I

UNIT 10 ECOSYSTEM :BASIC CONCEPTS '

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 Ecology
10.3 Ecosystem and its Structure
10.3.1 The Biotic Component
10.3.2 The Abiotic Component

10.4 Functions of an Ecosystem

10.4.1 Food-Chain nnd Food-Web
10.4.2 Trophic Levels
10.4.3 Energy, Sources of Energy andEnergy How
10.4.4 Biogeochemical Cycles
10.5 The Concept of Habitat and Ecological Niche
10.6 The Concept of Homeostasis
10.7 Types of Ecosystems
10.8 Summary
10.9 Key Words
10.10 Further Readings
10.11 Answers to SAQs

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this unit is to make clear some of the basic concepts in ecology. After
defining what is ecology, we will also outline the fundamental structure of an ecosystem.
We will study how each ecosystem has an abiotic (non-living) and a biotic (living)
component and how there is a continuous interaction among these two components. In each
ecosystem there are producer organisms and consumer organisms. Producers generate food
with the help of solar energy while all the consumers are directly or hldirectly dependent on
these producers, for food. There are different kinds of food-chains and we will outline some
examples in this unit. Energy passes along the food-chain in each ecosystem - it is a
one-way traffic. We will, however, note that the various minerals continuously circulate
between the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem. These are the so called
biogeochemical cycles.
We will then try to follow the concept of ecological niche and also the concept of
homeostasis.
Objectives
I
After studying this unit, you should be able to
describe the components of an ecosystem,
elaborate upon the biotic and abiotic components and the interaction between
them,
explain the food-chains,food-web and energy flow in an ecosystem,
outline various biogeochernical cycles, and
explain the concept of ecological niche as well as the concept of homeostasis.

10.2 ECOLOGY
Ever since the time of Greek philosophers, there is considerable written material that is
definitely ecological. Man must have been using his ecological knowledge since time
immemorial. This must have been important for his survival in the wild environment. Even
today many tribal people all over the world are using this ecological knowledge and living
happily in the wilderness. With the tremendous increase in population, every one including
 you, must understand ecology more thoroughly. This is essential for our survival and well
being.
The word ecology was recently coined by a Gerrnan biologist Emst Haeckel, in 18.69. This
word has a Greek root oikos meaning 'house'. Thus, an ecologist actually.studiesthe
organisms 'at home'.
For the sake of definition we will call ecology as the study of relationship of organisms to
their environment or surrounding. It really inclu&sThe study of the structure and function
of nature. Right here you must note that human being is also another organism and study of
his environment is equally part of ecology.
Broadly speaking, ecology can be subdivided into two major branches (1) autecology, and
(2) synecology. When you are studying one organism and its relationship with the
surrounding environment, you are doing autecologicalstudy. Study of groups of organisms
which are associated together as a unit is the realm of synecology. For example, you are
interested in a particular snake and you want to find out where it lives, what it eats, how
many eggs does it lay, etc., you are pursuing autecology. On the other hand, if you are
interested in a particular river, the kind of terrain it is flowing through, the kinds of fishes
and other animals as well as plants that are found in the river, the inter-relationshipof
plants-animals and physicochemical factors of water, etc., then the objective is
synecological. Both these aspects are important but the synecological studies give total
picture of the situation. Of course, much efforts and time are also required to complete
synecological work. The autecological approach is relatively straightforward but by no
means easy or simple.
Study of ecology is becoming more and more important as we are modifying the
environmpt surrounding us. Here, the word environment is used broadly to denote
everything that surrounds us -that is it includes other living organisms as well as non-living
things. This and subsequent units will give you sufficient idea about the basics of ecology
and its usefulness in day to day planning for economic development.

