along a set whose linear measure is no less than 7 1/4.
A number of results characterizing the geometric properties of conformal map-
ping were obtained by Mitjuk [1964a, 1965a-d] by successive application of sym-
metrization methods. With regard to this question, see also §3, subsection 3° of
this supplement. We point out that, by confining himself to the case of a disk,
Mitjuk obtained [1965a] the following sharpening of Hayman's symmetrization
principle: if f (z) = wo + cpzp + E R, where p > 1, then, in the notation used
in the theorem of subsection 1°,
Pk,
IcPI-Icfl 11141
k?1
where z 1, z2, , zk, are the nonzero roots of the equation f (z) - w0 = 0 in
the disk I z I < 1 and p 1, P2' ' ' p k' are their multiplicities. Mitjuk [1965d]
also obtained an analogous strengthening of Hayman's theorem on % that we have
given and of Marcus's theorem.
In connection with the above-mentioned result of Kubo [1958], we mention
that Mitjuk [1965b] obtained a more general covering theorem for functions that are
regular in an annulus. Specifically, he considered a broader class of functions
and studied the multiplicity of the covering produced by them. We mention also
that Mitjuk [1965c, d] extended Hayman's theorem of subsection 1° to the case of
functions that are weakly p-valent in an annulus. For functions of this last class,
he obtained a theorem on the linear measure of the covering of arcs of a circle,
thus generalizing the theorem of Kubo [1954] mentioned above.
As a supplement to the results of Goluzin and Bermant regarding a covering

performed by regular functions in a disk (see Chapter IV, §6), we present the fol-
lowing theorem (Jenkins [19511).
If f (z) C R, then in the image B f of the disk fz1 < 1 under the mapping
w = f (z) there exist n straight line segments issuing from w = 0 at equal angles
the sum of the lengths of which is arbitrarily close to n/r*, where p* = rrr* 2 is
the area of the preimage of the star of the domain B f.
In connection with these results, we have the following theorem of Antonjuk
[1958] for functions that are regular in an annulus.
Suppose that the function w = f (z) is regular in the annulus B: 1 <'z1 < R
and satisfies the conditions I f (z)I > 1 and (% rr i) fC (f '(z)/ f (z)) dz > 1, where C
is a contour in B that is not homologous to 0. Let B f denote the star of a finite
doubly connected Riemann surface B f onto which the annulus B is mapped by the
function w = f (z) with respect to a system of rays issuing from the point w = 0
(the existence of such a star is proved). We have the following inequality con-
necting the area P* of the star Bf with the area p* of its preimage:
(p* +'t) (P* +'r) 2Rb
with equality holding only for a function of the form f (z) = e z, where lc I = 1.
Hazalija [1958] had already obtained in 1951 the inequality p * > 77 (R2 - 1).
A number of results dealing with the problem of finding a lower bound for the
area of the image of a disk and an annulus and also of the star of that image have
been obtained by Mitjuk [1961b, 1965a-d].
3°. Bounds on the coefficients of univalent functions. The problem of the
coefficients in the expansions of univalent functions has played a significant role
in recent years in the general turn taken by the geometric theory of functions. As
we know, for functions f (z) = z + c 2z2 + in the class S, it consists in deter-
mining for every n > 2 the ranges of values of the system of coefficients
Ic2, , c, of functions in that class. A particular case of this problem is the
problem of finding sharp bounds for the coefficients. Success in this search would
lead to proof or refutation of a well-known conjecture of Bieberbach.
In recent years, a number of problems associated with this class of questions
have been solved.
Schaeffer and Spencer [1950] used their own form of the variational method to
determine explicitly the range of values V3 of the system of coefficients Jc2, c3}
606 SUPPLEMENT
in the class S. Although V3 is a body in 4-dimensional real Euclidean space, the

property of symmetry with respect to rotation admits a simple description of this
set if we determine its three-dimensional cross-sections for which, for example,
b = 0 or b 3 = 0 (c k = ak + ib k, where ak and b k are real). The boundary of the
2
range of values of each of the systems {a2, a3, b3), {a2, b2, a3} is expressed in
explicit form in terms of elementary functions.
In the class I of functions F(C) = C + ao + +
a-1C-1
, Garabedian and
Schiffer [1955] obtained by the method of variations the sharp inequality Ia3I <
+ e -6 . This proves that the bound found by Goluzin [1949c] for the coefficient
of C-3 for odd functions in the class I is sharp throughout that class.
In 1955, Garabedian and Schiffer [1955a] first proved the validity of Bieber-
bach's conjecture for the fourth coefficient. This proof uses both the method of
variations and Loewner's parametric method.
The ranges of values of the systems of initial coefficients in classes of
bounded functions in the classes S(k) and J(k) were investigated by Bazilevic
[1957] by means of Loewner's parametric representation method. Thus, in the
class SM) of functions f(z) = z + Ck+lzk+1 + CZk+lz2k+1 +---,where cvk+l =
a vk +1 + ib vk +1 for k = 1, 2, , Bazilevic determined in explicit form the range
of values of the system {jck+1l, IC2k+111 and, under the assumption that bk+l =
b2k+1 = 0, the range of values of the system {ak+1, a2k+l1 and he exhibited all
their boundary functions. Bazilevic posed and solved the same problems for the
class 1mk) and also for the classes of functions inverse to the functions in SM
and J(k) , respectively.
Charzynski and Janowski [1959] determined the range of values of the system
{c 2, c 31 in the class SM by a method analogous to that used by Schaeffer and
Spencer [1950].
Interesting bounds on the coefficients of univalent functions, bounds which
from a new standpoint explain how the vanishing of some of the initial coefficients
affects the growth of the remaining ones, were obtained by Jenkins [1906b], by
extending his general theorem on coefficients to the case of quadratic differentials
of a suitable form [1960a]. We present some of his results.
Let n denote a positive integer and let F (C) denote the function F (C) _
C + 2°°_ (a . /C') E Y,, where a . = 0 for j < (n - 1)/2. Then,
IanI - nl
+ (1)
Let M denote the class of functions f(z) meromorphic and univalent in the
disk Izi 2, if the
function f(z) = z + Y._
j-2c . z1 E M, and if c . = 0 for j < (n + 1)/2, then
>
c,1j n 2 1
. (2)
Equality holds in (1) and (2) only for the functions n + 1, a) and
F-1 (z-1;
n - 1, a) respectively, where n, a) = (1 + e`naC n)2/n .
Inequalities (1) and (2) were obtained by Goluzin for the classes 20 and S
respectively as special cases of results that are valid for p-valent functions (see
Chapter XI, §6).
If n > 0 and
00
F(C)=C+ Cl C
-n
then, for arbitrary real V j, we have the sharp inequality
{- a "1an+t + 8e Flan - 2 ne
6 8(n+1) 89- 4(n+1) S91og 4 -}- n1 1 , 4. (3)
For n = 0, inequality (3) remains valid for all F(C) E 1 when 0 < S < 4. All the
extremal functions are indicated.
A consequence of inequality (3) for functions of the type indicated is the
inequality
a3n+1 I C n l{- l [1 + 2 exp 1- 2 n n 2/]' (4)
From inequality (3) we get an analogous result for functions that are univalent
in a disk. In particular, we have the following sharp inequality:
Let n denote an integer greater than 2 and let f(z) denote the function f(z) =
z+Y.I-n C. z1EM. Then
n n
C2.-1 n 1 l [1 + 2 exp 1- 2 (5)
608 SUPPLEMENT
Inequalities (4) and (5) had been obtained earlier by Goluzin [1949c] for func-
tions in the classes l(n +1) and S(" ^1) respectively.
In particular, inequality (4) shows that the function
/ 2/(n+ 1) =C+ n+ 1 L_n-+-...,
tn+i)
which maximizes Ia1I and Ia2I in the class E and satisfies for all n the differ-
ential equations for the function maximizing Ia"I in that class is not extremal for
all odd-subscript coefficients a2"+1, n > 1. In connection with this, we note that
Clunie [1959a] constructed along the lines of Littlewood's well-known construc-
tion a function in the class I for which I a" I > n 1 +8 , where 8 is a positive con-
stant, for an infinite sequence of values of n. This function maps the domain
ICI > 1 onto a domain bounded by a Jordan curve.
At the same time, the inequalities
2
IanIC n+ l, n=0, 1, 2, ..., (6)
are valid in the class I*. Specifically, Clunie [1959] proved inequalities (6) in a
simple manner for n > 1 and for functions F(J) = C+ a1/C + a2/C2 +. _ C 2.
The only extremal function is the function c-1 F "(eiJ), where IE I = 1. By using the
same idea of proof, Pommerenke [1962a] obtained inequalities (6) for all functions
F(C)=C+a0+a1/C+... EY.* for n=0, 1, 2,.. .
In 1960, Charzynski and Schiffer [1960] gave a much simpler proof of the
inequality I c 41 < 4, which shows that this inequality is actually more elementary
than Loewner's result Ic31 < 3. These authors also obtained [1960a] a geometrical
proof of the inequality Ic4I < 4. In both cases, the proof is based on an inequality
for suitably chosen combination of the coefficients c 2, c 3, c 4, of a function in the
class S. From this inequality, the inequality Ic4I < 4 is obtained by means of
simple inequalities that follow from the area theorem.
We shall present the first of these proofs of the inequality Ic4I < 4 in a some-
what modified form. The proof rests on Grunsky's familiar condition [1939] for
univalence (see also Chapter IV, § 2). We present this result in the special case
of functions that are regular in the disk I Z I < 1:1)
1) The article by Garabedian, Ross and Schiffer [1965], gives an elementary proof of
this theorem that is based on the area method.
A necessary and sufficient condition for a function f (z) = z + c2 z 2 + that

is regular in the disk Izl < 1 to be univalent in jzj < 1 is that the inequality
amnxmxn f I xn I9 (7)
m,n-1 n=1
be satisfied for every sequence xn} such that the right-hand member of this in-
equality converges, where the coefficients amn are determined by the expansion
Co
In f (z) -f (C) amnxMV,Ixl<1, ICIC1.

z-C
m,n=0
Suppose that f (z) = z + c2z2 + CS. Then, f2(z) = f (zz) E S(2) and in-
equality (7) is satisfied for it. If in (7) we set x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1, x4 =
X5= = 0 and remember that
ail--cs,
1
ala=a91=
1
2 (C3 43 C9),
1 13
aaa = 2 (c` - 2cica + 12
cs) ,
we obtain 1) from (7)

3 5 q
I c-2 (C9 - 1) //Ca - Cy) + `-C8 C 2 111e
2
4 12 C9 E- -j (8)
For the function
F(C)= EE
f9 t)
the area theorem yields
3 el9
s
I C21 + 3 ca - 4 c9 4,
so that
ca- 4c9IC 4-1 c919. (9)
Without loss of generality, we can assume in the problem that we are con-
sidering that c4 > 0. Then, from (8) we have
1) Inequality (8) can also be obtained directly from inequality (12) of Chapter IV, §2,
with n = 3 and the same values for x1, x2, and x3.
610 SUPPLEMENT
3 +ffl {2(cq-0(cg- 4 c.) -+- 2c,-l2c'},

and, in view of (9), this leads to the inequality
cs-l 4-I 2c$-2q2'
If we now set
c9 = 2xe"P, l = 2xe ' a cos 2 p, 0 C X C 1,
we obtain, using the notation y = Isin(3q5/2)I,
acs-1I=2xy,{12c'-19c$}=- 3x3+ 3 xsy9
and, consequently,
cd ? + 8x9 - 14x3
3 3
- - (8x9
3
4
x8)y9 +
/
8
j-3
x vi - x9y.
By taking the maximum of the right-hand member of this expression with fespect
to y, we arrive at the inequality
cEC 3 +8x9 3
x$+461__x 9
, 0Cx<1,
and it will be sufficient to show that
48- l0x - 132x9 + 108x8 - 14x' _ 0 for 0< x< 1
or
(48 + 86x - 8x9) (1 - x)9 + 6x3 (1 - x) f 0, 0 < x C 1.

