AIN ee ee == va [8 OAV UTR LALDynamics of Structures Second Edition JAGMOHAN L. HUMAR Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada A.A, BALKEMA PUBLISHERS/LISSE/ ABINGDON/EXTON (PA)/TOKYOLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Humar, J. L. Dynamics of structures / Jagmohan L. Humar.~ 2nd ed. p. om. ISBN 9058092453 — ISBN 9058092451 (pbk.) 1. Structural dynamics. 1. Title TA6S4 .H79 2001 624,1'7-de21 2001052675 Cover design: Studio Jan de Boer, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Typesetting: Macmillan India Ltd., Bangalore, India, Printed by: Krips, Meppel, The Netherlands. © 2002 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in @ retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, ‘mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. ISBN 90 5809 245 3 (hardback) ISBN 90 5809 246 1 (paperback)Contents PREFACE LIST OF SYMBOLS 1 INTRODUCTION Lit Objectives ofthe study of structural dynamics 1.2 Importance of vibration analysis 1.3. Nature of exciting forces : 13.1. Dynamic forees caused by rotating machinery 1.3.2 Wind loads 13.3. Blast loads . 13.8 Dynamic forces caused by earthquakes 13.3. Periodic and nonperiodic loads 13.6 Deterministic and non-deterministic loads 1A) Mathematical modeling of dynamic systems 15° Systems of units 1,6 Organization of the text PART 1 2 FORMULATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION: SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Inertia forces 23 Resultants of inertia forces on a rigid body 24 Spring forces = 25 Damping forces 216 Principle of virtual displacement 2.7 Formulation of the equations of motion 2.7.1 Systems with localized mass and localized stitfn 272. Systems with localized mass but distributed stiffness 2.7.3. Systems with distributed mass but localized stiffness 2.74 Systems with distributed siness and distributed mass 2.8 Modeling of multi-degree-of-freedom discrete parameter system. 29 elect of gravity load 2.10 Axial force effect 211 Effect of support motion . xv XIX 21 21 21 2B 29 32 33 38 38 39 al 45 34 37 60. 65Vi Humar 3 FORMULATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION: MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS B 3.1 Introduction : B 3.2 Principal forces in multi-degree-of-freedom dynamic system coe . 8 3.2.1 Inertia forces 5 3.2.2 Forces arising due to elasticity eo 79 3.2.3 Damping forces : 81 3.24 Axial force effects : 82 3.3. Formulation of the equations of motion 84 3.3.1 Systems with localized mass and localized stiffness coe ve 8S 3.3.2 Systems with localized mass but distributed stiffness : 85 3.3.3 Systems with distributed mass but localized stiffness 88 3.3.4 Systems with distributed mass and distributed stiffness 94 3.4. Transformation of coordinates 107 3.5. Finite element method : iil 3.1 Formulation of the equations of motion 116 5.2. Selection of shape functions 122 3.5.3 Advantages of the finite element method ... 123 3.6 Finite element formulation of the flexural vibrations of a beam . 3.6.1 Stiffness matrix of a beam element 3.6.2. Mass matrix of a beam element . 3.6.3 Nodal applied force vector for a beam element 3.6.4 Geometric stiiness matrix for a beam element 3.7. Static condensation of stiffness matrix 3.8 Application of the Ritz method to discrete systems 4 PRINCIPLES OF ANALYTICAL MECHANICS Ist 4.1 Introduction... 1s1 4.2 Generalized coordinates ....... : 151 43° Constraints 156 4.4 Virtual work cee 159 45° Generalized forces .. 165 4.6 Conservative forces and potential energy 170 4.7 Work function .. 4 174 4.8 Lagrangian multipliers ...... : 178 4.9 Virtual work equation for dynamical systems Is 4.10 Hamilton's equation 186Contents VIL 4.11 Lagrange’s equation 188 4.12 Constraint conditions and lagrangian multipliers 194 4.13 Lagrange’s equations for discrete multi-degree-of-freedom systems 196 4.14 Rayleigh’s dissipation function 198 PART 2 5 FREE VIBRATION RESPONSE: SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Undamped free vibration 5.2.1 Phase plane diagram 5.3. Free vibrations with viscous damping 5.3.1 Critically damped system 5.3.2. Overdamped system 5.3.3. Underdamped system 5.34 Phase plane diagram 5.3.5 Logarithmic decrement 5.4 Damped free vibration with hysteretic damping 5.5. Damped free vibration with Coulomb damping 5.5.1 Phase plane representation of vibrations under Coulomb damping ..-.-...++. 236 6 FORCED HARMONIC VIBRATIONS: SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREFDOM SYSTEM 245 6.1 Introduction 24s 6.2 Procedures for the solution of the forced vibration equation . 246 6.3 Undamped harmonic vibration 248, 64 Resonant response of an undamped system 253 6.5 Damped harmonic vibration 254 6.6 Complex frequency response ‘ 267 6.7 Resonant response of a damped system m 68 Rotating unbalanced force : 273 6.9 Transmitted motion due to support movement ...... 279 6.10 Transmissibility and vibration isolation ..... 284 6.11 Vibration measuring instruments .. 288, 6.11.1 Measurement of support acceleration 289 6.11.2 Measurement of support displacement : 291 6.12 Energy dissipated in viscous damping : 293 6.13 Hysteretic damping : 297 6.14 Complex stiffness 301 6.15 Coulomb damping : . 301Vu Humar 6.16 Measurement of damping ce 304 6.16.1 Free vibration decay cee 304 6.16.2 Forced vibration response 305 7 RESPONSE TO GENERAL DYNAMIC LOADING AND TRANSIENT RESPONSE ..... 317 7.1 Introduction severe BIT 7.2 Response to an impulsive force — 317 73. Response to general dynamic loading . 319 7.4. Response to a step function load : 320 7.5 Response to a ramp function load ..... - 3B 7.6 Response to a step function load with rise time ..... 324 7.7. Response to shock loading : 330 77.1 Rectangular pulse 330 7.7.2. Triangular pulse 334 7.7.3 Simusoidal pulse : 337 7.74 Effect of viscous damping 341 7.7.5 Approximate response analysis for short-duration pulses : . os 7.8 Response to ground motion 344 78.1 Response to short-duration ground motion pulse 350 7.9 Analysis of response by the phase plane diagram 2384 8 ANALYSIS OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS: APPROXIMATE AND NUMERICAL METHODS. 361 8.1 Introduction — 361 8.2 Conservation of energy 363 8.3 Application of Rayleigh method to multi-degree-of-freedom systems 368, 8.3.1 Flexural vibrations of a beam... . 373 84 Improved Rayleigh method bone 377 85 Selection of an appropriate vibration shape 383 8.6 Systems with distributed mass and stiffness: Analysis of internal forces 387 8.7 Numerical evaluation of Duhamel’s integral... 390 8.7.1 Rectangular summation .. : 392 8.7.2 Trapezoidal method . 393 8.7.3 Simpson's method . : 393, 8.8 Direct integration of the equations of motion 399 8.9 Integration based on piece-wise linear representation of the excitation 399 8.10 Derivation of general formulae = 404 8.11 Constant-aeceleration method wee 4059 Contents 1X 8.12 Newmark’s method . 8.12.1 Average acceleration method 8.12.2 Linear acceleration method 8.13 Wilson- method 8114 Methods based on diference expressions 8.14.1 Central difference method 8.14.2 Houbolt’s method 8.15 Errors involved in numerical integration 8.16 Stability of the integration method 8.16.1 Newmark’s fi method 8.16.2 Wilson-0 method 8.16.3 Central difference method 8.164 Houbolt’s method 8.17 Selection of a numerical integration method 8.18 Selection of time step 8.19 Analysis of nonlinear response 8.20. Errors involved in numerical integration of nonlinear systems ANALYSIS OF RESPONSE IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN .. 453 9.1 ‘Transform methods of analysis : 453 9.2 Fourier series representation of a periodic function ......... 454 9.3. Response to a periodically applied load ....... 456 9.4 Exponential form of fourier series ce 460. 9.5 Complex frequency response function ...... 461 016 Fourier integral representation of a nonperioic load 462 9.7 Response to a nonperiodic load. 464 918 Convolution integral and convolution theorem 465 9.9 Discrete Fourier transform 468 9.10 Discrete convolution and discrete convolution theorem an 9.11 Comparison of continuous and discrete Fourier transforms .. 473 9.12 Application of discrete inverse transform 481 9.13 Comparison between continuous and discrete convolution -.. 487 9.14 Discrete convolution of an infinite- and a finite-duration waveform ... 492 9.15 Corrective response superposition methods 497 9.15.1 Corrective transient response based on initial conditions 499 9.152 Comective periodic response based on initial conditions : = 503 9.15.3 Comective responses oblained from a pair of force pulses foo . 512 9.16 Exponential window method : cee SIS 9.17 ‘The fast Fourier transform 5 520X Humar 9.18 Theoretical background to fast Fourier transform 9.19 Computing speed of FFT convolution PART3 10 FREE-VIBRATION RESPONSE: MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Standard eigenvalue problem 10.3 Linearized eigenvalue problem and its properties 10.4 Expansion theorem 10.5 Rayleigh quotient 10.6 Solution of the undamped free-vibration problem 10.7 Mode superposition analysis of free-vibration response 10.8 Solution of the damped free-vibration problem 10.9 Additional orthogonality conditions 10.10 Damping orthogonality NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE EIGENPROBLEM. 