10.3 ECOSYSTEM AND ITS STRUCTURE

To study ecology, one has to take a s&er unit ipd this unit is called as ecosystem.
Ecosystem is a basic unit of ecology. For example, Grassland ecosystem, Forest ecdsystem
River ecosystem, Lake ecosystem. Ecosystem is defined as structural and functional unit of
ecology. This means, each such system has a defdte structure and each smcture associated
with an ecosystem has a definite role to play in the functioning of an ecosystem. Each
ecosystem is made up of living organisms and their surrounding non-living components.
These two parts of an ecosystem are therefore, called as living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components. These two parts do not stand-3iisolation, however, the biotic
component requires abiotic components. Actually, many minerals are continuously moving
from abiotic world to biotic world and again back to abiotic world. Living organisms are
also continuously modifying their surrounding non-living environment, and as we shall see
later, help the process of ecological succession. Interdependenceof organisms (within
themselves) and on abiotic world can be studied by carefully observing the plants and
animals around your place. Look, for example, how nodules on the roots of legumes harbor
bacteria which 'fix' nitrogen for the plant. See how the type soil and moisture content
decide what kindof vegetation can grow in a particular area.
Ecosystem is thus, essentially a biotic community in continuous interaction with its physical
environment. It is a dynamic entity. Taking a large, aslronautical view, the entire biosphere
can be seen as a gigantic single ecosystem. We will actually see later that some materials
like water, carbon dioxide, etc., are circulated globally. By biosphere we mean that portion
of the earth and its atmosphere which supports life. All the different ecosystems that we
mentioned earlier are then parts of the biosphere. Later, we will be analysing some of these
ecosystems in details to have a look at their abiotic and biotic components. Let us fast study
some basics about these two components.
10.3.1 The Biotic Component
The biotic component is, of course, all the living organisms present in an ecosystem. Some
of these organisms are large while some are tiny. Considerable number of organisms are so
'midute that these cannot be seen with a naked eye. So bacteria, fungi, small algae and
plants, shrubs and trees, insects and birds, all are parts of the biotic component. Man is also
a part of this vastassemblage of organism He is the only organism, however, who can
 modify vast areas of his environment within very short time. Apart from the strength of his Ecosystem :Basic Concepts
muscles, he alone can make tools and machines and use them
Biotic component is further subdivided into two broad groups on the basis of their trophic
(nutritional) status. These groups are :
1) Autotrophic organisms which, as their name implies, are 'self nourishing' organism~,
'
In short, these organisms can produce their own food. These organisms are generally,
chlorophyll possessing plants, though of course, other pigments are also useful. Thus,
all green plants mainly are autotrophs and since they use solar energy they are also
called as photoautotrophs. Some bacteria can survive on the energy generated through
chemical reactions alone and are known as chemoautotrophs.
2) Heterotrophic organisms which, as their name indicates, are 'other-nourishing'. This
means they depend on others for nourishment as they cannot prepare their own food.
You can also call autotrophic organisms as producers because they produce food. Similarly,
heterotrophscan also be identified as consumers as they consume food generated by the
producers. Once again all plants are producers and all animals (and other organisms that do
not manufacture their own food) are consumers. Sometimes the consumers are grouped into
two - (a) macro-consumers, and (b) micro-consumers. The former includes all animals
while the latter category includes bacteria and fungi that decompose organic matter
produced by living organisms as well as remains of dead organisms.
To introduce yet anotber terminology, we can call the organisms that feed directly on plants
as herbivores, while those that feed on animal flesh as carnivores.
What is important to note is that the biotic component of an ecosystem always consists of
producers and consumers or autotrophs and heterotrophs. Each ecosystem will, of course,
be different. Each will have its own producers and consumers. No two ecosystems will ever
be absolutely similar as far as their biotic component is concerned. Each has'a unique
composition. For example, a pond will have algae and other aquatic plants as producers
whilei grassland has various grasses and shrubs as producers.
10.3.2 Abiotic Component
The abiotic component of an ecosystem is everything else other than the living organisms.'~(
is an assemblage of organic and inorganic substances present in an ecosystem. The various :
climatic factors that affect the ecosystem functioning are also included in the abiotic
component. Once again you will note that each ecosystem is unique in possessing a set of
different abiotic factors.
Substances like water, arbo on dioxide, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, etc. and elements
like carbon, nitrogen gas, sulphur, phosphorus, etc, are found in the ecosystems.These are
called as inorganic substances. There are also simple and complex organic substances, for
example, amino acids, humic acid, acetates, etc. These inorganic and organic substances
may be present in such a form that organisms can utilize them. Some substances, however,
may be cqinplexed or bound with other substances and may not be easily available to living,
oiganismk. In any case, life of all the living organisms depends upon presence of these
abiotic substances. After all, these substances are the building materials with which living
organisms construct their structures. As we shall see later in this unit, the inorganic
elements are constantly circulating between the biotic and abiotic compartments of the
ecosystem. You exhale carbon dioxide and plants take it up to fix the carbon into a sugar
molecule. When this sugar molecule is oxidized, once again carbon dioxide is produced,
You will also study the various biogeochemical cycles to remember this point permanently.
Climatic factors are also considered under the abiotic component because they control the
entire functioning of an ecosystem, what kind of ecosystem can develop is largely
determined by the climatic factors. Major changes in the climate are not routine features.
Usually, climate change takes place gradually over a prolonged period and the ecosystems
undergo modification. As we will see in other unit, even catastrophic climatic changes ,
brought about by volcanic eruption alter the ecosystem. In the distant past the continents; as'
we see them today, occupied diffemnt positions on the surface of the earth. North America
for example, was near equator and had tropical climate. The ecosystems present then were
of course tropical but today the situation is entirely different.
Biotic components also affect abiotic &mponents. For example, presence of vegetation
alters t& soil and prevent its erosion, The ecosystem as a whole is an interplay or
interaction between the abiotlq and biotic components.