Obviously, this last inequality is valid and equality holds in it only when x = 1.
This means that
Ic41 < 4
with equality holding only for a function f (z) = z + c2z2 + E S such that
IC21 = 2, that is, for a function of the form
z
,f (z) _ (1 ez)2 ,
where I E I = I.
The Grunsky-Nehari inequalities, which give necessary and sufficient condi-

tions for univalence and boundedness of a function in the disk IzI < 1 (see sub-
section 1° of this section) were used by Singh [19621 to obtain a bound for the
fourth coefficient in the class SR (b 1) of functions f(z)=b 1z + b 2z 2 + .. C SR
with fixed b1 in the interval 0 < b1 < 1, and this led to sharp bounds for b4 under
the additional assumption that b2 > 0. Schiffer and Tammi [19651 examined this
problem by using the variational method and they found all possible extremal func-
tions of this problem. The extremal functions have different forms for different
values of b 1. For example, for 0 < b 1 < 1/11, the maximum value of b4 is attained
by a function w = f0(z) that maps the disk IzI < 1 onto the unit disk with cut
lying on the negative radius and only by such a function; for 19/34 < b 1 < 1, the
maximum value of b4 is attained by a mapping w = f1(z) of the disk IzI < 1 onto
the unit disk with three radial cuts of equal length making equal angles each with
the next. In these statements, the constant 1/11 cannot be replaced with a larger
constant nor the constant 19/34 with a smaller. With regard to a bound for Ib41
in the entire class S(1) (b I), Schiffer and Tammi showed [1965a] that the function
w = (o (z) is extremal for this last problem for some interval 0 < b 1 < a and the
mapping w = f 1(z) has the same property for all 19/34 < b 1 < 1. This last fact
was obtained by the use of the Grunsky-Nehari conditions and a generalization of
the idea in the paper by Charzynski and Schiffer [19601.
With regard to bounds on other initial coefficients of the functions in the
class S, we mention the following results. Duren and Schiffer [1962/631 found
infinite quadratic forms S, giving second variations -62 $2c,, for the coefficients
in the expansion of Koebe's function I*(z) = z/(1 - z)2 . These formulas point out
the significant difference between the coefficients en with even and odd sub-
scripts. Duren and Schiffer were able to show that the quadratic forms Sn are
positive-definite for n < 9, and this means that Koebe's function gives a strict
local extremum for I c n at these values of n for all the variations in question.
I
Later, Garabedian, Ross and Schiffer [19651 established an analogous extremal

property of Koebe's function for all even n = 2m by means of a bound on its sec-
ond variation &2Rc2m. Proof is based on use of Grunsky's conditions in matrix
form for the odd function f2(z) = VIf (z2), where f (z) = I*(z) + bf W. Corresponding
to the function f (z) = z/(1 - z2) is the unique matrix amn' of Grunsky's coeffi-
cients. Specifically, they proved the following theorem:
For every m = 1, 2, , there exists an c m > 0 such that if the condition
612 SUPPLEMENT
22m2 Ick - k12 < Eon is satisfied for f(z) = z + c2z2 + C S, then $2c2m < 2m
with equality holding only for the function f *(z).
Furthermore, the problem of global proof of Bieberbach's conjecture for the
sixth coefficient is reduced to the problem of proving a trigonometric inequality
in five independent variables. In connection with this last, we point out that
Bombieri [1963] had alre4dy proved the inequality Rc6 < 6 in the class S for
values of Rc2 sufficiently close to 2 and Ozawa [1965] used Grunsky's condi-
tions (7) to prove this inequality under the assumption that 0 < c 2 < 2.
With regard to the question of finding bounds for the coefficients for all n>4,
the best result in this direction that has so far been obtained is the inequality
found by Milin [1965]:
cn' < 1.243n, for n > 4.
This result was obtained by investigation of univalent functions based on use of
extremal properties of certain systems of functions.
We point out a few results characterizing the asymptotic behavior of the coef-
ficients in the expansion of univalent functions.
Hayman [1955] showed the close connection between the maximum modulus
M(r, f)=maxIzI_rIf (z)I, where 0 < r < 1, of the function f(z)=z +c2z2+...
C S and the coefficients of the two functions f (z) and
Js(z)= J (Z9)=z +b3Z3+... E S ,
namely, the limits
lim (1 - r)' M (r, f) = lim 1 c' = lim I b9n_1 I'== is, C 1, (10)
r-l n-oo n n-+oo
where of = 1, exist only for f (z) = z/(1 - e`9z)2 .

One result of this is the fact that, for every function f (z) C S, there exists a
number Nf for which Bieberbach's inequality Ic,l holds for n > Nf. However, it
still remains an open question whether there exists a number N independent of
the function f (z) in the class S beginning with which Bieberbach's inequality is
satisfied. Hayman [1958a] proved the following:
If Cn is the least upper bound of Icnl for all f(z) C S, then the limit
lim nCn-a
exists. (This limit is equal to 1 if Bieberbach's conjecture is true.)
S2. UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS IN DISK AND ANNULUS 613
For odd functions, it is well known that

ban-t I < A. n > 1,
where A is an absolute constant. It has also been shown that A > 1. Furthermore,
a uniform inequality of the form Ib2R_II < 1 for n > N is impossible (see Chapter
IV, § 7). The exact value of the constant A is unknown. By using the bound for
the area of the image of the disk I z I < r < 1 under a function in the class S(2)
(see the article by Lebedev and Milin [1951)), Gong Sheng (Kung Sun) [19551 ob-
tained the inequality
I b9._t I `\ 2.55. n > 1.
Let us denote by S(a) and S(2) (a) respectively the subclasses of functions
in theti classes S and S(2) for which (10) holds with fixed of = a, where 0 < a <-1.
Let S (a) denote the set of functions f(z) C S(a) that map the disk I z I < 1 onto
the plane with an analytic cut. The class Sc2)(a) is defined analogously.
Bazilevic [19651 showed that the value of a in the class S (a) determines
not only the limit relation (10) but also the closeness of the coefficients in the
expansion of the function
(z)=lnfz =2 (7tz+79x9
ti
where f (z) C S (a), to the corresponding coefficients in the expansion of the
function
co
cp* (z)
- In (I I
_-2 zk
z`) k
k=l
under a suitable rotation of the unit disk. He also proved certain other relation-
ships qualifying in this sense the spread of the coefficients in the expansion of
ti
functions in the class S (a). Specifically, he obtained the following theorem:
if f(z) C S (a), and f(e`0O) = ., then, for arbitrary real A, the equation
m
I
k-l
kl'k-
k e-rkeo l9 r9k=(A- 1) In I
I
r2
-I-;? -allna+ ea(r), (12)
where EA(r) 0 as r 1, holds for coefficients in the expansion (11) of the

function O(z).
614 SUPPLEMENT
It follows, in particular, from (12) that

00
9 I
k k - k e- ikOo - In
I
.
k-i a
When an inequality for regular functions that was obtained by Lebedev and
Milin [19651 is used, this theorem leads to the following result:
If f (z) C S (a) and f (e "90), then, for arbitrary real JA and r, the inequality
4ts
1
00
Qk Ir
9 9k
I/
I a2
(1 -} 6J(r)), (13)
I
C (1
k1
=
where g (r) -+ 0 as r - 1, holds for the coefficients in the expansion of the func-
tion D(z) = [(f(z)/z) (1 + e ZeOz)2A]r = 1 + Glz + G2z2 + , which is regular in
the disk Izl < 1.
Special cases of inequality (13) are the inequalities giving a bound on the
mean square modulus in the classes S (a) and S (')(a), the inequality, giving a
lower bound on the distance between adjacent coefficients in the expansion of the
function f2(z) = R_W) and various other inequalities characterizing the spread
of the coefficients of univalent functions.
Some of the results that we have given regarding the spread of the coefficients
are strengthened and generalized for the case of functions that are p-valent in
mean in a joint paper by Bazilevic and Lebedev [1966] with the aid of methods ex-
pounded in the monograph of Hayman [1958].
The problem of investigating the interrelationships between the order of
growth of sequences of coefficients is related in a natural way to the question of
the asymptotic behavior of the coefficients in the expansions of univalent func-
tions. The first systematic results in this direction belong to Goluzin (Chapter
IV, §8).
Goluzin also examined the problem of finding bounds for the growth of adjacent
coefficients in the expansions of functions in the class S (ibid.). For functions in
S*, he obtained [1946e, 1949c] the inequality
IIeR+tI-I1nI <A
(where A is an absolute constant less than 100), which is sharp with regard to
the order of dependence on n.
Recently, Hayman [19631 obtained a bound on the growth of adjacent coeffi-

cients that is asymptotically sharp not only for the class S but also for the class F.
If a function f (z) = z + .=2 cnz" C F°I , then
n. 1, (14)
where A is an absolute constant.

In the particular case in which cn = 0 for a sequence n = nv, for v= 1, 2,. . . ,
such that 1 < nv+I - n, < K, we have

IcnI<cAK, n_:: no. (15)
Inequality (15) cannot be improved as regards order of dependence on K, as is

shown by the functions
A
(z) - z _ 00
sin nO zn
1 - 2z cos 0 + z' sin g
n=I
In particular, if 0 = n/K, where K is even, then cn = 0 for n = Km, whereas
Icnl=Icosec01>K/n for n=K(m+%).
In the proof of inequality (14), in addition to the familiar and frequently used
inequalities regarding regular functions, we also use the following finer result:
iBI i82
Let f (z) denote a function belonging to F1 . Let zI = r I e and z2 = rte
with rI If(z2)I, then
I.f(z1)I'14If(Z%)1314<
(1-r1)'12(1 Ar2)1/2Iz2-z,I (16)
where A is an absolute constant.
For f (z) C S, the inequality obtained from (16) by replacing its left-hand
member with If(z2)I was obtained by Biernacki [19561 from an inequality of Golu-
zin [1946e, 1949c].
For functions in the class S, this proof of inequality (14) is simplified only
to an inconsiderable extent. In connection with this, it is appropriate to cite Hay-
man's assertion that it is difficult to prove a result of an asymptotic nature for
univalent functions by a method that could not at the same time be applied to func-
tions that are p-valent in mean.
Lucas (cf. Hayman [19651) extended the result given above to functions that
are p-valent in mean:
616 SUPPLEMENT
If f (z) = c0 + c 1 z + is regular and p-valent in mean with respect to area

in the disk I z I < 1, then
Icn,11-IC4IF=Q(n9P-9),
pal, (17)
and, for % < p < 1,

l = p (n2 (P - 1f_P_)) (18)
I cn+1 1 - I cn l
Inequality (17) cannot be improved and, for p < 1, it is no longer true. For
p = !/2, inequality (18) is true for a function f (v), where f (z) = z + b 3z3 +
E S(-) (see Hayman [19651). This leads to the relation
I=o(nl-1,f2_
I I bj.+tl-I69n-tI ),
which improves the earlier result of Goluzin (see Chapter IV, §8).
For the coefficients in the expansions of univalent functions that are repre-
sented by lacunary power series with rapidly widening gaps, we have a stronger
result than inequality (15). Specifically, Pommerenke [1964a] obtained the follow-
ing theorem:
zn'
If a function f (z) = z + Ym=1 c" is locally univalent in the disk IzI < 1
v
and if nv+1/nv > q for all v, where q is a constant greater than 1, then
IC.I-0(n)-
This result cannot be improved without supplementary restrictions on f (z), as is
shown by the following example:
Let 171kI denote a sequence that approaches 0 as k --. . Let us choose nk
so that nk+1 /nk -' oo as k --. and Ik=1 7]" < 1. Then, the function
k
m
f (z) = z + E nk171nkzlk
k-l
is bounded, univalent, and starlike in the disk IzI < 1.
For functions f (z) = z + E'=z C"Z" E S, for which If WI < M/(1 - I z I) a in the
disk I zI < 1, we have, for a > Y2, the well-known sharp bound on the increase in
the coefficients
t+
where A (a) depends only on a. (See, for example, Hayman [1958] 3.3; an analo-
gous inequality is valid for p-valent functions.) For a < Y2, Pommerenke [1961/62]
obtained the following result:

If f (z) = z + n=2 CnZn C S and If (z)I < M/(1 - IzI)a in IzI < 1, then
a-
cnM'A(a)aC
Furthermore, for a < Y2,
I cnl=o(n '/') as n -ioo.

Analogous relations hold for functions that are p-valent in mean with respect to
area. As Pommerenke [1962a] has shown, for starlike univalent functions, the
condition M(r) = O((1 - r)_a), where 0 < r < 1 and M(r) = max,Z _r If (z)I, leads
to the relation
IcnI=O(,'+°)
for all a in the interval 0 < a < 2.
Clunie and Pommerenke [1966] proved this same result for functions that are
close to convex.
With regard to the problem of coefficients for special classes of univalent
functions, we mention the following results: In the class S*, the problem of the
coefficients has been solved. Specifically, Hummel [1957] determined in explicit
form the set Vn in (n - 1)-dimensional complex Euclidean space consisting of all
points (c2, , cn) that are put in correspondence with at least one function
f(z) = z + c2 z2 + + cnzn + C
S. Here, Vn is determined from its two-
dimensional cross section Cn , for which c 2, ,c1 are fixed. If (c 2, ,c_1)
is an interior point of Vn _1, then Cn is a disk whose radius does not exceed
2/(n - 1). This is a sharp bound since it is attained when c2 = C 3 = = cn-1 = 0
by a function of the form f (z) = z/(1 - , where IE I = 1. In particular,
Ezn-1)2/(n-1)
the boundaries of the cross-sections C* and C3 are determined by the equations

c2 = 2eand c3 =.3cz/4+ e`9(4- Ic21)2/4.
In the class K (see p.619) of functions f(z) = z + c2z2 + that are close
to convex in the disk IzI < 1, Bieberbach's conjecture
ICJ <n
is valid, as Reade has shown [1955]. For functions a0 + aI/ +
618 SUPPLEMENT
that are meromorphic and close to convex in 141 > 1, Pommerenke [1962] has ob-
tained
and-0(n)
Supplementary to the results given above, on the growth of adjacent coeffi-
cients for univalent functions, Pommerenke [1963] proved the following theorem:
If f(z) = z + 2n=2Cn z' E K, then
Ilcn+tl-IcnH< e9, n>1.

Pommerenke also indicated the form of all functions for which this inequality
is sharp with respect to the order of dependence on n. In particular, for all func-
tions in S* except the functions
z
.f (Z) =
(1 - ei°'z) (1 - e1B3z)
where 01 and 02 are real, there exists a S = 6(f) > 0 such that
C.+1 I -I C.1=0
4°. Structural formulas for various classes of analytic functions. A large num-
ber of results have been obtained for classes of functions that can be represented
by some "structural formula" or other, in particular, by a Stieltjes integral. It is
well known that the class C of functions f (z) = 1 + c 1z + that are regular in
the disk I zI < 1 and satisfy the condition Rf (Z) > 0 in that disk can be repre-
sented by the Stieltjes integral
.f (z) = S e,t+z dµ (t), (1)
where IL(t) is a nondecreasing function in [- a , n] such that 1L67)-1A-i7)= 1.

