02 Training Excitation-Basics

U n itro l 5 0 0 0 T rain in g
Fundamentals of Excitation System
Excitation Basics
• What is an Excitation System?

• Synchronous Machine Operation Modes and
Characteristics.
MPW Release 10 March 2003 Operation and Maintenance Training 1 UNITROL® 5000
Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 1

What is an Excitation System?

North
Rotor The rotor of a

synchronous machine
is an electromagnet.
Current
The effect of the
rotating flux on the
stator windings
produces an induced
South voltage.
The excitation systems primary function is to supply current to the “electromagnet”.
The inducing of a voltage using the electromagnet is said to “EXCITE” the machine, and therefore the
system that supplies the current is called an Excitation System.
The amount of current supplied directly influences the strength of the electromagnet and therefore the
level of the induced voltage on the stator.
For a synchronous generator, the field winding (the electromagnet) is always on the rotor. This is
because the amount of current is smaller than on the stator and is therefore easier to arrange on a moving
shaft. (e.g. by use of brushes)
It is also possible to eliminate the need for brushes and large scale power electronics by use of an exciter
machine, and diodes. (see configuration section)
However, with modern Power Electronic equipment it is possible to take advantage of the superior
control characteristic of a direct excitation. This is usually cheaper than buying a second machine.

What is an Excitation System?
Excitation
System Voltage
Regulation Voltage
Current
Control
Power Rotor Current
Supply Production
In any excitation system, several components can be identified. Depending on the age and type of the system, the equipment
may vary greatly, however the basic components can still be classified.
Rotor Current Production

The rotor of the machine must be supplied with a current. For example this could be by:
A large power electronic converter (direct), or a small current supply feeding an excitation machine, which in turn produces
the large rotor current. (indirect system). The current production could also be done by a “Variac”.
Power Supply
The excitation system needs a power supply in order to produce a current. There are many different configurations.
Shunt Supply – The supply is taken from the machine terminals.
Line Supply – The supply is taken from an auxiliary supply.
Permanent Magnet Generator – A small permanent magnet generator is mounted on the same shaft as the main machine.
Current Control
No matter how the current is produced, there must be some method of controlling how much current is produced. In the case
of Unitrol 5000 this is a state of the art control system, but in other the systems this could be very different. In the case of a
Variac, this might be a wheel mounted on the front of the device.
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation in Unitrol 5000 is done in the control system by the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR).
In some older systems, the AVR was a separate control unit, but in Unitrol 5000 it is integrated.
In some systems the voltage regulation might have been done by the operator continually monitoring the voltage.

Duties of an Excitation System

The principle function of an excitation system is to produce field current,
however there are many other functions which may be fulfilled in the
excitation control system.
• To keep the generator operating in a safe operating zone, by restricting
the field current of the machine:
e.g. Field current limitation, stator current limitation, voltage limitation,
under excitation current limitation etc.
• To monitor the excitation equipment for failure:
e.g. rotor temperature, transformer temperature, rotor earth fault, internal
faults, rotating diode failure etc.
In any excitation system, the principle function is produce the field current.
In Unitrol 5000 excitation systems there is a high speed sophisticated control system.
Due to the fact that the excitation systems is in a perfect situation to monitor the operation of the
machine, many protective features are included on board the control system.

Where to find the Excitation System?
Primary Mechanical Electrical

Consumer
Energy Energy Energy
Turbine Generator
Field Generator
Current Voltage
Excitation
System
Where is the Excitation System in relation to the plant?

Let us look at the main features of an energy distribution system.
Primary Consumer Energy

Coal, gas, water, wind, nuclear and the sun etc. are primarily sources of energy. Ideally the energy can
be used directly by the end user (e.g. for heating), however there are many examples of where this is
simply not possible or it is more efficient or convenient to convert the energy to electrical energy and
then transmit the energy to a remote end user.
Of course in the modern world, there are almost countless requirements for electricity in its own right.
Have you ever heard of a coal powered radio?
Conversion to Motion & Electrical Energy

For large scale energy conversion, the primary form of energy is usually converted first into mechanical
and later in electrical energy using turbines and generators.
The Output Voltage

To make the conversion from mechanical energy to electrical energy, a synchronous generator is
normally used. The output voltage of the machine is controlled by an excitation system.
Transmission & Distribution

The electrical energy is then distributed to end users via transmission lines.