7
 S,P!Q I:
a) Define ecoltrgy.
tp) Detine atnBc~~Bogy aad sy~heh;oBogy.
C) I ~ e k j ~itlg
4 ~icr~~??; I L F la.;tei17ks.opRaic
;!Isb0t~oi3i1i~ I~ c~rgCmisn~s.
d) PIQsal ;irz biotic ai~dsbdoUc coanpoe:eats of sans ecosystcn~:I

10.4 FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Let us now see how an ecosystem functions, how plants and animals are related with each
other through food-chain, how energy passes from one organism to the other and how the
minerals circulate between the biotic and abiotic component of an ecosystem
10.4.1 Food-Chain and Food-Web
You might have seen a grasshopper nibbling at a plant or an insect larva feeding on the
leaves of a plant. Further, you might have also noticed a bird feeding on grasshopper or
insect larva. What you have observed here is a simple food-chain. Since no animal can
manufacture its own food it will either directly feed on plant or will eat another animal and
may, in turn, be eaten by yet another animal. This linkage of organisms for the transler of
food energy is what we call as a food-chain.
Basically, there are two types of food-chains: a) the grazing food-chain, and b) the detritus
food-chain.
The grazing food-chain starts with a green plant which will be eaten by a plant eating
animal (that is herbivore). The herbivore, in turn, will be eaten by a flesh eating animal (that

(Grass)
-
is carnivore). Thus, simply stated the food chain of this type can be :
Plant Herbivore -------+ Carnivore
(Insect) (Lizard or Frog or Bird)
The detritus food-chain begins with organic matter from &ad organisms, etc. This organic
matter is degraded by microorganisms (that is detritivores). Thus, dead leaves, stems and
such parts of plants or dead animals or their organic wastes will be degraded. Thus, it can be
shown as :
Dead log of wood ----c Wood rotting fungi
The important thing about the detritus food-chain is that the activity of microorganisms I

release important inorganic nutrients that can be once again useful for other organisms. Had I
it not been for detritivores, a lot of energy would have remained locked up in the dead
bodies of organisms (Figure 10.1 (a)).
In most ecosystems, the food chains are not so simple and straightforward. An insect like
grasshopper may feed on a dozen differentplants. Similarly, a frog may eat several other
insects along with grasshopper. Thus, the food-chains are not simple isolated sequences as
discussed above. Rather there is considerable interlocking of food-chains. We then speak of
a food-web rather than a foodshain while studying an ecosystem This is because even a
single animal, during its development and growth, may be a pkt of a different food-chain
and hence a food-web.A simple food-chain in a small lake is shown ih Figure 10.1 (b).
 Ecosystem : Bwic Concepts