On the basis of a simple connection between functions in the classes C and T,
Robertson [1935] and Goluzin [1950a] used this formula to obtain an integral repre-
sentation for the class T (see Chapter XI, §9). Beginning with this representa-
tion, Goluzin [1950a] obtained in the class T a number of distortion and rotation
theorems and also bounds on the mean moduli of f (Z) and f '(z) on the
circle IZI=r<1.
The structural formula for the class C also leads easily to integral represen-
tations of the classes S* (see Chapter IX, §9) and S By this procedure, one can
find an integral representation for the class of functions that are close to convex,
that is, functions f (z) that are regular in the disk I zI < 1 and satisfy there the
condition R 4f'(z)/g'(z)I > 0, where g (z) is some function that is independent of f
and regular and convex in jzl < 1. This class was introduced by Kaplan [19521.
Every close-to-convex function is univalent in I z I < 1 and f (z) is close to convex
if and only if f '(z) A 0 and
9y
11 Zf (z) de - t<
Bt.
for arbitrary 01 and 02 such that -rr < 01 < 0Z < 7r and z = re`B, where r < 1.
The class of close-to-convex functions coincides (see Lewandowski [1958, 19601)
with the class of functions that map the disk Izi < 1 onto domains linearly acces-
sible from the outside, which Biernacki [19361 had first investigated.
We denote by K the class of functions f (z) = z + c + 2z2
that are regular
and close to convex in the disk I z I < 1.
It is obvious from the definition of the class K that S* C K C S.
Ju. D. Maksimov [19551 introduced into consideration the class CE(p) of E-
locally-convex functions and the class S. (p) of E-locally-starlike functions f (z),
with f (0) = 0, that are regular in the disk I zI < 1 and that satisfy the conditions
0, n
eJ
1
T{1 + f (z))}d0=2p it
for f (z) E CE (p), and

09
S
{Z f ((z }
de > - e , SN{ f' (z) }d0 = 2pts
_x
for f (z) E Se(p) in the annulus 0 0.
Let CE(p, q) and SE(p, q) denote subclasses of functions in CE(p) and SE(p)
that are of the form
f (Z)
= Z9 + Cq+1z9+t +
620 SUPPLEMENT
These classes contain many well-known classes of functions. In particular,

Cn(1, 1) is the class K defined above, the class Sn(1) contains functions that
are starlike with respect to direction (see Robertson [19361), and the classes
Co(p) and So(p) were examined by Goodman [1950].
Ju. D. Maksimov [1955, 1955a] has obtained an integral representation of the
classes C1(p, q) and Sf(p, q). On the basis of it, he used Goluzin's method of
variation of functionals (see Chapter XI, §9) to solve a number of extremal prob-
lems for these classes. In particular, he solved theoretically the problem of find-
ing n ax R ((D[f '(z)] } for a given entire function 4(w) and fixed z in the disk I Z I < 1
out of the class of functions CE (p, q) the zeros of whose derivatives are fixed,
and obtained bounds for Jf '(z)( and arg f '(z) in that class.
Rahmanov [19511 proved the following theorem:
if f (z) C S, then the function
pa (z) =1 _ era [f (z) + erazf (z)],

belongs to the class S.
Rahmanov also investigated [1953] the question of membership in S of the
arithmetic mean of a finite number of functions in certain subclasses of S. The
classes of functions that he found are characterized by the corresponding geo-
metric properties of a conformal mapping performed by them. Certain of Rahmanov's
results have been generalized in papers by Zmorovic [1954, 1959, 1959a]. Thus
Zmorovic [1959] introduced the class of functions, regular and univalent in the
disk zl < 1, that map it onto domains that are convex in the upper and lower
halfplanes respectively in the direction of a and f3, and he obtained its integral
representation. This class is a natural broadening of certain classes of Rahmanov
[1953] and of the class of functions that are convex in a given direction,-which
was first studied by Robertson [1936]. The article by Lozovik [1963] deals with
this class of questions.
Loewner's parametric representation in this class of questions has played
the following role: Kufarev's differential equations [1947], which generalize the
familiar equations of Loewner, have made it possible to obtain an integral repre-
sentation of a rather broad subclass of functions that are univalent in a disk.
This class includes, in particular, known representations of conformal mappings
of the unit disk onto starlike and helical domains. Specifically, by solving the
Loewner-Kufarev equation in quadrature in a special case, Bazilevic [19641 gen-

eralized his previous results by proving the following theorem:
If two functions p0(z) and p1(z) are regular in the disk I z I < 1 and have
positive real parts in that disk, then the function
`z s I
(z)
- rI.PP0 (0)
, (0)
0
pt (5) sp. (0)- I exp (l
0
P0 (t) Po (0) dt) ds Ins i0)
(2)
belongs to the class S if by w(z) we mean that branch that has the expansion
w(z)=z±c'Azs+..., [zl<l.
For p0(0) = p1(0) = 1, we obtain from (2) the class of functions
U1(z)=Cf"tt)p,(t)A (3)
where f#(z) C S*. If, in particular, p 1(z) = z f* (z)/ f(z), then w = f* W; that is,
the class (3) contains the class S*. One can easily show that the class (3) is
broader than the class S*. As Krzyz [19641 noted, the class (3) is a subclass of
the class K.
In connection with this, we note that membership of a function f (z) in the
class S does not imply that the function
z
w(z)=Sftt)p(t)dt,
0
where p(z) = 1 + c 1 z + C C, belongs to the class S. This is shown by an ex-

ample constructed in 1963 by Bazilevic (see also the article by Krzyi and Lewan-
dowski [19631).
The well-known integral representation (1) for functions with positive real
part in a disk has been extended to the case of an annulus. Specifically, Zmoro-
viL [19531 obtained a structural formula for the class C (q, 1) of functions f (z)
that are regular in the annulus q < z I < 1, that satisfy the conditions Rf(z) > 0
for q < I z I < 1, and that are normalized by the condition
S fzZ)dz=1, q<r<l.
(4)
2n1
IzI=r
622 SUPPLEMENT
By means of this representation, one can easily obtain (see Zmorovic [19531)
structural formulas for the class U*(q, 1) of functions that are regular and starlike
in the annulus q < I z I < 1 and for the class of functions that are regular and con-
vex in that annulus. An integral representation for functions that are regular and
starlike in an annulus was obtained independently by Li En-pir [1953b]. He also
obtained an integral representation for the class of functions that are regular and
typically real in an annulus (cf. Li En-pir [1953a]).
From the structural formula for the class of starlike functions we get, in par-
ticular, a representation for functions that map the annulus q < Izl < 1 onto
doubly connected domains the boundary of each of which consists of n segments
issuing from the origin and of m rays the reverse continuations of which pass
through the origin and which have no points in common with the segments. Func-
tions of this kind are extremal in a number of problems. For m = n = 1, for func-
tions of this form that belong to the class U*(q, 1), we obtain
In (ze-10); q
a° \2ai !
f( = CZ
f(Z) (5)
a' (21-ti
In (ze q
Here,
5t 6,_., In z; q) = - iq_'i, DI (
2ai In z; 4)
where j0(C; q) and 'D1(C; q) are Jacobi's theta functions with periods 1 and r,
where r = (i/n) In (1/q). By letting q approach zero in (5), we obtain Koebe's
function
CZ
f (z) G '
The function (5) plays in many problems a role for an annulus analogous to
the role of Koebe's function for a disk. For example, the function (5) with a =
13 ± u and only such a function attains extrema of I f (z)I for all z such that
q < Izl < I in the class U*(q, 1) (and in the broader class of functions that are
univalent in the annulus q < I zl < 1 [see subsection 1° of § 2]) and also extrema
of arg f (z) for arbitrary z in the annulus q < IzI < 1 in the class U*(q, 1) (see
Dunducenko [1956]).
We mention that Zmorovic [1956] obtained an integral representation for yet
more general classes of functions that are regular in an annulus with real part
satisfying appropriate conditions. These last results carry over to an annulus the
familiar representations of analogous classes of functions in a disk.
With regard to an n-connected circular domain Kn, where n > 3, Zmorovic
[1958] generalized to the case of such a domain the familiar formula of Schwarz
for a disk (in a form different from Meschkowski's representation [1954]). By using
this result, Zmorovic [1958] obtained structural formulas for the class of functions
that are regular and have positive real part in the domain Kn and for the more
general class of functions that are regular in the domain Kn. Maksimov [1961]
used the method employed by Goluzin [1934] in solving problems of the Dirichlet
and Neumann type to generalize to the case of the domain Kn the structural for-
mula for the class of regular functions that are univalent and convex in an annulus.
A generalization of the class C of functions that are regular and have posi-
tive real part in the disk I zJ < 1 is the class C (r), for 0 < r < r, of functions that
can be represented by a Stieltjes integral
where p(t) is a nondecreasing function on [-r, r]. By using the results of

Ahiezer and Krein [1938], Monastyrskii [1959] gave an actual solution of the prob-
lem of finding necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a function
f (z) in the class C (r), for 0 < r < n, whose Maclaurin-series expansions begin
with a given polynomial
2+ CvZv, CU > 0,
and which assumes a given value w at a given point z0 0 in the disk I z I < 1.
In the article by Andreeva, Lebedev and Stovbun [1961], problems are posed
and solved regarding functions in the class C (r) for which the problem formulated
above, of Monastyrskii, is a special case. In that article, Lebedev solves the fol-
lowing general problem:
Let M denote the class of functions w = f (z) that are regular in the disk
IzJ < 1 and let G denote an arbitrary simply connected domain in the w-plane that
does not include the point oc and some other given point. We shall say that the
function f (z) E M is subject to the domain G if, for arbitrary z in the disk
IzJ < 1, the point w = f (z) E G. We denote by MG the class of functions that are
subject to the domain G. Let z0 = 0 and let zk (k = 1, , m) denote distinct
624 SUPPLEMENT
points in the domain 0 < I z I < 1, let ak (k = 0, 1, , m) denote given natural
numbers, and let wk(v) (k = 0, 1, , m; v = 1, 2, , ak) denote given numbers.
We use the notation x = x (zk) (z0, , zm), a a (ak) _ (a0, ... , am)'
X = X (WP )) _ (Z10'), ... , 'IQ O), ... , &0, ... , w((°m) ).
Let M (x, a, X) denote the class of functions f (z) E M that satisfy the conditions
(v - I)! ')(Zk)=w(v), k=0, 1, ..., m, v==I, 2, ..., ak.

Let MG (x, a, X) denote the class of functions f (z) that belong both to the class
MG and to the class M (x, a, X). Suppose that the class MG is given. Suppose
that a given system 0((, MG) of functionals
(1i(k(f1=(v-1)!}(y
I
1)(zk), k = 0, 1, ..., m, v=1, 2, ..., ak, (7)
is defined on the class MG M.

