4/26/2018

FIGHTING FAT

DIGESTION AND • Fat-storing cells are an adaptation for

survival in lean times
HUMAN NUTRITION • Once formed, fat cells are forever
• Dieting decreases amount of fat in
cells
• Dieting triggers metabolic slowdown

ANOREXIA BULIMIA
EATING DISORDERS

• Anorexia nervosa
• Potentially fatal eating disorder based on a flawed
assessment of body weight
• Bulimia
• Out-of-control “oxlike” appetite
• Binge-purge can damage teeth, gut lining

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM TASKS TWO TYPES OF SYSTEMS

• Break up, mix, and move food material • Incomplete digestive system
• Secrete enzymes into tube where digestion occurs • One-way, saclike digestive
cavity
• Digest (break down) food particles into smaller
molecules • Complete digestive system
• A tube with an opening at each
• Absorb nutrients and fluids end
• Eliminate wastes and residues

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DIGESTIVE SPECIALIZATION SPECIALIZED TEETH ANTELOPE HUMAN

MOLAR
MOLAR

• Digestive system is often • Structure of teeth reflects

feeding behavior
subdivided into functional regions
• Antelope brush teeth against
• Specialization reflects feeding dirt as they eat; wear down
behavior crowns

ANTELOPE STOMACH
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Multiple chambers allow rechewing and breakdown of
cellulose • A complete system with many specialized organs

• About 6.5 to 9 meters long if extended

• Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium

• Movement is one way, from mouth to anus

MAJOR COMPONENTS
ACCESSORY ORGANS
• Mouth (oral cavity)
• Pharynx (throat) • Salivary glands
• Esophagus • Secrete saliva
• Gut • Liver
• Stomach • Secretes bile
• Small intestine • Gallbladder
• Large intestine • Stores and concentrates bile
• Rectum • Pancreas
• Anus • Secretes digestive enzymes

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HUMAN TEETH
SALIVA

• Produced by salivary glands at back of mouth and

under tongue
• Saliva includes
• Salivary amylase (enzyme)
• Bicarbonate (buffer)
• Normal human adult • Mucins (bind food into bolus)
• Water
number is 32

SWALLOWING STRUCTURE OF THE STOMACH

• Complex reflex • J-shaped organ lies below the

diaphragm
• Tongue forces food into pharynx
• Sphincters (valves) at both ends
• Epiglottis and vocal cords close off trachea; breathing
temporarily ceases • Outer serosa covers smooth
muscle layers
• Bolus moves into esophagus, then through esophageal • Inner layer of glandular
sphincter into stomach
epithelium faces lumen (cavity)

STOMACH SECRETIONS MIXING CHYME

• Gastric fluid secreted into lumen • A thick mixture of food and gastric
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) fluid
• Mucus (protective) • High acidity kills many pathogens
• Pepsinogen (inactive form of a protein-digesting
• Mixed and moved by waves of
enzyme)
stomach contractions (peristalsis)
• Stomach cells also secrete the hormone gastrin into
the bloodstream

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PROTEIN DIGESTION IN STOMACH ULCER

• High acidity of gastric fluid breaks down proteins by
denaturing it and exposing the peptide bonds
• Pepsinogen secreted by stomach lining is activated to
pepsin by HCl
• Pepsin breaks proteins into fragments
• An erosion of the wall of the stomach or small intestine
• Can result from undersecretion of mucus and buffers,
or oversecretion of pepsin
• Most ulcers involve Helicobacter pylori bacteria and
can be treated with antibiotics

INTO THE SMALL INTESTINE

• Duodenum  jejunum  ileum

• Movement into duodenum controlled by pyloric
sphincter
• Only a small amount of chyme passes through
sphincter at a given time
• Fat content of chyme affects the rate of stomach
emptying

INTESTINAL SECRETIONS

• Wall of the duodenum secretes

• Disaccharidases - digest disaccharides to
monosaccharides
• Peptidases - break protein fragments down to amino
acids
• Nucleases - digest nucleotides down to nucleic acids
and monosaccharides

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PANCREATIC ENZYMES FAT DIGESTION

• Secreted into duodenum • Liver produces bile

• Pancreatic amylase • Bile is stored in gallbladder, then secreted into
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin duodenum
• Carboxypeptidase • Bile emulsifies fats; breaks them into small droplets
• Lipase • This gives enzymes a greater surface area to work on
• Pancreatic nucleases

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES
• Secretin – from the intestinal lining (duodenum),
• Gastrin – produced by the stomach lining, stimulates stimulates insulin secretions from the pancreas; in the
secretion of acids into the stomach; can stimulate the bloodstream, stimulates the acinar cells of the
gallbladder to empty its store of bile and the pancreas pancreas to secrete water and bicarbonate for the
to secrete enzymes; also stimulates growth of the duodenum so that the HCl secreted by the stomach,
stomach lining and increases muscle contractions of which can be damaging to the intestinal lining, is
the gut to aid digestion promptly diluted and neutralized

WALLS OF SMALL INTESTINE ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS

One villus
• Projections into the intestinal lumen • Passage of molecules into internal environment
increase the surface area available
• Occurs mainly in jejunum and ileum of small intestine
for absorption
• Segmentation mixes the lumen contents against wall
and enhances absorption

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ABSORPTION MECHANISMS INTO THE BLOOD