GRAZING CARNIVORES
TYPE
OF
FOOD CHAIN

DETRITUS
TYPE
OF k
FOOD CHAIN MINERALIZATION BACTERIA, FUNGI, PROZOANS

(u) Grazing and Detritus Type of Food-chnins nnd their lnterrclntionship

SMALL FISH

..
D ET R I T U S

(I))A S i n ~ p l elcood-cbnin 111 11 Smnll Lnkc

Ipigurc 10.1

10.4.2 Trophic Levels

We have seen that each ecosystem has complex food-webs. However, in a food-chain the
organisms, where food is obtained from plants by the siune number of steps, are said to
belong to the same trophic level. In our food-chains, namely :
a) grass ------- grasshopper frog - snake
and
b) tree - beetle -.---+ lizard ---- bird
the grasshopper and beetle both occupy the same trophic level. Both are directly using plant
as food and are called as primary consumers. The plants, that is, the grass and the tree both
are at the producer level. Likewise, the first animal eaters, that is the frog and the lizard
occupy a level called as secondary consumer level. Similarly, there is a tertiary consumer

-
level. Thus, the trophic levels can be stated as :
Producer Primary consumer -+ Secondary consumer-Tertiary consumer
But please note that this is not a trophic classification. It tells us about the function of a
species in question. It is also important to remember that one animal may occupy One or
more than one trophic level. This complexity is also evident from the food-web.
 10.4.3 Energy, Sources of Energy and Energy Flow
Physicists define energy as the ability or capacity to do work. Work can mean movement,
hands or legs, growth, movement of a car, etc. Virtually all actions of living things reqJre
energy. Muscles do not contract without energy, so you cannot move any part of body
without spending some amount of energy. Not only that, many other reactions going on in
your body (for example movement of cellular constituents, synthesis of cellular proteins a
carbohydrates, ctc.) also require energy. At all levels of biological organization, there ex;
processes that channel energy into the various activities and that this channeling is
admirably well controlled. For this reason it is said that all living systetns, from single cell
to a complex community, are energy convertcrs more than anything else.
Energy can be divided into two basic forms : I) potential energy and 2) kinetic energy.
Potential energy is simply stored energy which is available to do work. The living cells
generally store potential energy in the form of high energy phosphate bonds. When these
bonds are broken the liberated energy can be used to do work. The most common 'energy
rich' compound used by #e cell is adenosine triphosphate or ATP. The other similar
compounds are uridine triphosphate (UTP)or guanosine triphosphate (GTP), etc. The
common reaction is :