The following problem is solved: find the range of values of the system
T)(f, MG) of functionals (7) defined on the class MG , that is, find the set of
points X in n-dimensional complex Euclidean space Rn, where n = 1k=1 °'k'
such that, for every point X = X (w( v )) in this set there exists a function f (z) E
MG (x, a, X). The boundary functions of this range of values are uniquely deter-
mined by a consideration of the variable class N (A) = MG(A) (x, a, X), with A' <
A < A", where x, a, and X are fixed and G (A) is a variable domain that is con-
tinuous with respect to A on the interval A' < A < A" and possesses the property
that, for any two numbers A 1 and A2 such that A' < Al < A2 < A", we have
G (A1) C G (A2) and G(A1) G (A2). For this class, N (A') is empty and the class
N(A") is nonempty.
A number of theorems for functions that are regular and have positive real
part and also for regular typically real functions in a disk or annulus have been
obtained by Komatu [1957, 1958, 1958a]. The ranges of values of arbitrary finite
systems of coefficients in the expansions of functions in these classes that are
defined in an annulus (or disk) have been studied by Nishimiya [1957, 19591.
The ranges of values of functionals that are the sum and product of Stieltjes
integrals have been studied by Remizova [1959]. The results that she obtained
generalize to the case of functionals of the form indicated certain of the theorems
in the paper by Asnevic and Ulina [1955].
Alenicyn [1962] has obtained results of a very general nature regarding the
ranges of arbitrary finite systems of Laurent coefficients of functions that are
regular in an arbitrary given finitely connected domain and that can be represented
in it by a sum of Stieltjes integrals, and he obtained their boundary functions:
Let G denote a finitely connected bounded circular domain in the z-plane and
let F denote a class of functions that can be represented in G by a formula of
the form
M b
f (z) _ Y, S gk (z t) dp'k (t),
k=la
where the gk(z, t) are suitable fixed functions and the µk(t) are members of
M [a, b] for k = 1, 2, , in. Let Z. (V = 1, , s) denote distinct fixed points
each of which either belongs to the domain G or is the center of one of the circles
serving as part of its boundary. Suppose that the expansions
co
f (z) = E CAI*) (z - zy)n,
(8)
g. (z, t)= Lj
a neighborhood of the point zv in the first case or in a circular annu-
lus with center at z V in the second. Furthermore, let IC19 ... , CNI denote an
arbitrary fixed system of coefficients Cr' I considered as a point T[ 1] _
{C1,... , CNI in N-dimensional complex Euclidean space RN and let T[gk(z, t)]
denote the point of RN (k = 1, 2, , m) analogous to it defined in accordance
with (8). Since the range of values of the system (C1, . . . , CNI in the class F is
the range of values of the functional 5'[f] on that class, this range is the convex
envelope of the union of the sets U a< t< b 'T [gk(z, t)] for k = 1, , m. As an
application in the class T of the functions f (z) = z + c2Z2 + , one can find
the range of values QM of the system If (z0), c21, where z0 is a nonzero fixed
point of the disk I zI < 1:
For !` z0 0, the range of values of c (T) is a body in three-dimensional real
space bounded by two conical surfaces
w-(1+Zn)'t-3 ( z.
(I+zR)'1,
where f (z0) = w = xl + ix2 and c2 = x3.
626 SUPPLEMENT
For z0 = 0, the set 11(T) is a plane domain bounded by an arc of the hyper-
bola x3 = z0 + 1/z0 - 1/x1 where z0/(1 + z0)2 < XI < z0/(1 - z0)2 , and the chord
subtending the endpoints of that arc. Corresponding to every boundary point
1w, c21 of the range of values 11(T) is a unique function in the class T.
Let us denote by V c 2) the class of all functions f (z) = z + c 2z 2 + in
T with fixed coefficient c 2. Let fZ (T (c 2)) denote the range of values of f (z0)
under the condition that z0 is a fixed point in the domain 0 < I z0 I < 1 and the
function f (z) ranges over the class T (c 2). When we look at the intersection of
the domain SZ (T) with the plane x3 = c 2, where - 2 < c 2 < 2, we obtain the result:
For ` z0 0, the range of values of fZ (T (c 2)) is a circular lune with vertices
z0/(1 - c2z0 + z02) and z0(1 + c2z0 + z0)2/(1 - z2)2, one of whose boundary cir-
cles passes through the point z0/(1 - z0)2 and the other through the point
z0/(1 + z0)2. For 9z0 = 0, the range SZ(T(c2)) is the segment of the real axis
connecting the first two points mentioned. By using this result, Goluzina [1962]
obtained a number of sharp inequalities in the class T(c2). Some of these results
strengthen the corresponding theorems of Goluzin [1950a] and Asnevic and Ulina
[1955].
Following the method used in the article by Andreeva, Lebedev and Stovbun
[1961], Goluzina obtained [1965] necessary and sufficient conditions for the exis-
tence of functions f (z) in the class T that have given initial segments of their
Taylor expansions at different given points of the disk Izj < 1 and she determined
the range of values of the system of functionals, 11(z), c 2, c 3, . . , cn 1, where
n > 2, in the class T. As an example, we present the following theorem, which is
directly related to the result given above for the class T (c 2). Let T (c 2, c 3) de-
note the subclass of all functions in T with fixed coefficients c2 and c3.
The range of values SZ (T (c 2, c 3)) of the functional f (z) for fixed z in the
disk I z I < 1 in the class V c 2, c 3) when ` z 0 is a convex lune bounded by
arcs of two circles (these are explicitly defined). In the case lz = 0, the range
of 1l (T (c 2, c 3)) degenerates into a segment of the real axis.
In connection with the results given above, we mention that Lozovik [1963a]
presented a geometrical method of determining the range of values of the system
of functionals that can be represented by a Stieltjes integral and also the subset
of that set that satisfies given additional conditions. As an illustration, let us
find the range of values of the functional f '(z) (where z is a fixed point in the
disk I zj < 1) defined on the class of functions f (z) = z + c 2z 2 + C3 with
fixed coefficients c2, , cn. The article by Nosenko [1963] deals with the same
question.
Now, let C denote the class of functions of the form f (z) = 1 + c 1z + that
are regular and satisfy the inequality Rf (z) > 0 in the disk I z I < 1 and let CN de-
note the subclass of functions in C of the form
N
"Pk
f (z) _ I Xhk 1 + ze
I 9o-jib '
k-I
where the 0k are arbitrary real numbers and the Ak are arbitrary nonnegative num-
bers satisfying the equation AI +A2 + + AN = 1. Robertson [1962, 1963] used
a variational method that he constructed to show that a number of extremal prob-
lems in the class C are satisfied by functions belonging to the class C2. Zmoro-
vie proved [1965] in a very simple way the following theorem, which contains, in
particular, the corresponding theorem of Robertson:
Let cF (C; w) denote a real function of the complex variables t;' and w that
is single-valued and bounded in the domain l > 0, lwl < oc. Suppose that, for
arbitrary fixed t; in RC > 0, this function attains its greatest lower bound or its
least upper bound in any disk 1w - woI < R on the boundary of that disk. Then,
the quantity
J= extr extr (f (z), zf'(z))
fEC 1z1 -r<1
(where the abbreviation extr denotes the greatest lower or least upper bound) is
attained in the class C2, and
J= extr extr (1) (. w),
C w
as C varies in the disk IC - al < p, where a = (1 + r2)/(1 - r2) and p= 2r/(1

-r2
and w varies over the circle lw - 1 (Cz _ 1)I = Iz (p2 alt)
This theorem is easily generalized to the case in which we are given a real
function cV(C, w1,... , wn) of complex variables t;, wI ,..., wn that is defined
in the domain RC > 0, Iwkl < - for k = 1, 2, , n and one studies its extrema
onadisk Izl=r<1 for C=f(z)EC,wk=zkf(k)(z) for k= 1,2,...,n.
As an application of Zmorovic's theorem presented above, we can find the
greatest upper bound of the curvature of the level curves in the subclass S(xk)* of
the functions f W in the class S(k)* satisfying the condition R(zf '(z)/f (z)) > a
in the disk Izl < 1, where 0 < a < 1. For a = 0, we then obtain a theorem proved
628 SUPPLEMENT
by Aleksandrov and Cernikov [19631 by a different procedure (see §2, subsection

2° of this supplement).
Aleksandrov and GutljanskiT [19661 proved a number of results regarding
boundary functions of ranges of values of functionals of a general form that are de-
fined on the class K and its subclasses and also on the class C. They used in-
ternal variations in these classes. As an application, they found in explicit form
the range of values of the functional f '(z) on the class K. This range of values
had been found earlier by Krzyi in 1965, who started directly with an integral rep-
resentation of the class K. Aleksandrov and GutljanskiT [19651 obtained other
quite general results regarding boundary functions of ranges of values of weakly
differentiable functionals and systems of functionals defined on classes of func-
tions that can be represented as a sum of Stieltjes integrals. They did so by using
variational formulas in these classes of the same type as the variational formulas
of Goluzin (see Chapter XI, N. We present one of the results obtained by these
authors for the class C. Let z 1, , z , (for p = 1, 2, ) denote fixed points in
the disk Izl < 1. Define um = f (m) (zi) and vm = um (where r n= 0, 1, , si
> > 1
and j = 1, p).// Let
I (f)=J
u01, Vol, ..., us11vs11; ...; u0p, v0p, ..., uspp, vspp)
denote a weakly differentiable function defined on the class C.

The only boundary functions in the range of values of the functional 1(f) de-
fined on the class C are functions in the class CN, where N < s 1 + + SP +
2p - 1.
It follows, in particular, that the only boundary functions of the functional
1(f) = J (f (z), r (z), f '(z), f '(z)) defined on the class C are functions in the class
CN for N < 2.
We mention some of the other recent results that are based directly on a para-
metric representation of these classes of functions. Gel'fer [19651 applied Golu-
zin's variational formulas in the class T to the problem of finding the maximum in
that class of tle°'zf'(z)/f(z)j for fixed z and y (where I z I < 1 and y is real).
Galperin [19651 obtained an integral representation of the class of functions f(z)=
CO + c lz + that are regular in the disk Izl < 1 and satisfy there the conditions
If (z)I < 1 and f (z) 0. Using its simple connection with the class C, they arrived
at a number of inequalities in that class. Gel'fer and Kresnjakova [19651 con-
sidered the class H 8 (where 8 > 0) of functions f (z) = co + c 1 z + that are
§3. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC IN MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS 629
regular in the disk Izi < 1 and satisfy for arbitrary r in the interval 0 < r < 1 the
condition
2%
S I f (rele) JA d9 ` 1.
2zc
A parametric representation of the class H S follows from the representation found

by Smirnov [1932] for the broader class of functions that are regular in the disk
IzI < 1 and satisfy for arbitrary r in the interval 0 < r < 1 the condition
2i
127t } I f (reie) Ia d6)'18<oo .
These authors used the variational formulas that they obtained in the class H S of
the same type as Goluzin's variational formulas (see Chapter XI, §9) to find the
greatest values of the functionals !1c (log (f (z)/B (z))){ and R1I(log f '(z))} defined
on that class where z is a fixed number in the disk I zI < 1, 0(w) is a given entire func-
tion, and B (C) is an appropriate multiplier in the parametric representation of f (C)
depending on its zeros in I C I < 1. In particular, for functions f (z) E H S that do
not vanish in the disk I z I < 1, they obtained sharp bounds on if `(z) I for given
z = re°9, where r < 1. The inequalities giving these bounds depend on the rela-
tionships between 8 and r. One of them had already been found by Kresnjakova
[1962] by a different procedure. These include a number of results for the class
H S
[1961, 1962, 19631.
Gel'fer [1966] used the same method to find the extrema of certain functionals
defined on the class A M (see Chapter IX, § 3) of functions f (z) = c 1 z + that
are regular in the disk Izi < 1 and that satisfy for arbitrary r in the interval
0 < r < 1 the condition
It
S log+ I f (re') I A - M.
0
§3. Functions that are analytic in multiply connected domains

10. Conformal mappings of multiply connected domains onto canonical sur-
faces. In Chapter V we presented the basic extremal properties of conformal map-
pings of a multiply connected domain onto certain very simple canonical domains:
onto the plane with parallel rectilinear cuts, onto the plane with cuts along arcs of
logarithmic spirals all of the same inclination, and so forth. For the theory of
630 SUPPLEMENT
functions that are analytic in multiply connected domains, it will be of interest to

answer the question about the existence and extremal properties of conformal map-
pings of a multiply connected domain onto canonical domains of a more complicated
type. We mention certain results associated with this question.
Grunsky's article [19391 initiated the study of conformal mappings of a given
multiply connected domain onto many-sheeted canonical surfaces. In that article,
he studied a function that is regular in a multiply connected domain except at a
pole of multiplicity m and that maps that domain onto a Riemann surface with
parallel rectilinear cuts. For mappings that are defined on a multiply connected
domain and that possess the geometric property mentioned, though with singular
parts of the mapping functions of a more general type, Alenicyn [19641 obtained
the following results by the method of contour integration:
Let B denote a bounded finitely connected domain in the z-plane with bound-
ary C consisting of simple closed analytic curves C11 ... , Cm. Let 4 1, ... , Cs'
where s > 1, denote arbitrary distinct points in the domain B. Let aO,j , al,j , .. .
... , a Pj.l , where j = 1, , s, denote arbitrary coefficients (not all zero) such
that Is =1 a0 j = 0. Define
s P
a*,j l
S (z; + ao.1 log (z - cj)J
J=1 k=1 j
(a function of the singularities). Under these conditions, we have the theorem:
For an arbitrary given angle 0 in the interval -zr/2 < 0 < zr/2 and an arbitrary
given function of the singularities S(z; C, a), there exists a function, unique up
to an additive constant, (D9(z) = S(z; a) + F,9(z) where F9(z) is regulars) in
the closure of B, that possesses the following property: on every boundary curve
CIU of the domain B, every branch of the function a `Bc0(z) has a constant im-
aginary part.
The functions
P (z) = [,D R (z) - (Do (z)] and Q (z) =

c
2 [(D (z) (Do (z)]
2
solve more general extremal problems than do functions of the same kind that had
1) In what follows, when we speak of regular and meromorphic functions, we mean

single-valued regular and meromorphic functions.
been considered earlier (see Garabedian and Schiffer [1949]).

Thus the function P (z) defined in terms of a suitable function S(z; a),
and only this function minimizes the area of the image of the domain B in the class
of all functions that are regular in that domain and that have fixed initial segments
in their Taylor expansions at given points of B (segments such that this class
does not include a constant). This provides a generalization both of the theorem
of minimization of area that was given in Chapter V, §4 and of Bergman's theorem
419501, which he obtained by a different method and in a different form, on the
minimization of area in the class of all functions that are regular in the domain B
with fixed initial segment of their Taylor expansions at a given point of the domain.
We define the outer area A (f) of a function f (z) in a domain B as the quan-
tity (finite or not)
A (f) _ - litn - f (z) f (z) dz,

c
where the C(') are the boundaries of the domains B"), which approximate the
;interior of the domain B as v ---> -. Then the function Q (z), and it alone, maxi-
mizes the external area in the class of all functions of the form f (z) = S (z; C, a) +
g (z), where S(z; C, a) is a fixed function of the singularities and g (z) is an
arbitrary function that is regular in the domain B.
The properties of the function 19(z) can be used to obtain theorems
of the distortion-theorem type for functions that are meromorphic and p-
valent in mean with respect to area in a multiply connected domain. A very
special case of the corresponding theorem on the range of values of a certain
functional defined on the class of functions that are meromorphic and p-valent in
mean with respect to area in a given multiply connected domain is the following:
In the class of all functions f (z) = zP (1 + a1/z + ) that are p-valent and
regular in the domain Izl > 1 except for a pole at z = with cut in a neighborhood.
of a fixed point z0 oc of that domain and that have a representation of the form
f(z) = f(z0) + z0)P + , the range of values of the functional
log (f (P) (z0)/p!) is the disk
wI<-plog(1 Iz
0
For p = 1, this result is valid for an arbitrary fixed point z0 of the domain
jzl > 1 and it is the special case, with n = 1, of Theorem 1 of Chapter IV, §3.
632 SUPPLEMENT
Komatu and Ozawa [1951, 1952] established the extremal properties of the
same type as the theorems on the distortion of univalent conformal mappings of a
given multiply connected domain onto a plane with cuts along two mutually per-
pendicular systems of parallel segments, along two systems of radial segments
and circular arcs, etc., and they showed that proof of the existence of such map-
pings can be reduced to a consideration of a domain of considerably lower-order
connectedness than the given domain.
Jenkins [1963] used a slight modification of the extremal-metric method to
find a number of more general extremal properties of certain analogous mappings
including some that are not necessarily univalent but with a unique fixed simple
pole in the domain in question. He was the first to obtain theorems of this type
for functions that are regular in a domain. We present one of his theorems.
Let B denote a finite domain in the z-plane that is bounded by closed analy-
tic curves C. for j = 1, . , n + 1. Let P 11 P2, P3, and P4 denote arbitrary
points on C1 numbered in the order in which they are encountered as one moves
around that curve in the positive direction relative to B. Let m, p, and q denote
nonnegative integers such that m + p + q = n. Let L (B; m, p) denote the class of
all functions f (z) that are regular and univalent in the domain B and that map
that domain onto the domain bounded from without by the contour of some rectangle
0 < 82 f (z) < L, 0 < `` f (z) < 1 under the condition that C 1 is mapped into that con-
tour, the points P1, P2, P3 and P4 are mapped respectively into the points 0,
L, L + i, and i, the curves C, , for j = 2, , m + 1, are mapped into horizontal
cuts, and the curves Cr . , for j = m + 2, , m + p + 1, are mapped into vertical
cuts. Finally, suppose that F (B; m, p) denote the class of all functions f (z) that
are regular in B and that possess the following properties: The mapping w = f(z)
maps C 1 into the contour of some rectangle of the type indicated with the same
correspondence between the points P1, P2, P3, and P4 and the vertices of the
rectangle; the functions f (z) are regular on C. for j= 2, , n + 1; on each of
these boundary components 0 < 82 f (z) < L, and 0 < f (z) < 1; on Cr , for j =
.
2, , m + 1, the functions f (z) have a constant imaginary part; on Ci , for j =