11.1 Introduction 11.2. Properties of standard eigenvalues and eigenvectors 11.3 Transformation of a linearized eigenvalue problem to the standard form 11.4 Transformation methods 114.1 Jacobi diagonalization 11.4.2 Householder’s transformation 11.43 QR transformation 11.5 Iteration methods 11.5.1 Vector iteration 115.2 Inverse vector iteration 11.53 Vector iteration with shifts 11.54 Subspace iteration 11.5.5 Lanczos iteration 11.6 Determinant search method 11.7, Numerical solution of complex eigenvalue problem 11.7.1 Eigenvalue problem and the orthogonality relationship . : 11.7.2 Matrix iteration for determining the complex eigenvalues 11.8 Semi-definite or unrestrained systems 11.8.1 Characteristics of an unrestrained system 11.8.2 Bigenvalue solution of a semi-definite system 11.9 Selection of a method for the determination of eigenvalues 321 525 533 533 534 535 540 S41 545 547 553 564 566 581 581 583, 584 586 587 593, 597 602 603 606 617 623 626 633 638 638 641 648, 648, 650 658Contents 12. FORCED DYNAMIC RESPONSE: MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS a 122 123 124 12.5 26 127 Introduction Normal coordinate transformation Summary of mode superposition method Complex frequency response Vibration absorbers Effect of support excitation Forced vibration of unrestrained system 13. ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS: APPROXIMATE AND NUMERICAL METHODS Bd B2 B3 BA 135 136 PART 4 Introduction Rayleigh-Ritz method Application of Ritz method to forced vibration response 13.3.1 Mode superposition method 13.3.2 Mode acceleration method 13.33 Static condensation and Guyan’s reduction 13.34 Load-dependant Ritz vectors 13.35 Application of Lanczos vectors in the transformation of the equations of motion Direct integration of the equations of motion, 13.4.1 Explicit integration schemes. 13.4.2 Implicit integration schemes 13.4.3 Mixed methods in direct integration Analysis in the frequency domain 13.5.1 Frequency analysis of systems with classial mode shapes 13.5.2. Frequency analysis of systems without classical, ‘mode shapes Analysis of nonlinear response 13.6.1 Explicit integration 13.6.2. Implicit integration 14. FORMULATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION: CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS. 14d 142 143 44 Introduction Transverse vibrations of a beam Transverse vibrations of « beam: variational formulation Effect of damping resistance on transverse vibrations of a beam XI 665 665 665 668 673 679 681 691 701 701 702 720 ma ns Bi BI 4s 748. 751 755 765 773 74 779 784 784 785 795 795, 796 799 806XL Humar 145 146 147 148 149 14.10 1411 Effect of shear deformation and rotatory inertia on the flexural vibrations of a beam Axial vibrations of a bar Torsional vibrations of a bar ‘Transverse vibrations of a string Transverse vibrations of a shear beam Transverse vibrations of a beam excited by support motion Effect of axial force on transverse vibrations of a beam CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS: FREE VIBRATION RESPONSE 15.1 15.2 183 184 15.5 15.6 18.7 158 189 15.10 15.11 18.12 conti Introduction Eigenvalue problem for the transverse vibrations of @ beam General eigenvalue problem for & continuous system 153.1 Definition of the eigenvalue problem : 153.2. Self-adjointness of operators in the eigenvalue problem 153.3 Orthogonality of eigenfunctions’... 153.4 Positive and positive definite operators Expansion theorem Frequencies and mode shapes for lateral vibrations of a beam . 155.1. Simply supported beam 1552 Uniform cantilever beam 15.53. Uniform beam clamped at both ends . 15.54 Uniform beam with both ends free coos Effect of shear deformation and rotatory inertia on the frequencies of flexural vibrations Frequencies and mode shapes for the axial vibrations of a bar eee 15.7.1 Axial vibrations of a clamped-free bat 15.72 Axial vibrations of a free-free bar Frequencies and mode shapes for the transverse vibration of a string 15.8.1 Vibrations of a string tied at both ends Boundary conditions containing the eigenvalue Free-vibration response of a continuous system Undamped free transverse vibrations of a beam Damped free transverse vibrations of a beam INUOUS SYSTEMS: FORCED-VIBRATION RESPONSE 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Normal coordinate transformation: general case of an undamped system 807 810 813 814 815 818 922 829 829 830 834 834 835 836 838 838 839 840 842 844 846 Bas. 852 854 855 863 864 865 871 873, 876 879 879 8807 163 164 165 16.6 Contents Forced lateral vibration of a beam ‘Transverse vibrations of a beam under traveling load -. Forced axial vibrations of a uniform bar Normal coordinate transformation, damped case WAVE PROPAGATION ANALYSIS m1 172 173 114 7s 176 177 178 Introduetion| ‘The phenomenon of wave propagation Harmonic waves One-dimensional wave equation and its solution Propagation of waves in systems of finite extent Reflection and reffaction of waves at a discontinuity in the system properties Characteristics of the wave equation Wave dispersion ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS INDEX xu 883 886 889 899 907 907 908 10 914 919 928 933 935 959Preface AAs in the case of its predecessor, the motivation for this second edition of the book is to help engineers and scientists acquire an understanding of the dynamic response of structures and of the analytical tools required for determining such response. The book should be equally helpful to persons working in the field of civil, mechanical or aerospace engineering For the proper understanding of an analytical concept, it is useful to develop ‘an appreciation of the mathematical basis, Such appreciation need not depend fon a rigorous treatment of the subject matter; a physical understanding of the concepis is in most cases adequate, and perhaps more meaningful to an engineer. The book attempts to explain the mathematical basis for the concepts presented, mostly in physically motivated terms or through heuristic argument, No special mathematical background is required of the reader, except for a basic knowledge of college algebra and calculus and engineering mechanics. The essential steps in the dynamic analysis of a system are: (a) mathematical modeling (b) formulation of the equations of motion, and (c) solution of the equations. Modeling techniques can be divided into two broad categories. In one technique, the system is modeled as an assembly of rigid body masses and massless deformable elements, Systems modeled in this manner are referted to as discrete parameter systems. In the other technique of modeling, both mass and deformabilty are assumed 0 be distributed throughout the extent of the system which is treated as continuous. Systems modeled in this manner are called continuous or distributed parameter systems. In general, a continuous model will better represent the behavior of a dy- namical system. However, in most practical situations, the equations of motion of a continuous system are t00 difficult or impossible to solve, Therefore, in 4 majority of cases, dynamic analysis of engineering structures must rely on a representation of the structure by a discrete parameter model. The contents of the book reflect this emphasis on the use of discrete models. The first three parts of the book are devoted to the analysis of response of discrete systems. Part 1, consisting of Chapters 2 through 4, deals with the formulation of equa- tions of motion of discrete parameter systems. However, the methods of ana~ lytical mechanics presented in Chapter 4 are, equally applicable to continuous systems, Examples of such applications are presented later in the book.XVI Humar Part 2 of the book, covering Chapters 5 through 9, deals with the solution of equation of motion for a single-degree-of-freedom system. Part 3, consisting of Chapters 10 through 13, discusses the solution of equations of motion for multi degree-of-freedom systems. Part 4 of the book, covering Chapters 14 through 17, is devoted to the analysis of continuous system. Again, the subject matter is organized so that the formulation of equations of motion is presented first followed by a discussion of the solution techniques. ‘The book is organized so as to follow the logical succession of steps in- volved in the analysis. Many readers may prefer to complete a study of the single-degree-of-freedom systems, from formulation of equation to their solu- tion, before embarking on a study of multi-degree-of-freedom systems. This can be easily achieved by selective reading. The book chapters have been planned so that Chapters 3 and 4 relating to the formulation of equations of motion of a general system need not be studied prior to studying the material in Chapters 5 through 9 on the solution of equations of motion for a single-degree-of-freedom