where 'ATJ?' is a diphosphate, 'P,' is inorganic phosphatc and 'e' is energy. This reaction
reversible. Although it is beyond the scope of this course, you must know that all animals
generate their own ATP but the energy required to do so comes lrom food they eat
(vegetable or flesh). All we do is break down the sugar or proteins or Pdts and obtain the
potential energy trapped in those molecules.
Kinetic energy on the other h&d is associated with movement. Water falling down a watej
fall (this is how we run ow turbines to generate electricity at hydroelectric station), blowin
wind, the waves pounding on a sea shore or a moving car. All are examples o l kinetic
energy.
There are other forms of energy, like atomic energy, geothermal energy, solar energy or
radiant energy which is in the formof electromagnetic waves, and .also heat.
As we remarked earlier all consumers depend ultimately on solar energy. The production c
a biomass (and hence availability of plant and animal resources) in a given ecosystem is
determined primarily by solar radiation. Mean intensity of solar radialion is the most
important factor. As far as the flow of energy in an ecosystem is concerned, it directly
depends on the amount of solar energy captured per unit area in unit time by the plants.
In the presence of sunlight the chlorophyll (the green pigment) containing plants are capab
of fixing carbon dioxide to form sugar. Thus
light energy
6 CO, + 6 H,O *C,H120, + 60,
(carbon dioxide) (water) (sugar) (oxygen)
n e r e are also pigments other than chlorophyll which can also do the same thing. This
process is photosynthesis.
The amount of solar energy falling on earth is variable according to season, latitude, cloud
cover and such other factors. Much of this energy is wasted and ends up in heating the eartl
and its atmosphere or is reflected back from earth. Only a tiny fraction of incident solar
energy is fixed by the plants to prepare their food (sugar). The amount of plant biomass
developed per unit time per unit area is sometimes known as gross productivity. Plants of
course use some food for their metabolism (respiration) and the remaining biomass is then
the net productivity.
The energy present in the plants is then used by the subsequent members of the food-chain.
This entire movement and overall behaviour of energy obeys the laws of therxnodynamics.
Let us briefly see those two laws and their implications in ecology.
The first law of thermodynamics explains that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
it is merely transformed, that is it changes its fonn. The plants transform solar energy
(radiant energy) into potential energy by using the sunlight to produce sugar from carbon
dioxide. When an animal eats the plant or animal material as food, the same energy is
gradually liberated in the process of respiration to produce the energy rich phosphate
molecules. This we have discussed earlier. It is in this sense that the ecologists say that all
living organisms are merely energy converters.
 The second law of thermodynamics points out to us tllat no process of transformation of
energy is possible without partial degradation of energy. By degradation we mean
conversion of concentrated and orderly form of energy into a 'dilute', unusable form. This
means there is a loss of useful energy. Please remember cnergy is not lost or destroyed,
simply it is in a form that is not serving our purpose. The most important ecological
implication of this law is that no biological process can take place with 100% efficiency.
Already we have seen that much of the solar energy incident on plant is not fixed. Further
when an herbivore feeds on this plat11 again some energy is lost, this continues along the
food-chain. Obviously the nature cantlot dford to have too long food-chains. This is the
reason why a unit area of land can feed more vegetarian people lhan if the s'ame area is used
to grow grass on which meat-providing ani~nalsa ~ cgrown: and then tlle meat is pr0vided.a~
a food to people.
Energy also moves only oncc through any given trophic level of Ule food-chain
(Figure 10.2). As we shall see the ininera1 nlaller is used and reuscd in cyclic manner
Energy is gradually degraded along the food-chain 'and finally dispersed as heal.

ORGANIC MATTER
WASTES AND
DEAD BODIES

Agurc 10.2: l i n e Diagran~Slrowitrg One-way I'wsrrgc of Pllergy from Plir~iCFto

Herbivores to C~uluvorcsrrnrl I?itl:~llyl o Dccomposcrs

SAQ 2
a) Explain the cc~lccptof footi-chain with a suit;lblc cxample.
b) llefinc gr;rzing aritl rlctritus t'cn)tl-chains.
c) What is a food-web '!
d) Statc two laws ol' tberlllodyniklllics.
e) Dci'inc potoiitiiil c~lol'gy;ultl ki~lcliccnergy.

10.4.4 Biogeochemical Cycles

The chemical elements especially the essenlial six elements are required by living
organisms in large quantity. lllese are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and
sulfur. Some other elements such as sodium, potassium, muig,mese, calcium, iron,
<
magnesium, chlorine, iodine, elc. arc required in smaller quantities. All tllese elements are
pfesent mainly in the earth's crust. Gases like oxygen and nilrogen are present in
atmosphere. These chemical elements tend to circulale in the biosphere in characteristic
I paths from environment to organisms and back to the environment. n e s e more or less
circular paths are known as biogeochemical cycles. Ille inorganic compounds essenlial for
the growth of life follow what are described as nutrient cycles.
For each cycle there is a reservoir pool. This is usually largc, slow-moving and generally
non-biological component. The otl~ercomponent of the same cycle is exchange pool or
cycling pool, which is smaller but more active portion that is exchanging rapidly between
organisms and their immediate environment.

A
Ecology These biogeochernical cycles can be broadly divided into two types. One, gaseous type in
which reservoir is almosphere and second, sedimentary type in which reservoir is l.Ile
earth's crust.
We can describe nitrogen cycle as an example to tell you how there is exchange of material
from abiotic to biotic and biotic to abiotic componenls of ui ecosystem. Herc nitrogcn in Ule
air serves as reservoir pool and this nitrogen is fixed by certain planls with the help of
micro-organisms and by electrification process in nature. As an output, nitrogen is fixed
from atmosphere and then ~t is used again and again through various biological processes.
This is how nature uses its resources efficiently.
-1 NITROGEN I N ATMOSPHERE -7
ELECTRIFICATION & NITROGEN F I X I N G
PHOTOCHEMICAL BACTERIA 8 A L 6 A E
FIXATION I
1
/
, DENITRIFICATION