• Monosaccharides & amino acids are actively • Glucose and amino acids enter blood vessels directly
transported across plasma membrane of epithelial
cells, then from cell into internal environment • Triglycerides enter lymph vessels, which eventually
• Fatty acid + bile salts form micelles of drain into blood vessels
monoglycerides & triglycerides to be able to enter
the cell

FATE OF ABSORBED MATERIALS LARGE INTESTINE (COLON)

• Some are converted to fat for storage
• Concentrates and stores feces
• Others are converted to glycogen in the liver and
muscle tissue • Sodium ions are actively
• Between meals, glucose levels are maintained by transported out of lumen and
breakdown of glycogen reserves in the liver and amino water follows
acids are converted to glucose • Lining secretes mucus and
• Fatty acids from fats can be used directly by cells for bicarbonate
energy

BACTERIA IN COLON MOVEMENT THROUGH COLON

• Slow movement of material through colon allows
growth of bacteria
• Harmless—unless they escape into abdominal cavity
• Some produce vitamin K, which is absorbed through
intestinal wall
• During a meal, gastrin and autonomic signals trigger
contraction of ascending and transverse colon
• Material moves along to make room for incoming food
• Feces is stored in last part of colon

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DEFECATION COLON MALFUNCTION

• Distension of the last part of the colon triggers a reflex • Appendicitis

action • Constipation
• Colon cancer
• Smooth muscle of anal sphincter relaxes
• Symptoms include blood in feces
• Voluntary contraction of external sphincter can • Can be caused by a genetic defect
prevent defecation • Low-fiber diet is a predisposing factor

APPENDICITIS
• Caused by blockage of the inside of the appendix
(lumen)  increased pressure  impaired blood flow
 inflammation
• Causes of blockage:
• Feces blocks the inside of the appendix
• Bacterial or viral infections in the digestive tract
• Traumatic injury to the abdomen
• Genetics – runs in the family

SYMPTOMS OF APPENDICITIS

• May not have all of the symptoms

• Pain in the abdomen, first around the belly button,
then moving to the lower right area
• Loss of appetite; Nausea; Vomiting; Constipation or
diarrhea; inability to pass gas; Low fever that begins
after other symptoms; Abdominal swelling

constipation

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COMMON CAUSES OF CONSTIPATION

• Abuse of laxatives
• Not enough fiber in diet
• Ignoring the urge to have a bowel movement
• Lack of physical activity (especially in the elderly)
• Dehydration
• Due to something taken in such as medications, milk
• specific diseases or conditions, such as stroke
• Irritable bowel syndrome
• Problems with the colon and rectum
• Changes in life or routine such as pregnancy, aging, and
travel • Problems with intestinal function (chronic idiopathic
constipation)

FOOD PYRAMID CARBOHYDRATES

added fats and
simple sugars
• Body’s main energy source
milk, yogurt, legume, nut, poultry,
cheese group fish, meat group
• Foods high in complex carbohydrates are usually high
in fiber; promote colon health

fruit group vegetable group • Simple sugars lack fiber as well as minerals and
vitamins of whole foods; intake should be minimized
bread, cereal, rice,
pasta group

CARBOHYDRATE-INSULIN CONNECTION LIPIDS

• Most fats can be synthesized

• Refined sugars and starches have a high-glycemic index
• They cause a surge in insulin for fast uptake of the
sugar which later leads to increased hunger
• Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food
• Fats should be about 30 percent of diet
• Excess saturated fats can raise cholesterol level and
contribute to heart disease
• Body needs very little polyunsaturated fat to supply
the essential fatty acids

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PROTEINS DIETARY ESSENTIALS

• Body cannot build eight of the twenty amino acids • Vitamins

• These essential amino acids must be obtained from
diet
• Animal proteins are complete; supply all essential
amino acids
• Plant proteins are incomplete; must be combined
• Essential organic substances
• Humans need small amounts of at least thirteen
vitamins to assist in cellular metabolism
• Minerals
• Essential inorganic substances

VITAMINS MAJOR MINERALS

Fat soluble Fat insoluble Calcium Magnesium

• Excess accumulates in • B vitamins Chloride Phosphorus
tissue • Pantothenic acid
Copper Potassium
• Vitamins A, D, E, K • Folate
Fluorine Sodium
• Biotin
Iodine Sulfur
• Vitamin C
Iron Zinc

BODY-MASS INDEX
OBESITY
• An indicator of obesity-related health
index
• Increasing numbers of Americans are obese
• Obesity-related conditions • BMI = Weight (lbs) X 700
-----------------------------
Type 2 diabetes Breast cancer
Height (inches)2
Heart disease Colon cancer
Hypertension Gout • BMI greater than or equal to 27 indicates
health risk
Gallstones Osteoarthritis

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MAINTAINING WEIGHT LEPTIN

• Caloric input must equal caloric use • Hormone product of the Ob (obesity) gene that affects
appetite and metabolic rate by sending a signal to the
• Calories burned depends upon
hypothalamus (a regulatory center in the brain) that
Activity level stimulates one to eat less and expend more energy
Age • Faulty Ob gene may contribute to some human obesity
• Effects of leptin on bone may complicate use of leptin
Height and build to treat obesity

GHRELIN

• Newly discovered peptide hormone

• Secreted mainly by cells of the stomach lining
• Directly stimulates the appetite control center
• Makes you feel hungry

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