system. A development that has had a profound effect in the recent times on proce- dures for the analysis of engineering systems is the advent of digital computers. ‘The ability of computers to manage vast amounts of information and the inered- ible speed with which they can process numerical data has shifted the emphasis from closed from solutions and approximate methods suitable for hand compu- tations to solution of discrete models and numerical techniques of analysis. At the same time, computers have allowed the routine solution of problems vastly ‘greater in size and complexity than was possible only a decade or two ago. ‘The emphasis on discrete methods and numerical solutions is reflected in the contents of the present book. Chapter 8 on single-degree-of-freedom systems and Chapter 13 on multi-degree-of-freedom systems, are devoted exclusively to numerical techniques of solution. A fairly detailed treatment of the frequency domain analysis is included in Chapters 9 and 13, in recognition of the effi ciency of this technique in the numeric computation of response. Also, a detailed treatment of the solution of discrete eigenproblems which plays a central role in the numerical analysis of response is included in Chapter 11 It is recognized that the field of computer hardware as well as software is undergoing revolutionary development. The continuing evolution of personal computers with vastly improved processing speeds and memory capacity and the ongoing development of new programming languages and software tools ‘means that algorithms and programming styles must continue to change to take advantage of the progress made. Program listings or detailed algorithms have not therefore been included in the book. The author believes that in a book like this, it is more useful to provide the necessary background material for ‘an appreciation of the physical behavior and the analytical concepts involved as well as to present the development of methods that are suitable to numericPreface XN1 computations. Hopefully, this will give enough information for the reader to be able to develop his/her own algorithms or to make an informed and intelligent use of existing software ‘The material included in this book has been drawn from the vast wealth of available information. Some of it has now become a part of the historical development of structural dynamics, other is more recent. It is difficult to ac~ knowledge the sources for all of the information provided. The author offers his apologies to all researchers who have not been adequately recognized. Refer- cences have been omitted from the text to avoid distracting the reader. However, where appropriate, a brief list of suitable material for further reading is provided at the end of each chapter. ‘The style of presentation and the emphasis are the author's own, The contents of the book have been influenced by the author's experience in teaching and research and by the research studies carried out by him and his students. large number of examples have been included in the text; since they provide the most effective means of developing an understanding of the concepts involved Exercise problems have also been included at the end of each chapter, They will provide the reader useful practice in the application of techniques presented. In preparing this second edition, the errors that had inadvertently crept into the first edition have been corrected. The author is indebted to all those readers ‘who brought such errors to his attention, Several sections of the book have been revised and some new concepts and analytical techniques have been included to make the book as comprehensive as possible, within the boundary of its scope. Also included are additional end-of-chapter exercises for the benefit of the reader. “The author wishes to acknowledge the contribution made by his many stu dents and colleagues in the preparation of this bookList of symbols ‘The principal symbols used in the text arc listed below. All symbols, includ- ing those listed here, are defined at appropriate places within the text, usually at the time of their first occurrence. Occasionally, the same symbol may be tused to represent more than one parameter, but the meaning should be quite unambiguous when read in context. ‘Throughout the text, matrices are represented by bold face upper case letters while vectors are represented by bold face lower case letters. An overdot signi- fics differential with respect to time and a prime stands for differentiation with respect to the argument of the function. a acceleration; constant; linear dimension; decay parameter in exponential window method a coefficient of Fourier series cosine term a flexibility influence coefficient ay real part of m'" eigenvector 4 constant; cross-sectional area Ag amplitude of dynamic load factor for acceleration Ay amplitude of dynamic load factor for displacement Ae amplitude of dynamic load factor for velocity A amplification matrix; flexibility matrix; square matrix A transformed square matrix b constant; linear dimension; width of beam cross section by coefficient of Fourier series sine term Bo imaginary part of m"* eigenvector B constant; differential operator B square matrix © damping constant; velocity of wave propagation Cy critical damping constant Co velocity of wave group fo coefficient of Fourier series term, constant & internal damping constant cy damping influence coefficient é damping constant per unit length ¢ ‘generalized damping constantXX Humar Qnaae SPepmms copa. Fe) fa fo fe fo f vector of weighting factors in expansion theorem constant damping matrix; transformation matrix modal damping constant for the n"* mode transformed damping matrix diameter constant dynamic toad factor diagonal matrix; dynamic matrix eccentricity of unbalanced mass modulus of elasticity dynamic matrix=D>! axial rigidity flexural rigidity remainder term in numerical integration formula undamped natural frequency in cycles per see eigenfunction of a continuous system damped natural frequency damping force force due to geometric instability inertia force spring force total of spring force and damping force for hysteretic damping frequency of applied load in cycles per sec vector representing spatial variation of exciting force vector of damping forces vector of geometric instability forces vector of inertia forves vector of spring forces force force vector vector of applied forces vector of constraint forces components of force vector along Cartesian coordinates acceleration due to gravity forcing function scaled forcing function e*g(¢) constant; modulus of rigidity torsional rigidity constants Fourier transform of g(¢) Fourier transform of (1) height; time intervalne) iO, aay (ox), HD) HO) Aw) List of symbols XX1 unit impulse response periodic unit impulse response scaled unit impulse function A(f}e"*" Complex frequency response, Fourier transform of M(t) periodic complex frequency response, Fourier transform of h(t) Fourier transform of ht) imaginary number; integer unit veetor along x axis impulse; moment of inertia identity matrix mass moment of inertia for rotation above point 4 functional; mass moment of inertia for rotation about the mass center integer unit vector along y axis polar moment of inertia pring constant; stifiness, integer; wave number unit veetor along z axis geometric stiffness tangent sflfness stifiness influence coefficient shape constant for shear deformation spring constant per unit length generalized stifiness differential operator stiffness matrix ‘geometric stifness matrix modal stiffness for the n'" mode transformed stiffness matrix length Lagrangian; tength Tower triangular factor of stifiness matrix lower triangular factor of mass matrix integer; mass; mass per unit length ‘mass; unbalanced mass mass influence coefficient mass per unit length; mass per unit area generalized mass concentrated mass, differential operator, moment ‘mass matrix inertial moment modal mass for the 1!" mode ‘moment due to internal damping forcesXXII Humar concentrated mass transformed mass matrix integer normal force; number of degrees of freedom transformation matrix integer; force left eigenvector; force vector ‘modal force in the 1 mode force per unit length generalized force characteristic polynomial axial force; concentrated applied load matrix of left eigenvectors inertial force amplitude of applied force integer tight eigenvector generalized coordinate ‘transformed eigenvector applied force matrix of eigenvectors, orthogonal transformation matrix generalized force common ratio; constant; integer; radius of gyration; rank of 4 matrix; radius vector response due to unit initial displacement response due to periodic unit displacement changes Rayleigh dissipation function; reaction; remainder term inertance receptanc mobility magnitude of i** corrective force impulse inertance matrix Feceptance matrix ‘mobility matrix complex eigenvalue response duc to initial unit velocity response due to a periodic unit velocity changes axial force matrix of