4 NITRATES NITRATES fl

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
PLANTS -4 ANIMALS
BACTERIA \
EXCRETION,
DECAYING PARTS OF
WASTE PRODUCTS
PLANTS h ANIMALS B Y THE
OF ANIMALS
ACTION OF BACTERIA h F U N G I

4
NITRITE

Figure 10.3 : Nitrogen Cycle

This is also true for other cycles such as phosphorus, O,, CO,, elc.
Now, we can lean other cycles with the help of a few diagrams :
1) Phosphorus cycle (also known as sedimenlary cycle)
2) Carbon Cycle

Figure 10.4 I Pl~osjihorusCycle

:I
 Ecosystem : Bmic Concepts
C 0 2 IN THE ATMOSPHERE
1 1 I 1 1

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

IGNEOUS ROCKS
NATURAL PROCESSES
DETRPIZTS WSD

OCEAN

Figure 10.5 : Carbon Cycle

10.5 THE CONCEPT OF HABITAT AND ECOLOGICAL

NICHE
The term habitat is often used in ecology to denote the 'address' of an organism. It refers to
Ihe place where that organisms lives. When we say that a particular fish is found in the hill
streams, the hill stream is the habitat of that fish. But two different species of hill stream
fishes may occupy different areas within such streams. Such areas or preferred areas then
become microhabitat for Lhat particular species. Thus the microhabitat for one fish may be
shallow hill stream rocks covered with algae. So when we clearly define the habitat of a
species we also include abiotic and biotic environment that surrounds an organisms.
Each organism is adapted to a specitlc habitat and any modification of the habitat can be
dangerous for survival of that organisms. Told destruction of a particular type of'habilat
can wipe out an organism from th,at area. In fact many plants and animals became extinct
due to habitat destruction carried out by the industrialized and urbanized human being.
When we convert a jungle into a pasture land or agricultural land we are deskoying habitats
of hundreds of species.
The term ecological niche is more broader tcrm. It speaks about :
(a) the physical space occupied by an organism,
(b) functional role of a given organism in a community, and
(c) h e position of that organism in the environmental gradients (say, of
temperature, salinity, etc.).
The same three aspects of ecological niche are sometimes known as spatial or habitat niche,
trophic nic11e.and ~nultidimensionalniche.
Certainly, ecological niche tells us many more U~ingsabout the organism, especially with
respect to its role in a given community. Understanding niche is essential to distinguish
differences betwcen similar species, For example, three or more species of closely related
birds may be occupying the same area yet each one feeds on different food and each nests in
different tree. We will further discuss about ecological niche again in Unit 11.

L 10.6 THE CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS

Living systems, including groups of organisms living together in the same environment as
well as individual organisms, possess self-regulating feedback mechanisms Ulat maintain
their equilibrium. This tendency of biological systems to resist change and remain in a state
of steady equilibrium is called homeostasis. The roots of this word are : horne.0= same and
slasis = tand ding.
Regulation of body temperature or blood-sugar level is an example of homeostatic control
al Ule individual level. To maintain population density is similar control at the population
Ecology level. Maintenance of overall structure of an ecosystem constant over a period of time is
also homeostasis.
Homeostatic control needs information in the form of feedback. Feedback is simply return
of the output (or part of the output) to a system as input. This feedback gives information
whether the system should continue to function along the same line or alter its course. It
must be pointed out however that it takes a lot of time to understand such controlling signals
at an ecosystem level.
As E.P. Odum bas rightly pointed out, man is disrupting the equilibrium of many
ecosystems by disrupting the controls. At this point of time a careful investigation of all the
ecosystems that surround all of us is necessary. This will allow us to get the benefit out of
an ecosystem at the same, keep the ecosystemfunctioning.You must also remember that
homeostatic control observed in any ecosystem is the result of prolonged evolutionary
adjustment. As we shall see later, when we discuss ecological succession, the older and
mature systems are more at equilibrium than the new sera1 communities.