The Excitation System in the power plant

CONTROL ROOM
STEP UP
LV SWITCHGEAR
TRANSFORMER
AC & DC
HV SYSTEM HV- BREAKER AUXILIARY
SYSTEMS
CONTROL
AUX. SYSTEMS
PROTECTION
TRANSF
.
GOVERNOR
1
GENERATOR
1 BREAKER
PT’s
&
CT’s
SYNCHRONIZING
SYNCHRONOUS EXCITATION
TURBINE GENERATOR SYSTEM
STAR
POINT EXCITATION
CUBICLE TRANSFORMER
Excitation in the power station environment
The following diagram shows the main components installed in a power station with their connections to
a static excitation system, as shown in this example.
Inputs to the excitation system:
- The main supply to the excitation system is taken directly from the generator
terminals via an excitation transformer.
- In order to regulate the generator voltage, this is picked up from the
generator terminals via converters.
- To control the excitation, the control commands are passed to the excitation
system from a higher-level control system.
Outputs from the excitation system:
- The main output from the excitation system is the exciter voltage, which is
passed to the rotor winding via slip rings.
- Messages from the excitation system to the higher-level control system such
as alarm and status messages.

The Synchronous Machine on the Network
Controlled Object Disturbance

I Ug
f Synchronous
Network
Machine
Excitation
System
A generator is normally a small contributor to a large network. The

characteristic is generally determined by the machine and network. The
excitation system only allows a correction of the overall behaviour.
A regulated synchronous machine coupled to the network can be represented in simplified form.
The synchronous machine represents the regulated object. All other components together form the
regulator or excitation system. In parallel operation with the network, the network influences the
behaviour of the closed regulating circuit and in this sense acts as an external interference variable.
The characteristics of the synchronous machine and the network are largely determined by the
equipment that has been used.
i.e. The generator, the transformers, the transmission cables, etc.
The excitation system can be used to set up the steady state operating conditions of the machine.
In transient conditions, the excitation only allows an adjustment of the overall behaviour in the sense of
a technical optimisation. Optimisation is done during commissioning.

Steady State & Transient Behaviour
Steady State
A point around which
changes may take place,
but to where there is a
general tendency to return.
Transient
The relatively short period
of change that follows any
event.
In examining the behaviour of the regulated synchronous machine, a distinction must be made between
the
Steady State behaviour, and
Transient or dynamic behaviour of the synchronous machine.
We will examine both conditions in this chapter.

To make things more understandable, it is necessary to make some explanations & simplifications.

Generator Electrical & Mechanical Behaviour
Electrical Behaviour
Machine Reactive
Voltage Power
Mechanical Behaviour
Machine Real
Speed Power
The generator is where the conversion between mechanical energy and electrical energy takes place.
The generator has displays both electrical and mechanical behaviour. As this is the place where the
conversion takes place it makes things simpler if a separation is made between mechanical and electrical
behaviour.
Electrical Behaviour
Excitation Current
Machine Voltage
Reactive Power
Mechanical Behaviour
Machine Speed
Machine Torque (= Power in the per unit system)
In many ways there is a strong analogy between the mechanical behaviour and the electrical behaviour
of the machine, however they are most definitely separate.
It would be very nice if it were possible to make real power using the excitation system!!!!
(You could then make real power without the need for coal, oil, gas etc.)
The Generalized Equivalent Circuit

North
Significant Air Gap
(Quadrature Axis)
Solid Pole
Machine
Salient Pole
Machine
South
Generalized Equivalent Circuit

The formation of an equivalent machine diagram helps us to understand the synchronous machine.
In this course we will concentrate on a cylindrical or solid pole machine.
To form a generalized equivalent circuit for a synchronous machine of any construction it is necessary to
consider that the machine has two axis. A direct axis, and a quadrature axis.
The direct axis arises from flux that flows directly from the pole face to the stator winding.
The quadrature axis arises from flux that flows perpendicular to the pole face.
The solid pole machine has a smooth cylindrical profile. The flux can therefore flow between the rotor
and the stator in any direction with similar difficulty, because the main obstacle is the air gap.
For a salient pole machine, the air gap in the direct axis is quite small, however the air gap in the
quadrature axis is significant, and therefore it becomes necessary to produce a different (and more
complex) equivalent circuit.

The solid pole synchronous machine
The magnetic
flux between
rotor and
stator has a
small air gap
in both the
quadrature
and direct
axis.
• High speed application for speed range > 1500 rpm
• Xd and Xq are similar
The cylindrical / solid pole machine is characterized by:
Xd = Xq = Synchronous Reactance

The Salient Pole Machine
The flux in the

quadrature axis
must cover a
significant air
gap
• Low speed application for speed range < 1500 rpm

• Xd > Xq
The salient pole machine is characterized by
Xd = Direct Axis Reactance > Xq Quadrature Axis Reactance
The difference between the solid pole machine and the salient pole machine makes an important
difference to the operating characteristic of the machine.
For the moment, we shall study the equivalent circuit of the solid pole machine, but later on we return to
the salient pole machine in order to examine the differences.

