FACILITY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Bahir DAR UNIVERSITY

Review on Chemical Composition, Nutritional Value and Uses of lupin Seeds.

Graduate Seminar on Current Topics to the Field of Specialization ( Credit hr. 1)

By

Mekdes Seboka

ID NO: SGS / 0191/ 06

Submitted to Facility of Food and Chemical Process Engineering

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

School: Food Science, Postharvest Technology and

Program: M.Sc. Process Engineering

May, 2018

Bahir-Dar
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

LISTS OF ABBREVIATION v

LIST OF TABLES vi

ABSTRACT vii

1.INTRODUCTION 1

2. OBJECTIVE 2

3. LITERATURE REVIEW 3

3.1. Taxonomy and Classification 3

3.2. Centers of Origin 3

3.3. Production and Utilization 4

3.3.1. History of Lupinus albus Utilization 4

3.3.2. Agricultural Features of Lupinus albus 5

3.3.3. Some Common Lupin Based Food Types 7

3.4. Chemical and Nutritional Composition of lupin Seeds 7

3.4.1. Crud protein 8

3.4.2. Amino acids content 9

3.4.3. Carbohydrates 10

3.4.3.1. Starch and free sugars 11

3.4.3.2. Non starch polysaccharides 11

3.4.4. Crud fiber 11

 3.4.5. Lipids 12

3.4.5.1. Crud Fat 12

3.4.5.2 . Fatty acids 12

3.4.6. Mineral content 13

3.4.7. Vitamin content 14

3.4.8. Anti nutritional content 14

3.4.8.1. Alkaloids 15

3.4.8.2. Phytate 15

3.4.8.3. Saponins 15

3.4.8.4. Tannins 16

3.4.9. Nutritional value of Lupine 16

3.4.9.1. Lupine flour 16

3.4.9.2. Lupine fiber 18

3.4.10. Uses of Lupin 18

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 21

4.1. Conclusion 21

4.2. Recommendation 21

5. REFERENCES 23

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to thanks My Almighty God for giving his grace and blessing, starting
up to final write up of my paper.

Secondly, I would like to express my deepest and sincere gratitude to my instructor Dr. Eng.
Solomon Abera for his unreserved guidance, technical advice, suggestion and constructive
criticism starting from title approval up to final write up my graduate seminar.

Finally, I would like to thanks all my friends those who helped me in every direction during
searching different reviews concerning my title.

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 LISTS OF ABBREVIATION

ACNFP Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes

CS Chemical Score

EAA Essential Amino Acid level

EAAI Essential Amino Acid Index

FAO United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture

NSP Non Starch Polysaccharides

PER Protein Efficiency Ratio

DM Dry Matter

ARC Center of excellence for integrative legume research

AHC Australian Health Info Center

ha hectare

hr hour

t/a Ton/ area

mg miligram

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 LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page

Table 1: Chemical composition (g/kg) of lupin seed and kernel meals and soybean meal 9

Table 2: Amino acid composition (g amino acid / 16 g N) of lupin and soybean protein 10

Table 3: Fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids) of lupin and soybean 13

Table 4: Anti-nutrient levels of various lupin species and soy meal per kilogram 15

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vii
 ABSTRACT

This graduate seminar is written with the objective to review chemical composition,
nutritional value and uses of lupin seeds. As indicated by various research findings, Legume
seeds are an abundant source of proteins and, among them, lupin is one of the richest. Lupin
seed deserves great interest due to its chemical composition, nutritional value and augmented
availability in many countries in recent years. The review reports on the current knowledge
about nutritional characteristics (proteins, amino acids, starch, sugars, fiber, lipids, fatty
acids, vitamins, anti nutritional compounds) and potential use of different lupin seed products
(flour, kernel fiber, protein isolates and concentrates) for baking applications. Lupin can be
used as source of protein for production of protein concentrates, for pharmaceutical
purposes, due to the high alkaloid content as a natural component of plant pesticides and
ectoparasite control, nitrogen fixation and crop rotation, livestock feed and pasture
improvement, ornamentation, erosion control and soil stabilization, for fixing atmospheric
nitrogen to soil, as a green manure contributing to improved soil structure, traditional
alcohol production and hypertension treatment, live fencing and remediating polluted soils.

This paper covers lupin chemical composition in detail, nutritional value and uses of lupin
seeds.

Keywords: Lupin; Chemical composition; Nutrition value; Uses

viii
 1. INTRODUCTION
Although humans rely on a diverse range of cultivated plant species for various purposes,
only a few staple crops produce the majority of the food supply and many species such as
lupins are underestimated and underutilized (Cowling et al; 1998). Lupins are highly valued
as animal feed but have been underutilized as human food yet the seeds are reported (William,
2000) to be a rich source of protein (33 - 47%) and oil (6 - 13%). There are also claims that
the seeds are rich in dietary fiber and beneficial photochemical. Lupins are now receiving
national and international interest as a future source of food ingredients that could be used to
enhance the nutritional profile of existing food products (Feldeim, 1998).

Lupin flour can be used in production of different products. It can be added to pasta, crisps,
bread and emulsified meat products to increase nutritional value, aroma as well as modify the
texture of the end products. Moreover, protein isolate produced from lupin seeds can be
utilized for milk and meat imitation products. In the Middle East, lupin seeds are consumed as
a snack after they are soaked in water, scalded and dehulled. Additionally, in some European
counties, pickle is produced from lupin seeds (Dervas et al; 1999).