complex eigenvalues matrix for sweeping the first n eigenvectors time time at peak response torquevay nx) 7 Yo w(r) Wo W, W, List of symbols XXII kinetic energy; tensile force; undamped natural period damped natural period transformation matrix; tridiagonal matrix transmission ratio period of applied load displacement ground displacement Constrained coordinate; displacement along degree-of- fieedom i displacement along x direction displacement along_y direction inital displacemes absolute displacement statie displacement periodic displacement response complex frequency response; strain energy upper triangular matrix, complex frequency response matrix Fourier transform of u(t) velocity complex eigenvector comparison function initial velocity potential energy: shear force matrix of complex eigenvectors base shear comparison funetion energy loss per eyele in viscous damping work done by external forces energy loss per cycle; work done by intemal forces work done by elastic force Cartesian coordinate coordinate of the mass center Lanczos transformation matrix Cartesian coordinate vector of normal coordinates vector of inital values of the normal coordinates initial value of the n” normal coordinate ‘generalized coordinate angular shear deformation; coefficient; constant; parameter constant; frequency ratio; parameter angle; inverse eigenvalue; parameter deflection; eigenvalue; eigenvalue measured from a shifted origin; logarithmic decrementXXIV Humar tx) 4 8 or ou OW, OW, OW, Ws 30,56 At Ao no) rn 6 Ho) Hn A) Po od OG) a delta function static deflection Kronecker delta virtual displacement vector Virtual displacement virtual work done by external forces virtual work done by internal forces virtual work done by forces acting on intemal elements virtual work done by axial force Virtual displacement Virtual rotation displacement increment of time increment of frequency strain; quantity of a small value hysteretic damping constant, angle corrective response imaginary part of eigenvector angular displacement; flexural rotation; polar coordinate; parameter curvature eigenvalue; Lagrangian multiplier; wave length matrix of eigenvalues coefficient of friction; eigenvalue; eigenvalue shift unit step function real part of m eigenvalue imaginary part of m eigenvalue damping ratio; spatial coordinate equivalent hysteretic damping ratio real part of eigenvector root of difference equation amplitude of motion; Rayleigh quotient spectral radius of A amplitude of motion for hystere stress damping stress time angle; normalized eigenvector or mode shape; phase angle; potential function; spherical coordinate normalized eigenfunction phase angle for hysteretic damping ‘modal matrix response amplitude dampingYor) ou 2 List of symbols XXV shape vector shape function undamped natural frequency in rads damped natural frequency in rad’s frequency of applied load in radis frequency of the exciting force gradient vectorCHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS. The response of physical objects to dynamic or time-varying loads is an im- portant area of study in physics and engineering. The physical object whose response is sought may cither be treated as rigid-body or considered to be deformable, The subject of rigid-body dynamics treats the physical objects as rigid bodies that undergo motion without deformation when subjected to dy- namic loading. The study of rigid-body motion has many applications, including, for example, the movement of machinery, the flight of an aircraft or a space vehicle, and the motion of earth and the planets. In many instances, however, dynamic response involving deformations, rather than simple rigid-body motion, is of primary concem. This is particularly so in the design of structures and structural frames that support manufactured objects. Structural frames form a part of a wide variety of physical objects created by human beings: for exam- ple, automobiles, ships, aircraft, space vehicles, offshore platforms, buildings, and bridges. All of these objects, and hence the structure supporting them, are subjected 10 dynamic disturbances during their service life, Dynamic response involving deformations is usually oscillatory in nature, in which the structure vibrates about « configuration of stable equilibrium. Such equilibrium configuration may be static, that is, time invariant, or it may be dynamic involving rigid-body motion, Consider, for example, the vibrations ofa building under the action of wind. In the absence of wind, the building structure is in a state of static equilibrium under the loads acting on it, such as those due to gravity, earth pressure, and so on. When subjected to wind, the structure oscillates about the position of static equilibrium as shown in Figure LL ‘An airplane in flight provides an example of oscillatory motion about an equilibrium configuration that involves rigid-body motion. The aircraft can be ideatized as consisting of rigid-body masses of fuselage and the engines con- nected by flexible wing structure (Fig. 1.2). When in flight, the whole system moves as a rigid body and may, in addition, be subjected to oscillatory motion transverse to the fight plane. Motions involving deformation are caused by dynamic forces or dynamic disturbances. Dynamic forces may, for example, be induced by rotating2 Humar Figure 1.1. Oscillatory motion of a building fame under wind losd. Engine Engine Engine Engine Figure 1.2. Aeroplane in fight ‘machinery, wind, water waves, or a blast. A dynamic disturbance may result from an earthquake during which the motion of the ground is transmitted to the supported structure. Later in this chapter, we discuss briefly the nature of some of the dynamic forces and disturbances. Whatever be the cause of excitation, the resulting oscillatory motion of the structure induces displacements and stresses in the latter. An analysis of these displacements and stresses is the primary objective of a study of the dynamics of structures, 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS ‘The analysis of vibration response is of considerable importance in the design of structures that may be subjected to dynamic disturbances. Under certain sit- uations, vibrations may cause large displacements and severe stresses in the structure. As we shall see later, this may happen when the frequency of the exciting force coincides with a natural frequency of the structure, Also, fluctu- ating stresses, even of moderate intensity, may cause material failure throughIntroduction 3 fatigue if the number of repetitions is large enough. Oscillatory motion may at times cause wearing and malfunction of machinery. Also, the transmission of vibrations to connected structures may lead to undesirable results. Vibrations induced by rotating of reciprocating machinery may, for example, be transmit- ted through the supporting structure to delicate instruments mounted elsewhere oon it, causing such instruments to malfunction. Finally, when the structure is designed for human use, vibratory motion may result in severe discomfort to the occupants. With progress in engineering design, increasing use is being made of light- weight, high strength materials. As a result, modem structures are_more susceptible to critical vibrations. This is as true of mechanical structures as of buildings and bridges. Today's buildings and bridges structures are, for ex- ample, lighter, more flexible, and are made of materials that provide much lower energy dissipation, all of which may contribute to more intense vibration response, Dynamic analysis of structures is, therefore, even more important for modem structures, and this trend is likely to continue, tis apparent from the foregoing discussion that vibrations are undesirable for engineering structures. This is in general true except for certain mechanical ma- chinery which relies on controlled vibration for its functioning. Such machinery includes, for example, vibratory compactors, sieves, vibratory conveyors, cer~ tain types of drills, and pneumatic hammers. In any case, whether or not the vibrations arise from natural causes or are induced on purpose, the structure subjected to such vibrations must be designed for the resultant displacements and stresses. 13 NATURE OF EXCITING FORCES AAs stated earlier, the dynamic forces acting on a structure may result from one or more of a number of different causes, and it may be useful to categorize these forces according to the source of their origin, such as, for example, ro~ tating machinery, wind, blast, or earthquake. The exciting forces may also be classified according to the nature of their variation with time as periodie, nonpe- riodic, ot random. It is also useful to classify dynamic forces as deterministic, being specified as a definite funetion of time, or nondererministic, being known only in a statistical sense. In the following, we discuss briefly each of these classifications. 