m + 2, , m + p + 1, they have a constant real, part, It follows from Jenkins's re-
sults [1957] that there exists a function l (z) = f (z; B, m, p, 0) E i (B; m, p) such
that the mapping w = l (z) maps the boundary curves C , for j = m + p + 2,
.
, n + 1 into the horizontal cuts and a unique function q (z) = f (z; B, m, p, rr/2)
(B; m, p) such that in the mapping w = q (z) these boundary curves correspond
to the vertical cuts. Let us denote by L 1, L 2' and L the values of the length
corresponding to the functions 1, q, and f respectively. We define A = L -

area f (B). Under these conditions, we have the following theorem:
For arbitrary f3 and nonnegative y such that S + y = 1, the sum A + (f3-y) L
is maximized in the class F (B; m, p) only by the function 01 + yq and this maxi-
mum is equal to 132 L I - y2L 2. If m = p = 0, then the function 01 + yq is univa-
lent and the preceding result is valid for the class E (B; m, p). In this last case,
the function 131 + yq maps B onto a domain for which each finite supplementary
continuum has in common with an arbitrary horizontal or vertical straight line no
more than a single segment (or point).
Alenicyn [1965] established a number of properties of the functions D0(z),
P (z), and Q (z) mentioned above for analogously defined functions in the case of
mappings of a finitely connected domain onto many-sheeted Riemann surfaces with
cuts along two mutually perpendicular systems of parallel segments. In particular,
he obtained a generalization of certain of Jenkins's results [1963] that deal with
meromorphic functions.
Various area theorems are immediately associated with conformal mappings
onto canonical domains. Meschkowski [1952, 1953, 1954] obtained an area theo-
rem generalizing to functions that are univalent in a multiply connected domain
the Gronwall-Bieberbach theorems (see Chapter 11, §4) and also a number of dis-
tortion theorems on functions that are meromorphic in a multiply connected domain.
Abe [1958] particularized Meschkowski's area theorem for the case in which the
domain in question is a circular annulus. Alenicyn [1964] generalized Meschkow-
ski's area theorem to functions of a more general form, namely, to functions with
singular part S (z; C, a) and with nonnegative exterior area in a given multiply
connected domain. In particular, he obtained an area theorem for functions that
are meromorphic and p-valent in a disk and have the property that the sum of the
orders of the poles in that disk is equal to p, and this gives a generalization of
Goluzin's familiar area theorem (see Chapter Xl, §6) for p-valent functions.
Milin [1964a, 1964b] discovered a yet more general proposition of the area-
theorem type. Specifically, let B denote a finitely connected domain in the ex-
tended z-plane with boundary C consisting of closed analytic Jordan curves and
suppose that oc E B. Suppose that a so-called Taylor system of functions tq5n(z)},
where n = 1, 2, , is constructed satisfying the following conditions: The func-
tions (b
(kn(z) are regular in the closure of B and they have an expansion of the
k, where a > 0, for n = 1, 2,
form n (z) k=nank z nn , in a neighborhood of
634 SUPPLEMENT
z = Do; the derivative'sOn(z) constitute an orthonormal system in the domain B:

S S k (z) T. (z) da = Skn, k, n = 1, 2, ... ,
that is complete in the class Lo (B) of all functions that are regular and square-
integrable with a unique inverse in B. Let {cn(z)I, for n= 1 , 2, , denote a
system of functions that are regular in the closure of B except for a pole of order
n at the point at infinity, in a neighborhood of which they have a Laurent expan-
sion without constant term, and that satisfy on every boundary curve of the domain
B relations of the form cn(z) = On(z) + const. The system of pairs of the form
(dn(z), $n(z)), where n = 1 , 2, , is called a "Laurent system of functions" for
the domain B. The set of all points of B for which the Green's function gB(z, 00)
of the domain B satisfies the condition gB(z, -) < log R is called the boundary
annulus set B I ,R' where 1 < R. Milin showed that
If a function 0 (z) is regular on the boundary annulus set B 1 R, then
1) i/i'(z) can be expanded on that set in a Laurent series
00 00
Lj
(z) -n=1 ArsDn (z) 2] Xn?, (z);
n=1
A-1 n-1
where A is defined by the same limit as the quantity A (f) mentioned above.
Thus, we have the following generalization of the area theorem:
Let Vi(z) denote a function that is regular on the boundary annulus set of a
domain B. If A(qt) is nonnegative, then
00 00
I IX.I1=En=1I'Arcls
n=1
A number of works have been devoted to the question of the existence and
extremal properties of conformal mappings of infinitely connected domains onto
canonical domains. Grotzsch [1955/561 gave a proof of the existence and unique-
ness of a univalent conformal mapping of an infinitely connected domain onto the
unit disk with concentric circular cuts that did not involve the condensation prin-
ciple. Reich and Warschawski [19601 obtained a simple proof of the existence of
a conformal mapping of an arbitrary bounded domain onto a disk with concentric
circular cuts and, if that domain has at least one nondegenerate boundary
component, onto a disk with radial cuts, and they found certain geometric proper-
ties of these mappings. We give two fundamental and typical results of their study.
Suppose that K is the disk Izi < 1 with concentric circular cuts such that the
circular projection of the boundary of the domain K onto each of its radii is of
linear measure 0. Let w = f (z) denote a function that is analytic and univalent in
K and that maps K onto a bounded domain A such that the circle I zI = 1 is
mapped into the exterior boundary component of the domain A and f (0) = 0. Sup-
pose, finally, that F (z) = log [f (z)/z1, F (0) = log f '(0), and A is the area of A.
Then,
f' (o) I exp 27; I F' (z) I9 dx dy
In particular I f '(0)I < A/rr, with equality holding only for a function of the
form f (z) = az, where a is a constant.
From this we get the following theorem.
Let SZ denote a bounded domain in the z-plane that includes z = 0. Let F
denote the class of all functions f(z) that have the following two properties:
1) f (z) is regular and univalent in 12; 2) f (0) = 0, f'(0) > 0, and If (z)I < I for
all z E 11. Then, a function w = c(z) such that 0'(0) = maxfeF f'(0) maps the
domain SZ onto the unit disk with concentric circular cuts.
2°. Extremal properties of analytic functions in multiply connected domains.
The necessary and sufficient conditions found by Grunsky [19391 for univalence
of a function that is regular in a multiply connected domain except for a simple
pole at z = oo were then obtained by Bergman and Schiffer [19511 (in a somewhat
different form) by a considerably simpler procedure, one that starts from the theory
or orthonormal families. They developed a theory of kernels of the first and sec-
ond kind of a given domain, they established a relationship between these ker-
nels and univalent conformal mappings of a multiply connected domain onto canon-
ical domains, and they obtained a number of new extremal properties of functions
that are univalent in a multiply connected domain. The more fundamental of these
results are treated in the article by Schiffer [19531.
Bergman and Schiffer chose as their point of departure for finding these
necessary and sufficient conditions for univalence of a function an inequality
which they obtained, a simple special case of which is the inequality
I {f (z), z} + 6zcl (z, z) I <_ 67cK (z, 2), z E B,

636 SUPPLEMENT
where f (z) is a function that is analytic and univalent in a given finitely con-
nected domain B, If W, z} is the Schwarz derivative of that function, and K(z,
and l (z, t;) are Bergman's kernels of the first and second kind of the domain B
with respect to the class L 2 (B) of all functions that are regular and square-
integrable in B. It follows immediately from the results of Bergman and Schiffer [1951]
that this inequality remains valid if we replace the function l (z, z) and K (z, i)
respectively with the functions 10(z, z) and K0(z, i), where 1 9(z, 0 and K0(z, Z)
are Bergman's kernels with respect to the subclass L 2 (B) (see above). Milin ob-
tained [1964b] this second inequality by a different procedure and he showed not only
that it is sharp but that it defines the range of values for If W, z) for fixed z C B
and function f (z) ranging over the class of univalent functions in question, and
he found all boundary functions of the problem. He also obtained a number of more
general sharp inequalities. We give a theorem that is the analogue of Theorem 3
of Chapter IV, §2 for a multiply connected domain.
Let B denote a finitely connected domain in the z-plane including the point
at infinity with boundary consisting of closed analytic Jordan curves. Let I (B)
denote the class of all functions F (z) that are univalent in B and regular in that
domain except for a simple pole at z = w and that satisfy the condition F'(oo)=1.
For arbitrary given t C B, where t and 0 C [0, n], consider a function
je(z, t) that satisfies the condition je(t, t) = 0 in the class I (B) and maps the
domain B onto- the plane with cuts along arcs of logarithmic spirals of inclina-
tion 0 to the rays issuing from the origin. Finally, we define
j,12 (z' t) 1
(2- t)2
P (z, t)
1
log t)= log
Jo (z, t) ' R (z) 2 Jniz (z. t) A( 0 ,0
z, tEB.
Then we have the following theorem.
For arbitrary complex numbers xk and Yk (for k= 1, 2, ,N, where N> 1)
and for arbitrary values of zk and tk in the domain B, the inequality
j
N
! xkyrl g
k,r=1
k
F(xk)-F(tv) y - k,1
N
'1 x kyvR (zkr t r)
7/
jr
N N
: xkXOP (zk, z0) E YkY,' (tk, tv) (1)
k, v=l k, r=1
holds for all functions F (z) C I (B). For xk = yk and zk = tk (for k=1, A,
this inequality yields the range of values for the first sum on the left.
With his method, Milin also obtained [1964b] a number of new necessary and
sufficient conditions for univalence of functions in a multiply connected domain.
Singh [1962] found necessary and sufficient conditions for univalence and
boundedness of a function that is regular in a multiply connected domain.
Ozawa [1952] obtained necessary and sufficient conditions for a function that
is regular in a given multiply connected domain to map that domain onto a Rienrann
surface with area not exceeding >r.
A convenient method for obtaining extremal properties of univalent functions
is the use of the classical minimal property of the Dirichlet integral (1, 90B =
fB f ('0'x + q,") dx dy. A systematic exposition of the possible use of this method
in the theory of univalent functions was given by Nehari [1953], who used this
method to obtain a large number of both familiar and new extremal problems. We
present the following theorem of Nehari:
Let B and B1 denote two domains in the z-plane with boundaries C and C1
respectively. Suppose that these boundaries consist of a finite number of closed
analytic Jordan curves. Suppose that B C B1. Let S(z) denote a function that is
univalent and harmonic in the closure of B except for a finite number of singu-
1
larities all in the domain B. Let p (z) and p 1(z) denote functions with the following prop-
erties: the sums p (z) + S(z) and pl(z) + S(z) are single-valued and harmonic
respectively in the domains B and B1 and continuous in the closure of these do-
mains; p (z) and p1(z) are equal to zero on C and C1 respectively. Then
S (x) do ds S (x) On' ds,
5
where the differentiation is in the direction of the outer normal to the domains B
and B1.
This theorem enables us to show that the quantity
n n
E aµayKG1,40 - E aµa,l (r''IQj,

µ, v=1 P, =1
where the are arbitrary fixed points in B and the aA are arbitrary complex
constants, decreases with broadening of the domain B.
This result had been obtained earlier by Bergman and Schiffer [1951] by the
variational procedure.
638 SUPPLEMENT
Nehari [1953] used this theorem to obtain inequality (2) of §2, subsection 1°
of this supplement.
Beginning with Kelvin's principle, Kubo [1954, 1955, 1955a] proved for uni-
valent mappings of multiply connected domains theorems analogous to certain
theorems of Nehari [1953].
Nehari's method [1953], in conjunction with the subordination principle (see
below, subsection 3°) made it possible to obtain (Alenicyn [1956, 1958]) other
extremal properties of functions defined on a multiply connected domain. We pre-
sent two theorems which generalize to conformal mappings (both univalent and
nonunivalent) of a multiply connected domain the familiar theorem of Lavrent'ev
(Chapter IV, §4) on univalent conformal mappings of a disk onto two disjoint domains.
Let B denote a finitely connected domain in the z-plane with no isolated
boundary points and including the point z = 0. Let a1 and a2 denote distinct
finite numbers. Let (fv(z)[ denote a sequence of functions that map B univa-
lently and conformally onto disjoint domains D Define av = f,(0) for v= 1, 2.
V.
Suppose that the boundary component C. of the domain B is mapped by the func-
tion w = f ,(z) into the boundary component of the domain D v that is retained as
the domains D., for v = 1, 2, are broadened to a system of disjoint domains. Let
f(z, 0, C) denote a function that maps the domain B univalently onto the unit
disk with concentric circular cuts such that C. is mapped into the unit circle
and f (0, 0, C v) = 0, where v = 1, 2. Then
ft (0) f.1' (0) < I a, - as 191 f (0, 0, Q f (0, 0, C2)
with equality holding only in the case of functions defined by the equations
fi (z) - a=
(z) - a,
Pf (z, 0 , C ) ,
1
f, (z) - a,
= f
f, (z) - a1 P x, 0 CO,
1
1
where p is an arbitrary positive number.