10.7 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

Over this p1,anetearth there are several types of ecosystems. Broadly, we can divide them
into two types : a) terrestrial and b) aquatic ecosystems. This is a habitat wise classification.
There are again several different terrestrial ecosystems in different parts of the earth. The
various forests, grasslands and savannas, deserts, etc. are all terrestrial ecosystems aboul
which we shall discuss later. Similarly, freshwaterecosystems and marine ecosystems of
different category are classified under aquatic ecosystem.
What kind of ecosystem can develop at any particular place depends on several factors.
Among these factors, the amount and duration of sunlight, availability of water, the type of
soil and other geological factors and overall climate are very important. We will be
discussing some of these things later in this block.

a) What is meant by biogeocherPlicalcycles ? Represent my one cycle

diagnmmatically.
b) Explain the concept of'ecologicd niche.
c) Explain the concept of homeostasis.

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10.8 SUMMARY
In this unit you have noted some basic concepts in ecology. We have defined ecology as tlle
science dealing with the study of the structure and fu~ictionof an ecosystem. The ecosystem
itself is a structural and functional unit of ecology. Many ecosystems together form the
biosphere.
The ecologist may concern himself with single organism (autecology) or with groups of
organisms in an ecosystem (synecology). I

Each ecosystem, you must note, has a living (bioti~)and a non-living (abiotic) components.
These two components are continuously exchanging materials with each other. This is what
we have discussed as biogeochemical cycles.
~ a c ecosystem
h also has a definite trophic structure and you can speak about the trophic
status of each organism. The plants which manufacture food are called as producers while
all the rest organisms are consumers. You have observed that the food energy present in I

plants passes down to acamivorous animal through an intermediate herbivorous animal.

This passage of food cnergy along definite line of organisms is the food-chain. The
food-chain itself being part of a greater and complex food-web. The main source of energy
is, of course, solar energy and the behaviour of energy in an ecosystem follows the laws of I
thermodynamics,
You have also noted that each ecosystem tries to maintain an equilibrium. There are specific
feedback signals that help the ecosystem to maintain equilibrium. I
I
Ln the end, you must also remember that different kinds of ecosystenls arc found in different Ecosystem :Basic Concepts
parts of the world. The amount of solar radiation is one of the main feature deciding what
kind of ecosystem can develop at a given location, of course availability of water, soil, etc.
are also factors to be considered.
We must not forget that man is also a part of the ecosystem and hence his well-being is
dependent on well-being of the ecosystem. He should not allow the ecosystems to degrade
and modify due to his activities.