13.1 Dynamic forces caused by rotating machinery Rotating machinery that is not fully balanced about the center of rotation will give rise to exciting forces that vary with time, Consider, for example, a rotating ‘motor that has an eccentric mass mo attached to it at a distance e from the center4 Humar a ‘ Pe ~smscott — Figure 1.3. (a) Rotating machinery with unbalanced mass; (b) horizontal component of centrifugal force, of rotation, as shown in Figure 13a, If the motor is rotating with a constant angular velocity rad/s, the centrifugal force acting on the unbalanced mass is em? directed away from center and along the radius connecting the eccentric ‘mass to the center. If time is measured from the instant the radius vector from the center of rotation to the mass is horizontal, the horizontal component of the centrifugal force at time 1 is given by PAD) = em? cos Ot aay Force p(t) is shown as a function of time in Figure 1.3b. If the supporting table is free to translate in a horizontal direction, force p(t) will cause the table to vibrate in that direction, Dynamic forces arising from unbalanced rotating machinery are quite com- ‘mon in mechanical systems, and the supporting structure must in such cases be designed to withstand the resulting deformations and stresses, 13.2 Wind loads Structures subjected to wind experience aerodynamic forces which may be clas sified as drag Forces, which are parallel to the direction of wind, and lift forces which are perpendicular to the wind. Both forces depend on the wind velocity, the wind profile along the height of the structure, and the characteristics of the structure. Winds close to the surface of the earth are affected by turbulence and hence vary with time. The response of the structure to the wind is thus a dynamic phenomenon and a precise estimate of the displacements and stresses induced by the wind can be obtained only through a dynamic analysis, For the purpose of design, wind forces are often converted into equivalent static forces This approach while reasonable for low rise, comparatively stiff structures, mayIntroduction § not be appropriate for structures that are tall, light, flexible, and possess low damping resistance. Estimates of design wind speeds are obtained by measurements of wind in an open exposure, often at an airport, at a standard height, usually 10m or 30f. Records are kept of maximum daily time-averaged mean wind speeds Obviously, the mean wind will depend on the time used for the purpose of averaging. Design codes generally specify the use of a maximum mean wind with @ given recurrence period. A typical value of recurrence period for strength design of buildings subjected to wind loads is 30 years. The corresponding design wind is usually obtained by a statistical analysis of the recorded data on hourly mean winds, The variation of wind along the height, called wind profile, is determined on the basis of analytical studies and experimental observation. A similar approach is used to model wind turbulence or the variation of wind with time. The design ‘mean wind speed, the wind profile and the wind turbulence together constitute the input data for a dynamic analysis for wind. I is evident that the effect of ‘wind cannot be represented by a set of forces that are definite functions of time, since the wind loads are known only in a statistical sense, 13.3 Blast loads ‘A dynamic load of considerable interest in the design of certain structures is that due to a blast of air striking the structure, The blast or shock wave is usually caused by the detonation of a conventional explosive such as TNT or a bomb. In either case, the explosion results in the rapid release of a large amount of energy. A substantial portion of the energy released is expended in driving a shock wave whose front consists of highly compressed ait. The Peak overpressure (pressure above atmospheric pressure) in the shock front decreases quite rapidly as the shock wave propagates outward from the center of explosion. The overpressure in a shock wave arriving at a structure will thus depend on both the distance from the center of explosion and the strength. of the explosive. The latter is measured in terms of the weight of a standard explosive, usually TNT, required to release the same amount of energy. Thus @ L-kiloton bomb will release the same amount of energy as the detonation of 1000 tons of TNT. Empirical equations derived on the basis of observations are available for estimating the peak overpressure in a blast caused by the detonation of an explosive of given strength and striking a structure located at a given dis- lance from the center of explosion. The overpressure rapidly decreases. be- hind the front, and at some time after the arrival of the shock wave, the pressure may, in fact, become negative. The duration of the positive phase and the variation of the blast pressure during that phase can also be6 Humar Figure 14, Pressure-time curve for a blast ‘obtained from available empirical equations. In summary, a blast load can be represented by a pressure wave in which the pressure rises very rapidly or almost instantaneously and then drops off fairly rapidly according to a specified pressure-time relationship. A typical blast load history is shown in Figure 1.4. 13.4 Dynamic forces caused by earthquakes Ground motions resulting from earthquakes of sufficiently large magnitude are one of the most severe and disastrous dynamic disturbances that affect human- made structures. Earthquakes are believed to result from a fracture in the earth’ crust. The forces that cause such fractures are called tectonic forces. In fact, they are the very forces that have caused the formation of mountains and val- leys and the oceans. They arise because of a slow convective motion of the earth's mantle that underlies the crust. This movement sets up clastic strains in the crustal rock. When the ability of the rock to sustain the elastic strain imposed on it is exceeded, a fracture is initiated at a zone of weakness in the rock, Fracturing relieves the clastic strains, causing the opposite sides of the fault to rebound and slip with respect to each other. The consequent release of the elastic strain energy stored in the rock gives tise to elastic waves which propagate outwards from the source fault. Before arriving at a specific location fon the earth’s surface, these waves may undergo a series of reflections and refractions. ‘The earthquake wave motion is very complex. The effect of such a mo- tion on the supported structure can best be assessed by obtaining measure~ ‘ments of the time histories of ground displacements or accelerations by means ‘of special measuring instruments called seismographs, and then analyzing the structure for the recorded motion. It is generally more convenient and com- ‘mon to obtain measurements of the ground acceleration. Then if required, the velocity and displacement histories are derived from the recorded acceleration history by a process of successive numerical integration. Figure 1.5 shows theIntroduction 7 Figure 1.5. Imperial Valley earthquake, El Centro site, May 18, 1940, component N-S. acceleration history recorded at El Centro, California, during an earthquake that took place in May 1940. Velocity and displacement histories obtained by suc- cessive integration are also shown. Ground motions induced by an earthquake cause dynamic excitation of a supported structure. As we shall see later, the time-varying support motion can be translated into a set of equivalent dynamic forces that act on the structure and cause it to deform relative to its support. Ifa ground motion history is specified, it is possible to analyze the structure to obtain estimates of the deformations fand stresses induced in it. Such analytical studies play an important rote in the design of structures expected to undergo seismic vibrations, 13.5. Periodic and nonperiodiec louds Dynamic loads vary in their magnitude, direction, or position with time. It is, in fact, possible for more than one type of variation (0 coexist. As an example, earthquake induced forces vary both in magnitude and direction. However, by resolving the earthquake motion into translational components in three orthogo- nal directions and the corresponding rotational components, the earthquake effect, can be defined in tems of six component forces and moments, each of which varies only in the magnitude with time. The constant-magnitude centrifugal force caused by imbalance in a rotating machinery can be viewed as a force of8 Humar constant magnitude that is continually varying in direction with time. Altema- tively, we can interpret the force as consisting of two orthogonal components, cach of which varies in magnitude with time, A wheel load rolling along the deck of a bridge provides an instance of a force that varies in its location with time. ‘A special type of dynamic load that varies in magnitude with time is a load that repeats itself at regular intervals. Such a load is called a periodic load. The era of load duration that is repeated is called a cycle of motion and the time taken to complete a cycle is called the period