Let B 1 and B 2 denote any two finitely connected domains in the z-plane
that have no isolated boundary points and do not include the point z = 00. Let a1
and a2 denote any two given distinct finite numbers. Let z 1 and z 2 denote
given numbers in the domains B 1 and B2 respectively. Let f l(z) and (2(z) de-
note functions that are meromorphic in B1 and B2 respectively and that satisfy
the conditions f v(z v) = av for v = 1, 2 and fl(C) f 2 (r) for arbitrary C E B 1
and r E B 2. Let Dl (al, a2; z 1, z2; B 1, B 2) denote the class of all pairs of func-
tions f 1(z) and f 2(z) with these properties. Let & (a 1, a2; z 1, z 2; B 1, B 2)
denote the set of all points (X, Y) __ (If1(z1)I, If2(z2)I) in the plane XOY in the
class R(a1, a2; z1, z2; B1, 82). Let F(z, a) denote the function described in
Theorem 2, Chapter XI, §3 corresponding to the domain Bv, where v = 1, 2.
We have the following theorem:
The set 6(a1, a2; z1, z2; B17 B2) is the closed domain
0cXYÌa1-a9I9F1(z1, z9)Fs(z9, z9)
with the boundary point 00 deleted. Equality holds in the second inequality only
for functions defined by equations of the form
ft (z) - a, - Pt1F1 (z, z1) a, = %F2 (z, z9)

P
for arbitrary p > 0 and IEII = IE21 = 1.
Starting with an examination of suitable Dirichlet integrals, one can carry
over (see Alenicyn [19661) the results of Bergman and Schiffer [19511 mentioned
above to the case of several functions that are univalent and have no common
values in a multiply connected domain. Specifically, we have the theorem:
Let B denote a bounded and finitely connected domain in the z-plane bounded
by closed analytic Jordan curves. Let fk(z), for k = 1, , n denote functions
that are regular and univalent in the domain B and suppose that they have no
common values in that domain. Let kµ denote arbitrary points in B and let ak
denote arbitrary constants for µ = 1, , N and k = 1, , n. Then,
N n
{ akµa'kv [Uk (CkW Ckv) + 10 Gkµ, CkA

µ,r=1 k=1
N n
2 f! fk (Ckµ)
alµakv (fI akµakvKO (Ckµ, Ckv),
R (Clw) -fk (Ckµ))' {
l=l<kzn µ, v=l k=1
where
f k (z) f (C 1
U k (z, C) = 1 (ft (z) A (C))' (z - Q2 ] z, C E B,
L
and K0(z, and l0(z, 0 are the Bergman kernels of the domain B with respect
to the class L 2 (B).
For n = 1, the theorem yields the inequality found by Bergman and Schiffer
[19511.
640 SUPPLEMENT
ti
As a result, one obtains analogous inequalities for the class t(B) of func-
tions f (z) that are regular and univalent in the domain B and satisfy the condi-
tion f (z 1) [(z2) 1 for arbitrary z 1 and z2 in the domain B and for the class
(B) of functions f (z) that are univalent and bounded in the domain B:
If (z)1 < 1. In particular, we have
ti
If ((z) (B), then
{f, z} ± (1 f f$)(z)19 + "lo (z, z) 1rKo(z,z), zEB.

ti
If [(z) E R(1)(B), then
s If, z} + ttla (z, z) If' Z f
itKo (z, a) - f (Z) Is)x

. (2)
(1
All these inequalities remain valid if we replace in each of them the kernels
K0 and 10 with the kernels K and l with respect to the class L 2 (B), but, in
general, such a substitution yields weaker inequalities.
Inequality (2) with kernels K and l had been obtained earlier by Singh [1962].
Furthermore, necessary and sufficient conditions have been obtained for func-
tions regular in a given multiply connected domain to be univalent in that domain
and to have no common values. In the case of a single function, these conditions
yield the familiar necessary and sufficient conditions found by Bergman and Schif-
fer [1951] for univalence of a function in a multiply connected domain. In the case
of several functions, they constitute a new result even for a disk. Also, neces-
sary and sufficient conditions have been found for a function to belong to the
ti
class R (B).
By extending to multiply connected domains the method of his earlier work on
disjoint domains ([1961], see § 1), Lebedev obtained a generalized area theorem
in integral form and a number of new inequalities of a general nature for univalent
functions that map finitely connected domains onto disjoint domains. The follow-
ing result is a particular case of one of these inequalities:
Let B, , j = 0, 1, , n, be finitely connected domains in the z-plane with no
isolated boundary points. Let aI . denote an arbitrary point in Bi . For each j,
let f, (z) denote a function defined on Bi B. Suppose that these functions perform
univalent conformal mappings and that their ranges are disjoint domains. Define
ai = f1(a,) for j 0 and 10 (a0) = -. Let p, (z, C, a,) and q,(z, C, ai) denote
functions in the domain B corresponding to the functions P (z, a, b) and
.
Q (z, a, b) of § 4 of Chapter V defined on B. Then, for arbitrary points zi and

v
z. , in B. and arbitrary numbers y. and yjv, (for j = 0, 1, , n and v=
1, 2, , m), we have the inequality
jn
21
k=0 r, v,=1
M
m
(zjv, Zjv') n m
c } } TJ'Tj+PI (zjw zj,, aj),
j=0 T jvT j (ZJv, z1 ,, a1)
V, v'- 1
where
In (fj(z)-fk(())(ak-aj) k:0;
(fj (z) - ak) (fk (Q - aj) '
Info (C)-fj(Z), j 0, k=0;
fa(C) - aj
Pkj(c Z)= Info(Z)-fk(C) j=0, k:f-0,
fa (z) - ak
(fk (z) -fk (K)) fk (1k)
In
(fk (z) - ak) (fk (C) - ak) 4k z, ak), j = k 0;
In [(f0 (C) - f0 (z)) fo (a0)] + 40 ( z, ao), J = k = 0,

and those branches of the function (bki (t , z) are chosen for which CL, ) = 0
and where (o(a0) means lim,ao (l/(z - a0) f0(z)).
Mitjuk [1961, 1961a, 1961b, 1964, 1965, 1965a, b, d] took numerous results
known for functions that are analytic in finitely connected domains and carried
them over to functions that are analytic in infinitely connected domains. In doing
so, he sharpened certain results known already for a circle (various covering
theorems, theorems on the product of conformal radii of disjoint domains, etc.).
We present some of his results.
Suppose that the function w = f(z) = w0 + aP(z - z0)' + ap+1(Z - Z0)P+1+ .,
where aP 0, is regular in a domain B of the z-plane that has an interior radius r
about a point z0 belonging to B (see, for example, Hayman [19581). Suppose that
zo is one root of the equation [(z) = w0. Let zk, for k = 1, 2, , denote the
other roots and let Pk denote their multiplicities. Let gB(z, C) denote the Green's
function of the domain B. Let R denote the interior radius about the point w0 of
the image B f of the domain B (here and in what follows considered in the w-
plane) or of the domain B* obtained from Bf by symmetrization about a ray or
line passing through w0. Then,
642 SUPPLEMENT
R. I a p I rP exp Z pkge (zo, zk)

krl
This result [1964a] generalizes to an arbitrary domain and strengthens the
familiar symmetrization principle of Hayman [1958] for a disk.
Mitjuk obtained [1965a] the following inequality for the area S(B1) of the
image Bf of the domain B under the function w = f (z) defined above:
S (B f) : it I ap I rp exp Z pkge (zo, zk)}9
L
krl
For Lavrent'ev's theorem on univalent mappings of a disk onto two disjoint
domains, which we have repeatedly referred to, Mitjuk obtained [1965a] the follow-
ing generalization and sharpening.
Let w = fj(z) denote functions that are regular in a domain B. We write
f,(z,) = w, for z, E B. Suppose that these functions map B onto B f for j=1, 2.
Suppose that one or the other of the following two conditions is satisfied:
a) the domains B f, and Bf2 are disjoint,
b) the domains Bf and Bfz have disjoint domains symmetric about certain
I
lines or rays passing through the points w1 and w2.
Then,
If 'PI) (zl)f( a) (z9) I
C tm1flrP
I
- 9 $
exp [- pkge (zt, zk) - pkge (z9, zk)
k3!-,l
where p, is the multiplicity of the root z, of the equation f, (z) - w = 0, for

j = 1, 2, and zk and z", for k = 1, 2, , are respectively the roots of the equa-
tions f1(z) - wl = 0 and f2(z) - w2 = 0 distinct from zl and z2 and with multi-
plicities pk and pk and where r. is the interior radius of the domain B about
the point zi, for j = 1, 2.
These inequalities are special cases of more general results obtained by
Mitjuk from the "principle of admissible transformations" [1965d], which include,
in particular, symmetrization about a straight line, circular symmetrization,
Szego-Markus symmetrization (see §2 of this supplement), and the operation of
broadening a domain until it is simply connected by adjoining to it all components
of its complement with respect to the plane except for one component (suitably
chosen). We point out also that, for functions that are regular in a multiply con-
nected domain whose boundaries contain analytic Jordan curves, a number of
extremal properties have been established by using the capacity of such a domain
as its characteristic [1965b1.
New results have been obtained by a number of authors as regards the prob-
lem of boundary distortions for multiply connected domains.
Thus, by combining the extremal-metric method with the method of symmetriza-
tion, Jenkins [1956] obtained a number of theorems on boundary distortions for uni-
valent mappings of a multiply connected domain and, in particular, be generalized
to multiply connected domains the familiar theorem of Loewner [1923] for a disk.
Dealing with this class of questions is the article by Tamrazov [1965a], in
which he established extremal properties of univalent conformal mappings of mul-
tiply connected domains with specified boundary components.
3°. The principle of subordination for multiply connected domains. In Chapter
VIII, §8, the concept of subordination was defined for functions that are regular
in the unit disk and a number of theorems on subordinate functions were given. In
recent years, the theory of subordination has been developed further. We now pre-
sent some new results dealing with an extension of the subordination principle to
multiply connected domains. Here, in the case of a disk, we shall stop only for
those results that are a direct sharpening of the corresponding theorems in
Chapter VIII, §8.
As a supplement to Theorem 3 of §8 of Chapter VIII regarding the majoriza-
tion of the first two coefficients of a subordinate function, Xia Dao-xing (see the
article by Xia Dao-xing and Zhang Kai-ming [1958]) obtained the following result,
that cannot be improved:
Suppose that two functions f(z) _ Ek°0 akzk and F(z) _ Ik°U Akzk are regu-
lar in the disk Izl < 1 and suppose that f(z)-< F(z) in IzI < 1. Then, la31 <
\/2 max(IAIJ, IA21, IA31).
Chapter VIII, §8 includes two theorems of Biernacki (Theorems 6 and 7), and
the conjecture was made that the number % in Theorem 6 can be replaced by
(3 - 1)/2 and the number 0.12 in Theorems 7 by 3 - V8. The validity of
these conjectures of Goluzin was proved by Xia Dao-xing [1957, 1957a], who ob-
tained the following theorems:
Suppose that two functions f(z) and F(z) such that f(o) = F(0) = 0 are regu-
lar in Izl < 1. Suppose that F(z) is univalent in the disk Izl < 1. Suppose that
arg f '(0) = argF'(0) and f (z) -<F (z) in that disk. Suppose that f (z) J F (A. Then
644 SUPPLEMENT
1) the inequality If(z)I < IF (z) I in the annulus 0 <I z I< (3 - x/5)/2, but,
for an arbitrary point z0 such that Iz0I = (3 - x/5)/2, there exist functions satis-
fying all the conditions listed for which If (z0)1 = IF(z0)I;
2) the inequality If'(z)I < IF'(z)I in the annulus 0 < IzI < 3 - but, for an
arbitrary point z0 such that Izol > 3 - V8, there exist functions satisfying the
conditions listed, for which If'(z0)I > IF'(z0)I.
Thus, Biernacki's problems posed in Theorems 6 and 7 have obtained a
definitive solution.
Lewandowski [1961, 1961a1 posed a problem that in a certain sense is the
inverse of Biernacki's problems. Specifically, let f(z) and F (z) denote functions
that are regular in the disk I z I 0, and F'(0) = 1. Suppose that F (z) is univalent in I z I < 1 and that
If(z)I < F (z) in IzI < 1. Find the greatest radius R of a disk IzI < R in which
the function f(z) does not assume values that the function F(z) assumes in it.
Lewandowski [19611 showed that such a number R exists and that 0.21 < R <
0.29- . Under the additional assumption that F (z) is starlike in IzI < 1, the
number R is a root of the equation R3 + R2 + 3R - 1 = 0 (Lewandowski [1961a1).
On the other hand, if we replace the assumption that F(z) is starlike with the
assumption that f(z) is univalent, R is a root of the equation log[(1+R)/(1-R)1+
2arctanR = 77/2 (Bielecki and Lewandowski [19621).
In Chapter XI, §3, Theorem 2 illustrated the role of the function F (z, a) in
the solution of certain extremal problems in the class of bounded functions. This
theorem can be regarded as one of the simplest applications of the following ex-
tension to multiply connected domains (Alenicyn [19611) of the subordination prin-
ciple in the case of a circle.
Let B denote a finitely connected domain in the z-plane with no isolated
boundary points and not including the point z = 00. Let R(1) (B) denote the class
of all functions f(z) that are regular and satisfy the inequality If(z)II< 1 in B.
Let (B, a) denote the subclass of functions in R(B) such that f(a) = 0,
where a C B. Let R0) (B) and R(1)(B, a) denote the subclasses of univalent
functions in R(1)(B) and `-}2 1)(B, a) respectively. Thus, F (z, a) is that one of
the functions in the class (B, a) for which F'(a, a) = maxfCR(1)(B,a) If'(a)I.
P
Consider the function F (z, a), which plays an analogous role with respect to the
ti
class R(1)(B, a). Specifically, suppose that the boundary components of an m-
connected domain B are C1, , C. and that (B, a, Cv) is the subclass of
all functions ((z) in R(1)(B, a) that map the C each into an external boundary
component of the image of the domain B. We know that the problem of finding
maxi If'(a)I is solved by a function f(z, a, C) in the class
?i(1) (B a. C v)
R(1) (B, a, that maps the domain B univalently onto the unit disk with con-
centric circular cuts. If, as we assume, the supplementary condition f'(a, a, Cv)>0
is satisfied, this function is unique. It follows that the problem of finding
max If (a)I is satisfied only by a function f (z, a, C1), v = 1, , m,
for which F'(a, a) = maxv=l,...,m1'(a, a, Cu). We denote this function by F(z, a).
P
Obviously, the function F (z, a) in general is not unique.
If the domain B is the disk I z I < 1, then F (z, a) = F (z, a) = (z - a)/(1- iz)
and, consequently, F'(a, a) = F'(a, a) = 1/(1 - lal z)
Let f(z) denote a function that is meromorphic in a domain B. We shall say
that f(z) is subordinate in B about a point z1 E B to a function g(r) that is
meromorphic in the disk r I < 1 if, for every z in B, we have f(z) = g (tv (z)),
I
where w (z) is a function in the class z 1). We indicate this relation by