The Substitution Diagram of the Synchronous Machine
Q-Axis Xd
D-Axis
Ep
For solid pole machines it is as easy to produce flux in

both direct and quadrature axis because there is a small
and equal amount of air gap in both directions.
For the solid pole machine the equivalent circuit diagram is simply an EMF and a synchronous
reactance.
The saliency of the machine can simply be regarded as negligible.

Similarly the resistance of the machine is usually ignored in the simple equivalent diagram.
The EMF of the machine is a function of the rotor current.

Generator Name Plate Values

What values can you find on the name plate of your synchronous machine?
Physical values of your machine Absolute Unit Per unit

Value value
Apparent Power MVA 1

Machine Voltage V 1
Power Factor - 1
Rated Field Current A 1
No Load Field Current A
Frequency Hz 1
Speed rpm 1
What kind of generator is in your power station?
Is it a salient pole machine or a sold pole machine?
What is the per unit system?

Generator Operating Modes
1. No Load Operation.
2. Machine loaded and operating in parallel with
other machines on a large network.
3. Machine loaded and operating alone with load
= island operation.
Now that an equivalent Steady State Equivalent diagram has been made, we can consider the circuit in a
few different operating modes.
We can identify 3 different generator operating modes.
1. No Load Operation.
The machine runs at nominal speed and the generator circuit breaker is open.
The speed of the machine is set by the turbine.
2. Machine loaded and operating on a large network.

The machine is only a small generator compared to the entire network. It can therefore not really
influence either the network voltage or the network frequency.
3. Island Operation
The machine is connected to a load without any other generator being connected.
The frequency and voltage depends on the Generator AND the Load.
(In actual fact both of these quantities must be actively controlled to achieve acceptable operation.)
In he following slides, we shall consider only the first two scenarios.

Generator No Load Characteristic
Ug
Xd Saturation
Ugn
Generator
Ep rated voltage
UG
No load field current

I fo If
EMF is dependant on
excitation current & speed
No Load Operation
As the stator current is zero;

The terminal voltage of the machine = The EMF of the machine
Ug = Ep
The voltage is a function of Speed and Excitation Current.
At lower values of field current, the relationship between field current and terminal voltage is linear.
However, above a certain level of current, the machine starts to saturate.
Most machines are designed to have the nominal voltage of the machine lying just inside the saturated
region of the characteristic.
In the range up to nominal generator voltage, a more or less linear relationship exists between field
current and generator voltage. When the generator voltage exceeds the nominal value, a saturation effect
takes place which is essentially determined by the design of the stator iron. If one wishes to increase the
generator voltage further, above its nominal value, the field current must be increased over-
proportionately.

Generator On Load
Xd I X tr + ex
G
Network
Ep
UG Ubus
The machine is now connected to the Network.

The turbine delivers some load, causing a current to flow.
The excitation system can change the EMF of the machine, but the
effect on the network is considered to be negligible.
Generator On Load
The machine is now connected to a large network through a step up transformer, and the turbine delivers
a real load (MW).
The internal Emf of the machine is still determined by the excitation current, however the terminal
voltage of the machine also strongly dependant upon the network.
If the machine is under load, a current flows in the stator windings, which causes a voltage drop through
the synchronous reactance. If the excitation current remains constant, the terminal voltage would
therefore be reduced. Here, the excitation system has the function of preventing this drop in voltage by
altering the excitation current.

Generator On Load
Ig 2 * Xd Ig 1 * Xd
Ig 1 * Xd
EM
Ug
F
Ug
1
Ig2
X d
EM
2* δ2
Ig
F
δ2 Ig1
1
δ1
EM
F2 EMF 1
δ1 = EMF 2
Constant power factor. Constant Field Current.
In the above examples we shall assume that to begin with the network load is purely resistive and therefore the
generator current is in phase with the voltage. The voltage taken by the load is assumed to be at a fixed value and
angle, rather like the bus network of a large network. The current flowing in the stator winding causes a voltage
drop across the synchronous reactance Xd, and hence the EMF of the machine may be drawn at an angle delta to
the bus voltage Ubus.
Subsequently the resistive load is increased, and the turbine load is increased to match the load.
We shall consider two cases:
1.The excitation reacts in order to keep a constant power factor of 1.

The excitation system reacts to the change in operating point. The current flowing in the stator is increased, and
therefore the internal voltage drop increases.
On the vector diagram it can be seen that in order to keep the power factor constant, it is necessary to increase the
internal EMF, and therefore the excitation current also has be increased. The load angle has also increased.
2. The excitation makes no reaction following a change in load.