of the applied load. The inverse of the period, that is the number of cycles per second, is known as the frequency of the load. A. general type of periodic load is shown in Figure 1.6 Which also identifies the period of the load. The harmonic load caused by an unbalanced rotating machine, shown in Figure 1.3b, is a more regular type of periodic load Loads that do not show any periodicity are called nonperiodic loads. A non- periodic load may be of a comparatively long duration. A rectangular pulse load imposed on a simply supported beam by the sudden application of « weight that remains in contact with the beam from the instance of its initial applica tion is an example of a long-duration nonperiodic load. Such a load is shown in Figure 1.7. Nonperiodic loads may also be of short duration or transient, Figure 1.6. General periodic load. | Figure 1.7. Simply supported beam subjected to a rectangular pulse load,Introduction 9 such as, for example, an air blast striking a building. When the duration of the transient load is very short, the load is often referred to as an impulsive load, A load or a disturbance that varies in a highly irregular fashion with time is some- times referred to as a random load or a random disturbance, Ground acceleration resulting from an earthquake provides one example of a random disturbance, 1.3.6 Deterministic and nondeterministic loads From the discussion in the previous paragraphs, we observe that certain types of loads can be specified as definite functions of time. The time variation may be represented by a regular mathematical function, for example, a harmonic wave, or it may be possible to specify the load only in the form of numerical values at certain regularly spaced intervals of time. Loads that can be specified as definite functions of time, imrespective of whether the time variation is regular or irregular, are called deterministic loads, and the analysis of a structure for the elfect of such loads is called deterministic analysis. The harmonic load imposed by unbalanced rotating machinery is an example of @ deterministic load that in be specified as a mathematical funetion of time. A blast load is also a deterministic load, and it may be possible to represent it by a mathematical curve that will closely match the variation, A measured earthquake accelerogram isa deterministic load that can only be specified in the form of numerical values at selected intervals of time. Certain types of loads cannot be specified as definite functions of time be- use of the inherent uncertainty in their magnitude and the form of their Variation with time. Such loads are known in a statistical sense only and are described through certain statistical parameters such as mean value and spec- tral density. Loads that cannot be described as definite functions of time are known as nondeterministic loads. The analysis of a structure for nondetermin- istic loads yields response values that are themselves defined only in terms of certain statistical parameters, and is therefore known as nondeterministic analy sis. Earthquake loads are, in reality, nondeterministic because the magnitude and frequency distribution of an acceleration record for a possible future earthquake cannot be predicted with certainty but can be estimated only in a probabilistic sense. Wind loads are quite obviously nondeterministic in nature, Throughout this book, we assume that the loads are deterministic or can be specified as definite functions of time. The methods of analysis and the resultant response will also therefore be deterministic. 1.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS In an analysis for the response of a system to loads that are applied statically, we need to concer ourselves with only the applied loads and the internal elastic10 Humar forces that oppose the former. Dynamic response is much more complicated, because in addition to the clastic forces, we must contend with inertia forces and the forces of damping resistance that oppose the motion. Static response ccan, in fact, be viewed as a special case of dynamic response in which the accelerations and velocities are so small that the inertia and damping forces are negligible, Before carrying out any analysis, the physical system considered must be represented by a mathematical model that is most appropriate for obtaining the desired response parameters. In either a static or a dynamic analysis of a struc- ture, the response parameters of interest are displacements, and internal forces fr stresses. Critical values of these parameters are required in the design. For a static case, the response is a function of one or more spatial coordinates; for ‘a dynamic case the response depends on both the space variables and the time variable. Apparently, the dynamic response must be governed by partial differ- ‘ential equations involving the space and the time coordinates. This is indeed so. However, in many cases it is possible to model the system as an assembly of rigid bodies that have mass but are not deformable or have no compliance, and massless spring-like elements that deform under load and provide the internal clastic forces that oppose such deformation. The response of such a model is completely defined by specifying the displacements along certain coordinates that determine the position of the rigid-body masses in space. A system mod- cled as above is referred to as a discrete system or a discrete parameter system. ‘The number of coordinate directions along which values of the response param- ters must be specified in order to determine the behavior of the mathematical ‘model completely is called the number of degrees of freedom. The response of a discrete parameter system is govemed by a set of ordinary differential equations whose number is equal to the number of degrees of freedom. ‘As an example of the modeling process, consider a bar clamped at its left- hhand end and free at the other, as shown in Figure 1.8a, Let the cross-sectional dimensions of the bar be small as compared to its length, and let the bar be constrained so that its fibers can move in only an axial direction. A cross section such as 44 will move in the positive and negative directions of the x axis, and the position of the cross section at a time ¢ will be a function of both the spatial location of the cross section, that is, the value of x, and the value of time t. The axial vibrations of the bar are thus governed by @ partial differential equation involving the independent variables x and ¢. It may, however, be reasonable to ‘model this bar by the assembly of a series of rigid masses and interconnecting springs as shown in Figure 1.8b. The selection of the number of mass elements will depend upon the accuracy that is desired. Supposing that this number is N, we must determine the horizontal displacement of each of the N masses to describe completely the response of the system at a given time t, The system is therefore said to have N degrees of freedom, and its response is governed by NV ordinary differential equations.Iniroduction et) ull us ue ae ee a Figure 1.8. (a) Bar undergoing axial vibrations; (b) lumped mass model of the bar in (a). For the bar model just described, the N degrees of freedom or coordinates correspond to displacements along a Cartesian direction. Alternative choices for coordinates are possible. In fact, in many situations, coordinates known as generalized coordinates may prove to be more effective. We discuss the meaning ‘and application of such coordinates in the subsequent chapters of the book. For a large majority of physical systems, discrete models consisting of an assembly of rigid mass elements and flexible massless elements are quite ad {quate for the purpose of obtaining the dynamic response. It should, however, be recognized that, in general, discrete modeling is an idealization because all mass elements will possess certain compliance and all flexible elements will possess some mass. In fact, in certain situations, a model in which both the ‘mass and the flexibility are distributed may be better able to represent the phys- ical system under consideration. Such a model is referred to as a continuous system ot a distributed parameter system. Its response is governed by one ot ‘mote partial differential equations, In general, the analysis of a discrete system is much simpler than that of a continuous system. Furthermore, it is usually possible to improve the accuracy of the results obtained from the analysis of discrete model by increasing the number of degrees of freedom in the model. Discrete modeling is therefore usu- ally the preferred approach in the dynamic analysis of structures. Consequently, ‘a major portion of this book is devoted to the modeling and analysis of discrete systems. Sufficient information is, however, provided on the analysis of simple continuous systems as well In the dynamic analysis of engineering structures, it is generally assumed that the characteristics of the system, that is, its mass, stiffness, and damping