Lupinus albus (white lupin) seeds grown in Ethiopia and locally known as Gibto, is used as
roasted bean kolo and to prepare local alcoholic drink katikala and other food products
especially in the northwestern part of the country, after debittering by roasting and soaking the
seeds in a river/spring water for 3-7 days (Personal Information). The high-lysine, low-
methionine content of lupin complements that of wheat flour proteins, which are poor in
lysine and relatively high in the sulphur-containing amino acids (Bloksma et al; 1988). In
addition to their utilization in bakery products, value added products such as pasta, crisps,
milk and yogurt analogues, meat analogues, lupin protein isolate for the enrichment of
vegetable and fruit based foods can be produced from the lupin flour after removal of the anti
nutritional factors present in the lupin seeds.

Therefore the purpose of this review was to evaluate different reviews in different countries
concerning on chemical composition, nutritional value and uses of lupin seeds.
1
Hence; the review was done with the following objective.

2. OBJECTIVE

To review chemical composition, nutritional value and uses of seeds.

2
 3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. Taxonomy and Classification
Lupins belong to the genus Lupinus and family of genisteae, which is also called fabaceae or
leguminosae (Uzun, et al., 2006). This is a large and diverse genus which includes more than
500 species (Kurzbaum, et al., 2008 and ARC center of excellence for integrative legume
research, 2014). Lupinus is a genus of self or cross pollinating, consisting of mostly indefinite
plant species native to diverse geographic locations (Phan, et al, 2007). Second to cereal
crops leguminosae is agriculturally important and one of the three largest families of
flowering plants. Leguminosae has been divided into three sub-families named as
Caesalpinieae, Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae (Phan, et al, 2006). Lupin is the common
name for members of the genus Lupinus of the legume family (Kurzbaum, et al., 2008).

The name lupin is derived from the Latin word Lupus, meaning wolf. The Romans believed
that lupins robbed the soil nutrients in the same way that wolf would steal domestic animal
(ARC center of excellence for integrative legume research, 2014). It is known as lupines in
the United States, as turmus in the Middle East and Tawari in Latin America. The plant is
characterized by having various flowering spikes in large range of colors (Kurzbaum et al.,
2008).

Commonly, four lupin species are reported as cultigens in the world. These include L. albus ,
L. angustifolius, L. leutus and L. mutabilis (Uzun,et al.,2006,Kurzbaum,et al., 2008).
Trivially, these species are called white lupin, narrow-leafed (blue) lupin, yellow lupin
and pearl lupin respectively (ARC center of excellence for integrative legume research,
2014). The lupin seed is produced in pods which develop on the main stem of the
lupin plant. Pods contain between three and seven seeds and these seeds vary in size,
color, appearance and composition depending on the species of lupin. Among them the
seeds of Lupinus albus are the largest. They have a circular flattened shape and are cream in
colour (Australian health info center, 2014).

3.2. Centers of Origin

Four different centers of origin have been proposed for the genus lupinus.

3
These include the Mediterranean region (including northern Africa), North America, South
America, and East Asia. Today, approximately 90% of the recognized species are found
in alpine, temperate and subtropical zones of North and South America, which ranges
from Alaska to Southern Argentina and Chile. The remaining species are native to the
Mediterranean region and Africa. But due to their larger seeds, most of the economically
important species come from the Mediterranean region (ARC center of excellence for
integrative legume research, 2014).

In places where no other crops can be grown profitably, Lupins could be considered as a
model for low input plants. Among the common species Lupinus albus , Lupinus luteus
and Lupinus angustifolius are old world species whereas; Lupinus mutabilis is a new world
species originating from South America (Cowling, et al,1998).

3.3. Production and Utilization

3.3.1. History of Lupinus albus Utilization

Legume seeds are protein valuable foods which have been present in the Mediterranean diet
since ancient times. Among them, lupins are high protein crops (Frias, et al., 2004). Wild and
partially domesticated lupin species were grown thousands of years ago both in the
Mediterranean region and in the South American Andes before the Incan Empire. The
cultivation of Lupinus albus was well known to the ancient Greeks and Romans and
its cultivation has been mentioned by early writers including the poet Virgil and Pliny
the Elder (Australian health info center, 2014).

It was in the twentieth century that the old bitter types of lupin were replaced by
sweet low alkaloid types. Before this major development, bitter lupins were spread in
southern Europe and North Africa. They were also introduced in northern Europe when
Frederick the Great of Prussia sent for lupin seeds from Italy in 1781 to improve the
poor soils in north Germany (Frias, et al., 2004, Noffsinger and Santenin, 2005,
Australian health info center, 2014). Lupinus albus is a universal plant with numerous
useful properties. It can be used both as fodder and for soil fertilization (Maknickien and
Asakaviciute, 2008). With the development of the sweet varieties, use of Lupinus albus for
forage and grazing is increasing.