The excitation system keeps the same field current, and therefore the internal EMF remains the same as before the
increase in load. The load increase is the same as the case of constant power factor, and therefore the 2 vectors
must meet.
It can be seen that the machine must now import reactive power to supply the synchronous reactance Xd, and that
when the load angle is compared with the constant power factor scenario, the load angle is much bigger.
If the increase in turbine power had been greater, then it can be easily seen that it is not possible to draw the EMF
and IXd vectors in such a way that they meet!!! Therefore it is simply not possible to increase the load above a
certain threshold.

The Synchronizing Torque

ωmech
ωmech
ωmech
ωel ωel ωel
δ=0o δ=45 o δ=90 o
"rubber band"
T95_0154.DRW
The importance of the angle delta can be seen from the previous example.
The drawing of the voltage drop and the EMF is no longer possible when delta reaches 90°. At this
point it would not be possible to remain synchronized with the network.
We could see that if the excitation current is increased, then the situation is changed. The excitation
current therefore provides a synchronizing torque.
One analogy that is used, is to think of an elastic band.
We can imagine the rotor of the machine to be connected to the network voltage by an elastic band.
•The strength of the elastic band is dependant on its elastic constant. In the case of the machine, the
elastic constant is variable, and is dependant on the amount of excitation current.
•The extension of the elastic band depends on how strongly it is pulled. In the case of the machine this
is the amount of torque applied to the shaft.
If the torque is increased, then the elastic band stretches.
If the excitation current is increased, then the elastic band becomes stronger, and the rotor is pulled back
towards the network voltage.

The Torque Characteristic of the Generator
The Torque Equation

Stability
Md limit
E p ⋅U G
M d = E p ⋅ I G ⋅ sin δ = ⋅ sin δ
Μ d2 ~ If2 Xd
Md1 ~ If1
Drive torque
δ2 δ1 δ
For a more mathematical approach, the torque of the machine is given by the above equation.
For each amount of EMF (and therefore excitation current) a curve can be drawn on the Torque vs. delta
graph.
Note that in the per unit system, power = torque.
The analogy with the elastic band can be tested using the two curves shown above.
When delta reaches 90°, this point is called the stability limit.

The Power Chart of the Synchronous Machine
Active
P
Power 1
rated
Drive Limit power
Load angle Pf
limit Field current
Drive Limit limit
Sn
δ
-1 +1
-Q 1 + Q Reactive
xd Ifo power
under over
excited Motor excited
The entire range of possible stationary operating conditions is usually described by means of the power
diagram. This diagram can be derived from the vector diagram. The vector diagram is multiplied a
vector Ug/Xd.
In order to cancel the effect of voltage on the diagram, the diagram is always drawn at nominal voltage.
If the voltage changes, however, it is important to remember that the size of the drawing itself also
changes by the square of the terminal voltage.
At nominal voltage, the pu current and pu apparent power are the same. The large circle therefore
represents the maximum thermal capability of the stator.
At nominal voltage, the circle with centre 1/Xd is proportional to the pu field current. This circle
therefore represents the maximum thermal capability of the rotor.
The angle delta is between this vector and the reactive power axis. In order to avoid delta approaching
90° only the region to the right of the 1/Xd point is safe.
Normally the turbine rating is beneath the generator rating, so the real power is limited.

Power Chart inc. Salient Pole
region of underexcitation region of overexcitation
active power P
capacitive generator current limiter inductive generator current limiter
maximum turbine power

reactive power limiter maximum
(P/Q-limiter) I fn field current limiter
minimum
field current limiter I GN
ϕ
U2act-1
Xi
δ
reactive power Q
-1 Xq -1 -1 Xd 0 1
The power chart for a salient pole machine is quite different to the solid pole machine.
The origin of the Field vector is different. 1/Xq

The vector measurement starts from the circle formed between the 1/Xq and 1/Xd points.

Static Network Requirements of the AVR

(“Static” or Steady State)
1. The voltage at the consumer connection
should be kept within defined limits
2. Stable reactive power distribution
3. Setting of Reactive Power should ensure
efficient power transmission
4. Generator should be kept within safe
operational limits
The basic requirements of the automatic voltage regulating systems, which must be fulfilled in a typical network
under stationary conditions, i.e. without faults, are:
1. The voltage at the consumer connection should be kept within acceptable limits.
The consumer operates equipment that is designed to work within a particular voltage tolerance.
2. Stable reactive power distribution in the case of several parallel-operated generators within the power station
must be guaranteed.
Generators can absorb or generate reactive power. In order to have stable operation, it is essential that reactive
power is shared and not merely passed around between generators!
3. The reactive power distribution within the network system should create minimal line losses, with good
stability, also during load changes.
If a network is to be operated efficiently it is essential to have some way of managing the node voltages at
various points in the network. This can be achieved by excitation systems and tap changing transformers.
4. The generator should always be operated within the safe operating limits.
(see power chart)