properties do not vary with time. It is further assumed that deformations of the structure are small and that the deforming material follows a linear stress strain relationship. When the foregoing assumptions are made, the structure12 Hamar being analyzed is said to be linear and the principle of superposition is valid. This principle implies that if «, is the response of the structure to an applied load pi and u; is the résponse to another load p>, the total response of the structure under simultaneous application of p and 2 is obtained by summing the individual responses 1, and us so that usu te 2) The principle of superposition usually results in considerable simplification of the analysis. Fortunately, for a majority of engineering structures in service, it is quite reasonable to assume that the principle of superposition is valid and can be applied to their analysis, In a few situations, however, structural defor- mations may be quite large. Also, the stress-strain relationships may become nonlinear as the material deforms. Both of these conditions will introduce non- linearity in the system. The nonlinearity associated with large deformations is called geometric nonlinearity, and that associated with nonlinear stress-strain relationship is called material nonlinearity. These nonlinearities, particularly the material nonlinearity, may have to be taken into account in analyzing structures that are strained into the postelastic range, which may, for example, be the case under a severe earthquake excitation ‘A majority of analysis procedures described in this book assume that the structure is linear. However, a brief discussion of nonlinear analysis procedures hhas been included under certain topics. 1.5 SYSTEMS OF UNITS Two different systems of units are in common use in engineering practice. One of these is the Intemational System of metric units, commonly referred to as the SI units. The other system is the system of Imperial units In the International System, the basic unit of length is the meter (m), the basic unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), and the basic unit of time is the second (s). The unit of force is a derived unit and is known as a newton, A newton is defined as a force that will produce an acceleration of I m/s’ on a mass of Tkg. Since, according to the Newton’s law of motion, force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration, we have nekem Decimal multiples and submultiples of the units used in the Intemational System usually involve a factor of 10° and are formed by the addition of prefixes given in Table 1.1. The unit of pressure N/m” is also referred to as a pascal (Pa), and a mass of 1000kg is sometimes called a tonne (or a metric ton).Introduction 13 Table 1.1. Prefixes for multiples and submultiples of basic units in SI. Factor Prax Symbol w isa G 10 mega M 10 kilo k Wo milli m lo ricro H to nano A Inthe Imperial system, the basic unit of length isthe foot (f), the basic unit of force is the pound (Ib), and the basic unit of time is the second (s), Mass is a derived unit, A unit mass, also known as a slug, is defined as the mass that when subjected to force of I Ih will be accelerated at the rate of 1 R/S Instead of specifying the mass of a body, itis usual to specify its weight, which is equal to the force of gravitation exerted on the mass. This requires the definition of a standard gravity constant, gy the acceleration due to gravity, which is taken as 32.174 ft/s’. The value of g in SI units is 9.8066m/s". It is. readily seen that slug=~ Multiples or fractions of the basie Imperial units most commonly used in en- szincering practice are inches for length and kilopounds or kips (10001b) for foree. Examples and exercises in this book use both SI and Imperial unit Table 1.2 will assist in conversion from one system of units to the other 1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT This book is devoted to a study of the analysis of engineering structures ex- cited by time-varying disturbances. The material is divided into four parts and seventeen chapters. Part | of the book deals with the formulation of equations of motion, primarily for discrete single- and multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Part 2 is devoted to the solution of the equation of motion for a single-degree- of-freedom system, Part 3 deals with the solution of differential equations of motion governing the response of discrete multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Formulation of the equations of motion for continuous or distributed param- eter systems is discussed in Part 4, which also describes the methods used in the solution of such equations. The contents of the individual chapters are described briefly in the following paragraphs: 1, In Chapter 1, we describe the objectives of the study of dynamic response of engineering structures and the importance of such a study in their design,14 Humar Table 1.2. Conversion between Imperial and SI units Them Imperial to ST ‘Sl to Imperial 2808 fis ‘Acceleration ‘Area 10.7687 Umm? =1.55 x 10 in? Foree 1N=02288 16 1 kip — 4.448 kN 1kN=0.2248 kip Length 1 f= 03048 m 2808 1 254mm (03937 in 609 km 1m = 0.6215 mile Mass 11b=04336ke kg = 2.2046 Mass per unit length 1b L488kg/m kgim=0.672 byt Mass per unit area 1 16/8? = 4.882 kg/m? 1kgim? =0.2048 18° 1 bin? = 705.1 kg gl? = 1.422 10~ fin Mass density 1 bjt = 16.02 kgs? kg/m’ = 0.062821 /10° Lbjin’ =27.680Mg/m? 1 Mg/tn! = 0.03613 Bon? Moment of inetia Lin! =416230« 10° mm! mm! =2.4 x 10-Fint Section modulus Lin’ = 16387 mm? 1 men? = 0.06102 > 10-3 in? Pressure of sess ksi = 6.895MPa IMPa = 0.1450.si I psf = 47.88 Pa 1 Pa = 0.02089 pst I psi= 6.895 kPa kPa =0.1850psi Torque oF moment 1 Mt-kip= 1.3S6KN LEN" m= 0.73768 kip Volume Vin! = 16387 mm? 1 ns? = 0.06102 5 10" in? Tf =2831610-%m mS 353280 The nature of dynamic forces acting on engineering structures is discussed and considerations relevant to the mathematical modeling of structures are described. 2. Chapter 2 deals with the formulation of the equations of motion for a single-degree-of-freedom system. The system properties governing the re- sponse as well as the internal and extemal forces acting on a dynamic system are described. D'Alembert’s principle, which converts a dynamic problem into an equivalent problem of static equilibrium, is introduced, The governing differential equation is then derived by using either New- ton’s vectorial mechanics or the principle of virtual displacement. Methods of idealizing a continuous system or a discrete multi-legree-of-freedom system by an equivalent single-degree-of-freedom system are presented. Finally, the effects of gravity load, axial forces, and support motion on the governing equation are discussed. 3. In Chapter 3, we describe the formulation of the equations of motion for a multi-degree-of-freedom system primarily through the principles of vec~ torial mechanics. As in the case of a single-degree-of-freedom system, the internal and extemal forces acting on the system are identified. ApplicationIntroduction 15 of the Ritz method to the modeling of continuous and discrete systems is discussed. An introductory description of the finite clement method is pre- sented and it is shown that the method is, in fact, a specialized form of Ritz analysis. A brief description is also provided of coordinate transformation and the static condensation of stiffness matrix. In Chapter 4, we provide an introduction to the principles of analytical mechanics and their application to the formulation of equations of motion, The concepts of generalized coordinates, constraints, and work function are introduced. It is shown that the response of a dynamical system can be described through the scalar functions of work and energy, and the derivation of the Hamilton's and Lagrange’s equations is presented. Chapter 5 deals with the analysis of free-vibration response of a single~ degree-of-freedom system. Both undamped and damped systems are treated Various types of damping mechanisms, such as viscous damping, structural damping, and Coulomb damping, are discussed. The application of the phase plane diagram to the analysis of free-vibration response of damped and undamped system is described. Chapter 6 deals with the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system to ‘harmonic excitation, The phenomenon of resonance is discussed. Analysis ‘of vibration transmission from a structure to its support, and vice versa, described. Procedures for computing the energy dissipated through damping, resistance are presented. Finally, methods of measurement of damping. are described, Response to general dynamic loading and transient response of single- degrec-of freedom systems is presented in Chapter 7. In particular, response to an impulsive force and to shock loading is discussed. The concept of response spectrum is introduced and the application of response spectra to the analysis of the response to ground motion is described. In Chapter 8, we present a detailed review