4
In Europe, lupine seeds of all species types have been used for many years to replace cereal
grains in flours and pasta. Lupinus albus seeds are also sometimes used as a complete
or partial substitute for soybeans in the production of milk, milk powder, and tofu
(Australian health info. center, 2014). The utilization of this plant can be extended to
the production of protein concentrates, which can be added to other food products or fodder
can enrich their nutritional values, thus giving functional food (Sujak, et al., 2005).

3.3.2. Agricultural Features of Lupinus albus

Lupinus albus is a relatively tall, branching plant, with broad leaves and large, fleshy pods.
However, it will take longer time to mature than other lupin species. Furthermore, harvesting
and conserving the plant as whole crop silage removes the need for further processing and
storage, and associated equipment and facilities (Fraser, et al, 2004). Lupinus albus is an
important grain legume crop that is able to recover from severe water deficit conditions.
During the progression of water deficit, the several tissues behave quite distinctly in the
amount and rate of water loss. In contrast to the stem stele, which loses only a small amount
of water during the stress period, the water content of mature leaves is rapidly and strongly
affected by the water shortage (Pinheiro, et al., 2004).

Lupinus albus is calcifuge susceptible to iron chloros is making it grow poorly on calcareous
soils. In general cultivation is only possible on acid to neutral soils with moderate calcium
content. This has been a major constraint to the development of the lupin crop in
Europe and Australia. The growth reduction may be caused by several factors such as high
PH, bicarbonate content, iron deficiency and Calcium toxicity. Thus both shoot and root
growth were reduced in Lupinus albus at PH = 7.5 compared to 6.0 (Raza, et al., 2000). The
severity of iron chloros is correlates poorly with shoot growth and seed yield in the field,
especially for plants showing iron chloros is at early growth stages (Raza, et al., 2000).

Lupinus albus and other agronomic Lupinus species are relatively undomesticated when
compared with most crops (Noffsinger and Santenin, 2005). Cultivation of lupins is also
limited worldwide (Jimenez Martinez, et al., 2003). But in the year 2005, the total cultivated
area was increased to 1,007,018 ha with a yield of 1,086,006 tones. This shows the
improvement of the production of the crop from year to year (Uzun, et al., 2006). The two
types of lupins that are mainly cultivated today are white and blue lupin. And their major sites

5
of production are in Europe and Australia respectively (Yoshie Stark and Wasche, 2003).
Depending on the species, lupins may be either annual or perennial. Most of them are
herbaceous, but a few are shrubs or small tree. Western Australia leads the world in lupin
exports in recent times (ARC center of excellence for integrative legume research, 2014).

Apart from the high protein content Lupinus albus has a strong capability for nitrogen fixation
and organic phosphorus release from soil. This let the crop agriculturally to be used in crop
rotation during intensive crop production. Especially this feature of Lupinus albus is
feasible within nitrate vulnerable zones (NVZs) (Sujak, et al.,1992, Fraser,et al.,2004).

Nitrogen is an indispensable element in protein and other nitrogen compounds. It can be taken
by plants in NH4+ or NO3- and under specific conditions in amine form NH2 (urea). All
legumes, including lupins, use the atmospheric nitrogen (N2) for biological fixation and
protein biosynthesis, and synthesis of other nitrogen containing compounds e.g. amino acids,
nucleic acids, vitamins, polyamines, alkaloids, etc. In nitrogen fixation, atmospheric nitrogen
is converted into ammonia, which is subsequently available for biosynthesis of nitrogen
containing molecules (Ciesiolka, et al., 2007).

The other advantageous agricultural feature of Lupinus albus is being an illuminating model
for the study of plant adaptation to extreme phosphorus (P) deficiency. Adaptation to low P is
linked to modifications of root development and biochemistry resulting in proteoid (cluster)
roots (Phan, et al., 2007). Interest in Lupinus albus production is increasing, due to its
potential as a source of protein, for pharmaceutical purposes, a green manure and due to the
high alkaloid content, as a natural component of plant pesticides (Sujak, et al., 2005). For
example; Lupinus albus is cultivated in the Mediterranean and Egypt for its edible seeds
(Mahamoud, et al., 1994). Although Lupinus albus has been well known, widely grown and
utilized by people in Mediterranean area and Andean highlands, in Europe its cultivation
remains behind that of the other leguminous plants (Sujak, et al., 2005).

According to FAO the main lupin cultivating countries in Europe are France (24,000 t/a), Italy
(5,000 t/a) and Spain (9,800 t/ a). In France, the lupin cultivation increased from 6,321 t/ a in
1996 to 24,000 t/a in 2003, which demonstrates the growing interest for lupin as food and
feed source. In Germany the cultivation area of lupins used for food and feed use in 2002
reached 40,000 t/a (El-Adawy, et al., 2000).
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The amount of lupins used for food applications is estimated to be around 5 to 10% of the
total lupin production worldwide (Australian health info center, 2014).

3.3.3. Some Common Lupin Based Food Types

Lupinus albus seeds meet the requirements as alternative home prepared diets with high
nutritional value and reasonable price among leguminous plants (Zraly, et al., 2007). Lupines
and lupine products have traditionally formed part of the human diet. Food products available
on different markets of Europe are lupin snacks, lupin pasta, lupin bread and cookies, lupin
coffee and some vegetarian instant meals (Australian health info center, 2014).

