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Very important aspect of power systems and electric machinery with direct impacts on efficiency,
security, and reliability.
Power quality is generally meant to express the quality of voltage and/or the quality of current
and can be defined as: the measure, analysis, and improvement of the bus voltage to maintain a
sinusoidal.
2.2 Transients
Power system transients are undesirable, fast- and short-duration events that produce
distortions.
Their characteristics and waveform depend on the mechanism of generation and network
parameters at given point of interest
Transients are categorize into two categories,
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory
An impulsive transient is a sudden change in the frequency in the steady state condition of
voltage or current or both that is in unidirectional polarity.
Impulsive transients are characterized by their rise time and decay time.[1]
They can also be described by their spectral content
For example, when an impulsive transient voltage is described as having a 1.2/50 waveshape,
1.2 expresses a measure of the rise time in microseconds and 50 expresses a measure of the
decay time in microseconds
Most common cause of impulsive transient is lightning surge.
Due to the high frequencies involved, impulsive transients are damped quickly by resistive
circuit elements[1]
Impulsive transients can excite power system resonance and produce oscillatory transients.
An oscillatory transient is a sudden change in frequency in the steady state condition in voltage,
current or both that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
It is described by its magnitude, duration and spectral content (predominantly frequency).[1]
As with impulsive transients, oscillatory transients are measured with or without fundamental
frequency component.[1]
When characterizing the transient it is important to indicate the magnitude with and without
fundamental component.
Oscillatory transient with a frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration
measured in microseconds are considered to be high frequency oscillatory transients. These are
almost always due to some type of switching event.
High frequency oscillatory transient is often the result of a local system response to an impulsive
transient. [1]
Transient with a primary frequency component between 5 kHz to 500 kHz with duration
measured in tens of microseconds is considered a medium frequency transient.[1]
Transient with a primary frequency less than 5 kHz and a duration from 0.3 to 50 ms is
considered as a low frequency transient.[1] This phenomena is frequently occur in sub
transmission and distribution systems. Primarily due to capacitor bank energization.
Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz also be found on distribution
system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer energization.
Oscillatory transients occur due to various reasons such as appliance switching, capacitor bank
switching, fast acting over current protection devices and ferroresonance.
2.3.1 Interruption
Interruption occurs when supply voltage reduces to less than 0.1 p.u for less than 1 minute
Difference between long (sustained) interruption and interruption is supply has to restored in
long interruption. Supply is automatically restored in an interruption
Interruption is usually measured by its duration.
2.3.2 Sags
Sags are duration reductions of rms voltage between 0.1 pu and 0.9 pu.
Duration of sag is usually between 0.5 cycles to 1 minute
Sags are usually caused by energization of large loads, starting of large induction motors, single
line to ground faults and load transferring from one source to another.
UPS and power conditioners are mostly used to prevent voltage sags.
2.3.3 Swells
Increase of voltage between 1.1 pu and 1.8 pu is called swell.
Mostly accepted duration of swell is 0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
Swells are not common as sags.
Swells are characterized by the magnitude and duration.
Swells are caused by switching off a large load, energizing a capacitor bank or voltage increase
of the unfaulted phases during a single line to ground fault
UPS and power conditioners are used to limit swells
2.6.1 DC Offset
Presence of DC voltage or current component in ac components
Main causes of DC offsets are,
1. Employment of rectifiers and other electronic devices
2. Geo magnetic disturbances
3. Half saturation of transformers
4. Generation of even harmonics
Can lead to transformer saturation, additional heating and additional stresses on insulation.
2.6.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages and currents with frequencies that are integer multiples of
the power systems fundamental frequency.
Main causes of harmonics are,
1. Industrial nonlinear loads – drives, rectifiers, inverters etc.
2. Residential loads with switch mode power supplies
Effects of harmonics,
1. Mal operation of control devices
2. Additional losses
3. Additional noise
4. Telephone interference
High pulse rectification, passive , active and hybrid filters and custom power devices can be used
to reduce harmonics
2.6.4 Notching
Periodic voltage disturbances caused by line commutated thyristor circuits.
Notching appears during normal operation of power electronic devices when the current
commutates from one phase to another.
During this commutation period the two phases will be short circuited which reduces the line
voltage.
The voltage reduction is depend on the system impedance.
Notching is repetitive and can be characterized by the frequency spectrum. The frequency
spectrum is very high.
Normally cannot be monitored by using equipment normally used for harmonic analysis.
Properties of notching,
1. Notch depth - Average notch from sinusoidal waveform at the fundamental frequency
2. Notch width - Duration of the commutation period
3. Notch area - Product of notch depth and width
4. Notch position - Where the notch occurs at sinusoidal waveform
2.6.5 Electric Noise
Unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content less than 200 kHz superimposed on
power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal
lines.
May result from
1. Faulty connections in transmission or distribution system
2. Arc furnaces, electrical furnaces, power electronic devices, solid state converters
3. Improper grounding,
4. Corona
Noise problems are often worsened by improper grounding.
Can mitigate using filters, line conditioners and dedicated lines or transformers.
2.7.1 Flicker
Flicker is defined as continuous and rapid variation in the load current magnitude which cause
voltage variations.
√∑∞
ℎ=2(𝐼
(ℎ) )2
𝑇𝐻𝐷 =
𝐼 (1)
5% is used as the dividing line between a high and low distortion level
Advantages of THD are,
1. Used for a quick measure of distortion
2. Can be easily calculated
Disadvantages of THD are,
1. Does not provide amplitude information
2. Detailed information of the spectrum is lost
√∑𝑛𝑘=1(𝐼 (𝑘) )2
𝑇𝐼𝐻𝐷 =
𝐼 (1)
Where k is the number of interharmonics and n is the total number of frequency bins presented
in subharmonics (e.g – interharmonic frequencies that are less than the fundamental
frequency).
𝑇𝐷𝐷 =
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
3.1.3 Interruptions
Even an instantaneous interruption leads to a shut down.
In some cases interruptions damage electronic equipment especially during abrupt voltage
recovery.
3.1.4 Sags
Can cause numerous process disruptions.
Often, the sag is sensed by electronic process controllers equipped with fault-detection circuitry
that initiates shutdown of other, less sensitive loads.
Common solution is to serve the electronic controller with a constant voltage transformer to
provide adequate voltage during the sag.
A power quality monitor will record a sag but the load might see an interruption.
3.1.5 Swells
Might damage the equipment depending on the magnitude of the swell and frequency of
occurrence.
4 Measurement instruments
Instrument features are dependent on the monitoring location and objectives.
The type of monitoring equipment is based on the need to monitor. Generally
portable/handheld monitors are used to troubleshoot problems while permanently installed
equipment are used for monitoring longer terms system performance and reliability as well as
providing data when a power quality related problem occur.
4.1 Parameters to be measured
Voltage and current are the primary two measurements.
Once the voltage and current waveforms have been properly acquired digitized and stored
other parameters can be computed using suitable algorithms.