10.9 KEY WORDS

Abiotic All non-living components of an ecosystem.
Aerobic Refers to the biological processes taking place in
presence of oxygen.
Algal bloom Excessive growth or proliferation of one or few species
of algae in water bodies giving greenish colour to water
is called algal blooms. Tlnese algal blooms are caused due
to input of excessive plant nutrients e.g. nitrogen and
phosphates through domestic wastelsewage 'and leaching
of fertilizers from agriculture.
Anaerobic Tlne biological processes which take place in Une absence
of air are known as lulaerobic.
Aquatic The plant and a~imillspccics living in water are called as
aquatic species.
Assimilation In ecology it refers to tlne conversion ol' hod material
into substance of cell or an organism.
Autecology This is a branch of ecology in which a single species of
plant or a ~ i ~ nisa studied.
l
Autotrophic Auto rncans self ;md lrophic mexns food i.e. self-feeding.
This term refers to the green plants which by tlne process
of photosynthesis manuhctures Uneir own food utilising
CO,, water iund energy of sunlight.
Bacteria Tlnis is a group o l micro-orgiunisnns popu1;irly fanliliar by
their disease causing ability. Many bacteria are essential
in rnaturc for recycling ol'matcrials and they play
important role in an ecosystem.
Benthos Plants and animal species living on the bottom ol' water
bodies for exarnplc organisms living on or near bottom of
an aquatic body.
The term bio-assay refers to h e use of living organisms
or their tissues to rncasure the biological effccts of
~nan-madeandlor natural substances.
The substances which can be reduced to smaller
components or milleralized by ~nicroorgimismsare called
as bio-degradable. Plastic material may nol be degraded
by micro-organisms and is called non-biodegradable.
Biogeochemical cycle : The clnenlicals esscntial for organisms are circulated in
the nature in a cyclic rnarlner froin physical environment
(abiotic) to organisms (biotic) and back to environment in
the form of waste, death of organisms, etc. This cyclic
movement of matter is called as biogeoclnernical cycles.
Biological oxidation : Degradationloxidation of organic material with the help
of organism. This helps in recycling of material in an
ecosystem.
Niche Functional status of an organism in a community.
Habitat Place of an organism where it lives,
Ecology
10.10 FURTHER READINGS
Kurnar, H.D.(1995), General Ecology, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
Other books mentioned in the next unit.
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10.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
a) Ecology is the study of relationship of an organism or groups of organisms to
their environment. It is actually the study of the structure and function of
nature.
b) Autecology i$ the ecology of single organism, plant or animal, while the term
synecology denotes study of groups of organisms which as associated together
as a unit.
c) Autotrophic organisms are self-nourishing organisms that is, those that
manufacture their own food. All plants (with few exceptions) are autotrophs.
The heterotrophic organisms on the other hand depend on olher organisms for
food as they cannot produce their own food.
. d) Biotic and abiotic components are constituent parts of ecosystem. Biotic
component includes all living organisms (from bacteria to elephant) while the
abiotic components are all non-living things (soil, gases, climatic factors, etc.).
These two components continuously exchange matter through biogeochemical
cycles.
SAQ 2
a) When a portion of plant is eaten by a grasshopper and the grasshopper is in
turn eaten by a frog then energy stored in plant passes through grasshopper to
frog. This transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of
animals is called as the food-chain. Thus we can show it as :
Grass leaves ------c Grasshopper - Frog
b) The food-chain which starts from a green plant and passes through
herbivorous animals to carnivorous animals is the grazing food-chain. The
food-chain which originates from dead and decaying organisms or organic
wastes is called as the detritus food-chain.
c) Though we have seen that
Grass leaves - Grasshopper -Frog
is a food-chain, the picture is not always like that. The grass leaves will be
eaten not only by grasshopper but also by rabbits and similar other mammals.
Similarly, a grasshopper may be eaten by a Lizard, by a bird even by a young
one of snake. We must also note that there are several kinds of grasses,
grasshoppers, frogs, snakes, rabbits, etc. so the interrelationshipis quite
complex. This interlocking nature of the food-chains is known as the
food-web.
d) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be crealed nor
destroyed. It can be however, converted (transformed) from one form into
another. The second law states that with each such transformation there is loss
of "useful" energy. That is it often passes from its concentrated and orderly
state to more dispersed (hence useless from our point of view) state.
e) Potential energy is the energy stored in various molecules like sugar. This
energy is available to do work when the sugar molecule is broken down,
Kinetic energy on the other hand, is energy associated with movement.
SAQ 3
a) Cyclic movement of mineral matter between biotic and abiotic components of
an ecosystem is a biogeochernical cycle. It can be shown as : I

abiotic component
C biotic component I
 Different minerals follow different path, so is the case with the gases like Ecosystem : 13;lsic Concepts
nitrogen, oxygen.
b) Each organism of an ecosystem has a definite function, a definite role to play.
This functional status of an organism is called as ecoIogical niche. The
function of an organism can be analyzed only when we h o w more about the
place where the organism lives (spatial niche), the energy sources, etc, of an
organism (trophic niche) and environmental gradient (say, of temperature) in
which it lives (multidimensional niche). The all encompassing concept is that
of ecological niche which includes all the aspects discussed above.
c) Homeostasis is the tendency of an ecosystem to maintain equilibrium and
resist changes (Homeo = same, Stasis = standing). External agents are
constantly disturbing the equilibrium yet as soon as disturbance is over the
system r e m s to nonnal. This is possible due to various feedback control
I signals that operate to maintain equilibrium. Such controls are at the
individual, population and ecosystem level. Maintenance of constant blood
sugar level or maintenance of right body temperature are examples of
homeostasis. Regulation of prey population by a predator is an example at the
ecosystem level.