Lupinus albus flour is added for nutritive value and also provides functional properties in
bakery and pastry products, protein concentrates and other industrial products, as well as the
elaboration of lactose free milk and yoghurt analogues (Sanchez, et al., 2004).

Lupinus albus flour has characteristics of improving the micro distribution of water in dough
and mixtures. Products could then resist freezing and thawing better, the preparation of bread
dough could be easier, shrinking could be limited, and emulsifying power will be
good, for a yellow color development, to change some of rheological parameters, like
crispness and smoothness. Lupinus albus flours are largely used as eggs substitute, for
example in cakes, pancakes, and biscuit. The flour can also be used as a butter substitute in
cakes (Lacana, 1999).

In Ethiopia Lupinus albus is consumed in few areas of the country. People living in west
Gojam are the predominant consumers of the crop. They have consumed the crop primarily as
snack and as a raw material for local beverage Araki processing. Now a day the local
community is also consuming it as “Shiro” like the other common legumes like pea, bean, etc.
There is an ancient believe that Lupinus albus is a remedy for people having hypertension.

3.4. Chemical and Nutritional Composition of lupin Seeds

Legumes represent, together with cereals, the main plant source of proteins in human diet.
They are also rich in dietary fiber and carbohydrates (Rochfort and Panozzo, 2007). Minor
compounds of legumes are lipids, polyphenols, and bioactive peptides (Pastor Cavada et al.,
2009).

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Lupine is a good source of nutrients, not only proteins but also lipids, dietary fiber, minerals,
and vitamins (Martínez-Villaluenga et al., 2009). Lupine generally contains about twice the
amount of proteins found in those legumes that are commonly consumed by humans.

Lupins have a typical dicotyledon structure. Their thick seed coat (hull or testa) comprises
about 30 % of the seed weight. This is considerably higher than for most domesticated grain
species. The thick seed coat is mostly cellulose and hemicellulose, means that it is important
to consider the composition and nutritional value of their cotyledons (kernel). Within the
cotyledons (kernels), energy is mostly stored in form of thickened cell wall material, about 25
% of the cotyledons, and oil bodies, comprising from 6 to 14 % of the cotyledons in domestic
species. There is virtually no starch (2 %) in any of the lupine species. This is in marked
contrast to crops such as field peas and chickpeas, which can have 50-70 % of the cotyledon
weight as starch and have low protein and oil content, and the soybean with 15-20 % oil and
high protein content. Their crude protein content ranges from about 28 to 42 %. There are
variations in the protein content between species and cultivars as a result of the characteristics
of the growing conditions and soil types (Martínez Villaluenga et al., 2006a) from 28 % in to
48 % (Capraro et al., 2008).

3.4.1. Crud protein

Legumes play an important role in human nutrition since they are rich sources of protein,
calories, certain minerals and vitamins. In African diets legumes are also, the major
contributors of protein and calories for economic and cultural reasons (El Maki et al., 2007).
Analyses of nutritional values of Lupinus albus have shown that the bioavailability of the
constituents is comparable to those of processed soybeans (Joray et al., 2007). Grain legumes
are main sources of vegetable protein, among which Lupinus albus is known to have seeds
with the highest protein content like soybean (Sujak et al., 2006). Based on this fact L. albus
seeds have been employed as a protein source for animal and human nutrition in various parts
of the world (De Cortes Sanchez et al., 2005). The requirements with regard to chemical
composition, nutritional value and product safety were laid down by the Advisory Committee
on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) in 1996 for certified lupins (sweet lupins). Based on
the strength of this certification, these products were recommended as feedstuffs and food
ingredients (e.g. lupine flours for baked goods) (AHC, 2014).

8
Table 1: Chemical composition (g/kg) of lupin seed and kernel meals and soybean meal

Values based on data from “The chemical composition and nutritive value of Australian pulses”. GRDC
Final Report. Petterso et al. (1997), GPWA (2014), Petterson (2000) and Glencross (unpublished).

3.4.2. Amino acids content

Legume proteins are rich in lysine and deficient in sulphur containing amino acids, whereas
cereal proteins are deficient in lysine, but have adequate amounts of sulphur amino acids
(Eggum and Beame, 1983). As a member of legume family lupine bean protein is rich in
lysine and deficient in sulfur containing amino acids (Phan et al., 2007). In contrast its
arginine content is markedly higher (Zraly et al., 2007). And also the value of leucine is
satisfactory for most of the species of lupines. Apart from the highest level of amino acids
within the crude protein, it was found to have a better and nutritionally more beneficial amino
acid composition and the highest essential amino acid level (EAA) (Sujak et al., 2006). It is
also characterized by a higher essential amino acid index (EAAI) as well as chemical score
(CS) of restrictive amino acids, and the highest protein efficiency ratio (PER), expressed in
terms of the availability of leucine and tyrosine as compared to blue and yellow lupine variety
(Sujak et al., 2006). Currently, there are only few companies in Europe that produce L. albus
protein ingredients for food use. The products available are toasted and non toasted lupine
flour, grits, granulates, fiber and protein concentrates from the non defatted seed. Lupins and
lupine products were considered to be traditional foods even before the introduction of the
Novel Food Decree (1997) (AHC, 2014).