The Network
A machine may be
2
1 connected to a large and
complex network.
Tie
Regional grid
How can the reactive
power be used to
understand the
Substation relationship between the
machine and the
network?
Power station
T95_01 57.D RW
A machine may be connected to a large and complex network.
The amount of equipment may be vast, and to model the grid behaviour requires a lot of skill and time.
The complexity of the network can be daunting, however equipped with our simple equivalent circuit
and power chart, we can begin to understand how the machine operating point may be determined.
The key to the situation is the reactive power.

Substitution Diagram of the Network with the Generator
XTr Xe
G
RL UNet
The machine and the network can be represented by the greatly simplified equivalent circuit shown
above.
The equivalent-circuit diagram shows the generator G, which can also stand for an entire power station,
with the reactance XTr (transformer reactance) between generator terminals and high voltage busbar.
The resulting load impedance ZL relates to this feed point. The rest of the system is reduced to an
external reactance Xe and a voltage of the rigid networks. All power-generating units are united at this
point. The line resistance's in the immediate vicinity can usually be ignored, whereas the capacity of
longer transmission lines must be taken into account.

Export of Reactive Power
UG = 1.05 pu UN = 1.0 pu
XTr= 0.1 pu Xe= 0.2 pu

G
IQ
Reactive Power
RL UNet
Consumers
If the per unit terminal voltage is greater than per unit

network voltage, reactive power is exported.
If reactive power is exported, then the per unit generator voltage will be greater than the per unit
network voltage.
The generator is therefore making a positive contribution to the network voltage. i.e. keeping the
voltage level up.
Note: The measurement point is important!
If the reactive power is measured at the generator terminals, then it is the machine contribution alone
which is considered. The transformer and external reactance will also requires reactive power, and
therefore the net effect may not be a positive contribution.
If the reactive power is measured after the step up transformer, then it is the combination of the machine
+ transformer that is considered.
From the network point of view, it is the measurement after the transformer that should be considered.

Import of Reactive Power
UG = 0.95 pu UN = 1.0 pu
XTr= 0.1 pu Xe= 0.2 pu

G
IQ
Reactive Power
RL UNet
Consumers
If the per unit terminal voltage is lower than per unit

network voltage, reactive power is imported.
If reactive power is imported, then the per unit generator voltage will be less than the per unit network
voltage.
The generator is therefore making a negative contribution to the network voltage. i.e. keeping the
voltage level down.
Note: The measurement point is important!
If the reactive power is measured at the generator terminals, then it is the machine contribution alone
which is considered. The transformer and external reactance will also requires reactive power, and
therefore the net effect may not be a negative contribution.
If the reactive power is measured after the step up transformer, then it is the combination of the machine
+ transformer that is considered.
From the network point of view, it is the measurement after the transformer that should be considered.

Analogy between governor and AVR

• Static behavior of closed loop control
• Analogy between governor and AVR
Network Network
Steady State Steady State
REAL Power REACTIVE
Depends on AVR Power
the mechanical G G R
Depends on
output of the Governor the excitation
Generator
power plant R system.
T
e.g. Amount of Turbine
gas that is n,f U

burnt
P Q
T 9 5_ 01 58.DR W
One of the functions of an AVR that was identified was to ensure stable distribution of Reactive Power.
At first this may be difficult to understand in terms of voltage and reactive power.
The analogy between the turbine regulator and the AVR can therefore be utilized.
Real Power on the network

If the amount of produced real power is more than the power used : The speed of the network will increase.
If the amount of produced real power is less than the power used : The speed of network will decrease.
In order to keep a stable frequency, most turbines use a DROOP setting on top of their power regulation.
i.e. If the speed falls, then the governor increases the real power, even if there is a constant power set point.
Reactive Power on the network

If the amount of produced reactive power is more than the power used : The voltage of the network will increase.
If the amount of produced reactive power is less than the power used : The voltage of network will decrease.
We shall now look at how the AVR characteristic helps to distribute reactive power using a reactive power droop
setting, also known as Q static.

Static behaviour of AVR

Reactive power influence to AVR
UG
pos. static
neg. static
-Q +Q
In the AVR, it is possible to give the machine a different

characteristic by adjusting the droop.
In Unitrol 5000 it is possible to use either a positive droop or a negative droop. This is set by a
parameter.

Generators Operating On The Same Bus.