of the approximate and nu merical methods for the analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems. The presentation includes the Rayleigh method, numerical evaluation of the Duhamet’s integral, and direct numerical integration of the equation of mo- tion. Errors involved in numerical integration method and the performance Of various integration schemes are discussed. Finally, a brief deseription of the analysis of nonlinear response is presented. Chapter 9 deals with the frequency-domain analysis of single-degree-of- freedom systems. Response to a periodic load and the Fourier series rep- resentation of a periodic load are discussed. Analysis of response to a general nonperiodic load through Fourier transform method is described. Applications of diserete Fourier transform and fast Fourier transform are presented Chapter 10 is devoted to the fiee-vibration response of multi-degree-of- freodom systems. The eigenvalue problem associated with free-vibration16 Humar response is discussed and concepts of mode shapes and frequencies are described. Application of the mode superposition method to the solution of tundamped and damped free vibrations of multi-degree-of-freedom systems is presented, 11. In Chapter 11, we describe the various methods for the solution of eigen- value problem of structural dynamics. The solution methods include trans- formation methods, iteration methods, and the determinant search method, ‘The comparative merits of the various methods are discussed and consid- erations governing the selection of a method are presented, 12. Chapter 12 deals with the forced dynamic response of multi-degree-of- freedom systems and application of the mode superposition method in the analysis of response 13, In Chapter 13, we present approximate and numerical methods that may be applied to the analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems. The methods discussed include the Rayleigh-Ritz method, direct numerical integration, and analysis in the frequency domain. 14, In Chapter 14, we describe formulation of the equation of motion for a simple continuous system, The topics covered include Mexural vibrations of a beam, axial and torsional vibrations of a rod, and lateral vibrations of a string and a shear beam, Chapter 15 deals with the analysis of free-vibration response of a simple continuous system. The associated eigenvalue problems are derived and solutions are presented for certain simple systems. Finally, the application of the mode superposition method to the analysis of free vibrations is described. 16. Forced-vibration response of simple continuous systems using modal sue Perposition analysis is covered in Chapter 16, 17. In Chapter 17, we describe one-dimensional wave propagation analysis. The ‘one-dimensional wave equation is derived and the propagation of waves in a simple system, including wave reflection and refraction, is discussed. Finally, a brief presentation is given of wave propagation in a simple dis- persive medium, SELECTED READINGS Baker, W.E, 1973, Explosion in Air. Austin: University of Texas Press (Crandall, S.H. & Mark W.D. 1963. Random Vibration in Mechanical Systems. New York: Academie Press, Docbelin, E.0. 1980. System Modeling and Response. New York: John Wiley Gutman, 1. 1968. Industrial Uses of Mechanical Vibrations. London, U.K. Business Books. Houghton, E.L. & Carruthers, N.B. 1976. Wind Forces on Building and Structures London, U.K.: Edward Amold.Introduction 17 Housner, GW, & Jennings, P.C. 1982. Earthquake Design Criteria, Berkeley Earthquake Engineering Research Insitte. Irvine, M. 1986. Structural Dynamics for the Practicing Engineer. London, UK. ‘Allen & Unwin, Komhauser, M. 1964. Structural Effects of Impact. Baltimore: Spartan Books. Lawson, TV, 1980. Wind Effects on Buildings, Vol. 1. London: Applied Science Publishers Ld. Lin, V.K. 1967. Probabilistic Theory of Structural Dynamics. New York: MoGraw- Hil Newmark, NM. & Rosenblueth, E, 1971. Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering, Englewood Clifls: Prentice Hall, sachs, P. 1978. Wind Forces in Engineering. Oxford, U.K.: Pergamon Press. 2nd Edition, Simiu, E-& Seanlan, RH, 1996, Wind Effects on Structures. New York: John Wiley. 3rd Buition. Weaver, W. Jt, Timoshenko, S.P. & Young, DH. 1990. Vibration Problems in Engineering, New York: Wiley. Sth Edition. Yang, C-Y. 1986. Random Vibrations of Structures. New York: John Wiley.PART 1CHAPTER 2 Formulation of the equations of motion: Single-degree-of-freedom systems 2.1. INTRODUCTION The displaced configuration of many mechanical systems and structures subject to dynamic loads can be completely described by specifying the time-varying displacement along only one coordinate direction, Such systems are desig- nated as single-degree-of-freedom systems. Often, the modeling of a system as a single-degrec-of-freedom system is an idealization. How truly the response of the idealized model fits the true behavior depends on several factors, includ- ing the characteristics of the system, the initial conditions, the exciting force, and the response quantity of interest. Nevertheless, for a large number of sys- tems, representation as a single-degree-of-freedom model is quite satisfactory from an engineering point of view. In view of the importance and the simplicity of single-degree-of-freedom systems, this chapter is devoted exclusively to a discussion of the formulation Of equations that relate the response of such systems to one or more excit ing forces, There is another equally important reason for treating the single dogree-of-ireedom systems separately. As we shall see later, the analysis of the response of more complex multi- os ZW Figure 2.1, Forces on a single-degree-of-freedom system. of the paper. The mass is attached to a firm support by a spring of stiffness k At any time, the total time-varying force acting on the mass in a horizontal di- rection is denoted by Q(1). In general, itis comprised of the externally applied force p(t); the spring force fs, which depends on the displacement w of the system from a position of equilibrium; and the force of resistance or damping, This last force, denoted as fp, arises from air resistance and/or intemal and extemal frictions. From Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum oxo = (nt) oa of a varying mass system is a rocket in flight, where the mass of the rocket a (0) ~ mit = 0 2) Quantity mii has the units of a force. If we define an inertia force as having a magnitude equal to the product of mass and acceleration and a direction oppo- site to the direction of acceleration, we can view Equation 2.2 as an equation of equilibrium among the forces acting on a body. This principle, known as d’Alembert’s principle, converts the problem of dynamic response to an equiv alent static problem involving equilibrium of forces and permits us to use for its solution all those procedures that we use for solving problems of the latter class, On a cursory glance, d’Alembert’s principle appears simply as a mathematical artifact. Its physical significance can, however, be appreciated by considering. the following simple example. Figure 2.2 shows a spring balance bolted to theFormulation of the equations of motion: Single-degree-of-freedom systems 23 Figure 22, Inertia force on a moving mass. floor of an elevator, A body having mass m is placed on the scale. First, let the elevator be at rest, The reading on the scale will indicate the weight of the body, mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Now, let the body be pulled upward with a force F which is less than the weight mg. The scale will record @ new reading equal t© mg ~ F. Obviously, the downward force of gravity exerted by the body is being counteracted by an upward force F Next, let the force F be removed, but let the elevator move downward with fan acceleration a, The scale reading will change from mg to mg ~ ma. To an observer inside the elevator, the effect on the scale reading of a downward acceleration is no different from that of the upward force F. The quantity ma thus manifests itself as a virtual force acting in a direction opposite to the direction of acceleration, 2.3 RESULTANTS OF INERTIA FORCES ON A RIGID BODY Structures or mechanical systems are sometimes modeled as rigid bodies con- nected to each other and to supports, often through deformable springs. We will find it expedient to replace the inertial forces acting on a rigid body by a set of resultant forces and moments. ‘As an example, consider two point masses my and ms connected together by a massless rigid rod as shown in Figure 2.3, The motion of this system in plane can be described by specifying the translations of the center of mass in two mutually perpendicular directions and a rotation about that center. It is readily seen that the total inertial force due to translation in tfie x direction is equal to (mm + mz)ii, and acts through the center of mass. Similarly, for ay translation the total inertial force is (mj + m2). For rotation about the center