Table 2: Amino acid composition (g amino acid / 16 g N) of lupin and soybean protein

Data derived from Tacon (1990); Petterson et al. (1998); van Barneveld (1999).

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3.4.3. Carbohydrates
The carbohydrate content of lupin seed is quite different to that of most legumes (van
Barneveld, 1999). The seed is characterized by possessing high levels of both soluble and
non-soluble non starch polysaccharides (NSP). This group of carbohydrates forms primarily
the structural polysaccharides of the seed, though some are considered as nonstructural. In
addition, starch is essentially nonexistent in contrast to most other legume seeds (Petterson,
2000).

3.4.3.1. Starch and free sugars

Lupins are typically low in starch, with most species containing less than 15 g/kg DM in the
seed. Little variability appears to exist in the levels of starch between the species and
cultivars. The free sugar content of both L. angustifolius and L. albus whole seed meals is
dominated by both glucose and galactose, each at about 30 to 40 g/kg DM. Smaller quantities
(8 to 10 g/kg DM) of mannose are also present in the whole seed. While these free sugars are
found in both the seed coat and kernel, the bulk of them are found in the kernel (van
Barneveld, 1999).

3.4.3.2. Non starch polysaccharides

The non starch polysaccharides (NSP) constitute the major portion of the carbohydrate
fraction of all lupin species. The seed coats (hulls) in particular are high in cellulose,
hemicelluloses and pectins (Brillouet and Riochet, 1983). The actual composition of NSP
differs between the species and cultivars, though their structures are conserved (Cheung,
1990). Total NSP levels of lupin seeds are typically about 400 g/kg DM, essentially double
that of soybean meal (217 g/kg DM), peas (180 g/kg DM) and faba beans (190 g/kg DM) (van
Barneveld, 1999). A further group of polysaccharides, the lignins is comparatively low in
lupins compared to legumes such as soybeans and faba beans, though at a similar level to that
of peas (12 g/kg DM) (van Barneveld, 1999).

3.4.4. Crud fiber

The dietary fiber is composed of total dietary fiber (TDF), which includes both soluble (SDF)
and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF). In terms of health benefits, both kinds of fiber complement
with each other. A well balanced proportion is considered when there is 70-50 % insoluble
10
and 30-50 % soluble DF (Grigelmo Miguel et al., 1999). Lupine kernel fiber is a novel food
ingredient containing both soluble and insoluble fractions (Hall et al., 2005). It is extracted
from the kernel of Australian sweet lupine (L. angustifolius), a legume grown in large
quantities in Australia and considered to be underutilized as a human food source (Patterson,
1998). Currently, it is being used mainly as an animal feed. The dietary fiber content of
Australian sweet lupine kernels is higher than that of most other legumes, making up
approximately 40 % of the kernel weight (Guillon and Champ, 2002). Lupine kernel fiber has
shown potential for the manufacture of palatable, fiber enriched products such as baked goods
and pasta (Clark and Johnson, 2002).

3.4.5. Lipids

3.4.5.1. Crud Fat

The fat content of lupins varies considerably between the different species and even cultivars.
Typically lowest in crude fat level is L. atlanticus (as low as 14 g/kg DM) and highest is L.
mutabilis (up to 230 g/kg DM). Of the three key species, L. luteus generally has the lowest fat
levels (62 to 83 g/kg DM) and L. albus the highest fat levels (83 to 145 g/kg DM) (Petterson
et al., 1997; Petterson, 2000). The fat level in lupine is ranked third after ground nut and
soybean among legumes (Uzun et al., 2007). The lipid contents of L. albus are similar to other
species of the genus lupinus like L. campestris (Jimenez Martinez et al., 2003). The mean
value of crude fat in L. albus grown in different parts of the world is 13 % (Phan et al., 2006).
The oil extracted from L. albus seed consist various types of fatty acids. The fatty acids of the
oil from the raw seed are composed of more of unsaturated fatty acid and small percentage of
saturated fatty acids. This means L. albus can be a potential source of considerable amount of
useful vegetable fat. Among the unsaturated fatty acids, majority oleic and linolenic acids are
found (Uzun et al., 2007). The high content of ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids, make the crop a
healthy alternative edible oil source (Joray et al., 2007).

3.4.5.2. Fatty acids

The general fatty acid content of the lipid in lupins is typical of that of most legumes, being
high in mono unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Notable fatty acids include
high levels of both oleic (18:1 ω -9) and linoleic (18:2 ω -6) acids (Table 3). Palmitic and
11
linolenic acids also form a substantial component of the total fatty acids (> 5%). Essentially
there are no other PUFA in lupin fatty acids other than that provided by either both linoleic
and linolenic acids. L. luteus has the highest levels of the PUFA, approaching the composition
seen in soybean oil. The composition of L. albus has the lowest PUFA levels, being typically
higher in oleic acid that either L. angustifolius or L. luteus but lower in linoleic acid.
However, highest levels of ω-3 (omega-3) fatty acids are found in L. albus (9.5%) followed
by L. luteus (7.5%), both of which were higher than that observed in soyabean oil (6.5%). The
highest level of ω-6 fatty acids was in L. luteus (47.3%) followed by L. angustifolius (37.1%),
with the lowest levels in L. albus (17.2%).

Table 3: Fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids) of lupin and soybean

Data derived from Tacon (1990); Petterson et al. (1998); and van Barneveld (1999).