Without Generator Transformer
BUS
NETWORK
Vbus Vbus • If the setpoint of
Generator 1 was higher
than Generator 2 then the
two machines could never
share reactive power.
G AVR + G AVR + • Generator 1 would export

Exciter Exciter reactive power and
Generator 2 would import
reactive power.
• No stable point would be
possible.
Setpoint 1 Setpoint 2
Two generators operating on the same bus are considered in this example.
The terminal voltage MUST be the same on both machines because they are directly connected.
If the setpoint on machine 1 was larger than on machine 2, then the AVR of machine 1 would keep
increasing its excitation current until eventually the over excitation limit would become active.
In the same way, the AVR of machine 2 would keep decreasing the excitation current until eventually its
under excitation limit would become active.
Reactive power would therefore be passed from machine 1 to machine 2, regardless of network
requirements!

Generators in Parallel without Droop
Voltage
• Each controller TRIES to

Voltage generator 1 make its own voltage.
• BUT both generators are
Voltage generator 2 connected together.
• As the characteristics do
not cross, operation is
not stable.
-ve Q +ve Q
The control characteristic of the 2 generators is plotted on the above graph.
There is no point at which the 2 characteristics cross, and therefore the distribution of reactive power
between the machines is undefined.

Reactive Power Distribution

Grid
Busbar
IQ
Uref1 Uref2
AVR AVR
Generator 1 Generator 2
U
Uref1
Busbar voltage
Uref2
IQ IQ
Generator 2 Generator 1 Q, IQ
For the 2 machines considered we could see that:
for machine 1, the reactive power was positive, and

for machine 1, the reactive power was negative.
HOWEVER, this was the same reactive power!
Therefore, it can be said that the reactive power of one machine AS SEEN FROM THE OTHER
machine is opposite.
A droop characteristic is now applied to each of the 2 AVR’s with the same droop characteristic.
The droop characteristic of machine 2 as seen by machine 1 is in the opposite direction as its own.

Generators in Parallel With Droop
Voltage
• With a “static” or “droop”

Voltage
generat an operating point is
or 1 possible.
• Each regulator adjusts its
rator 2
e gene
Voltag setpoint until an
operating point is found.
-ve Q +ve Q
When the two droop characteristics are plotted on the same graph, then there is clearly a cross over, and
therefore a stable operating point can be achieved.
The setpoint can be used in each machine to change the proportion of reactive power taken by each
machine, as well

“Dynamic” Behaviour
What Type of Changes Can be Expected ?
1. Network – Changes in Voltage, frequency

and load.
2. Drive Shaft – Changes in Torque.
3. Faults – Sudden load rejection or
electrical short circuits.
The steady state behaviour and dynamic (or transient) behaviour has already been introduced.
So far the steady state has generally been considered, but what about transient changes?
For a machine operating on a network, there are many transient conditions taking place.
Every time a person decides to use a lift, or an electric kettle for example a change in load occurs. Of
course, a kettle is generally very small, but what about the start up of a steel mill?
Large changes in load may be accompanied by the starting up of extra power stations, changes in the
nature of the load ie inductive to capacitive. During sudden changes the network voltage, frequency and
load will change.
The turbine itself, may undergo transient changes and therefore the excitation system may have to cope
with the transient change in torque. For example a coal mill in the boiler may suddenly trip, and there
would be a corresponding drop in the torque.
Network faults are also an important change. Sometimes a part of the network will experience a severe
fault, and this may result in large short circuit currents and load shedding. It will be necessary for the
excitation system to cope with the situation.

Flux, Voltage and Frequency
UG
115% Maximum Voltage = f{insulation}
110% Max Voltage at Nominal Speed
U V/Hz-gradient = dV/df
f
f
100%
Recall once again, the no load characteristic of the machine.

The voltage of the machine in no load is dependant on:
1. Speed, and
2. Field Current.
The same is still true in load operation, however there is the additional influence of the network/load.
If the voltage of the machine is regulated by a voltage regulator, then the speed can present a problem. i.e. at lower
speeds, more excitation current is required to achieve the same voltage. As we have already seen, the machine
displays saturation above a certain amount of current. The saturation curve becomes flatter at even higher currents.
To avoid the possibility of saturation, Unitrol 5000 uses a software function called a “Volt per Herz” Limiter.
The limitation of machine voltage should be defined according to a speed dependant characteristic.
The characteristic has a cut off point that reflects the insulation limit of the machine. Naturally the insulation
properties of the machine are not speed dependant.
Should the voltage reach the level of limitation, then Unitrol 5000 will automatically take action to ensure that the
voltage does not increase any further.