R(1)(B,
.f (z) -< g ('t), z E B. (1)

zl
If in addition W (z) E R(1)(B, z 1), we shall say that the function f (z) is uni-
valently subordinate to the function g (r) and we shall indicate this by
f (z) -< 9 (,), z E B. (2)

zl
If a function g (r) is univalent in the disk I rl < 1, the relation (1) means
simply that the function f(z) does not assume in the domain B those values that
the function g (r) does not assume in the disk I r 1 < I and that `(z 1) = g (0). The
relation (2) means in addition that f(z) is univalent in B.
If the domain B is the unit disk I z I < 1 and zl = 0, then (1) and (2) are
respectively the familiar relations
f (z) -< g (z) and f (z) -< g (z), I z I< l.
From the definitions given above, we immediately get the following subordina-
tion principle:
If f(z) -<z 1 g (r) in a domain B and if the function f(z) is regular at a point
zl, then If'(z1)I < Ig'(0)1 F'(z1, z1), with equality holding (provided g'(0) / 0)
646 SUPPLEMENT
only for f (z) = g (e F (z 1, z 1)), where I e I = 1. This assertion remains valid if we

replace -< with -< and F with F.
By means of this subordination principle, we can find theorems of a general
nature that enable us to obtain new distortion theorems for functions that are ana-
lytic in a multiply connected domain and, in particular, to carry over to multiply
connected domains certain familiar theorems for a disk. For example, we obtain
the following two theorems in this way:
Let P7T denote the class of all functions f(z) that are regular in the disk
IzI < 1 and map it onto surfaces the area of each of which (with the multiplicity
of the covering taken into account) does not exceed n. Then, if a function f(z)
that is regular in a domain B is subordinate (univalently subordinate) in B about
any point in B to one of the functions in the class Pv, then If'(z)I < F'(z, z)
(< F'(z, z)) for z E B with equality holding at the point z = z only for functions
1
of the form
f (z) =f (zl) + cF (z, zt) (f (zt) + eF (z, z1)), I e I = 1.

Suppose that a function f (z) is regular in a domain B. We shall say that a
point w0 is a simple uncovered point of the function f (z) in the domain B if the
function log [f (z) - w01 is regular in that domain. Then:
If the function f(z) is regular in a domain B and satisfies the conditions
f (a) = 0, f'(a) = 1, where a E B, and if if WI < M (MF'(a, a) > 1), then
x-1 sinh x = MF'(a, a) (x > 0) in the disk IwI < Me x but it is not always true
that this function does not have simple uncovered points in a larger disk.
When the domain B is the unit disk, this theorem yields Landau's familiar
theorem [19291.
Certain results from Robinson's paper [19431 were presented in Chapter XI,
§4. We shall now elaborate on this question, using the remaining results of that
paper and Alenicyn's paper [19611. Let Bq denote a circular annulus q < IzI < 1,
where q > 0. We know from Robinson's paper [19431 that, for arbitrary given
a1 E Bq , there exists a unique function H (z; a1) that is regular in the closure of
the annulus Bq, that is univalent in Bq itself, and that satisfies the conditions
H(a1; a,)=- 0, IH(z;a,)I1=vIa1I I H(z; a,)I1,z1=1=1, H(l;a1)=1.
By using the corresponding results of Robinson [19431, we find, after some easy
transformations,
§3. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC IN MULTIPLY CONNECT ED DOMAINS 647
A
z at
co
`\ 1 -qsna,z' (1 _ qsn a,z )
H(z; a)=et!,
1-a12n-1I1-gsnalzqsn= 1 ,
atz /
where a is defined by the condition H(1; a1) = I.
For arbitrary given a E Bq and z0 E Bq , we set a0(z0) _ (q/IaI) e ' arg z0
H(z, 1; a0(z0), a) = z-' H(z; a0(z0))H(z; a). Then, for an arbitrary given point z0
in the annulus Bq and an arbitrary function f (z) in the class Rt a), we have
I
(zo) I c I H (zo, 1; ao (zo), a) I (3)
with equality holding (when z0 a) only for f(z) = eH(z, 1; a0(z0), a), where
IEI = I.
In the case of the annulus Bq, we have (Alenicyn [19581) the following rela-
tionship between the functions exhibited by Ahlfors and Robinson:
F(z, a)=e`Pz 1Hlz;-?)H(z;

a
a), 3=-argH'(a, a)
` a
Starting with Robinson's inequality (3), which is obviously a generalization

of the first of the inequalities in the Schwarz lemma (see Chapter VII, §0 to the
case of a circular annulus, we can obtain theorems of a general nature that en-
able us to carry over to the case of a circular annulus certain distortion theorems
with which we are familiar for a circle. We present one of these general theorems
and its simplest consequences. For brevity, we write H (z, 1; a0(z), a) = H W.
Let lfl denote a class of functions g (z) that are meromorphic in the disk
IzI < 1 and let Tla(B) denote the class of all functions f(z) that are meromorphic
in the domain B and that are subordinate in that domain about a point a in it to
one of the functions in the class TI.. We indicate this relationship between these
two classes by writing 3J (B) -< ,,. Let us suppose that I (w) is a real function
defined for all values of w assumed in the unit disk by functions in the class R*.
Let M1(IzI) (M2(lzI)) denote a decreasing (increasing) function of IzI for IzI<1.
Under these conditions, we have the theorem:
If one of the inequalities
A IzI)(D (g(z))=A (IzI), zI<1, (4)
holds in the class Df , then the corresponding inequality

648 SUPPLEMENT
M, (I H(z)I)-ID (f(z));M2(I H(z)I ), zEBq,

holds in the class !la(Bq) < R*. Here, equality holds at a point z = z1 (/ a) only
for f (z) = g( (Z 1)(E H (z, 1; ao(z 1), a)), where e = 1 and for a point zo with
I
Izpl < 1 the function gzo(z) is extremal for the corresponding inequality (4).
From this theorem it follows, in particular, that
For an arbitrary function ((z) that is regular in the annulus Bq and subordinate in
that annulus about a point a in it to one of the functions in the class S,
If (z)Ic(1 I zEBq,
H(z)
z)I9' (5)
with equality holding at a point z = z 1 (/ a) only for
f (z) = eH(z, 1; ao (z,), a)/(1 - ei arg H(zl) H(z, 1; ao (z,), a))2, I e = 1.

One can show that inequality (5) yields the range of values of the functional
((z) for fixed z E Bq and the function f as it ranges over the entire class of
functions considered here.
Ahlfors's theorem (Chapter Xl, §3, Theorem 1) can be regarded, on the one
hand, as an example of a problem in which an extremal function maps a given mul-
tiply connected domain onto a multiply covered disk and, on the other hand, as a
generalization of the inequality I f x(0)1 < 1 in the Schwarz lemma for a disk to
finitely connected domains. Havinson showed in a series of articles [1.953, 1953a,
1955, 19611 that this geometric property of an extremal function holds in a very
broad class of problems and he generalized the inequality mentioned to arbitrary
domains. The methods used in solving these more general problems and, for that
matter, the very statement of the problems would take us beyond the framework of
the geometric theory of functions, and we present only a few of the simpler results
of Havinson.
Let B denote an n-connected domain in the z-plane. Suppose that its bound-
ary C consists of closed analytic curves. Let E1 denote a class of functions
that are regular in the domain B and that can be represented in that domain by
means of a Cauchy integral in terms of their boundary values. Then we have the
theorem:
Suppose that tv (z) is an analytic single-valued function on each of the bound-
ary curves of the domain B and that it does not coincide on any of these curves
with any function in the class E1 in B. Then the extremal function in the
S3. FUNCTIONS ANALYTIC IN MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS 649
problem of finding supf6R(1)(B) I f C f (z) w (z) dzI either is identically equal to

the constant e`Q (where a is a real constant) or maps B onto the m-fold covered
IN k /(z - zi V, where ak C B and the
unit disk, where m > n. If u (z) _ 1k =1 =1 pki
pk are constants, then n < m - 2 + I'= Nk. 1
The problem considered in this theorem generalizes, in particular, the problem

of finding supfE(1)(B) k=1Ak1 (ak)1' (where ak B and the Ak are arbitrary
IF'r
complex constants) and the problem of finding I f'(a)I. The first of

these problems was investigated by Garabedian [1949]; the second was solved by
Ahlfors.
With regard to Havinson's generalization [19611 of the inequality in the
Schwarz lemma to arbitrary domains, the question is as follows: let C denote a
closed bounded set in the z-plane, let B denote whichever of the domains com-
plementary to C includes the point z = oo, and let y denote an arbitrary contour
encircling C. The problem is to investigate the properties of the extremal func-
tions in the problem of finding supfER(1)(B) (1/27r) I ff (z) dzI, which is the ana-
logue, for the case a = -, of the problem of finding supfER(1)(B) If`(a)I when
a -. Havinson showed that the extremal function f*(z) is unique up to a factor
eyO (where a is a real constant), that all its zeros except a zero at the point
z = oo lie in the convex envelope of the boundary set C, and that this function
assumes in B all values in the unit disk except possibly a set of values of ana-
lytic capacity zero (see op. cit.). Because of the complexity of the formulation of
the other properties of the extremal function f*(z), we cannot give them here.
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1956 The method of variations in the theory of p-valent functions, Uspehi
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1958 On the maximum of the con formal radius of the fundamental region of a
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1960 On the maximum con formal radius of a fundamental domain of a group
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1962 On an extension of a variational method of G. M. Goluzin to doubly
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1955 Contributions to the theory of schlicht functions. II, The coefficient
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1953a On some nonlinear extremal problems for bounded analytic functions,

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1951 Symmetrization in the theory of functions, Tech. Rep. no. 11, Navy
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1955 The asymptotic behaviour of p-valent functions, Proc. London Math.
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1958 Multivalent functions, Cambridge Univ. Press., Cambridge; Russian
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1964 Paper read at seminar on theory of functions of a complex variable,
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1965 Coefficient problems for univalent functions and related function
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1958 On a covering theorem for functions that are regular in doubly connec-
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1949 Remarks on a paper by Zeev Nehari, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55,
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1957 The coefficient regions of starlike functions, Pacific J. Math. 7,
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1953 On values omitted by univalent functions, Amer. J. Math. 75, 406-408.
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1953a Symmetrization results for some conformal invariants, Amer. J. Math.
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1955 On circumferentially mean p-valent functions, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.
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1956 Some theorems on boundary distortion, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 81,
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1957 Some new canonical mappings for multiply connected domains, Ann.
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1958 Univalent functions and conformal mapping, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
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1960a An extension of the general coefficient theorem, Trans. Amer. Math.
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1955 Conformal mapping of the unit circle onto mutually nonoverlapping domains,
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1951 Conformal mapping of multiply connected domains. I, Kodai Math.
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1955 On curvature of level lines and of their orthogonal trajectories in
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1957 Curvature of level lines in univalent conformal mappings, Dokl. Akad.
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1960 On the curvature of level curves of univalent conformal mappings,
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1961 Analytic functions with bounded mean modulus, Izv. Vyss. Ucebn.
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1963 Some estimates for regular functions with bounded mean modulus,
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1955 Kelvin principle and some inequalities in the theory of functions. II,
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1943 On one-parameter families of analytic functions, Mat. Sb. 13(55),
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1946 On integrals of a very simple differential equation with movable polar
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1947 A theorem on the solutions of a certain differential equation, Tomsk.
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1947b On a method of numerical determination of the parameters in the
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1947c A remark on integrals of Lowner's equation, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR
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1947d On the theory of univalent functions, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 57,
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1948 On a system of differential equations, Tomsk. Gos. Univ. Ucen. Zap.
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1950 On conformal mapping of complementary regions, Dokl. Akad. Nauk
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1951 Remark on extremal problems in the theory of univalent functions,
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1951 On an extremal problem for complementary regions, Dokl. Akad. Nauk
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1959 Generalizations of an equation of the Lowner type for automorphic
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1959a A new derivation of Lowner's equation for doubly connected regions,
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1955 An equation of Lowner's type for multiply connected regions, Tomsk.
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1965 An inequality, Vestnik Leningrad. Univ. 20, no. 19, 157-158.
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1961 Sur les majorantes des fonctions holomorphes daps le cercle I zl < 1,
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1961 Extension of the structural formula for convex univalent functions to a
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1964 Transformations of domains in the plane and applications in the theory
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1933 Uber einige Schlitztheoreme der konformen Abbildung, Schr. Math. Sem-
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SUBJECT INDEX
Accessible boundary points 35 Classes: C 563, 575; Eg 528; Ep 438;