3.4.6. Mineral content

Key minerals in lupin seeds include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and
sulphur. Calcium levels in whole seeds range from an average of 2.2 g/kg DM in L. albus to
2.4 g/kg DM in both L. angustifolius and L. luteus. Phosphorus ranges from an average of 3.3
g/kg DM in L. angustifolius to 5.7 g/kg DM in L. luteus. Potassium levels range from 8.9 g/kg
DM in L. angustifolius to 10.8 g/kg DM in L. luteus. Levels of sulphur range relatively more
so from levels of 2.5 g/kg DM in L. angustifolius to 5.1 g/kg DM in L. luteus. All of the
mineral levels are quite variable and are reportedly quite dependent on the soil type on which
the plant was grown (Petterson, 2000).

3.4.7. Vitamin content

A range of endogenous vitamins have been reported within lupins. Reported in L.
angustifolius whole seed meal have been β-carotene (3.9 mg/kg DM), thiamin (5.9 mg/kg
DM), riboflavin (3.1 mg/kg DM), biotin (0.04 mg/kg DM), folate (0.4 mg/kg DM), choline
(3.4 g/kg DM), niacin (40 mg/kg DM), pantothenate (1.8 mg/kg DM) and α- tocopherol (2.4
mg/kg DM) (Petterson, 2000).

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3.4.8. Anti nutritional content
Lupins are typically low in anti nutritional factors, though a range of various substances have
been reported. Traditionally, lupins were not considered a viable feed grain because of
inherently high alkaloid levels in the grain. However, selective breeding over the last forty
years has resulted in the development of low alkaloid varieties that now contain less than 0.6
g/kg DM of alkaloids, with the cultivars of some species having levels consistently less than
0.1 g/kg DM. Other potential anti nutritionals present in lupins include oligosaccharides,
phytate, saponins, tannins and protease inhibitors, though notably most of these are usually at
levels not considered influential (Table 4).

13
Table 4: Anti nutrient levels of various lupin species and soy meal per kilogram

(* sum of raffinose, stachyose and verbascose, n.d.: not detected, n/r: not reported. Data
derived from Petterson et al. (1997).

3.4.8.1 Alkaloids
Present levels of alkaloids in L. angustifolius are usually less than 200 mg/kg. Wild type
varieties, still found in their countries of origin, may contain from 5,000 to 40,000 mg/kg of
alkaloids (Harris and Jago, 1984). These alkaloids are generally bicyclic, tricyclic or
tetracyclic derivatives on the molecule quinolizidine (Petterson 2000). Composition of the
alkaloids in L. angustifolius is dominated by lupinine (42-59%), 13-hydroxylupanine (24-
45%), and angustifoline (7-15%). Other alkaloids comprise less than 2% of the total
(Petterson, 2000).

3.4.8.2. Phytate
The molecule inositol hexaphosphate and salt ions of this molecule are commonly referred to
as phytate. These molecules tend to form insoluble complexes with calcium and /or zinc ions,
which make them less available for absorption and utilization (Petterson, 2000).

Lupins typically have low levels (~5 g/kg DM) of phytate, similar to the levels found in peas
and soybean meal, and considerably less than that in rapeseed/canola meal.

3.4.8.3. Saponins
Saponins are plant glycosides with a steroid or triterpenoid structure as part of the molecule.

Similar to alkaloids, saponins are also a bitter tasting molecule. This means that their primary
anti nutritional basis is as a feeding deterrent. An additional effect attributable to saponins is
an increase in the permeability of the small intestine mucosal cells. Trace levels of saponins
have been identified in L. albus seeds, with slightly higher levels (500 to 800 mg/kg DM)
observed in L. angustifolius seeds (Ruiz et al., 1996; Frokiaer et al., 1998). Saponin levels
reported in L. luteus are about one tenth that of L. angustifolius, at 55 mg/kg (Cuadrado et al.,

14
1995). The levels of saponins in lupins are generally about one tenth the amount of that of
soya beans, and about half that observed in field peas (Fenwick et al., 1991).

3.4.8.4. Tannins
Tannins are a group of polyphenolic compounds that bind to proteins to either inhibit their
activity in the case of digestive enzymes or to prevent their digestion, in the case of most
other proteins. There are two tannin sub groups, those being either the hydrolysable or
condensed (non hydrolysable) forms. The condensed tannins have been reported to be able to
precipitate proteins, particularly the digestive enzymes. Tannins can also form cross linkages
between proteins and other macro molecules and render them unavailable for digestion
(Griffiths, 1991).

These inhibitory facets, in conjunction with an astringent taste constitute the anti nutritional
characteristics of tannins (Petterson, 2000). The tannin content of lupins is contained
primarily in the seed coat of the grain. However, the condensed tannin content of the seeds are
generally considered so low (~ 100 mg/kg DM) that they are unlikely to cause any anti
nutritional effect (Petterson 2000). Considerably higher levels of tannins are generally found
in some varieties of soybeans, field peas and faba beans (Petterson, 2000).