“Dynamic” Behaviour
Classification of Changes
Changes may be divided into 2 groups:

1. Electrical Changes.
Voltage, Reactive Power, Excitation Current.
2. Mechanical Changes.
Speed/Frequency, Torque, Load Angle, Active
Power.
A distinction can be made between two groups of physical variables, which we will deal with separately,
although they are not wholly independent of one another:
The mechanical and electrical behaviour of the machine is considered independently in the steady state.
In the transient behaviour of the machine, the mechanical and electrical quantities are most certainly
inter-related.
We can use our elastic band simplification again.
If the force applied to the elastic band is suddenly increased, then as we all know, the load will not just
suddenly find a new equilibrium.
Assuming that the system is “underdamped”, there would be an initial extension of the elastic band past
its steady state resting position. A period of oscillation about the new resting position would then occur,
whereby energy is stored in the elastic band, and then released.
The same applies to the machine. If a change in mechanical load takes place, then energy may also be
stored in the electrical field of the machine and subsequently released.

Reactive Power Surge

What happens when a reactive load is suddenly
applied to an idling generator?
Ug
If = konst. S
∆U = Ig *Xd
XE
Ug Ugo
t
t=0
Behaviour of Generator voltage in case of reactive power surge

with constant field current
Example of an Electrical Change:

The transient effect varies greatly, depending on whether a change in active power or reactive power is
involved. We will consider the case of a pure reactive power change, for example when an idling
machine is connected to an inductive load.
The unloaded generator has a terminal voltage Ug which is equal to the induced rotor voltage Ep.
After the circuit breaker S is closed, a reactive current Ig begins to flow immediately and causes a
voltage drop through the generator reactance.
The original magnetic flux, which passes through stator and rotor, cannot change instantly. The
consequence of this is that a contrary current is induced in the rotor circuit via the air gap in order to
compensate the changes on the stator side and maintain the balance of the circulation.
In the simplified equivalent circuit diagram shown, this means that the direct axis reactance Xd is
replaced by the either the transient reactance Xd’, or the sub-transient reactance Xd’’ (see below)
which is 5…10 times smaller than the synchronous reactance Xd.
Note: Most generators have a rotor damper winding. The damper winding is an extra cage type winding
that is not connected to the main winding, and allows an induced current to flow that is related to the slip
frequency between the rotor and stator fields. The induced current helps to keep the rotor synchronized
with the stator, by developing a synchronizing torque. The damper winding may be compared with the
rotor winding of an induction motor.
This winding is responsible for introducing the sub-transient reactance Xd’’
For very fast transient changes, it is this sub-transient reactance which is used.

Reactive Power Surge

Generator voltage in case of reactive power surge
Ug
static excitation systems
with rotating exciter When an AVR is used,
the excitation current
∆U = Ig *Xd is adjusted to bring
the voltage back to its
original value
Ugo
t
t=0
For a machine operating with Automatic Voltage Regulation, the transient condition is automatically
compensated.
The initial drop is fixed by the sub/transient reactance of the machine and the generator current.
The regulator reacts to the drop in voltage by automatically increasing the field current, and therefore
returning the voltage to its previous voltage level.
The response of a static excitation system and a rotating exciter machine can be compared in the
example above.

Behaviour of generator voltage during power surges
Active power surge

with power oscillations
ω
PA Ro R1
U
PA = ω· M A I · XD
E · sin δ
PE = U · I = U ·
XD
U
E
Torque Equation
δ
dω
MA - M E = Θ
dt
θ Inertia
ω speed
Change in Real Power (ohmic Load)
The behaviour of the machine when it reacts to a change in mechanical load is quite different.
When the switch is closed, the load current through R1 flows instantaneously.
The turbine response, however is much slower, and the energy being supplied to the load must come
either from stored kinetic energy in the shaft, or from the energy stored in the field of the generator.
(analogous to the stored “elastic band” energy).
If the field energy was kept constant, then all of the energy must be supplied by releasing the kinetic of
the shaft, which therefore causes the shaft to slow down.
Eventually the turbine governor will react to the fall in speed, and the turbine power will be increased.
In Unitrol 5000, there is a feature called the “Power System Stabilizer”. This purposefully uses the
excitation system to smooth out the exchange of energy between the shaft and the system using the
energy stored in the field of the generator.

Generator Voltage during Reactive Load Rejection
Ug
Overvoltage relay
with AVR (static excitation system)
Uo
IQ x Xd "
t
t=0 1 Sec.
Load Rejection
Look at the generator ratings for:

No Load Field Current, and
Full Load Field Current
If there were to be a load rejection (the generator circuit breaker opens) at the nominal operating point of
the generator then you can easily see that the field current would be much too high!
An important function of the AVR is therefore to bring the voltage back to a safe level in the event of
such a load rejection.
The initial rise is dependant on the Xd’’ of the machine, but again the AVR can take fast corrective
action to ensure that the over voltage trip level is not reached.