Analytic curve 9 Hp 402, 498; hp 385; L 563; L 563;
Anharmonic ratio 330
Approximation in mean 448-449 LP 388; N 393; R 563; W 563; S 110,
Asymptotic value 351 563; SM 563; Sa 152; Sp 488; S(1)
Automorphic function 64, 258 S(k) 563; 5" 530, 563;
563; SR 563;
Bieberbach conjecture 605-606, 608-612 S 563; T 563; Tr 541; 1 110, 563;
generalized 589 Im 563; Yp 488; Y-O 563; I(k) 563;
Blaschke function 398
Bloch constant 363 V 563; 563; $2 563
Boundary continua 7 Closedness condition 451
Bounds for area of Conformal mapping of a multiply con-
an annulus 605 nected domain onto a disk 254-255
the image of a disk 595 Conformal mapping of Riemann surfaces
the star of the image of a disk 180 461-467
Bounds for bounded functions 514-526 Conformal radii of disjoint domains 156,
Bounds for coefficients of p-valent 583, 584, 587
functions 490, 492, 493 Conformal radius 29, 313
Bounds for coefficients of univalent Convergence of a sequence of domains
functions 187, 197, 199-204, 605-618 to a kernel 54, 228-229
Bounds for curvature of level curves Convergence of sequences of analytic
599-603 functions 11-14
Bounds for mean modulus of a function Convergence of sequences of harmonic
595 functions 19-22
Bounds for the growth of adjacent coeffi- Convex domain 166, 201
cients of Convexity of level curves, conditions
close-to-convex functions 617 for 601-602
p-valent functions in mean 615 Correspondence of boundaries under
univalent functions 193, 195, 614, 615 conformal mapping 31-46, 262-265,
Brouwer theorem 252 417-428
Capacity of a set 310
Covering theorems 73-75 89, 494
Caratheodory convergence theorem 55 of arcs of a circle by image of disk
and annulus 595, 597, 605
Caratheodory-Fejer problem 497
Caratheodory-Fejer theorems 500, 502 of segments 174, 177., 597, 604
Cauchy integral formula 408, 435-441
Cut 9
Cauchy integral theorem 408 Dirichlet problem 267
Cauchy singular integral 431 Entire function of finite order 352
Cebysev constant 294, 295 Equivalent points 260
Cebysev polynomial 294, 295 Family of polynomials complete in a
Circular domain 234, 235 domain 449
Circular polygon 78 Function of bounded variation 385
673
674 SUBJECT INDEX
Gauss's differential equation 84 Lemmas on mean moduli 183, 184, 186

General theorem of Jenkins coefficients Limiting value of Cauchy integral 431
573 Limits of convexity 166, 598
Gluing theorems 454, 456 Limits of generalized starlikeness 167-
Green's formula 273 170, 599
Green's function 269, 310, 311 Limits of starlikeness 167, 599
Gronwald problem 590 Lindelof lemma 33
Grotzsch principle 171 Lindelof principle 30, 339
Grotzsch theorem, generalized 603 Lipschitz condition 413, 426
Loewner differential equation 91
Hadamard three-circle theorem 344
Harmonic function 19, 266 Majorant, univalent 368
Harmonic measure 315, 342 Mapping, conformal univalent 23
Harnack's theorem 21 continuous 239
Heine-Borel covering theorem 6 quasiconformal 456
Helly theorem 385 topological 239
Hilbert theorem 213-214 Mapping a disk onto mutually disjoint
Holder inequality 388 domains 157, 583-586
Hyperbolic disk 332 Mapping a doubly connected domain 205-
Hyperbolic distance 331 210, 593-594
Hyperbolic metric 332, 336, 361 onto a circular annulus 208
Hyperbolic transformation 259 Mapping a multiply connected domain onto
Hyperconvergence 356 a disk with cuts along arcs of loga-
rithmic spirals 242-243
Inner measure 420
a finite surface 629, 630
Integral formula, Cauchy 408, 435-441 a multiply covered disk 648-649
Integral representation of classes of func- a plane with cuts along arcs of loga-
tions regular in a disk (annulus) 529, rithmic spirals. 220, 243
574, 619-623 a plane with rectilinear cuts 242
Integral theorem, Cauchy 408 a plane with rectilinear parallel cuts
Jenkins coefficients, general theorem of 213-214,277
573 an annulus with cuts along arcs of
Jensen formula 323 logarithmic spirals 243
Jensen-Schwarz formula 323 mutually disjoint domains 638-641
Jordan content 300, 302 Mapping an n-connected domain onto an
Jordan theorem 8 n-sheeted disk 278, 468
Schoenflies supplement to 36 Mapping the exterior of the unit disk onto
Kellogg theorem 426 a plane with cut along arc of ellipse
Kernel of sequence of domains 54, 228 (hyperbola) 135
Koebe covering theorem 49 Mapping the interior of a circular polygon
generalized and sharpened 597, 598,
onto the unit disk 78-81
602
Mapping the interior of a regular n-sided
Koebe lemma 31 circular polygon onto the unit disk 83-87
Mapping the interior of a rectilinear poly-
Landau constant 363 gon onto the unit disk 76-78
Landau theorem 338 Mapping the interior of a regular n-sided
Laplace differential equation 19 polygon onto the unit disk 77-78
Laurent system of functions 634 Maximum principle generalized 267
Lavrent'ev formula 156 Mean p-valent function 587, 588
Lavrent'ev theorems, generalized 638, Measurable set 420
639, 642 Meromorphic function 23, 321
SUBJECT INDEX 675
Method of continuity 234, 239-243 Principle of subordination

Method of contour integration 225, 283, for annulus 648
284, 567 for disk 368-369, 643-644
Method of extremal metrics 572 for multiply connected domains 645-
Method of integral representations 574- 647
576 Principle of symmetrization 588, 603
Method of parametric representations generalized for multiply connected
89-99, 110-122, 568, 579, 591-592 domains 642
Method of quadratic differentials 572-574 Privalov's uniqueness theorem 428
Method of symmetrization 574 Problem of coefficients 605, 617
Metric, continuous 360
Metric, regular 360 Quasiconformal mapping 456
Metric, support 361 Range of a functional on a given class
Minimal property of Dirichlet integral 637 117
Minimization of area 30, 227, 631 Range of values of functionals and sys-
Minimization of the maximum modulus 29 tems of functionals
Minkowski inequality 389 on classes of univalent functions
Modulus of doubly connected domain 209 117, 133, 136, 139, 580-583
Modulus of n-connected domain 244 representable by means of Stieltjes
Modular function 64 integrals 624-628
Modular grid 63 Riemann surface, constructive definition
Modular Riemann surface 64 461-462
n-sheeted disk 277 Riemann surfaces of elliptic, hyperbolic
Natural boundary 64 and parabolic types 462
Necessary and sufficient condition for Riemann theorem 25-29
univalence of a function 609 Robin's constant 310
Nontangential path 382, 428 Scalar product of regular functions 226
Normal family of analytic functions 67 Schoenflies supplement to Jordan theorem
Normality test 68, 70 36
Order of entire function 352 Schottky function 287
Orthogonal polynomials 451 Schottky theorem 337-338
Outer area 631 Schur's theorems 498, 505
Outer measure 420 Schwarz derivative 636
Schwarz formula 92, 322
p-valent function 487 Schwarz invariant 79, 580
Parabolic transformation 259 Schwarz lemma 25, 329, 332; generalized
Parametric representation of univalent and sharpened 329-330, 333, 361, 373,
functions 89-99 648-649
Picard's theorem 72 Schwarz-Christoffel formula 77
Poincare's theorem 462 Spread of coefficients of univalent func-
Poisson formula 20, 268 tions 614
Poisson integral 380 Star of a domain 177
Poisson-Stieltjes integral 384 Starlike domain 167, 202
Prime ends 40 Starlikeness generalized 167, 599
Principle, hyperbolic metric 336
Principle of areas 47, 490, 565-567, 587 Starlikeness of level curve 599-602
Principle of compactness 19 Subordinate function 368, 369
Principle of condensation 14-18 Summable function 431
Principle of extension 342-343 Symmetrization method of Marcus 603
Principle of length and area 572 Symmetrization principle 588, 603;
generalized 642
676 SUBJECT INDEX
Theorems of area 47; of p-valenc func- Uniqueness theorem of Privalov 428

tions 490 Univalent function 23
generalized 565, 566, 578, 586 Universal covering surface of n-connected
generalized for multiply connected domain 261
domains 567, 633, 634, 635 Variation of univalent functions 100-108
Theorems of distortion 51, 134; of chords Variational formulas in classes E9 527,
577 528; S and 2 106, 107; Sa 108, 109
generalized 587-590 Variational method 99-108, 128-165, 526,
Theorems of rotation 51, 110
569, 572, 592
Transfinite diameter 294 Variational-geometric method of Lavrent'ev
Typically-real function 540
569
Uniform boundedness in the interior of a Variational-parametric method of Xufarev
domain 15 571
Uniform convergence in the interior of a Vitali's theorem 18
domain 11 Weierstrass's theorem 12
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[Translations of Mathematical Monographs 26] Gennadiĭ Mikhaĭlovich Goluzin - Geometric Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable (Translations of Mathematical Monographs, Vol. 26) (1969, AMS Bookstore)

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[Translations of Mathematical Monographs 26] Gennadiĭ Mikhaĭlovich Goluzin - Geometric Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable (Translations of Mathematical Monographs, Vol. 26) (1969, AMS Bookstore)

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TRANSLATIONS OF

AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY

Providence, Rhode Island 02904

113gaHxe BTOpoe nop, Pegaxuxers

Translated from the Russian by

Standard Book Number 821-81576-0

Copyright © 1969 by the American Mathematical Society

Preface to the second edition ...................................................................................... 3

Chapter III. Realization of conformal mapping of simply connected

Chapter IV. Extremal questions and inequalities holding in classes of

Chapter VIII. Majorization principles and their applications .............................. 329

§5. On the number of asymptotic values of entire functions of finite

Chapter IX. Boundary value problems for analytic functions defined on a

§7. Some remarks on the Caratheodory-Fejer problem and on an

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

INTRODUCTORY GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS

1) These concepts are meaningful for any open set.

A continuous curve is a set of points in the plane the rectangular coordinates

THE CONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES OF

§1. The convergence of sequences of analytic functions

;sequence of single-valued functions defined on a set E of points in the z-plane.

in the interior of B is a weaker requirement than uniform convergence in B.

fu(x)=2ni t(?') dz'

is regular in K. From (1) and (2), we have, for n = 1, 2, ,

§2. The condensation principle

For an extremely broad class of sequences of analytic functions, however,

Therefore, if 8 is the smaller of the two numbers S1/4, Sic/4M, then

contained in B. Since the set of functions In,n(z) is equicontinuous on K, it

for all k = 1, 2, - - , p. Now, let z denote an arbitrary point in K. It lies in one

I fill, _(1) -fn, n (z) `E.

function f 1(z) - f 2(z), which is regular in the domain B, must accordingly

It should be noted that the condensation principle itself can be expressed in

§3. The convergence of sequences of harmonic functions

continuous in the closed disk 1z - al < R, then Poisson's formula

it (z) u (z') M Iz Z z gal

is valid in the domain I z - al > R.

THE PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMAL MAPPING OF

§1. Univalent conformal mapping

If a function ((z) that is univalent in a domain B is not regular in B, it obvi-

§2. Riemann's theorem

Theorem 1 (Riemann).1) Let B denote a simply connected domain in the z-

where do is the element of area. 2)

1) KA more general form of Lindelof s principle is given in Chapter VIII, §3) .

l (F) = SItl< I F' (p (c)) p' (C)1s rdr dip

= lim F' (p (C)) p' (C)11 r dr dcf.

F' (` (C)) (C) _ anCn, ao = p' (0) = f' (0) '

§3. The correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping

The uniform convergence of the function f (z) to 0 on the arcs X. is to be

1`' (z) _ (z) ii (,,z) ... (77m 1Z)+

of length (277/m)r, where m is an integer, lying outside B. 3) For arbitrary e > 0,

Proof. Obviously, we may take zo = 0. The common portion of the domain B

k = 1 , 2, .. , where Ek > Ek +11 and where Ek -. 0 as k --+ oe is a closed set and

1) See, for example, Caratheodory [19121.

and 12 cannot be connected by a continuous curve lying both in B and in that

zi have common points in an arbitrary neighborhood of z 1, these curves neces-

This completes the proof of Theorem 1.

Since any one of the domains Gn considered abodt)ontains all t beginning

The question of the correspondence of boundaries under conformal mapping

Portions of the curves Al and A2 in sufficiently small neighborhoods of the

since it is easy to construct a sequence of curves Cn such that the intersection

limp (Cnk) _ p*(Co)

I tnk - Cnk I C T , I'f l`ank) - 'P IC

is regular in the closed disk 1cj < I.

1) Profound investigations of the correspondence of boundaries under conformal map-