3.4.9. Nutritional value of Lupine

3.4.9.1. Lupine flour

There is growing interest in industrial exploitation of new protein sources such as plant
proteins to broaden the range and variety of foods. Sweet lupine seeds (e.g. Lupinus albus L.)
seem to be particularly promising as a source of innovative ingredients having, on average,
protein content similar to soybean (34-43 % of DM) and an adequate composition of essential
amino acids (Yanez et al., 1983).

Foods based on sweet lupine protein are gaining attention from industry and consumers
because of their possible role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease as well as in
reduction of blood glucose and cholesterol levels (Duranti, 2006).

The lupines (Family, Fabaceae pea family) belong to a diverse group of plants that contain a
large number of biologically active compounds in their leaves and seeds. The seeds in
particular contain a significant number of alkaloids, predominantly with anti cholinergic
15
activity (Ruiz and Sotelo, 2001). The white lupine is also known to contain hypoglycemic
agents (Kubo et al., 2000). Lupine is also valuable nutritionally and is of particular interest
due to the large seed size and the ability to remove the unpleasant and potentially toxic
alkaloid components by soaking in water (Santana et al., 2002). The white lupine has been
reportedly used in Egypt by people having type II diabetes, although the outcome in humans
of this use has not been documented (Eskander and Won Jun, 1995). Mansour et al., (2002)
suggest that the white lupine would be useful for lowering blood glucose levels post
prandially and by inference from allopathic medications, would decrease glycosylated
hemoglobin levels.

Lupine kernel flour is a novel food ingredient derived from the endosperm of lupine, a grain
legume. It contains 40 45 % protein, 25 30 % fiber, and negligible sugar and starch (Evans et
al., 1993). It can be incorporated into high carbohydrate foods, resulting in significant
increases in protein and fiber, reductions in refined carbohydrate, and little change in product
acceptability (Lee et al., 2006). Increasing protein at the expense of refined carbohydrate in
the diet may benefit blood pressure. An inverse association between estimated protein intake
and blood pressure was reported in many cross sectional population studies (Appel, 2003).

Lupine flours can be an excellent choice for improving the nutritional value of bread. The
high lysine, low methionine content complements that of wheat flour proteins, which are poor
in lysine and relatively higher in the sulphur containing amino acids (Bloksma and Bushuk,
1988). In lupins, the main limiting amino acids are methionine and cystine followed by valine
and then tryptophan. Since lupins are legumes, the lack of sulphur containing amino acids is
not surprising.

3.4.9.2. Lupine fiber

The interest in foods rich in dietary fiber increased in the recent decades and this led to the
development of a large market for fiber rich products and ingredients (Drzikova et al., 2005).
The specific properties of dietary fiber has been reported to play an important role in the
prevention and treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders (hernia, duodenal ulcer, gall
stones, appendicitis, constipation, hemorrhoids, colon carcinoma), obesity, atherosclerosis,
coronary heart diseases, colorectal cancer and diabetes (De Escalada Pla et al., 2007).
16
Addition of fiber to foods is an alternative way to compensate for the existent deficiency in
the diet. Apart from the nutritional application, fiber can be used for technological purposes
such as bulking agent or fat substitute in foods (Guillon and Champ, 2000).

Lupine kernel fiber is a novel food ingredient that can be isolated from the endosperm of
Australias major animal feed legume crop, the Australian sweet lupine (Lupinus
angustifolius). This legume has already gained legislative approval for use as human food in
some countries, including Australia. Demonstration that lupine kernel fiber can be used to
formulate food products with acceptable sensory properties is required to introduce this novel
ingredient into the food supply system. This fiber is predominantly non starch polysaccharide
in the form of thickened cell walls of the lupine seed endosperm, with some residual protein.

Although it is primarily insoluble in nature, the non starch polysaccharide component has
paradoxically been described as pectin like rhamnogalacturonan, pectin generally being
considered a soluble fiber. Lupine kernel fiber has been described as a powder that is pale in
color, low in odor and flavor, and suitable for use as a nonintrusive fiber ingredient in foods
such as baked goods and meat products (Johnson and Gray, 1993).

3.4.10. Uses of Lupin

Lupin is a multipurpose legume crop with a diverse spectrum of uses:

 Forage for livestock: Lupins are one of several plant protein resources that have been
witnessed to provide sound nutritional value to a range of aquaculture species, pig,
dairy and beef cattle, sheep, goat, poultry, etc. It is also an important crop for organic
livestock farms by playing the role of soybean meal (yeheyis et al., 2011).

 Supplementary role: Lupinus albus flour is added for nutritive value and provides
functional properties in bakery, cake, pastry, noodles, pickles, lupin coffee, crisps,
milk and yogurt analogues, pasta, emulsified meat and a variety of other food products
to improve their nutritional value, aroma and texture of the end products ( Getachew,
2009; Tizazu and Emire, 2010; Erbas, 2010). In Ethiopia it is consumed as a snack and

17
 lupin powder for preparation of stew/ sauce (shiro) (Habtie et al., 2009) like other
common legumes suchas pea, bean, etc.

 Ecto parasite control: In North Western Ethiopia farmers use the leaves of lupin to
wash livestock body as mechanism of controlling ectoparasites like ticks. In addition,
a decotion of lupines albus is used as awash to treat dermatitis in cattle (Leporatti and
Impieri, 2007).