Generator Voltage during Reactive Load Rejection
Example of a load rejection using a Static Excitation System.

Voltage Support during Network Faults
The protection system normally requires that current flows into the
fault in order to correctly detect WHICH line should be
disconnected.
It is therefore essential that the excitation system supports the
system voltage during the period that the “selection” takes place.
Faults
During a distant network fault, it is very important that the network voltage is maintained.
If a fault occurred, then the normally the generator voltage would fall and the generator current would
increase.
If this were allowed to continue, the protection relay may not correctly detect where the fault has
occurred, resulting in the disconnection of more equipment than was actually necessary.
The AVR helps the selection, by feeding current into the fault.

Generator Voltage During a Remote Short Circuit
UG with voltage regulator

UO
t
t=0 1 sec
Fault causes over
current and under Voltage support enables Fault clearance results in
voltage the network protection to reduction of load and a
clear the fault corresponding rise in voltage

The need for de-excitation
Thyristors
(Or switch)
V = -L dI/dt
Resistor
The field winding consists of a large inductance.

If the current is suddenly interrupted either by a breaker or by
turning the converter off, then the voltage will become very
large.
One method is the “Crowbar”
Another function that an excitation system has to be able to cope with is de-excitation.
The field current flows through an inductance.
If the current is interrupted for any reason, the inductance will produce an extremely large voltage to try
and maintain the flow of current.
On method of overcoming this problem is to introduce a “Crowbar” circuit.

A “Crowbar” is a large metal tool used for levering items such as man hole covers. In electrical terms it
was used because such a bar could be dropped across the busbars, and the bar would be large enough to
take the short circuit current.
In Unitrol 5000 the crowbar is in fact a carefully calculated non-linear resistance. A thyristor switch is
used to control when the resistors are connected.
The crowbar is meant to act during emergency de-excitation.

Normal De-excitation
Normally de-
excitation of the
field is made by
“Inverting” the
converter.
This is the fastest
way of reducing the
field current.
Normally, de-excitation is done by inverting the converter.

This uses the converter to convert DC energy to AC energy, and therefore the current in the rotor is very
quickly reduced.

Emergency De-excitation
Crowbar De-
excitation occurs
in the event of
field breaker
opening,
excitation tripping
or field
overvoltage.
De-excitation by crowbar is done in the event of a trip because it provides a fail safe method.
i.e. If the excitation system is not functioning correctly, then the crowbar provides secure de-excitation.
If for example there were thyristor failures, then inversion would no longer be possible.

02 Training Excitation-Basics

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02 Training Excitation-Basics

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U n itro l 5 0 0 0 T rain in g

Fundamentals of Excitation System

• What is an Excitation System?

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 1

What is an Excitation System?

Rotor The rotor of a

The excitation systems primary function is to supply current to the “electromagnet”.

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 2

What is an Excitation System?

Rotor Current Production

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 3

Duties of an Excitation System

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 4

Where to find the Excitation System?

Primary Mechanical Electrical

Where is the Excitation System in relation to the plant?

Primary Consumer Energy

Conversion to Motion & Electrical Energy

The Output Voltage

Transmission & Distribution

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 5

The Excitation System in the power plant

Excitation in the power station environment

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 6

The Synchronous Machine on the Network

Controlled Object Disturbance

A generator is normally a small contributor to a large network. The

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 7

Steady State & Transient Behaviour

We will examine both conditions in this chapter.

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 8

Generator Electrical & Mechanical Behaviour

The Generalized Equivalent Circuit

Generalized Equivalent Circuit

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 10

The solid pole synchronous machine

The cylindrical / solid pole machine is characterized by:

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 11

The Salient Pole Machine

The flux in the

• Low speed application for speed range < 1500 rpm

The salient pole machine is characterized by

Xd = Direct Axis Reactance > Xq Quadrature Axis Reactance

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 12

The Substitution Diagram of the Synchronous Machine

For solid pole machines it is as easy to produce flux in

The saliency of the machine can simply be regarded as negligible.

The EMF of the machine is a function of the rotor current.

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 13

Generator Name Plate Values

Physical values of your machine Absolute Unit Per unit

Apparent Power MVA 1

What kind of generator is in your power station?

Is it a salient pole machine or a sold pole machine?

What is the per unit system?

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 14

Generator Operating Modes

We can identify 3 different generator operating modes.

2. Machine loaded and operating on a large network.

In he following slides, we shall consider only the first two scenarios.

Release 10.06.2004 Excitation Basics Page 15

Generator No Load Characteristic

No load field current

As the stator current is zero;