 Phyto remediation use: Lupin plants can be used to remediate polluted soils by
mechanisms of phyto remediation and phyto extraction, including phyto stabilization
and revegetation (Vazquez, 2006).

 Traditional alcohol production: Lupin seed is used to prepare local alcoholic drink
katikala” or gibito areke” especially in the North Western part of Ethiopia (Tizazu

and Emire; 2010). Gibito areke is obtained by distilling a fermented brew prepared in
the same way with other cereal based alcoholic beverages, except that in this case
seeds of lupinus albus are used as one of the substrates (Ambaye et al., 2002).

 Traditional Hypertension treatment: The local community in North Western

Ethiopia used gibito areke as a locally made antihypertensive medical preparation. In
addition, to heel the same problem they use small quantity of lupin seed and fruit
pounded with water, filtered, and the resultant juice is given orally in the morning for
one month in Ethiopia (Ragunathan and Solomon, 2009).

 Pharmaceutical use: Lupin containing alkaloids such as sparteine and anagraine has
an important place in pharmaceutical industry (Yildiz, 2011) and cosmetics products
or lotion producing firms (Kitessa, 1992).

 Green manure: Lupin has high above ground biomass (Engedaw, 2012) and deep
taproots (often going down to 2 m (Small, 2012)) which make it highly useful in
aerating soil, or supplying it with oxygen and water. It helps create a better
environment for growth and survival of other plants. This makes it excellent to be used
as green manures.

18
 Nitrogen fixation: Like other legumes, lupins obtain their nitrogen requirement
through symbiotic association with N-fixing rhizobium.

Annual nitrogen fixation or assimilation by lupinus species is estimated to range from

145 to 208 kg N/ ha/ year and as reported by Jansen (2006) an atmospheric nitrogen
fixation rates up to 400 kg N/ha/ year have been observed in Europe and Australia.

The high nitrogen yield of lupins can be exploited by using them in rotation with
grasses or cereal crops. Therefore, lupins play a complementary or alternative role as
sources of organic fertilizer to replenish nitrogen depleted soils in farming systems.

 Ornamentation: Lupin has ornamental aesthetic values (Uzun et al.,2007) to the

environment having different color spikes of flower and it can serve as a cut flower in
flowering period (Erbas et al.,2005).

 Erosion control and soil stabilization: Since lupin has a high tendency of growing on
marginal lands, it will help to balance the ecology, thus could contribute in protecting
the degradation of the environment and also helps in stabilizing soil (Uzun et al.,
2007).

 Pest control: Lupin can be mixed in the soil during the flowering period in green
houses to control some pests due to its alkaloids (Uzun et al., 2007). Yildiz (2011) as
cited in Yorgancilar et al. (2009) suggested that waste of boiled lupin water which
contain bitter alkaloid compound might be used in organic farming against the pests.
Moreover, lupin extract has suppressive effect on plant parasitic nematode.

 Rotation Crop: Lupin is used as a rotational crop with cereals to explore its effect on
sustained increment in yield and plant parasitic nematode population reduction (Yildiz,
2011).

 Fencing: In North Western Ethiopia one of the common uses of lupin is to use it as a
live fence by sowing it around other crops to protect the crops from livestock.

19
 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1. Conclusion
Based on my recent reviews the following points to be concluded:

 Lupin has attracted interest worldwide as a potential food ingredient suitable for
human consumption. Its special composition, mostly consisting of protein, fibre, and
limited amounts of oil, means that this seed can play a valuable role as a rich source of
a variety of specific ingredients.

 White Lupin (Lupinus albus) has interesting food composition levels with big
limitation of alkaloids prior to its consumption. But after removing the alkaloids with
the traditional methods, the crop can be a good source of protein, fat, energy, minerals
and also essential fatty acids.

 It can be used in fortifying various low protein food sources. Besides all this, currently
the demand for minimally processed foods has increased because of the enhancement
of some nutritional and chemical compositions on those treatments.

 It can be conclude that lupine flour or fiber can be used successfully as hypoglycemic
agents in bakery products. This could be utilized for the development of composite
blends from locally produced lupine at small scale industry level as values add
products.

 Generally they can be added to pasta, crisps, and bread.

 Food security in rural communities can be improved by diversifying the existing

farming system. For this white lupin can play an important role due to its multipurpose
functions.

 Its useful agricultural features, like being resistant to water deficit, being diseases
resistant, capable of nitrogen fixing, etc and the above mentioned facts can predict the
good potential of Lupinus albus in alleviating protein malnourishment problems.

20
4.2. Recommendation
Based on above result the following points are recommended:

 The available varieties of the genus Lupinus should be studied.

 Development of the sweet varieties of the species should be carried out.

 Though Lupinus albus have high protein content, the amino acid composition of the
various cultivars grown in Ethiopia has not been studied yet. So amino acid
composition of the legume should be studied.

 The total oil content and the fatty acid profile of oil extracted from Lupinus albus is
very interesting to consider it as potential human edible oil source. But to do so
further study should be carried regarding the oil s acid value, peroxide value, iodine
value and other edible oil parameters etc prior to consumption.

 Moreover, the industrial processing of the oil should be also studied. Its extraction
rate, application, etc

 Training should be given to all communities concerning on chemical composition,

nutritional value and uses of lupin seeds.

21
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